7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

1/108

ENVIRONMENTAL TRAFFIC STANDARDS

by

JEROMY CHARLES BARFORD

B.A., University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1966

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

In the School

of

Community andRegional Planning

We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the

required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

May,1968

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

2/108

In pres ent i ng th i s th es is in pa rt ia l fu l f i l me nt of the requirements fo r an

advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the

Li bra ry sha l l make i t fr ee ly ava i l ab le for reference and study. I fu rt he r

agree that permiss i on for exte nsive copying of th is the si s for sc hol ar ly

pur pose s may be gr an te d by the Head of my Department or by hi s re pr es en

t a t iv e s . I t is understood that copying or pu bl ic at io n of th is th es is f or

f i n a n c i a l gain sh al l not be al lowe d witho ut my wr it te n pe rm is si on .

Department of Community and Regional Planning,

The U n i v e r s i t y of Br i t ish Columbia

Vancouver 8, Canada

Date A p r i l 26, 1968 .

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

3/108

ABSTRACT

The transportation problem i s usually seen as one

of c i r c u l a t i o n or a c c e s s i b i l i t y . There i s , however, a

second dimension which i s consistently ignored--that of

environmental quality. The f i r s t work to consider this

second aspect of the problem as an integral part of the

planning process was a study conducted for the Ministry of

Transport i n Great B r i t a i n , entitled T r a f f i c In Towns. The

report did. not develop major concepts of environment beyond

a rudimentary l e v e l , and there is a c r i t i c a l need to extend

i t s ideas into environmental standards that can be applied

in planning situations. I t i s hypothesized, that environ

mental t r a f f i c standards can be defined, and applied to a

particular environment to determine whether the quality of

that environment Is above or below that suggested, by the

standards.

It i s f i r s t necessary to examine the importance of

the environment f or man i n order to establish a framework

for further analysis. Research In the f i e l d of sensory

r e s t r i c t i o n shows that varied experience within the environ

ment i s necessary to maintain man's behavioural efficiency.

The environment i s equally important from a physiological

viewpoint. Environmental con sid era tio ns are ther efo re c r i t

i c a l l y important for planning. The environment must satisfy

i i i

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

4/108

a range of fundamental needs, which can be defined, into

three broad, groupsphysiological, psychological, and s o c i a l .

They form an hierarchy of s p e c i f i c i t y , and are further

extended and focussed by the s p e c i a l requirements of a part

i c u l a r type of environment. The needs of a shopping street

environment are a c t i v i t y and variety, safety, and comfort.

Similarly, the motor v e h i c l e has a set of environmental

needs. The motor v e h i c l e i s a man-machine system, and. the

needs can be measured. In terms of space and free-flow f o r

the l a t t e r , and safety and o r i e n t a t i o n for the former com

ponent. Set against these needs are a series of environ

mental e f f e c t s produced by the motor v e h i c l e , which are

leading to an increasing deterioration of the physical envi

ronment. The major e f f e c t s are safety, noise, fumes, and

visual i n t r u s i o n , a l l of which have serious implications fo r

human health and well-being, and. impinge upon a l l three

classes of man's basic needs.

Standards are a means of measuring q u a l i t y i n the

components of a community's structure. Environmental t r a f

f i c standards can most conveniently be formulated i n terms

of performance c r i t e r i a , which w i l l provide means f o r t e s t

ing the degree of hazard or nuisance created by the motor

vehicle. To be e f f e c t i v e they must be based, on sound data

and. objective research, and r e l a t e to those groups of people

who are most s e n s i t i v e to the e f f e c t s . Based, on a review

of pertinent l i t e r a t u r e and research the following environ

mental t r a f f i c standards can be defined:

i v

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

5/108

1. S a f e t y :

a) primary b a s i s t h a t there should be no motor v e h i c l e

a c c i d e n t s causing i n j u r y o r death;

b) a d e s i r a b l e volume o f 250 vph, and an a c c e p t a b l e

volume o f 500 vph i n both d i r e c t i o n s .

2. Noise:

a) an e x t e r n a l sound l e v e l o f 60d.BA by day and. 45d.BA

by n i g h t i n r e s i d e n t i a l areas, and a l e v e l o f 65d.BA

i n commercial areas, which should no t be exceeded,

f o r more than t e n percent of th e time.

3 . A i r P o l l u t i o n :

a) at the adverse l e v e l " o x i d a n t i n d e x " 0 . 1 5 ppm f o r

one hour by th e potassium iodide method;

b) at the s er io us l e v e l c a r b o n monoxideJO ppm f o r

e i g h t hours o r 120 ppm f o r one hour.

4 . V i s u a l I n t r u s i o n :

a) u n i l a t e r a l p a r a l l e l p a r k i n g .

A shopping s t r e e t environment was examined i n the

l i g h t o f t h r e e o f these standards to t e s t both the hypothesis

and the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of th e standards themselves. The q u a l

i t y of the selected, environment was found, to be below t h a t

suggested, by the standards f o r safety, noise, and. v i s u a l

i n t r u s i o n d u r i n g two o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d s . The o b s e r v a t i o n s

tended, to q u e s t i o n the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of th e pedestrian delay

concept used, i n f o r m u l a t i n g the standard, f o r Safety. There

does appear, however, to be a l i n k between the three stand-

v

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

6/108

ards andt r a f f i c volumes, andi t may therefore be possible

to reduce these to one common standard. I t i s unlikely

that simple repair jobs w i l l r e s u l t i n a s i g n i f i c a n t improve

ment i n the quality of existing environments. Dramatic

steps are needed l n the direction of a new urban formand

alternatives modes of movement. Areas f o r further research

are suggested.

v i

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

7/108

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people, both known and unknown, have contrib

uted to this study. But I wouldparticularly l i k e to

express my appreciation to Dr. V. Setty Pendakur, who has

been a continual source of stimulation and. c r i t i c i s m from

the beginning; and to Professor Brahm Wiesman, whose com

ments during the f i n a l stages helped me to Improve the

c l a r i t y of expression. I owe a debt also to my fellow

students, Art Cowie and. JimGossland, whose observations

at various times have expandedmy undestanding of some of

the problems involved.

v i i

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

8/108

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i i i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i i

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION 1

The Transportation Problem: The SecondDimension

Purpose of the StudyHypothesisScope of the StudyOrganization

I I . MAN AND ENVIRONMENT 9

The Place of Environment i n PlanningThe Importance of EnvironmentEnvironmental NeedsTypology of Needs

Physiological NeedsPsychological NeedsSocial Needs

The Shopping Street Environment

Summary

III. THE MOTORVEHICLE AND ENVIRONMENT 29

Environmental Needs of the Motor VehicleEnvironmental EffectsSafety

NoiseFumes

Visual IntrusionSummary

v i i i

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

9/108

Chapter Page

IV. ENVIRONMENTAL TRAFFIC STANDARDS kQ

PerspectiveSafetyNoiseAir PollutionVisual IntrusionSummary

V. CASE STUDY 65

IntroductionSafety

NoiseVisual Intrusion

VI. REVIEW 85

BIBLIOGRAPHY 91

i x

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

10/108

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Damage Risk Levels 5

2. Motor Vehicle Accidents at Intersectionsalong 4 l s t Avenue, Kerrisdale, January,1965 - March, I968 62

3 . SoundLevel and. T r a f f i c Volumes,Thursday Example 71

4. SoundLevel andT r a f f i c Volumes,Saturday Example 73

5. Hourly T r a f f i c Volumes and RequiredReductions 75

x

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

11/108

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. SoundLevel andT r a f f i c Volumes,

Thursday Example 72

2 . SoundLevel andT r a f f i c Volumes,

Saturday Example 7*4-

3 . SoundLevel relatedto T r a f f i c Volume . . . 80

4. Noise andT r a f f i c Density 81

Map

1. Vancouver 64

2. K e r r l s d a l e 66

xi

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

12/108

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Movement i s the h o r l z a n t a l and v e r t i c a l framework of the c i t y ; but i ti s only a framework, and the p i c t u r ei s wit hin that framework, more Important, more determining, more worthy.

RomaldoGiurgola*

The Transportation Problem: The Second Dimension.

As average car-ownership r a t e s i n North America

s t e a d i l y increase towards the one car per family l e v e l and

beyond to two or more cars per f a m i l y , the accomodation of

motor v e h i c l e s i n our towns and c i t i e s w i l l be an ever

growing and i n c r e a s i n g l y urgent problem. The s o - c a l l e d

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problem has a t t r a c t e d a great deal of a t t e n -

2

t i o n i n recent years, but i t remains a dilemma of vast

proportions without the resources to ta ck le i t adequately.

