u10-eu-securitypolicyreform

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The Institute for Domestic and International Affairs, Inc.

European Council

Security Policy Reform

November 11-14 2010

Director: Francisco Campoamor


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2010InstituteforDomestic&InternationalAffairs,Inc.(IDIA)

ThisdocumentissolelyforuseinpreparationforRutgersModelUnitedNations2010.Useforotherpurposesisnotpermitted

withouttheexpresswrittenconsentofIDIA.Formore

information,pleasewriteusat [email protected]


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Policy Dilemma ______________________________________________________________ 1

Chronology__________________________________________________________________ 2

9 May 1950: Establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community____________________ 2

25 March 1957: The European Economic Community ___________________________________ 2

1973-1979: First Expansion and the European Parliament________________________________ 3

1 July 1987: The Single European Act ________________________________________________ 3

1 November 1993: Treaty of Maastricht on European Union______________________________ 4

1 May 1999: Treaty of Amsterdam ___________________________________________________ 6

1 February 2003: Treaty of Nice _____________________________________________________ 7

1 December 2009: The Lisbon Treaty _________________________________________________ 8Internal Issues for Consideration ________________________________________________ 9

The Economy _____________________________________________________________________ 9

Internal Security _________________________________________________________________ 11

External Relations ___________________________________________________________ 12

Africa __________________________________________________________________________ 12

Afghanistan and Pakistan__________________________________________________________ 13

Disarmament and Non-Proliferation_________________________________________________ 15

Islamic Republic of Iran ___________________________________________________________ 16

Peoples Republic of China_________________________________________________________ 18

Russian Federation _______________________________________________________________ 20

The United States ________________________________________________________________ 21

Discussion Questions _________________________________________________________ 23

Works Cited_____________________________________________________________________ 25

Works Consulted _________________________________________________________________ 29


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Rutgers Model United Nations 1

Policy Dilemma

The Lisbon Treaty has provided the EU with a new way to deal with issues that

were previously seen as exclusive to national governments. The European Council can

now decide official EU policy and, because it is composed of the Heads of State, the

Council can effectively adopt common practices on the domestic level. By having the

leaders of each nation decide policy together, one layer of bureaucracy is removed and

policy is more likely to translate into immediate enforcement. If the Council chooses to

establish common airport security measures or on-the-ground counterterrorism strategies,

state leaders will be publicly held accountable by each other and by the constituencies in

each individual state.

The European Councils agenda is to re-examine the totality of EU foreign policy

stances and security practices. While the EU has done a considerable amount to address

specific issue areas, it is critical to assess these concerns from a more holistic perspective.

It is also important not only to ensure that the security needs of the entire EU are

addressed, but also that the individual needs of a given state have been considered.

Moreover, it is critical that EU security Policy also addressed the needs of EU citizens,

and not just those of the state. Put another way, do EU policies regarding security from

terrorist threats address concerns both throughout the continent (including migration and

financing concerns), while also taking into special consideration the needs of specific

states like Romania and Bulgaria. Keeping in mind these greater questions, the Council

must prioritize issues need to be addressed first. The most important foreign relations

issues of today include relations with the United States, Russia, China, Iran, and

Afghanistan, while the most important security issues include internal security and

disarmament. With each issue, the Council may choose to reaffirm, strengthen, or reject

past EU Policy. Though it is unlikely for the Council to address every issue with the same

level of detail, it is expected to bring about real change that is backed with the political

weight of all the state leaders.


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Chronology

9 May 1950: Establishment of the European Coal and SteelCommunity

The end of the Second World War marked the end of one of the most violentconflicts ever to touch the European continent. It also signified a turning point in

European solidarity, as countries struggled to rebuild after the traumatizing clash that left

no country in the area unaffected. It was in this atmosphere that the French statesman

Robert Schuman proposed the establishment of a supranational European organization

before the United Nations in 1948.1

His vision evolved into what became the Schuman

Declaration in 1950. The declaration proposed the establishment of the European Coal

and Steel Community (ECSC) in order to put in place a common market between the six

founding countries.2

The declaration became a reality in 18 April 1951 when Belgium,

West Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands ratified the Treaty of

