Function of the Text, Aim and Audience.

Loan Translations. CalquesTPT Unit V:Inlinguistics, acalque(/klk/) orloan translationis awordorphraseborrowed from another language byliteral, word-for-word (Latin:verbum pro verbo) or root-for-root translation.Used as averb,to calquemeans to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components so as to create a newlexemein the target language.Calqueis aloanwordfrom a Frenchnoun, and derives from theverbcalquer(to trace, to copy)."Loanword" is a calque of theGermanLehnwort, just as "loan translation" is ofLehnbersetzung. Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated loanword because, in some cases, a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the borrowing language or when the calque contains less obvious imagery.Calquing is distinct fromphono-semantic matching.While calquing includessemantictranslation, it does not consist of phoneticmatching (i.e. retaining the approximatesoundof theborrowedwordthrough matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existingwordormorphemein the target language).Types of calquesOne classification classifies calques into five groups:thesemantic calque, where additional meanings of the source word are transferred to the word with the same primary meaning in the target language;thephraseological calque, whereidiomatic phrasesare translated word-for-word;thesyntactic calque, where a syntactic function or construction in the source language is imitated in the target language;theloan-translation, where a word is translatedmorpheme-by-morpheme into another language;themorphological calque, where the inflection of a word is transferred.This terminology is not universal. Some authors call a morpheme-by-morpheme translation a "morphological calque".Flea marketThe common English phraseflea marketis a phraseological calque of the Frenchmarch aux puces'market with fleas',as are the GermanFlohmarkt, Dutchvlooienmarkt, Serbian "buvlja pijaca", Finnishkirpputoriand so on.

SkyscraperAn example of a morpheme-by-morpheme loan-translation is Frenchgratte-ciel'scrapes-sky', from English "skyscraper". Similarly:Albanian:qiellgrvishts("sky-scraper")Afrikaans:wolkekrabber("clouds-scraper")Arabic: (nia sub, "clouds-rammer")Armenian:(yerg-n-a-ker, "sky-scratcher")Azerbaijani:gydln("sky-piercer")Bengali: "aakash jharhu " ("sky-sweeper")Bosnian:neboder("sky-ripper")Bulgarian:(nebostrga, "sky-scraper")Catalan:gratacels("scrapes-skies")Chinese:(mtinlu, "sky-scraping building")Croatian:neboder("sky-ripper")CzechandSlovak:mrakodrap("cloud-scraper")Danish:skyskraber("cloud-scraper")Dutch:wolkenkrabber("clouds-scratcher")Estonian:pilvelhkuja("cloud-breaker")Finnish:pilvenpiirtj("cloud-sketcher")French:gratte-ciel("scrapes-sky")German:Wolkenkratzer("clouds-scraper")Greek:(uranoxstis, "sky-scraper")Hebrew: (gored s'khakim, "scraper of skies")Hindi:(gagan-chumbi, "sky-kisser")Hungarian:felhkarcol("cloud-scraper)

Icelandic:skjakljfur("cloud-splitter")IndonesianandMalay:pencakar langit("scraper-sky")Italian:grattacielo("scrape-sky")Japanese:(matenrou, "sky-scraping tower")Latvian:debesskrpis("sky-scraper")Lithuanian:dangoraiis("sky-scraper")Macedonian:(oblakoder, "cloud-scraper")Malayalam:("sky-kisser")Norwegian:skyskraper("cloud-scraper")Persian:(smnkhrsh, "sky-scraper")Polish:drapacz chmur("cloud-scraper")Portuguese:arranha-cu("scrapes-sky")Romanian:zgrie-nori("scrapes-clouds")Russian:(neboskryob, "sky-scraper")Serbian:(neboder, "sky-ripper")Slovene:nebotinik("sky-rubber,-toucher")Spanish:rascacielos("scrapes-skies")Swedish:skyskrapa("sky-scraper")Tamil:("sky-reacher")Thai:("sky-scraping building")Turkish:gkdelen("sky-piercer")Ukrainian:(hmaroos, "cloud-scratcher")Vietnamese:nh chc tri("sky-poking building")Welsh:cwmwlgrafwr("cloud scraper")

MistranslationsTPT - Unit VIMistranslationsLiteral translation ofidiomsis a source of numerous translators' jokes andapocrypha. The following famous example has often been told both in the context ofnewbietranslators and that ofmachine translation: When the sentence "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" (an allusion toMark 14:38) was translated intoRussianand then back toEnglish, the result was "The vodka is good, but the meat is rotten". This is generally believed to be simply an amusing story, and not a factual reference to an actual machine translation error

Translation Project and Criticism. Translation Quality.TPT Unit VII:Translation ProjectAtranslation projectis aprojectthat deals with the activity oftranslating.From a technical point of view, a translation project is closely related to the project managementof the translation process. But, from aninterculturalpoint of view, a translation project is much more complex; this becomes evident, for instance, when consideringBible translationor otherliterary translationprojects.Translation scholars such asAntoine Bermandefend the views that every translator shall develop his/her own translation project, adhere to it and, later, developtranslation criticism. Every translator can only be faithful to his/her own translation project. Translation CriticismTranslation criticismis the systematic study, evaluation, and interpretation of different aspects of translated works. It is aninterdisciplinaryacademic field closely related toliterary criticismandtranslation theory.A comprehensive view toward translation has long been ignored in many aspects. Some people state that translation criticism works on the negative aspects of the work; they say criticism is finding the present deficiencies. A more modern approach opposes this view and believes that criticism should care about the positive aspects of the work as well. One of the goals involved in translation criticism is to make the society aware of the delicacy involved in translation, to make sure whether the translator has achieved his goals or not. Quality of TranslationThe translation professionals and laymen who engage inliterary translation inevitably face the issue of the quality of translation. Translation criticism has several open issues, such as the name for the practice of evaluating translations, and the criteria for evaluation, each of which merits a detailed study. A literary text may be explored as a translation, not primarily to judge it, but to understand where the text stands in relation to its original by examining the interpretative potential that results from the translational choices that have been made. When comparing different translations from a same original text, the results of the analyses should be used to construct a hypothesis about each translation: criteria such as "divergent similarity", "relative divergence", "radical divergence" and "adaptation" are important for such an analysis.Antoine BermanA very influential author in the field wasAntoine Berman, who claimed that there may be many different methods for translation criticism as there are many translation theories; therefore he entitled a model of his own as an analytical path, which can be modulated according to the specific objectives of each analyst and adapted to all standardized text types. He further insists that every translator shall develop first atranslation project, prior to the translation process itself.