This problem i s most u s u a l l y seen as one of c i r c u

l a t i o n or a c c e s s i b l i t y h o w to get from point A to

p o i n t B i n the minimum amount of time and with the mini

mum amount of i n t e r r u p t i o n . The transportation planner

and the transportation engineer appear obsessed with the

ideas of flow and turbulence, with t r a f f i c volumes and

c a p a c i t i e s , and with the geometries of road and i n t e r

s e c t i o n : a l l to promote the unceasing and " e f f i c i e n t "

1

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

13/108

2

movement of the motor vehicle. Large-scale transport-

3

atlon studies, such as that carried out in Chicago,

have analyzed the problems l n depth and developedmany

sophisticated analytical methods which undoubtedly

represent much neededadvances i n the f i e l d . Many stud

ies have also been made of the economic and social con-

sequencles of highway Improvements."*

There Is a second dimension to this t r a f f i c prob

lem, however, which both planners and engineers have

consistently ignored. This Is the damage that the

motor vehicle i n f l i c t s on the environments through which

l t passes.

The central concern of urban and regional plan

ning i s the environment. Planners are dedicated to the

improvement of the environment as an arena i n which to

l i v e , committed to the Improvement of the quality of l i f e .

Transportation planners, however, have hitherto shown a

chronic lack of appreciation for the physical environment

and I t s pl ac e at the core of pl anni ng, and have largely

ignored the environmental impact of the motor vehicle.

This i s perhaps due on the one handto the unquestioning

acceptance and exaggerated use of the automobile ln our

society, such that we have now become an auto-centric

culture;^ and on the other to a f a i l u r e to recognize the

extremely damaging side-effects of Its use.

Thef i r s t

work to consider this aspect of thet r a f f i c problem as an integral part of the transportation

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

14/108

3

planning process was a study conducted for the Ministry

of Transport i n Great B r i t a i n by Colin Buchanan, and en

t i t l e d 'Traffic i n Towns.^ Buchanan i l l u s t r a t e d by taking

four examples the scale of road improvements necessary

to accomodate predicted levels of t r a f f i c when a certain

l e v e l of a c c e s s i b i l i t y and a. certain standard of environ

ment were to be maintained. The environmental Impact of

the motor v e h i c l e was examinedl n terms of danger, noise,

fumes, and visual intrusion, and, the argument put forward

that the needs of t r a f f i c should be balanced against the

many other needs that a goodenvironment should s a t i s f y .

Buchanan, however, did not develop major concepts

of environment and environmental management beyonda rudi

mentary l e v e l . These were roughly defined in some cases,

but he l e f t many avenues open for further research.

There i s a c r i t i c a l need to take some of the ideas and

examine their background more thoroughly. I t should then

be possible to extend them into standards or performance

c r i t e r i a which can be applied i n planning situations,

and which afford a means of testing the degree of hazard

or nuisance crea ted by the motor v e h i c l e .

Purpose of the Study.

The purpose of this study i s to continue and

extend Buchanan's work, and develop a series of environ

mental t r a f f i c standards against which to measure the

potentially damaging side-effects of the motor vehicle;

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

15/108

and. i n the l i g h t of these standards to examine an example

of a particular type of environment. As an outgrowth,

the study w i l l demonstrate the crucial importance of the

environment for man's physical, psychological, andsocial

well-being, and the need f o r environmental consi der ati ons

to be Incorporatede x p l i c i t l y into every facet of the

planning process.

Such environmental standards should, f u l f i l two

major requirements. F i r s t , they shouldhave a s c i e n t i f i c

and objective basis. Second, they should, reco gniz e the

inherent differences between, and the various needs of,

different types of environments. Only when there are

r a t i o n a l l y defined standards can present environments and

future proposals f o r development andredevelopment be

tested with any meaningfulness, and the quality of those

environments be Improvedandenhanced.

There are, of course, d i f f i c u l t i e s i n such a pro^

ject. However much we t r y to be objective, the environ

ment s t i l l remains essentially subjective i n n a t u r e

or perhaps individual Is a better term. Each person

experiences " h i s " environment i n a different way, and to

a different extent, dependant upon such factors as social

status, educational l e v e l , andimmediate state of mind.

What to some people may be an annoying noise or an unatrac-

t i v e collection of signs, may not be noticedby other

people at a l l , or may be experiencedpositively by s t i l l

others. There i s thus the danger when confrontedby this

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

16/108

5

type of situation, as there i s elsewhere l n planning, of

attributing one's own values to others. Despite these

d i f f i c u l t i e s , however, acceptable standards can be devised

and applied.

Hypothesis.

It Is hypothesised that environmental t r a f f i c

standards can be def ined and applied to a particular

environment to determine whether the quality of that

environment i s above or below that suggested by the standards.

Throughout the study, by environment i s meant the

micro, urban, physical

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

17/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

18/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

19/108

8

REFERENCES.

"Architecture i n Change," i n Marcus Whiffen (ed.),The Architect and the City (Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press,1966), p. ITS.

^See, f o r example, J. R. Meyer, J. F. Kain, andM. Wohl, The Urban Transportation Problem (Cambridge:Harvard University Press, 1965)1 and WilfredOwen,The Metropolitan Trans porta tionP roblem (RevisedEdition;

Washington: The Brookings Institution, I966).

3state of I l l i n o i s , Chicago Area TransportationStudy, Volumes I and II (Chicago: Western Engraving andEmbossing Co., 1959 and i960).

^For a review of such studies see U.S., Departmentof Commerce, Bureau of Public Roads, Office of Researchand Development, Economics Requirements Division,Highways and Economic and. Social Changes (Washington:U.S. Government Printing Office, 196V).

5serge Chermayeff and Christo pher Alexander,Community and Privacy (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books,1963T, P . 85.See also Marshall McLuhan, Understanding, Media (New York:

McGraw-Hill Paperbacks, 1965), Chapter XXII, pp. 217-225.6Great B r i t a i n , Ministry of Transport, T r a f f i c l n

Towns: Reports of the Steering Group and the Working Groupappointedby the Minister of Transport (London: H.M.S.O.,1963). Cited hereafter as Buchanan, T r a f f i c In Towns.

7 See, for example, Martin Krampen (ed.), Design andPlanning (New York: Hastings House, 1965); and Journal

of Social Issues, XXII, No. 4 (October, 1966).

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

20/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

21/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

22/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

23/108

12

an exposure to unchanging sensory input produces physio

l o g i c a l , c o g n i t i v e , p e r c e p t ua l , and a f f e c t i v e impairments.-^

Among the e f f e c t s which have been s u b s t a n t i a t e d are a d i s

turbance of e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y i n the b r a i n ; an increase

i n s e n s i t i v i t y to p a i n , and some suggestion of an increase

l n v i s u a l and auditory s e n s i t i v i t i e s ; d i f f i c u l t i e s i n

d i r e c t i v e t h i n k i n g and concentration; some impairment i n

colour perception; and v a r y i n g degrees of emotional dis-

turbance.

I t i s not the l e v e l of s t i m u l a t i o n per se which

i s so important l n c o r t i c a l arousal and i t s r e s u l t i n g

behavioural e f f i c i e n c y . ^ Rather i t i s the l e v e l of stim

u l u s or sensory v a r i a t i o n l n other words, the l e v e l of

s t i m u l a t i o n must be variegated i n p a t t e r n and/or time.^

One of the b a s i c human motivational forces i s a d r i v e to

maintain a constant range of v a r i e d sensory input In order

to maintain c o r t i c a l arousal at an optimal l e v e l . V a r i e d

experience within the environment Is thus necessary to

maintain man*s capacity f or adaptation, and to s u s t a i n

h i s i n t e r n a l processes.7

The need for complexity and v a r i e t y i n sensory

s t i m u l a t i o n has a l s o been discussed by Rapoport and Kantor.

They have shown that humans p r e f e r ambiguous, complex

patterns In t h e i r v i s u a l f i e l d s , and that t h i s i s a funda

mental preference. There i s , however, a range of percep

t u a l input stretching from sensory d e p r i v a t i o n , or mono

tony, to sensory s a t i a t i o n , or chaos. In the former there

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

24/108

i s not enough to observe, and i n the l a t t e r too much.

Where the environment produces sensory satiation (over

load), people respondby f i l t e r i n g out the overloadto

such a degree that they may suffer hallucinations as a

result of sensory underload.^

These controlled experiments can be related to the

actuality of urban l i f e through the question of mental

health. McHarg suggests, after c i t i n g research by a hos

p i t a l i n the eastern United, States, that the physical

environment of the city i s generally so chaotic that

people have to f i l t e r out i n order to survive. But i f

there i s too l i t t l e f o r themto grasp, they f i n a l l y f i l t e r

too much and become under-stimulated.*^ Thi s under-stimu-

l a t i o n may be a contributory cause of mental disease.

While the studies are not conclusive and show some

discrepancies between the subjects' reports andobjective

test results, they do indicate the overwhelming importance

not only of the environment I t s e l f , but also of i t s quality,

for man's sensory, andthus behavioural, efficiency.

The environment conditions man's mental andphysical person

a l i t y , andenvironmental factors have their most profound

and l a s t i n g effects when they Impinge upon a young organ

ism during the formative phases of development. 1 1 Rats,

for example, raised i n an "en riche d" environment ( in terms

of sensory st imul at ion) develop mentally andphysically

faster than do rats raised i n normal or "impoverished"

environments.^

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

25/108

14Not only Is the environment psychologically im

portant, but, as w i l l become more apparent below and in

Chapter III, is equally important from a physio logica l

point of view. To function e f f i c i e n t l y and to carry out

necessary internal processes, the human body needs a

certain input of various substances. Many of these i t

derives from the environment surrounding i t .