Paris. The ECSC sought peace among European nations in the aftermath of the War by

bringing them together as equals and cooperating within a single institution.3

25 March 1957: The European Economic Community

After failing to establish the European Defense Community in 1954, the six

founding ECSC members decided to focus on the economy, which was less subject to

national resistance.4 With the Treaty of Rome of 1957, the European Economic

Community (EEC) was established with the aim at transforming trade and manufacturing

conditions and laying the foundations for a path to closer European unification. The EEC

established the first European common market, founded on the free movement of

1 Schuman, Robert. Germany and the European Community. Schuman Project.

http://www.schuman.info/UN4849.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).2 European Union. Ten historic steps. EUROPA The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/abc/12lessons/lesson_2/index_en.htm (accessed January 27, 2010).3Ibid.4 Treaty establishing the European Economic Community, EEC Treaty - original text (non-consolidated version).

The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/treaties_eec_en.htm (accessed September 13,

2010).


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persons, services, good and capital.5

It established a single economic area free from

competition, and laid down a twelve-year roadmap for the implementation of the free

market. In 1 July 1968, tariffs between the six countries were abolished.

1973-1979: First Expansion and the European ParliamentThe EEC was widely hailed as a success and the economic prosperity of its

member nations grew at a notable rate, prompting neighboring countries to decide that

joining the EEC would prove advantageous to their economic interests. In 1973

Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom entered the organization.6

During this period,

the EEC also started to implement social and environmental policies, gradually

expanding its interests outside of the economic sector. In 1975, the European Regional

Development Fund was established as an institution of the EEC with the aim of fostering

convergence, regional competitiveness, employment and territorial cooperation.7

Finally,

in 1979, the European Parliament held its first direct universal suffrage election for its

seats. 8

1 July 1987: The Single European Act

In 1981, Greece joined the Community and in 1986 Spain and Portugal did as

well, expanding the Communitys influence in southern Europe. Economically, however,the EEC was facing its first worldwide economic recession, leading a lot of interest

groups to doubt the EECs ability to aid the economy.9

The European Commission,

under President Jacques Delors, sought to bring about hope and sooth worries about the

Communitys stability by releasing a White Paper setting out a timetable for completing a

5Ibid.6 European Union. Ten historic steps. EUROPA The official website of the European Union.http://europa.eu/abc/12lessons/lesson_2/index_en.htm (accessed January 27, 2010).7 European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) (2007-2013). The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/regional_policy/provisions_and_instruments/g24234_en.htm (accessed

September 13, 2010).8 European Union. Ten historic steps. EUROPA The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/abc/12lessons/lesson_2/index_en.htm (accessed January 27, 2010).9Ibid.


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European Single market by 1993.10

This goal was realized through the ratification of the

Single European Act (SEA) in 1987. SEA revised the Treaty of Rome in order to foment

European integration and complete the internal market, amending the rules of operation

of European institution and expanding the EECs powers.

11

SEA increased the number ofcases in which the EEC could take decisions by qualified majority instead of unanimity,

facilitation decision making, specifically towards market integration. The SEA also

established the European Council as way to formalize the regular summits between the

Heads of States of the Member Nations.12

SEA opened the way for the eventual

formation of the European Union.

1 November 1993: Treaty of Maastricht on European Union

Europe was transformed at the beginning of the decade with the collapse of the

Soviet Union and the prospect of German reunification. The conditions for further

European integration were ripe, and driven by the progress made by the SEA, Member

States convened in two conferences in order to enact further reforms.13 The first

conference in 1988 set out to prepare a report aimed at proposing steps towards an

economic union. The second conference in 1990 invited the Member States to consider

accelerating the political integration of Europe by examining ways in which to amend the

ECC treaty towards this goal.14

A year later, the Maastricht Summit of 1991 convened to

finish the work that the two conferences started. The treaty that surfaced out of the

summit aimed to strengthen the legitimacy of the European institutions, improve their

10Ibid.11 The Single European Act. The official website of the European Union.http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/treaties_singleact_en.htm (accessed September

13, 2010).12Ibid.13 Treaty of Maastricht on European Union. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/economic_and_monetary_affairs/institutional_and_economic_framework/tre

aties_maastricht_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).14Ibid.


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effectiveness, establish a monetary union, develop the social dimensions of the EEC, and

establish a common foreign and security policy.15

The treaty also established the European Union, discarding the old name of

European Economic Community in order to demonstrate that Europe sought tocoordinate its interests in matters that lie outside economics.

The European Union (EU) is defined in the treaty as consisting of three pillars.

The first pillar consists of the European Coal and Steel Community and deals with the

way Member States share their sovereignty through the Community.16

It defines a

process in which a proposal by the European Commission is adopted by the Council and

the European Parliament with the monitoring of the Court of Justice. The second pillar

establishes a common foreign and security policy (CFSP), which allow member states to

take joint action in foreign policy.17

The third pillar deals with justice and home affairs,

expecting the EU to foment cooperation in the areas of freedom, security and justice.18

The SEA acknowledged the importance of Head of State meetings through the European

Council, but the Maastricht Treaty regularized their meetings and specifically delegated

the body areas of jurisdiction. The Treaty made the European Council responsible for

policies in the second and third Pillars.19

The treaty also laid the groundwork for the establishment of a common European

currency through a three-stage process, resulting in the creation of a European Central

Bank (ECB) by 1999.20

The Maastricht Treaty also provided for the first time the concept

of European Citizenship, making it so that any person born in a Member State is

automatically a citizen of the EU. Benefits of being a citizen of the EU include the right

15Ibid.16 Treaty of Maastricht on European Union. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/economic_and_monetary_affairs/institutional_and_economic_framework/treaties_maastricht_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).17Ibid.18Ibid.19 Archer, Clive. The European Union (Routledge Global Institutions). 1 ed. New York: Routledge, 2008.20 Treaty of Maastricht on European Union. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/economic_and_monetary_affairs/institutional_and_economic_framework/tre

aties_maastricht_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).


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to circulate and reside freely within the Union, the right to vote and to stand as a

candidate for European and national elections, the right to protection by diplomatic

authorities of any Member State outside of the Union, and the right to petition the

European Parliament.

21

The treaty came into force on 1 November 1993, bringing about aperiod of growth and dynamism that led Austria, Finland and Sweden to join the EU in

1995.

1 May 1999: Treaty of Amsterdam

The European Union next adopted the Treaty of Amsterdam in its push towards

deeper integration. The need for a new treaty was essential in order to allow the EU to

meet new challenges, such as the rapid evolution of international affairs, a globalized

economy, terrorism, international crime, and environmental issues.22 The final product,

which took more than two years of conferences and negotiations to produce, focuses on

four areas of concern. In the area of freedom, security and justice, the treaty establishes

certain fundamental rights within the EU, such as the equality between men and women,

non-discrimination and data privacy.23

It also makes new policies on visas, political

asylum, and immigration. Furthermore, it establishes mechanisms that promote criminal

and judicial cooperation among member states. Another area of concern addressed by the

treaty deals with the emergence of European Union citizenship. The treaty added civil

rights enjoyed by citizens of the Union, such as a commitment to tackle social exclusion,

raising health standards throughout the continent, and consumer protection.24

In the realm of foreign policy, the Amsterdam Treaty was instrumental in

establishing a common foreign strategy for the Union. It created the post of High

Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, which would now serve as

the public face of the EU in diplomatic endeavors abroad. It also established a policy-

21Ibid.22 The Amsterdam Treaty. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/amsterdam_treaty/a09000_en.htm (accessed

September 13, 2010).23Ibid.24Ibid.


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planning center in order to keep track of international developments and their impact on

the EU.25

Finally, in regards to institutional changes, the treaty changed the weighting of

votes in the Council of the European Union.

1 February 2003: Treaty of NiceThe Amsterdam treaty of 2001 made specific provisions for a conference of

representatives of the governments of the Member States at least one year before the

membership of the EU exceeded twenty.26

With ten new member states, Cyprus, Czech

Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia set

to enter the Union, member states aimed to ratify a new treaty that dealt with cleaning

up what could not be achieved in the Amsterdam Treaty. The treaty has been described

as limited, but vital, as it does not drastically change institutional balance but instead

makes some adjustments that were believed to be impossible with so many new

members.27

Changes ushered in by the treaty affected the Council of the EU by again shifting

the vote weight. The president of the European Commission was also given additional

powers and changed how a person gets nominated to the position. It also established new

divisions between the Court of Justice and the lower Court of First Instance and

established the Court of Auditors meant to oversee EU budgetary irregularities.28

The

Treaty also contained an annex titled Declaration on the Future of the Union that called

for a future treaty that would clearly demarcate the responsibilities between the EU and

member states, the status of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

and the role of national parliaments in the EU. Most importantly, it signaled a need to

simplify all the treaties into one unifying concept. Until now, EU law has been composed

of a series of treaties that patch each other in order to provide the framework for the

25Ibid.26 The Nice Treaty. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/nice_treaty/nice_treaty_introduction_en.htm

(accessed September 13, 2010).27Ibid.28Ibid.