Environmental Needs.

Environmental considerations of this nature have

not generally been recognized by planners, and thus have

not been incorporated to any great degree in to the p lannin g

process. Admittedly there are problems in transposing

research fin di ng s into p r a c t i c a l use. But where the planner

f a i l s to consider the basic environmental needs of the

people fo r whomhe i s plan ning , the consequences can be

large and serious, and. the resulting environments un-

sulted to the needs, or unrelated to the former experi

ences, of those intended to l i v e i n them. An example of

this type of situation i s desc ribe d by Jane Jacobs In

the low-income housing projects of New York, where the

type of environment createdboth i ns id e and outs ide the

project buildings was almost foreign to the relocated

f a m i l i e s . 1 3

Environmental considerations are c r i t i c a l l y import

ant for t r a f f i c and c i r c u l a t i o n planning as well as for

other fac et s of the plan ning process. The motor vehicle

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

26/108

15

i s one element i n the environment which may react with the

micro-environments through which i t passes to produce both

phy si ol ogi ca l andpsychological effects on the people i n

those environments. The purpose of this study i s to develop

a series of environmental t r a f f i c standards against which

to measure these effects. This, however, i s no easy task,

for we are at once confronted with the a b i l i t y of man to

adapt physiologically andpsychologically to d i f f e r i n g

environments, anddifferent levels of quality. But i n this

adaptation process man runs the r i s k of reduc ing h i s oper

ating efficiency, andthus of impairing his physical and

mental health, i f the environment i s less than opt ima l.

Human behaviour i s motivatedby a variety of

needs, desires andpurposes. These may or may not be

consciously realizedby Individuals. In an affluent society

the basic pattern of motivational behaviour becomes modi-

f l e d to a large extent by that society's a b i l i t y to s a t i s

fy many of these, and the importance of the more funda

mental needs are distorted or not e x p l i c i t l y recognized.

These must, however, be defined, for they form the only

rational basis on which to establish environmental standards.

When dealing with the micro-environment i n the c i t y ,

we are also confrontedby a broad range of types of environ

mentthe r e s i d e n t i a l environment; the commercial environ

ment; and the industrial environment, for instance. Each

of these have their own set of specific needs beyondthe

fundamental needs that any environment should satisfy.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

27/108

16

These basic needs can be seen as an hierarchy not

only interms of what Maslow has c a l l e d prepotency, but

also i n terms of s p e c i f i c i t y , ranging from the general

environmental needs to the more specific needs of, say, a

commercial environment. The quality of any environment

thus becomes the degree to which i t s a t i s f i e s the range

of needs.

Typology of Needs.

A three-part typology of basic environmental needs

has been developed, consisting of physiological, psycho

l o g i c a l , and social needs. While a hierarchy of s p e c i f i c i t y

can be distinguished, and the various sub-components of

each basic need amplified, the three groups of needs must

not be thought of as being completely separate. Rather

they are an i n t e r r e l a t e d and. integrated system. Moreover,

i t i s not possible i n every case to put a p a r t i c u l a r need

d e f i n i t e l y into one category. They overlap; and one need

may be expressed, through another i n a d i f f e r e n t category.

The typology as presented here should not be thought of as

an i n c l u s i v e l i s t of man's basic needs, or of those more

pa rtic ula rly relatedto the physical environment.

Por the purposes of discussion a three-level hier

archy has been i d e n t i f i e d . At the f i r s t l e v e l of abstraction

i s the simple recognition of physiological, psychological,

and. social needs. At the second and third l e v e l s these

are progressively amplified into sub-components.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

28/108

17

P h y s i o l o g i c a l Needs. The most prepotent of a l l human needs

are the physiological needs. The sub-components at the

second l e v e l include the needs for food, shelter, water,

sexual expression, sunl ight and a i r , and phy sic al ex erc ise .A5

Further differentiation occurs at the t h i r d l e v e l .

The human body, for example, needs a ce rt ai n da il y intake

of protein, carbohydrates, and vitamins to function e f f i c i -

ently, and thus each i n d i v i d u a l must vary his food con

sumption to meet these requirements.1^ To take another

instance, open space of varying kinds i s necessary to

satisfy the body's exercise needs.

Psychological Needs. Previous di sc us si on has already

i l l u s t r a t e d the importance of psychological needs, and

t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n with the physical well-being of the

human body.

Of great Importance at the second level i s the

need fo r se cur it y. This i s much more simple and recog

niz ab le in Infants and ch il dr en than l t i s ln a dult s.

I l l n e s s , fo r inst ance , may tempora rily destroy a ch il d' s

sense of s t a b i l i t y and se cur it y, and produce a re ac ti on of

17

fear. To generalize, a c h i l d typically prefers a safe,

orderly, predictable, and organized world. This finds a

p a r a l l e l in the very common adult preference for the fam

i l i a r rather than the unfamiliar, for the known rather than

the unknown.

At the t h i r d level se cu rit y fi nd s expression in the

need for human scale in the urban environment: i n other

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

29/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

30/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

31/108

20

around, to look i n shop windows, to meet and gossip, to

contemplate the scene and the architecture and the h l s -

24

tory . . . . n This need for contact must be balanced

against the need for privacy, a need, which forms a part

of a l l three categories.

These three basic needs are fundamental and. universal,

and with the various levels of sub-components must form the

basis f o r a l l planning. In actuality they become modified

by different cultures expressed in terms of attitudes and.

values, and. these i n turn can d i f f e r within cultures by

place and i n time. It must also be recognized that these

needs are part of a system, and that pursuit of one need,

to the exclusion of a l l others w i l l endanger the t o t a l

system. The needs must therefore be balanced, throughout

the various levels of the system.

The Shopping Street Environment.

These broad needs are further extended andmore

s p e c i f i c a l l y focussed by the special requirements of a

par ti cul ar type of environment. Once environmental t r a f f i c

standards have been established, a particular environment

w i l l be examined In the l i g h t of these standards, both to

test the hypothesis formulated. In Chapter I and the applic

a b i l i t y of the standards themselves. A shopping street

environment has been selected for this purpose, and the

special needs of this type of environment w i l l now be dis

cussed.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

32/108

Shopping i s primarily a pedestrian set of a c t i v i t i e s ,

and the approach to any analysis of the shopping street

environment must therefore be through the needs of pedes

t r i a n s . In the North American context shopping predomin

antly takes place i n stores located along a street.

Instances of the purely pedestrian shopping centre are

s t i l l rare, and the pedestrian must thus compete for space

with the motor v e h i c l e . The l a t t e r has become an integral

part of the shopping street environment, and i t s own

peculiar needs w i l l be discussed in the next chapter.

A street i s "a form of layout consisting of a car

riageway for vehicles, flanking pavements fo r pedestrians,

and with frontage development with direct access to prem-

25

lses for pedestrians and occasionally f o r vehicles."J

As such i t performs a number of functions. I t provides

a means of direct access to the buildings which l i e on i t

or just behind. I t prov ides a means of physical communi

cation between one part of an urban area and another f o r

people, vehicles, and sometimes animals. I t i s a means of

affording contact f o r those l i v i n g or working on the street

and those l i v i n g around, acting as a public space for work,

play and l e i s u r e . D As a fourth function related to that

of communication, the street serves as a component of one

element i n the five-element urban structural system devised

by L ync h. 2 7 Streets are part of the path system, and thus

act as means of orientation.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

33/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

34/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

35/108

Zk

proposal may not suit, nor indeedbe possible, i n every

situation. Pedestrian-vehicle segregation i s currently

enjoying a p o s i t i o n as the panacea of many of the problems

that confront us with regardto t r a f f i c i n the urban

environment. The tempo of the vehicle and the pedestrian

are widely held to be incompatible, the vehicle being

twenty times heavier andfaster, demanding four to s i x

times the pavement of the pedestrian,3 andcreating an

environment t o t a l l y out of scale with the pedestrian.

While admitting these to be true, i t shouldalso be noted

that some types of wheeled vehicles are completely com

pa ti bl e with the pedestrian, andmoreover can addv i t a l i t y

to the scene.

Summary.

It has been demonstrated i n this chapter through

a review of some of the findings of sensory r e s t r i c t i o n

and deprivation experiments that the physical environment

i s of fundamental importance to man. The quality of the

environment i s the degree to which i t s a t i s f i e s a range of

basic human needs. These forma three-part typology

c l a s s i f i e d on the basis of physiological, psychological,

and social needs, and can be amplified into a three-level

hierarchy of s p e c i f i c i t y . There are also a variety of

different types of environments, each with a set of special

requirements, andboth the basic needs and the more part

icular needs of s p e c i f i c environments must be plannedf o r

in urban areas.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

36/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

37/108

26

REFERENCES.

^Economic C o u n c i l o f Canada, Fo ur th Annual Review(Ottawa: The Queen's P r i n t e r , 1967), p. 1?4T

2

I b i d . , Table 7 - 4 , p. 186. Urban centresa r ed e f i n e d as those w i t h 1,000 persons o r more.