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organization. A European Union constitution was almost ratified in 2005. The process

began with the EU Parliament voting in support of the constitution, but before an EU

treaty can enter into force, it must be ratified by all member states. In 2007, Bulgaria and

Romania also joined the EU, bringing the total number of member states to twenty-seven.1 December 2009: The Lisbon Treaty

Despite the failure to ratify the European Union constitution, a desire to further

strengthen the EU and simplify its governing treaties still existed. Unlike the EU

Constitution, the treaty amended the EU and EC treaties without replacing them.29

The

treaty greatly extended the powers of the EU in a number of different ways. It aimed to

make a more democratic and transparent Europe through strengthening the role of the

European Parliament. The EP now has more powers regarding legislation, the budget and

international agreements.30

Additionally, EU citizens now have the right to form a

petition of at least 100 citizens in order to call on the Commission to take action on a

particular matter.31 It also for the first time recognizes the right for a Member State to

withdraw form the union.32

The treaty also strives to make a more efficient Europe, by

establishing the position of President of the European Council, who is elected for a two

and a half year term and chairs and drives the work of the European Council.33

Furthermore, it placed emphasis on rights, freedoms, values, solidarity and security,

giving the Charter of Fundamental Rights binding legal force.34 It promotes solidarity by

providing that the Union and the Member States act jointly to help another Member State

that has fallen victim to a terrorist attack or a natural disaster.35

Finally, the treaty focuses

29 Treaty of Lisbon - The Treaty at a glance. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/glance/index_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).30Ibid.31Ibid.32Ibid.33 European Union. Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the functioning of

the European Union. CONSILIUM. www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/st06655-re01.en08.pdf

(accessed January 27, 2010).34 Treaty of Lisbon - The Treaty at a glance. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/glance/index_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).35Ibid.


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on the EUs role as a global actor by giving it a clear voice in international relations by

establishing the post of High Representative for the Union in Foreign Affairs and

Security Policy.36

Internal Issues for Consideration

The Economy

Economic stability is a cornerstone of the European Union. Being founded

originally as a union to regulate the steel and coal industries in the continent, today the

EU finds itself at the center of a single market trading bloc.37

A single market allows the

EU to react decisively to global economic challenges and makes it more resilient towards

economic shocks from abroad.38

Having the Euro as a common currency has also helped

the EU react to economic challenges, with the ECB having the power to reduce interest

rates in the entire Eurozone, allowing the ECB to keep inflation below 2% in the medium

term. This means that banks throughout the Union have the same conditions for

borrowing and lending money.39

The single currency also stimulates economic activity

among member states, as consumers do not have to worry about exchange rates or cross-

border payments. Economies ready to introduce the Euro typically have had a stable

exchange rate for two years, but the EU also studies their national interest rates, budgetdeficits, and government debt.

However, despite the economic prosperity of the organization, the EU was not

immune to the worldwide economic recession. In response, the EU has taken steps to deal

with the current financial crisis. National governments, the ECB and the European

Commission have worked together to maintain a flow of credit throughout the Union

with the aim of not just restoring stability, but also promoting job growth.40

However, its

36Ibid.37 Activities of the European Union - Economic and Monetary Affairs. The official website of the European

Union. http://europa.eu/pol/emu/index_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).38Ibid.39Ibid.40Ibid.