^Duane P. S c h u l t z , S g n s o r y J R e s t r i c t i o n (New York:Academic P r e s s , 1965), p. T 7

^ I b i d . , Chapter V.

^The c e r e b r a l c o r t e x i s t h e major p a r t o f th e b r a i nwhich enables man to understand t h e meaning of th e s i g n a l sfrom t h e v a r i o u s senses which t e l l him what i s going onboth around him and w i t h i n h i s body.

6Duane P. S c h u l t z , op. c i t . , p.22.

''Donald W. F i s k e , and S a l v a t o r e R. Maddi, FunctionsL V a r i e d . Experience (Homewood, 111.: The Dorsey P r e s s , I96I)P.55.

Amos Rapoport, and Robert E. Kantor, "Complexityand Ambiguity i n Urban Design," J o u r n a l of th e Americanl5tltute_ofplanners, X X X I I I , No.~4" TJuly, 19o"77, 210-221.

^Ian McHarg, "The Ecology of th e C i t y , " i nMarcus Whiffen ( e d . ) , The A r c h i t e c t and th e C i t y (Cambridge:The M.I.T. P r e s s , 19667, p. 6~47

1 0 I M d .

x l R e n e Dubos, "Man Adapting," i n W i l l i a m R. Ewald, Jr.

( e d . ) , Environment for Man (Bloomington: Ind ian a U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 196"7l, P . 1 8 T -

1 2

D . Krech, M. R. Rosenzweig, and E. L. Bennett," R e l a t i o n between B r a i n - C h e m i s t r y and P r o b l e m - S o l v i n g amongRats r a i s e d i n E n r i c h e d and Impoverished Environments,"Journal o f C o m p a r a t i v e and P h y s i o l o g i c a l Psychology, LV, No.5Tseptember, 19o277~8"0"l^B07.

1 3 jane Jacobs, The Death and. L i f e o f Great AmericanC i t i e s (New York: Random House, 19~o"l77 P 15*

A. H. Maslow, Motivat1on_and P e r s o n a l i t y (New York:Harper and. Row, 1954), p. 8~3.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

38/108

27

Maslow des cri bes an hierarchy of needs from physiological,through safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteemneeds, to the need f or self-actualization. The concept ofprepotency expresses the idea that i f no needs are being

s a t i s f i e d , then behaviour i s directed solely towards s a t i s fying physiological needs, these being the most prepotent.When these have become s a t i s f i e d to a certain extent, thenthe satisfaction of safety needs emerges as a motivationalforce.

^ F o r a discussion of human needs see Fred V. Hein,and Dana L. Farnsworth, Living (4th Edition; Chicago:Scott, Foresman and Co., l9o"5). See also Wil lia m L. Slay ton,and RichardDewey, "Urban Redevelopment and the Urbanite,"i n Coleman Woodbury (ed.), The Future of C i t i e s and UrbanRedevelopment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953),

p. 313-317.

^ F r e d V. Hein, and Dana L. Farnsworth, op. c i t . ,pp. 7 8 - 9 1 .

^A. H. Maslow, og. c i t . , p. 85.This and. other points wouldtend to suggest the usefulnessof children as a basis for environmental planning res earch.Responses to environmental stimuli are condition ed byeducation and experience, and. therefore with age comes aless "true" response.

18An excellent discussion of scale i s contained i n

Hans Blumenfeld, "Scale i n Civic Design," Town PlanningReview, XXIV, No. 1 ( A p r i l , 1953), P 35-L~. See alsoEdwardT. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, N.Y.JDoubleday, 1966).

!9A. H . Maslow, op. c i t . , p. 97.

onDavidLowenthal, Address to the University of

B r i t i s h Columbia Graduate Geography Club, November 6, 19^7;and Kevin Lynch, and Malcolm Rlvkin, "AWalk around, the

Block," Landscape, VIII, No. 3 (Spring, 1958) , 24 -34 .21

Kevin Lynch, The Image of.the City (Cambridge:The M.I.T. Press, 1960l,~pp. 2 - 3 .

2 2 I b i d . , p. 9.

2 3 o u a n e P. Schultz, op_. c i t .

?4

Colin D. Buchanan, "Standards and Values in MotorAge Towns," Journal of the Town PIanning Ins t l t u t e , XLVII,

No.10

(December,I96T) , 325.

2^Buchanan, T r a f f i c i n Towns, p. 222.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

39/108

28

2 6N. P. Allen, "The Street In Evolution," Journal ofthe Town Planning Institute, LIII, No. 2 (February, 1977*oT-6^5.

2

?Kevin Lynch, op. c i t . , pp. 4 9 - 6 2 . The other elementsare edges, d i s t r i c t s , nodes, andlandmarks.

2 ^ W i l f r e d Burns, B r i t i s h Shopping Centres (London:Leonard H i l l , 195 9) , P. 7 5 .

^9R. J. Smeed, "Accident Rates," International RoadSafety andT r a f f i c Review, III, No. 2 (Spring, 1955T,

p. 7k~.

3Barry Benepe, "Pedestrian i n the City," T r a f f 1 cQuarterly, XIX, No. 1 (January, 1965 ) , 36".

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

40/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

41/108

30

In terms of the machine component of the system,

the environmental needs of the motor vehicle can de d i v i

ded into two partsneeds for movement andneeds for park

ing or storage. Those for movement are partly reflected

i n the alignment andcross-section elements of current

geometric design standards f or roads. These standards

vary according to the design volumes, the design speeds,

the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the road, and. the level of service

demanded. To take the example of an undividedurban c o l

lector street with a design speedof t h i r t y miles per

hour, the Canadian Good Roads Association recommendthat

the travelled lanes should, have a width of twelve feet,

2

and. parking lanes a width of ten feet; alignment standards

suggest a maximumgradient of eight percent, a minimum stop

ping distance of 200 feet, a minimumpassing sight d i s t -

ance of 800 feet, and a maximumdegree of curve of 21.0.

Ideally, the motor vehicle shouldbe able to operate

i n conditions of free-flow. Thus any f r i c t i o n factors

that might potentially impede fre e-f low shouldbe elim

inated. Those which can be manipulated or controlled,include t r a f f i c signals, the actions of vehicles within the

vehicle stream, parked vehicles, vehi cles entering the

stream from intersections, andboth vehicles andpedestrians

crossing the direction of flow.

The parking needs can be accomodatedi n three prin

ciple ways: curb-side parking, grade-level off-street l o t s ,

and multi-level parking structures. The Canadian Good

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

42/108

31

Roads Association recommenda space 22 fe et in leng th fo r

each car for p a r a l l e l parking at the curb.^ Hitter, in

discussing groundlevel l o t s , uses a basic rectangul ar

space of 18 by 8.5 feet for each car, which can be com

bined in different ways according to the layo ut.^

Subsiduary to these movement and parking needs are

needs analogous to man's food and clothing needs. The

motor vehicle requires such commercial f a c i l i t i e s as

f i l l i n g stations, repair garages, and. body shops, which

must be associated with the above-mentioned f a c i l i t i e s .

With regard to the human component, the environ

mental needs can be seen primarily in terms of safety and,

or ie n ta ti o n. The sa fety of the dr iv er i s i n part dependant

upon adequate t r a f f i c engineering measures related to

design volume and design speed, and the f r i c t i o n factors

notedabove. Safety i s also rel at ed to comfort, and the

road i t s e l f should, contribute to making dr iv in g as pleas

urable as po ss ib le . Th ir dl y, i t i s re la te d to the actu al

design of the motor vehicle i t s e l f , both the shape and

construction of the exterior body, and. the layout and f i n i s h

of the interior.

The secondmajor need i s that of orientation-?-

the driver must know where he is going, where he i s , and

must be made aware of the various regulations governing

his use of the roadway. Whereas the pedestr ian re la te s

d i r e c t l y to the townscape, and his environment must provide

a high l e v e l of interest and variety, the driver is not

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

43/108

32

involved with the environment to the same degree, and his

appreciation and sensitivity i s at a much lower l e v e l .

Because of the speed d i f f e r e n t i a l and the need, fo r a high

degree of concentration, detail becomes of much less import

ance to the driver than to the pedestrian. Thus the scale

and l e g i b i l i t y of the motor vehicle environment i s of a

quite different order than that of the pedestrian, and i t

must be related to the tempo and rhythm of vehicular move

ment. The question of o r i e n t a t i o n and communication also

involves the use of signs to convey messages. Lettering

i s d i f f i c u l t to readwhen moving at almost any speed, and

wherever possible i t i s better to use symbols to transmit

the information.

The specific needs of the pedestrian i n a shopping

street environment were discussed i n Chapter I I . In the

same way, the motor vehicle, largely as a conveyor of

future pedestrians, has a set of specific needs i n terms

of access and parking which must be s a t i s f i e d by this type

of environment. These, incidentally, closely relate to

the expresseddesires of shopkeepers, who view a continual

flow of t r a f f i c past their shop fronts as an economic

advantage. Due to the multi-functional nature of the street,

however, access and. parking needs are potentially in con

f l i c t with one-another, and, more Importantly, with the

needs of the pedestrian.

The passenger car needs to be able to penet rate

directly to the curb i n front of the shop i n which the

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

44/108

33

driver intends to make his or her purchase, or, i f there

i s no particular choice, to park at the curb-side, where

the driver can then proceed, to window-shop on foot.^

Where curb-side parking i s not possible, parking must be

provided within easy walking access to the shops. Transit

vehicles need to be able to stop at points along the street

to unload and to pick up passengers. And access must be

provided f or service vehicles, preferably at the rear, or

alternatively at the front, of the shop premises. Because

most shopping streets are also being used as a means of

communication between different parts of the urban area,

these parking needs w i l l c o n f l i c t with the free-flow needs

of through vehicles.

Environmental Effects.

Set against these environmental needs are a number

of environmental effects produced by the motor vehicle both

when moving and. at rest, which are leading to an increasing

deterioration of the urban physical environment. The trans

po rta tio n and t r a f f i c problem in towns, c i t i e s , and metro

p o l it a n areas is conventionally seen i n terms of increasing

motor vehicle usage (which i s compounding the d i f f i c u l t i e s

and frustration createdby an urban form particularly

unsulted to mass motor vehicle movement);:. in terms of d e c l i

ning transit patronage; and i n terms of inadequate finan

c i a l and planning arrangements. Even i f a l l these problem

areas are recognized, the usual approach has been to attempt

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

45/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

46/108

35

out of l i n e with a whole section of s o c i a l endeavour directed

over many years to the raising of environmental standards,

and the promotion of understanding and enjoyment of theQ

visual arts, architecture and landscape design".

The Buchanan Report, Traff1c_In_Towns, was the f i r s t

major document to examine the environmental effects of

the motor vehicle to any degree, and to suggest that

environmental considera tions of this nature should be

recognizedas an e x p l i c i t part of the planning process.

In the report, Buchanan outlined four major environmental

effects--safety, noise, fumes, and. visual intrusion.

These were not analysed to any depth, however, and. the

remainder of this chapter w i l l be devoted to a more exten

sive examination of the problems.

Safety.

Safety, in the sense which i s meant here, i s free

dom from danger or risks assoc iated with motor vehicles,

particularly i n motion, and of a l l the influences on the

environment It i s the most c r i t i c a l . It is d i f f i c u l t to

separate the Idea of safety from accidents, and the l a t t e r

can be viewed as a negative indication of the degree of

safety i n any environment.

In the United States in 1966, deaths due to motor

vehicle accidents accounted f or k7 percent of the t o t a l

number of accidental deaths (53,000 out of 113,000); 9

and. motor vehicle accidents were the major cause of a c c i -

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

47/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

48/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

49/108

38

and 25dB for the r u r a l , and. 45 &B and 49dB for the urban

population, a fact which can only be explained by the d i f f e r

ences i n noise between the two environments. A further

study by Rosen, which comparedan isolated t r i b a l popu

l a t i o n l i v i n g i n a r e l a t i v e l y noise-free environment to

various ages of an healthy population l i v i n g i n the Unite d

States, showed that the heari ng de cl in e with age was gr eate r

for those l i v i n g i n c i t i e s and occured e a r l i e r . 1 7

Noise can interfere with many phases of human health

and l i f e . I t may prevent sl eep and reduce stress. It may

int rud e into our ph ys ic al pri vac y, or our thoughts and

feelings, and result l n annoyance and i r r i t a t i o n (in general,

i t i s the unexpectednoise that i r r i t a t e s most). I t may

interfere with specific a c t i v i t i e s such as communication,

especially conversa tion, education, and re cr ea ti on .

And i t may affect working efficiency by d is tu rb in g the con

centration neededfor some specific task. Beyond t h i s ,

evidence shows that exposure to excessive noise over a

long duration does result in physi cal damage to hearing,

18

and that this i s permanent.A B r i t i s h committee es ta bl is he d to consider the

problem of no is e concluded tha t i n London "road t r a f f i c i s ,

at the present time, the predominant source of annoyance,

19

and no other sin gl e source Is of comparable importance".

In a survey of 5^0 points equally spaced over 3 square miles

of central London, analysis of the results from400 points

showedthat at 84 percent of these noise fromroad t r a f f i c

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

50/108

39

20

predominated. At the same time, a sample of 1,400 people

were questioned about noise and i t s importance r e l a t i v e to

other factors. Askedthe question " If you could change

just one of the things you don't l i k e about l i v i n g round21

here, which would you choose?", 11 percent chose noise.

The committe outlinedf i v e p r i n c i p a l sources of

v e h i c l e noise. The predominant noises were caused by pro

pulsionengine, exhaust, and transmission. The others

were horns, brake squeal, door slamming, and loose loads

or bodies. 2 2 To these can be added t i r e squeal, and the

hum of t i r e s on wet roads.

The steady flow of passenger car t r a f f i c alone is

not necessarily i r r i t a t i n g . The highest noise levels are

usually producedby heavy trucks and vehicles such as buses,

p a r t i c u l a r l y when accelerating. Trucks pass a given point

less often, because they usually comprise a small percent

age of the t r a f f i c stream, and the load burst of noise

that r e s u l t s i s more distracting and. annoying. However,

the B r i t i s h committee foundthat t r a f f i c noise in the

United States was generally less obtrusive. This was

attributed to the t r a f f i c being more homogenous: fewer buses;

fewer trucks at peak periods due to r e s t r i c t i o n s on deliv

eries; American cars being higher poweredand. less seldom

driven at high engine re vo lu ti on s; and the flow of t r a f f i c

being interruptedless frequently.^3

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

51/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

52/108

41There are two broad classes of atmospheric pollutants-

a) particulate matter, consisting of s o l i d or l i q u i d

p a r t i c l e s greater than 100 microns (1 micron = 10~^cm)

to aerosols of less than 1.0 to 0.01 microns;

b) gases and vapours, including the permanent gases

and those substances which have b o i l i n g points

of below about 200C 2 5

Within the former group, the motor vehicle, or more part

i c u l a r l y the internal combustion engine by reason of the

fuel i t burns, i s a significant source of hydrocarbons.

Within the l a t t e r group, i t contributes through i t s exhaust

99 percent of the carbon monoxide i n the atmosphere, which

next to carbon dioxide i s the most abundant atmospheric

26

pollutant; and i s a major source of oxides of nitrogen.These are the three p r i n c i p a l contaminants produced by

the operation of the motor vehicle.

Carbon monoxide i s toxic i n the form i n which i t

i s emitted, and. combining with heamoglobin i n the blood

results i n a decreasedoxygen carrying capacity, which may

i n turn lead to anexia i n exposed pe rso ns .2 7

Hydrocarbons

and oxides of nitrogen, on the other hand, undergo photo

chemical reaction i n the atmosphere in the presence of

sunlight to produce a number of compounds which may be

toxic, i r r i t a t e eyes and the respiratory system, damage28

vegetation, and. impair v i s i b i l i t y .

The nature and severity of air pollution w i l l vary

with the number of vehicles, the presence of other sources

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

53/108

42

of pollution, topographical features , and meteorological

conditions, notably winds and temperature inversions.

Conditions i n Los Angeles, California, have at tr ac ted a great

deal of research, and the C a l i f o r n i a Department of Public

Health estimated in I960 that hydrocarbon emissions had to

be reduced, by 80 percent and carbon monoxide by 70 percent

29

before acceptable a i r quality could be obtained. ' But

that c i t y i s not alone i n this problem, and with increasing

use of the motor vehicle pollution effects w i l l become more

apparent in other c i t i e s . Normal conditions i n Los Angeles

show ribbons of high contaminant concentration over heavily

travelled arteries, and lower but more widespread concen

trations throughout the community. The peak period, of

contaminants i s associated, with the morning and afternoont r a f f i c peaks. While these are the periods of the greatest

concentrations of t r a f f i c , the stop-and-go driving con

ditions producedby congestion are those associated with30

the greatest degree of emissions.

Vi s u a l Intrusion.

While strong cases can be put fo rw ar der safet y,

noise, and fumes as significant environmental effects of

the motor ve hi cl e with se rious consequences for human health

and. well-being, the question of visual intrusion i s more

subjective. It is, however, no less serious, and. may be

shown to c o n f l i c t to some degree with the need for c l a r i t y

i n the environment which the previous d iscu ss io n has revealed.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

54/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

55/108

LL

Summary.

The motor vehicle i s a man-machine system, andi t s

environmental needs can be i d e n t i f i e d i n r e l a t i o n to the

two components of t h i s system. For the machine component

they can be seen i n terms of space andfree-flow; fo r man,

i n terms of safety and. orientation. In contrast, however,

the motor vehicle has a series of effects on the environ

ments through which i t passes, the most serious of these

being safety, noise, fumes, and. visual intrusion.

E e f f e r r i n g back to the typology of needs developed

i n the previous chapter, these environmental e f f e c t s may

have a deleterious effect on a l l three classes of needs.