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biggest challenge came with the decline of the Greek economy in 2010 and ongoing

concerns over the economics of Portugal, Italy, Ireland, and Spain. During the large part

of the past decade, Greece experienced one of the fastest growing economies in the

Eurozone. This growth, coupled with falling bond yields, resulted in the increase ofGreeces structural deficits, leading to a strong belief that Greece would default on its

debts. After Greece adopted stern austerity measures, the EU agreed to establish the

European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) in order to provide help to Greece and other

member states in danger of succumbing to poor economic conditions. The Union came to

an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to obtain a financial safety net

of up to 750 billion, which allows the ECB to start buying government debt.41

Despite

the crisis being temporarily averted, the EU continues to be preoccupied with the

economic well being of the continent, as well as the world, having pumped more that 2

trillion Euros into rescue efforts.42

What the recent economic downturn has made clear in the Eurozone is that while a

prosperous Europe will help all member states, poor economic performance in one state

can bring about great economic uncertainty in others. When Greek appeared to be

teetering on the edge of economic collapse, there was much consternation among

Eurozone governments that a multi-billion Euro bailout was on the horizon. Given the

generally week economic position of Europe, most states were ill-equipped to support

their own economies, no less send considerable sums of money to prop up a failing

Greece. Moreover, many in Europe took issue with the generous social spending of the

Greek government. If Europe was to bail out Greece, the suppliers of the funds required

significant economic and social reforms. The broader lesson from the economic

downturn is that despite economic union, states in Europe are still independent actors. In

a situation where one state can bring about the economic downfall of the European

41 Shares and oil prices surge after EU loan deal. BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10104140 (accessed

September 13, 2010).42 Activities of the European Union - Economic and Monetary Affairs. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/pol/emu/index_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).


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Union, States made clear that they would act in their own best interests first, and on

behalf of Europe second.

Internal Security

The European Union has a clear interest in the stability and security of the

continent as well as the global community. The internal security of the EU is of great

concern because the Union allows its citizens to enjoy an unparalleled level of freedom to

travel, work and live in any Member State. Thus, protection from international crime and

terrorism must be granted to the fullest degree within the EU.43

The EU is taking steps to

do this by emphasizing the importance of fundamental human rights. The EU agency

responsible for this, the Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA), helps policy makers make

new laws that respect fundamental rights.44 The Schengen Agreement allows anyone to

travel freely within the EU, without having to show a passport and political boundaries.

This is a necessary step towards achieving a strong union, but it does mean that malicious

people will sometimes slip through. Because travel is so easy within the EU, the

organization must ensure that justice reaches every corner of the Union. Internal security

measures must take into account that together, the Union is more effective at facing

threats. They must also reflect the values and priorities that define the European Union.

Finally, they must take into account not only public security, but the rights of all

European Union Citizens.

Terrorism in any form has a disregard for human life and democratic values. It has

devastating consequences that impact the global community; its ability to radicalize and

disseminate propaganda through the Internet and the ways in which it is financed makes

terrorism an important threat to European security.45

Organized crime is also a serious

threat to national security, as drug, human and arms trafficking continue to grow within

43 Activities of the European Union - Foreign and Security Policy. The official website of the European Union.

http://europa.eu/pol/cfsp/index_en.htm (accessed September 13, 2010).44Ibid.45 CONSILIUM. Draft Internal Security Strategy for the European Union: Towards a European Security Model.

Council of the European Union Report5842/2/10 (2010): 1-18.


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the Union. Violent crimes, money laundering and corruption are just a few of the threats

that organized crime poses. In addition, the European Union is falling behind when it

comes to providing security from cyber-crime, which represents a global and anonymous

threat to information systems throughout the Union.

46

Indeed, the expansion of theEuropean Union into Eastern Europe has brought about considerable threat. Although

the initial members of the Union were all global powers, the more recent addition of

states like Bulgaria and Romania has opened up the Union to weaker border controls and

less effective governance.

In order to reach an adequate level of internal security, the EU should seek to

foster the cooperation of law enforcement officials and border management authorities

with the support of judicial cooperation and civilian agencies. In addition, it should also

seek international cooperation, especially between non-EU counties that border the

Union. The Union must also be prepared for the prevention and anticipation of crimes,

with and intelligence led approach in that bolsters the EUs judicial system.47

Prevention

of crime must also address the root causes, and this can be achieved with measures that

increase the quality of life for EU citizens.

External RelationsAfrica

The European Union, with the implementation of the Lisbon Treaty, is in a

position to radically transform the relationship between the African continent and the

Union. Currently, there are three shortcomings that must be overcome in order to increase

the EUs influence in the region. First, institutional uncertainty within the EU is

hindering the external action of the EU.48

Second, Member States are still working under

a unilateral and autonomous structure when it comes to dealing with African countries,

46Ibid.47Ibid.48 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Africa: Strategies and Partnerships for Long Term

Development.European Union Institute for Security Studies Report7 (2010).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed September 16, 2010).