The danger presentedby both a moving and a stationary

motor vehicle affects safety i n both i t s physiological and

psychological senses. The effect of noise i s similarly

physiological andpsychological. Fumes andpollutants

under certain conditions can have a serious effect on the

quality of the a i r we breathe, and. hence on the human body,

and at the same time a f f e c t the appearence of the environ

ment. And the visual intrusion of the motor vehicle and

i t s paraphernalia can a f f e c t the psychological needf o r

c l a r i t y and fo r human scale.

In relation to the shopping street environment,

the motor vehicle c o n f l i c t s with the requirements f o r

safety andcomfort. I t may well, however, serve to

heighten the f e e l i n g of a c t i v i t y andvariety.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

56/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

57/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

58/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

59/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

60/108

49

c r i t e r i a , for the motor vehicle must be made to meet

certain requirements in relation to safety, noise, a i r

p olluti on, and visual intrusion i f the quality of the

environment i s to be preserved and. enhanced.

Any standards set must be based on sound, data and

objective research. The discussion in Chapter III out

lined, the most l i k e l y basis fo r for mul ati ng such standards.

Noise and. a i r pollution, for example, were shown to affect

human physiology in a number of ways, and i f the levels at

which these effects begin to occur can be established, then

acceptable standards can be definedr e l a t i v e l y precisely.

But i t was also noted that the reaction to these effects

i s i n many cases individual and subjective, and that some

people are more sensitive than ot hers . Therefor e, to be

effective, the standards relating to noise and. a i r pollu

tion must be based on those groups of persons xiho are most

sensitive to noise and pollution effects.

While the motor vehicle's effect on ped est ria n

safety i s absolute i n terms of a ccid ents, i t was also shown

that the effect was psychological i n terras of creating a

decrease i n the sense of security. Thus before a standard

can be established, some measure of this effect must be

defined. Such a measure w i l l be perhaps less precise and.

more subjective than i n the case of pollution; but i f a

large enough sample can be taken over which to analyse

behaviour patterns, then some degree of objectivity can

be achieved.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

61/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

62/108

51

a pedestrian w i l l only cross the road when he belie ves i t

i s safe to do so. Studi es have shown that this judgement

i s a subjective impression of the degree of r i s k involved,

and that i t i s r e l a t e d to the speed and distance of on-

p

coming t r a f f i c .

. A study of a c rossing on a. main road in a busy part

of Manchester, England, showedthat when approaching

vehicles were 2.5 seconds or less away, only one person

out of the jSk who had the opportunity crossed; when the

vehicle was four or f i v e seconds away, about half the

people who could cross did so; and when the vehicle was

ten seconds or more away, pede stri ans without except ion

would cross the road.3 The distribution for each time

interval was shown to conform closely to that expected, andother studies cited by the authors confirm their findings.

It i s po ss ib le on the bas is of this data to formulate a

c r i t e r i o n which reflects the psychological element i n

safety.

Basedon the observed fact that ped est rian s without

exception w i l l cross a road i f an on-coming vehicl e i s

ten seconds or more away and on the requirement that a

pedestrian should be able to cross a street whenever he

wants to with a minimumof delay, and assuming a random

distribution of vehicles t r a v e l l i n g along a street,

to establish a standard i t i s then necessary to determine

the volume of vehicles that w i l l give a certain probability

of a ten secondgap occu ri ng at any time. A 50 percent

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

63/108

52

probability i s assumed to be reasonable and practicable.

Using Poisson distribution i t i s found that a volume of

252 vehicles per hour (vph) i n both directions w i l l give

a 50 percent l i k l i h o o d of no vehicles passing a particular

k

point during any ten second period. Thus in the ideal

situation and w it hi n the l i m i t i n g assumptions a volume

of 250 vph or below w i l l give a desirable l e v e l of safety

i n any environment i n r e l a t i o n to t r a f f i c . However, a

f i v e second vehicle gap, allowing half the pedestrians to

cross, might prove acceptable, and this wouldgive a volume

of 5 0 k vph i n both directions along the street (rounded to

500 vph) as an acceptable level of safety.

Under these volume conditions i t i s anticipated that

the delay to those pedestrians who have to wait w i l l bequite small. Tanner has shown that with an acceptance

gap of five seconds and a volume of 288 vph i n both direct

ions, there i s a 66 percent probability of not being

delayed, and. an 80 percent probability of not being delayed

lo ng er than two seconds.*'

This standard wouldapply to a two-lane situation,

where the width of the road i s not a c r i t i c a l factor.

In the case of four la nes, with an inc re ase of road width,

both the ideal and the acceptable volumes wouldneed, to

be reduced to allow for the fact that the wider the road

the longer i t w i l l take to cross, and hence the longer the

required acceptance gap.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

64/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

65/108

54

deafness. A great deal of research has been undertaken

in an attempt to define the l e v e l at which deafness i s

l i k e l y to occur, termed the c r i t i c a l sound l e v e l . The most

important factors believed to affect the capacity of a

noise to produce a hearing loss are its intensity (loudness),

spectrum (frequency range), time pattern, and. the duration

of the individual's exposure.10 The r i s k of damage to hear

ing appears to be greatest for the sounds between 2,400

and 4,800 cycles per second ( c p s ) . 1 1 But due to the wide

range of individual s e n s i t i v i t y the c r i t i c a l sound l e v e l

has been d i f f i c u l t to define precisely.

The B r i t i s h Medical Association has stated that

continuous exposure throughout one's working l i f e to noise

whose intensity exceeds 85dB i n the speech frequencies

2 5 0 - 4 , 0 0 0 cps may cause permanent damage to h e a r i n g . 1 2

This, however, assumes that intensity i s the most important

TABLE 1

DAMAGE RISKLEVELS(After Burnsand L i t t l e r )

Frequency band S.P.L. value(cps) (dB)

37-5-150 100150-300 90300-600 85600-1200 851200-2400 802400-4800 80

Source: W.Burns and T.S.Littler

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

66/108

55

factor i n evaluating danger from no is e; the consideration

of other factors would suggest a lower l e v e l . Burns and

L i t t l e r have established c r i t i c a l levels fo r various f r e

quencies of broad bandnoise (see Table 1) based on expo

sure experienced for an eight hour day, five day week through

out one's working lifetime. 1-^ These indicate a c r i t i c a l

l e v e l of 80d.B in the frequency range 1,200-4,800 cps,

increasing to lOOdB in the frequency range 37.5-150 cps.

14

Noise from t r a f f i c f a l l s i n the low frequ encies,

but the frequency spectrum of t r a f f i c noise wouldmake

a standard based on Burns and. L i t t l e r ' s damage risk levels

excessively complicated. Furthermore, the liklihood. of

continuous exposure to these c r i t i c a l levels i n the urban

environment i s small. However, as with safety, the phys

i c a l component i s supplemented by a psychological component,

which was def in ed i n Chapter III as annoyance or i r r i t a t i o n .

If annoyance levels can be established, they would form

a more acceptable basis for defining a standard.

Through social surveys i t i s possible to dis cov er

how much no is e people are prepared to stand, without serious

complaint, complaint being an Indication of annoyance.

Using such c r i t e r i a , the Wilson Committee i n England was

able to establish acceptable levels of noise i n dwelling s

which should not be exceeded for more than ten percent of

the time. In busy urban areas these were set at 50dBAby

day, and. 35dBAby n i g h t . 1 ^ For other types of buildings,

where speech communication i s important, and shops should.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

67/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

68/108

57

and. that i t i s d i f f i c u l t to Isolate one group or several

groups of contaminants, l e t alone treat them i n d i v i d u a l l y .

While motor vehicles are the major source of carbon monox

ide, and a s i g i f i c a n t source of hydrocarbons and oxides

of nitr ogen , the tota l pollution problem i s very complex,

involving variable amounts of substances i n the atmosphere

from a variety of sources, that undergo as yet inadequately

understood reactions. Furthermore, due to cost factors

some degree of pollution i s at present inevitable, and

thus to formulate standards i t becomes necessary to define

acceptable l e v e l s of pollutants.

The physiological effects of pollution were dis

cussed i n the preceding chapter, and the standards should

be based on the levels of contaminants at which certain

specified effects begin to occur in the most sensitive

groups of people. The net effect of pollutants depends on

a number of modifying factors, and cannot be r e l i a b l y pre

dicted from the mere specification of a concent ration of

a pollutant at one place and at one time. The ambient

a i r quality standards for the State of C a l i f o r n i a , the only

comprehensive standards yet formulated i n North America,

are based on and supported by available, reliable scien

t i f i c data,* 9 and i t i s therefore reasonable to accept

these, at least on an interim basis, as applicable to the

current study.

The effects of p o l l u t i o n vary both in kind and in

severity, and the seriousness of the effect determines the

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

69/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

70/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

71/108

60

parking i n existing environments makes this impossible.

Nevertheless, considerations of both visual intrusion and

safety demand some reduction in street parking, especially

in commercial areas. In general, the ref ore , unilateral

p a r a l l e l parking only should be permitted, i n order both

to reduce the visual intrusion of the motor vehicle and

to ensure maximum i n t e r v i s i b i l i t y between driver and pedes

t r i a n .

While i t may be pos si bl e to reduce the absolute

number of t r a f f i c sig ns, for reasons of safety they cannot

be allowed to merge into the environment. Greater atten

tion must be paid to the principles of design, and. because

the messages of directional and. regulatory signs frequently

involve sa fe ty , they should, therefore be simple, sure,

effective, and understandable, and. located, where necessary

to protect and direct the general public. They might

also be used, to create or enhance a. feeling of v i t a l i t y ,

and. so further add to the urban scene. Spe cia l at te nt io n

must also be paid to the f i l l i n g station. Although the

motor ve hi cl e has been In existence for over 60 years,

an architectural expression related to its needs and rhythm

of movement that at the same time does not destroy the

existing urban st ru ct ur e has yet to emerge.

Again, the problemof visual intrusion has cono-

tations wider than that of mere t r a f f i c . What i s partic

ularly needed i s a set of overall visual c r i t e r i a that

can apply to the urban physical environment.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

72/108

Summary_of Environmental T r a f f i c Standards.

1. Safety:

a) primary ba sis --t hat there should be no motor

vehicle accidents causing injury or death;

b) a desirable volume of 250 vph, and an acceptable

volume of 500 vph i n both directions.

2. Noise:

a) an external soundlevel of 60dBAby day and 45dBA

by night i n residential areas, and a level of

65d3Ai n commercial areas, which should not be

exceededfor more than ten percent of the time.

3. Air P o l l u t i o n :

a) at the adverse level"oxidant index"0 . 1 5 PPm

for one hour by the potassium iod id e method;

b) at the serious level--carbon monoxide--30 ppm

for eight hours or 120 ppm for one hour.

4. Visual Intrusion:

a) unilateral p a r a l l e l parking.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

73/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

74/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

75/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

76/108

CHAPTER V

CASE STUDY

Introduction.

A series of interim standards for the four major

environmental effects of the motor vehicle were developed

i n Chapter IV. In this chapter a particular environment

i s examinedi n the l i g h t of these standards. Th is has

a two-fold purpose. F i r s t , to test the hypothesis that

environmental t r a f f i c standards can be applied to a part

icular environment to determine whether the quality of

that environment i s above or below that suggested by the

standards; and i f the quality should be below, to suggest

methods by which i t might be enhanced.. Second, to examine

the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the standards themselves, to analyse

such defects as they might have, and to indicate ways i n

which they might be improved.

The particular environment chosen for the case study

examination i s the Kerrisdale shopping d i s t r i c t in the City

of Vancouver. Th is i s a typical example of a shopping

street, stretching for approximately si x blocks along West

klst Avenue, a major east-west a r t e r i a l street, between

Maple and Larch Streets. It i s a well-established shopping

area, comprised, of a wide variety of stores of both a l o c a l

65

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

77/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

78/108

67

and a regional nature, and immediately surrounded by a pre

dominantly low-rise and, high-rise apartment area.

The case study i s only concerned with that segment of

the shopping street as de fin ed on no rth and south by the

shop facades, on the east by the most westerly crosswalk

at the 4lst Avenue and West Boulevard intersection, and on

the west by the most easterly crosswalk at the 4lst Avenue

and Larch Street intersection. The overall visual impress

ion along the street i s one of heterogeneity. The arrange

ment of stores i s very much the result of growth by acretion,

such that there i s a mixture of o ld and. new buildings.*

In general the stores are in an above-average state of

repair, and. this im pl ie s a prosperous and popular shopping

area. The roadway throughout i s 46 feet i n width, with

two travelled, lanes, and. eight foot parking lanes on both

sides. In the block immediately west of the Boulevard

the shop facades are mostly two-storey, and this combined

with the width of the roadway and the sidewalks gives a

sense of enclosure and intimacy. I t also serves to heighten

the feeling of a c t i v i t y along this part of the street.

This co nt ra st s with the remainder of the street, where the

facades are predominantly one-storey and set further back

from the curb, thus giving a greater sense of openness,

which i s accentuated i n the most westerly block by f i l l -

ing stations.

Time and resources did not allow a f u l l - s c a l e

analysis of the environment i n the l i g h t of the environ-

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

79/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

80/108

69

TABLE 2

MOTORVEHICLE ACCIDENTS AT INTERSECTIONS

ALONG 41st AVENUE, KERRISDALE,JANUARY, 1965 - MARCH, I968.

Location Rear Angle H o / T u r n SwipedBackup Fed. Total

West Boulevard. 18 8 4 2 1 - 33Yew 10 3 1 1 - 1 16

Vine 9 - . - - - . 9Balsam 4 4 1 2 1 12Larch 4 6 1 1 - 1 13

Total 45 21 7 6 2 2 83Percent 54.2 25.3 8.5 7. 2 2. 4 2. 4 100

Source: T r a f f i c Division, Department of Engineering,City of Vancouver.

a pedestrian, and of the remainder just over one half were

rear-end c o l l i s i o n s . U n t i l the Spring of I967 the pedes

t r i a n crosswalks, with the exception of those at the Boule

vard, were a l l uncontrolled, and It i s therefore l i k e l y

that a proportion of the rear-end. collisions can be a t t r i b

uted to pedestrians crossing the road. No data were a v a i l

able on mid-block accidents.

Data for the remainder of the City indicate that

the number of accidents along this shopping street i s

comparable to other shopping streets i n Vancouver, notably

the East Hastings, West 4th Avenue, andSouth Granville

shopping d i s t r i c t s . 2 Kerrisdale andthese three other

locations are recognizedby the T r a f f i c Division as being

major hazard areas. Although only two pedestrian acci

dents have taken place i n the l a s t three years, the number

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

81/108

70

of rear-end c o l l i s i o n s suggests that there i s a degree of

c o n f l i c t between vehicles and pedestrians, and. that the

l e v e l of pedestrian safety i s not of a high order. It i s

also perhaps significant to note i n passing that the pedes

t r i a n activated, signal introduced within the l a s t year at

the intersection of Yew Street and 4 l s t Avenue was not

i n s t a l l e d for reasons of pedestrian safety, but at the

request of B.C. Hydro Transit Division to reduce delay' to

transit ve hic les caused by the heavy flow of pedestrians

across the road.3

The second, part of the standard fo r safety suggests

that, to achieve a desirable l e v e l of pedestrian safety in

crossing the road, a t r a f f i c volume of 250 vph should not

be exceeded; and to achieve an acceptable l e v e l , a volume

of 500 vph should not be exceeded. To test this counts

were made of t r a f f i c volumes i n f i v e minute units through

out the two test periods. The results are shown i n Tables

3 and 4, and graphically In Figures 1 and 2.There are wide fluctuations between f i v e minute

units on the Thursday (Figure 1), with pronounced peaksaround 3.^5 pm and 5.00 pm. Slightly less pronounced

fluctuations occur on the Saturday (Figure 2) , but again

a peak occurs around5.00 pm. Hourly volumes on the l a t t e r

occasion are much higher, a probable result of a high

degree of shopping a c t i v i t y i n the Ke rr is da le and neigh

bouring shopping d i s t r i c t s .

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

82/108

71

TABLE 3

SOUND LEVEL AND TRAFFIC VOLUMES,

THURSDAY EXAMPLE.

5 Min. Period Mean Sound Vehicles/ HourlyBeginning Level dBA 5 Min. Volumes

2.00 64 932.05 63 892.10 62 702.15 60 652 .20 61 772.25 62 592.30 64 72

2.35 63 552 .40 64 632 .45 61 742.50 60 672.55 62 65

849

3.00 63 773.05 68 713.10 64 83

3.15 67 86

3 . 2 0 62 683.25 66 803.30 67 773.35 66 793 .40 66 893 .45 66 1003 . 5 0 67 853 .55 . 65 88

983

4 . 0 0 65 77

4 . 0 5 63 814.10 61 674 . 1 5 61 704.20 60 844.25 62 764.30 62 734.35 63 814 .40 62 924 . 4 5 62 934 . 5 0 62 96

4.55 63 76

966

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

83/108

72

Fig.1.Sound Level and Traffic Volume/ Thursday Example.

oo o

CD

O00

O o

*~ -suiuu aA^/sspjqeA-vaP I3

*3

! punos U E B H

1 1111 iUl

cuo

tzu JCoV) >

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

84/108

73

TABLE 4

SOUND LEVEL AND TRAFFIC VOLUMES,

SATURDAY EXAMPLE.

5 Min. P e r i o d Mean Sound V e h i c l e s / HourlyBeginning L e v e l d.BA 5 Min. Volumes

2.00 86

2.05 66 812.10 66 83

2.15 67 832.20 65 842.25 66 1012.30 66 87

2.35 65 832.40 63 982.45 64 99

2.50 68 952.55 64 75

1055

3.00 66 853.05 66 933.10 63 873.15 64 89

3.20 67 753.25 66 843.30 65 713.35 65 913.40 65 913.45 65 923.50 67 813.55 65 90

1029

4.00 65 93

4.05 64 964.10 66 97

4.15 66 1014.20 62 86

4.25 68 884.30 67 914.35 64 904.40 62 97

4.45 64 86

4.50 63 1154.55 63 104

1144

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

85/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

86/108

75

On both occasions hourly volumes were well above

the acceptable l e v e l for pedestrian safety as definedby

the standard, andthis indicates that this particular

environment has a r e l a t i v e l y low level of environmental

safety i n relation to t r a f f i c . In order to achieve an

acceptable level i t wouldbe necessary to reduce t r a f f i c

TABLE 5

HOURLY TRAFFIC VOLUMES ANDREQUIRED REDUCTIONS.