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and there is some reticence over delegating responsibility to the Union as a whole. Third,

external action budgets are being cut as a response to the global financial crisis.49

In order to address these limitations, EU foreign policy must be tailored to local,

national and regional context, formulated jointly by Member States and the EuropeanUnion External Action Service.

50This includes dealing with regional powers such as

Nigeria, South Africa and Egypt as well as continental and regional organizations such as

the African Union or the Economic Commission of West African States (ECOWAS). In

order to avoid multiple and counter-productive representation, Member States and the EU

must agree on modalities concerning the political approach towards the continent.51

This

particular shortcoming has yet to be addressed by a post-Lisbon EU.

Additionally, the European Union must remain committed to the realization of the

Millennium Development Goals in order to ensure the Unions credibility in the

developing world.52

The EU has attempted to achieve this through numerous aid

packages tailored to the continent, but budget cuts resulting from the global economic

crisis will probably continue, so a new balance must be found. As such, the EU must find

new partners within the global order to provide additional financial resources in Africa,

be it other States or private foundations and charity organizations. Finally, the EU must

evaluate the current need for coordinated military intervention by the Union when needed

and requested, as seen in the European Union naval mission tasked with anti-piracy

efforts off of the coast of Somalia.

Afghanistan and Pakistan

East Asia, especially Afghanistan and Pakistan, has been granted a new level of

attention in recent years as instability in both countries continues to foment destabilizing

forces in the region and indeed in the global order. The United States has thus shifted its

49Ibid.50Ibid.51 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Africa: Strategies and Partnerships for Long Term

Development.European Union Institute for Security Studies Report7 (2010).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed September 16, 2010).52Ibid.


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attention from Iraq to this region under a new scheme that aims to protect civilians as an

alternative to searching for and killing enemies in order to stop fueling insurgency

movements.53

This has proven difficult to apply, as civilian deaths caused by the

International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and U.S. forces are still very frequent,causing a lack of popular support. Additionally, the United States tendency to proclaim

victories attributed to the recent troop surge has actually narrowed the political

maneuvering of the Afghan President Hamid Karzai in his efforts to seek reconciliation

with Taliban leaders.54

Resistance movements within the region are also bolstered by the

foreign military presence in Afghanistan, which no matter how large cannot prevent

terrorist attacks by suicide bombers.

The ongoing counterinsurgency operations and the political civilian strategies

underway in Afghanistan provide the EU with an opportunity to help rebuild the civilian

order in the region. The operational and cultural transformation of ISAF to address

civilian concerns cannot be met until a new international civilian leadership is

established;55

a difficult task as the U.S. remains the de facto military leader in the

region.56

These concerns can also be seen within Pakistan, specifically along the

Federally Administered Tribal Areas that neighbor Afghanistan and provide a hotbed of

insurgent elements. The United States continues to employ military actions such as

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle drone strikes that harm civilian villages. In addition, the U.S.

military continues to urge the Pakistani army to undergo military operations against

insurgents in the tribal areas. This has proven alarming because unlike in Afghanistan,

there is no national structure in place for the protection of the local population of the

tribal regions of Pakistan.

53 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Afghanistan and Pakistan: Making the CivilianApproach Work.European Union Institute for Security Studies Report7 (2010).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed September 16, 2010).54 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Afghanistan and Pakistan: Making the Civilian

Approach Work.European Union Institute for Security Studies Report7 (2010).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed September 16, 2010).55Ibid.56Ibid.


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Most EU countries have had a presence in the ISAF mission, and collectively EU

Member States have spent more than 8 billion.57

EU member states must be willing to

find a political consensus in line with the values of the Lisbon Treaty, as the unilateral

international operations such as ISAF can effectively prevent Member States fromreaching common positions, thereby weakening the Unions international credibility.

58

Additionally, the EUs position as a primarily civilian actor has meant that the Union has

had little say in military operations in the region, yet has allowed it to influence civilian

dimensions in the area. The establishment of a unified civilian chain of command is

necessary for the long-term security of the region, and additional international

cooperation should be emphasized.59

Finally, the EU must assess its military presence in

the region, which currently extends to EUPOL-Afghanistan, a police-training mission

aimed at providing Afghanistan with better local protection.60

Others argue that the EU

should be focusing on training Afghan civil servants instead. The EU has not made full

use of its resources to significantly contribute to the stability of Afghanistan, a region that

desperately needs international assistance.