Time Volume Required Reduction Percent ReductionAcc. Des. Acc.~ Des.

Thursday2.00-3.00 84-9 349 599 41 713.00-4.00 983 483 733 49 754.00-5.00 966 466 716 48 74

Saturday

2.00-3.00 1055 555 805 53 763.00-4.00 1029 529 779 51 764.00-5.00 1144 644 894 55 78

flow along the shopping street by approximately 40 to 50

percent i n the Thursday example, and by 50 to 55 percent

i n the Saturday example (Table 5 ) . To achieve a desirable

l e v e l i t wouldbe necessary to reduce the flow by approx

imately 75 percent i n both cases.

It i s estimated that approximately 70 percent of the

t r a f f i c t r a v e l l i n g along 4 1st Avenue at this point during

weekdays i s through traffic,' 4' andthus has neither origin

or destination i n the area. I f this t r a f f i c could, be

removed, then the desirable l e v e l of safety could almost

be achieved. It i s l i k e l y , however, that through t r a f f i c

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

87/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

88/108

77

r a r e l y to be obtained, and, moreover, observatio ns i n the

case study ar ea tend, to qu es ti on the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the

delay concept. This i s only re le va nt to the standar d i f

i t can be proved th at delay i s a s i g n i f i c a n t - factor to the

p e d e s t r i a n .

The crosswalk s i t u a t e d at the centre of g r a v i t y of

the shopping street (Yew S t r e e t and 4lst Avenue) i s con

t r o l l e d by a ped est ria n ac ti va te d s i g n a l . While t h i s

incr eases the ph ys ic al safe ty of the ped est ria n, i t does so

by i n t e r r u p t i n g both the flow of v e h i cl e s and pe de st ria ns .

The average delay occas ione d to pe de st ri an s who have to wait

i s approximately 20 seconds, f a r gr ea te r than the accept

able average delay of two seconds used by Buchanan.-?

I t then becomes a que sti on of determining i f t h i s amount

of delay i s i n f a c t annoying to the pedestrian.

I t i s suggested th at delay i s not s i g n i f i c a n t to

the average p ed es tr ia n. The standard, as fo rm ul at ed does

not take into account the e f f e c t of s o c i e t a l c o n d i t i o n i n g :

that i s tha t the North American pedes trian i s conditioned

to wait f o r the "walk" s i g n a l before cr os si ng . This becomes

accepted and thus delay becomes r e l a t i v e l y unimportant.

However, more research must be undertaken on the question

of pe de st ri an delay , and i f I t does prove to be unimp ortan t,

a s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l of sa fe ty i n cr os si ng the roa d may

then be ach iev ed, a t l e a s t i n the s ho rt run, by c o n t r o l l e d

pe de st ri an cross walks , ra th er than by reduc ing t r a f f i c flow.

Nevertheless, t h i s does not le ss e n the d e s i r a b i l i t y i n

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

89/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

90/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

91/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

92/108

81

to even out the flow of t r a f f i c . However, l t was noted,

during the test periods that under conditions approaching

free flow with a moderately heavy t r a f f i c volume the sound

climate was approximately 68-70dBA. Studies i n England

have shown that on roads with a 30 m.p.h. speed l i m i t , the

noise l e v e l rises appreciably with increasing t r a f f i c for

Fig.4.Noise and Traffic Density.

0 500 1000 15 00 2000

Total Traffic vphSource- Greater London Council, Traffic Noise.

2500 3000

densities below about 1 ,200 vph. Above this figure the

noise l e v e l rises very l i t t l e (Figure 4 ) . The 65&BA l e v e l

i s attainedat a l i t t l e over 500 vph. This, however, i s a

mean l e v e l , andi t would therefore be necessary to r e s t r i c t

vehicle flow to a lower volume i n order to achieve the

standard. Further research wouldbe needed, to establish

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

93/108

82

this volume, hut i t might be expected to work out at about

300-400 vph.

This standard has many of the same implications for

planning remedial measures as does that fo r saf ety . I t

would, seemthat i f through t r a f f i c could be removed, then

an acceptable sound, l e v e l could be at tai ne d. This i s prob

ably the only p r a c t i c a l "s ol ut io n" as fa r as the exi st in g

environment i s concerned, for the physical alterations

necessary to reduce soundl e v e l s would, be prohibitive and

u n r e a l i s t i c . But again, the div ers ion of t r a f f i c i s merely

s h i f t i n g the problem to another environment. An alternative

wouldbe to treat the source of the problemrather than

the symptoms, and. devise more e f f e c t i v e methods of reducing

actual vehicle noise.

Visual Intrusion.

With the exc eption of bus and lo ad in g zones, inter

sections and. driveways, throughout both test periods parked,

vehicles lined both sides of the roadway along the length

of the shopping street and s p i l l e d over into the surround

ing r e s i d e n t i a l area. Thus from this t h i r d point of view

the quality of the environment f a l l s below the standard,

as est abli she d. Di re ct io na l and regulatory signs, however,

were not visually opp res siv e. This i s not to say that they

are acce ptabl e. I t could as easily mean that they are not

performing an e ff ec ti ve funct ion, or that they are being

overpoweredby more dominant shop signs. Moreover, as was

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

94/108

83

noted previously, the use of gooddesign can enable signs

to cr ea te , or add to, a sense of v i t a l i t y .

The standard for visual intrusion suggested that

parking should, be allowed on only one side of the street.

To achieve this l t wouldbe necessary to provide additional

parking space with in easy walking dist an ce of the shopping

street. At present l i t t l e space i s provided i n the lanes

behind the stores, and i t i s l i k e l y that these cannot accom

odate more space. The alternative i s again to provide o f f -

street parking behind the shopping street. In fact two

grade-level l o t s have been b u i l t immediately south of the

shopping street in the block just west of the Boulevard.

However, such l o t s must be integrated into the r e s i d e n t i a l

environment.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

95/108

84

REFERENCES,

Community and Regional Planning Studies, StudentProject No. 6, Sub-Urban Centres: The Case of the DunbarD i s t r i c t (Vancouver: University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1966),P. 23.

i n t e r v i e w with H. Crawford, T r a f f i c Division,Department of Engineering, City of Vancouver, March 29, 1968.

3 l n t e r v i e w with R. Boyes, T r a f f i c Division, Department of Engineering, City of Vancouver, November 22, I 9 6 8 .

^Estimated on the basis of interzonal flows tabu

lated l n Vancouver, B.C., A Study of Highway Planning,Technical Report No. 2, An alys is and For ecast of Motor

Vehicle Travel (Vancouver: 1959), Tables 13A and 13B.

5Buchanan, T r a f f i c i n Towns, p. 204.

6Greater London Council, T r a f f i c Noise (London:The Council, I9 6 6 ) , p. 6.

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

96/108

CHAPTER VI

REVIEW

The case study presentedi n Chapter V has shown

that environmental t r a f f i c standards can be applied to a

particu lar environment to determine whether the quality of

that environment i s above or below that suggestedby the

standards. The application of three of the four standards

to the Kerrisdale shopping d i s t r i c t demonstrated that i n

terms of safety, noise, andvisual intrusion the quality

of that environment f a l l s below that suggestedi n each case.

I t i s also apparent from the case study that any

attempt to improve the quality of the urban environment

would require a t o t a l l y comprehensive approach throughout

the whole metropolitan area, andthat simple repair jobs

to existing environments w i l l not s i g n i f i c a n t l y enhance

environmental quality. Measures designedto remove non

essential t r a f f i c from certain environments only serve to

transfer the problems to others. Further, we are faced

with a legacy of buildings andurban formrepresenting the

f i n a n c i a l and. social investment of many decades. While this

form i s clearly inadequate i n the environmental terms dis

cussed i n this study, the physical changes needed to a l l e v i a t e

the problems only i n part w i l l be prohibitive. Yet, can we

affordnot to Improve the quality of the environment when

8 5

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

97/108

7/27/2019 UBC_1968_A8

98/108

87

of research from such f i e l d s as perception to resolving con

f l i c t s . The standard f or noise wouldappear to be generally

adequate on the basis of the case study. But further researchi s neededto confirmor modify the noise levels leading to

annoyance i n the North American context, and to examine alter

native methods of reducing engine noise and. the effects of,

for example, various road, surface materials and. screening

on noise l e v e l s .

There wouldappear to be a l i n k between safety, noise

and visual intrusion, andt r a f f i c volumes. Afurther step

i s therefore to attempt to establish this l i n k more strongly,

and possibly reduce the three standards to one common stand

ard basedon acceptable or desirable t r a f f i c volumes i n a

given situation. This wouldgive the addedadvantage of a

common approach andreduce the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of treating only

o