Disarmament and Non-Proliferation

The dissemination of weapons of mass destruction and the technologies to produce

them continues to be a persistent problem for global security. International treaties that

aim to curb the spread of these weapons have proven to be relatively effective, but rogue

states such as the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Democratic Peoples Republic of

Korea continue to pose a threat to the global order. In addition, the current strategy of

non-proliferation is designed primarily to curb States from obtaining these weapons, but

little attention is paid to non-state actors. Recent trends have led to new arms treaties

resulting out of high profile meetings of world powers such as the United States and the

57Ibid.58 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Afghanistan and Pakistan: Making the Civilian

Approach Work.European Union Institute for Security Studies Report7 (2010).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed September 16, 2010).59Ibid.60Ibid.


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Russian Federation, and in G-8 meetings in lieu of multilateral negotiations. These

agreements are often backed up by informal arrangements that seek to regulate actions

within those states that undertake them.61

Taking into account these new realities, multilateral disarmament and armscontrol, rather than non-proliferation, have gained favor among those seeking to curb

weapons dissemination. There is also a deeper concern for centrality regarding

verification of treaty compliance, signaling a likely return of international organizations

tasked with guaranteeing compliance. However, the design of new organizations in any

future treaty will remain complex due to the many tasks they would have to take in order

to accommodate the signatories. Another challenge when it comes to global disarmament

comes from within States themselves, as movements against big governments and

international organizations have grown in recent years. As these elements do no support

international cooperation, governments under political pressure may be reluctant to

participate. The EU has yet to establish a policy preference for one method of arms

control, be it disarmament or non-proliferation models. Internally, the EU exerts a lot of

influence on its members in the implementation of treaty obligations, however the Union

has yet to play a leading role in the conception of new disarmament and arms control

negotiations that deal with these new realties.62

Islamic Republic of Iran

The Islamic Republic of Iran under the leadership of President Mahmoud

Ahmadinejad has made the revitalization of his countrys nuclear program a top priority

for his administration. Iranian officials insist that their aim is purely peaceful, with the

purpose of providing more efficient energy sources for the state. However, there is great

concern that the regime also plans to use the resources obtained from a civilian nuclear

61 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Disarmament and Non-Proliferation.European

Union Institute for Security Studies Report7 (2010).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed September 16, 2010).62 Anthony, Ian. Nuclear weapons after the 2010 NPT Review Conference.European Union Institute for Security

Studies Chaillot Paper120 (2010). http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp120.pdf (accessed September 16,

2010).


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program to construct nuclear weapons. The regimes staunch opposition to the state of

Israel and the many volatile declarations that President Ahmadinejad has made has done

little to soothe these concerns. In addition, the turmoil that resulted in the aftermath of the

2009 presidential elections in Iran have once again reminded the world that the State istoo unpredictable to ignore.

Currently, the EUs strategy concerning Iran has been a dual-track approach that

entails pursuing sanctions against Iran for violating the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

while trying to engage the country diplomatically. This method however, has at best

slowed down certain parts of Irans nuclear program but has not deterred it from seeking

to continue it. As of the most recent intelligence reports, Iran has mastered the ability to

enrich Uranium, and thus the reversal of the Iranian nuclear program seems highly

unlikely. It is projected that Irans aim is that of achieving nuclear ambivalence, where it

is not breaching to the letter the NPTs guidelines while at the same time not being

forthcoming about dispelling fears concerning a militaristic nuclear program.

Furthermore, diplomatic engagement has often stalled because of lack of coordination

between the United States and the EU, lack of EU focus and persistence, and Irans

unwavering position towards its nuclear program.63

The first track, that of political pressure through sanctions is much more concrete

and technical in nature, however, the diplomatic track is much less coordinated. Its

various elements need to be clearly identified and separated in order to form the basis for

a multi-pronged approach under the rubric of engagement. It also needs to take into

account Irans record on human rights.64

As was clearly seen during the post election

turmoil, the regime continues to imprison intellectuals, journalists, politicians and

protestors who declare their opposition to the government, often based on weak evidence

and charges.

63 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Iran: Multi-Level Engagement.European Union

Institute for Security Studies Report7 (2010).

http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed September 16, 2010).64 Ibid.


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Integration of Iran into a secure framework in the region is one of the few viable

options for convincing the regime that there is no need for nuclear weapons. Because this

is a regional approach, the EU must work together with neighboring countries, and not

just the United States. The aim should not necessarily be regime change, but rather,regime reconciliation, in order to bring Iran into the global order. The EU must revise its

current dual-track approach in order to adopt a long-term strategy that encompasses not

just Irans nuclear program, but also addresses its human rights shortcomings.65

Peoples Republic of China

The Peoples Republic of China is one of the European Unions major strategic

partners, with regular political, trade and economic dialogue occurring between the two.

The EU aims to promote economic opportunities in the Chinese market, support Chinas

transition to an open society based on the rule of law and respect for human rights,

encourage the integration of China into the global economy and trade system, and foster

the growth of the EU as a global actor by promoting effective multilateralism between the

two.66

Despite the success of promoting economic opportunities in the Chinese market,

EU countries still encounter problems accessing specific sectors. The EU is currently

Chinas largest trade partner, giving the Union some weight when it comes to supporting

reform within China. According to European Union financial experts, Chinas currency,

the Yuan, is currently undervalued causing a global economic imbalance that gives

Chinese exporters an unfair advantage when dealing with the international markets.67

In

June 2010 Chinese officials declared that its foreign exchange rules would be made more

flexible, but progress has been slow, if at all. Because China is such an important

65Ibid.66 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. China.European Union Institute for Security

Studies Report7 (2010). http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed

September 16, 2010).67 EU likely to press China on forex at Oct meeting | Reuters. Reuters.com.

http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE68G1SC20100917 (accessed September 17, 2010).


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economic partner with the EU, and undervalued Yuan means that European consumers,

businessmen and entrepreneurs are significantly hurt by Chinas economic policies.

Despite some shortcomings, the EU has succeeded in establishing collaborations

with China in regards to key regions and global issues.

68

A good example can be seen inthe cooperation between the two in the African continent in order to combat terrorism and

encourage development. China has become an influential player in the continent, seeing it

as an open market for its goods while constructing mines and other endeavors aimed at

capitalizing on the continents vast natural resources. Because China has relied on EU

assistance in order to open the door for these new economic activities, the EU has a

position to influence the Chinese government in order to tackle Africas most pressing

problems.69

China is fiercely protective of its sovereignty and is deeply committed to the

principles of non-interference in its internal policies, as the state is ruled by an

authoritarian regime under the rule of the Chinese Communist Party.70

This, along with

Chinas emerging importance in global affairs, has complicated relations with the Union.

In order to form a more successful partnership, the EU needs to reassess the relationship

with the Peoples Republic. A deeper concern for human rights must be a cornerstone of

any partnership between the two, and the promotion of greener and more responsible

technologies to fuel Chinas economy should be emphasized. In addition, the EU should

consider replicating the form of cooperation between the two in Africa in other places of

the world where partnership is needed.71

68 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. China.European Union Institute for SecurityStudies Report7 (2010). http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed

September 16, 2010).69Ibid.70Ibid.71 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. China.European Union Institute for Security

Studies Report7 (2010). http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf (accessed

September 16, 2010).


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Russian Federation

A strategic partnership with the Russian Federation is a desirable goal for the

European Union as Russia is an influential actor in the EUs eastern borders and the

Unions most important supplier of energy.72

Because Russia plays a central role withregards to the political, economic and social developments in Eastern Europe, a strategic

partnership would foster peace and stability throughout the continent. However, recent

developments have distanced the two, specifically the Russian-Georgian war of 2008 and

the Ukrainian energy crisis of 2009.73

In order to bring about a closer relationship, some

steps have to be taken. Currently Russia, especially in regards to energy, deals more on

an individual Member State level rather than with the Union as a whole. The EU needs to

establish a set of shared values, norms and rules for any partnership with Russia. This

clashes with the EUs desire to form a group of well-governed states in Eastern Europe, a

region that Russia interprets to fall within its sphere of influence. On the other hand, the

global financial crisis has brought the two together as they undertake joint efforts to solve

the problem.

The European Union should seek to cooperate with Russia on global and European

security.74 Recent endeavors jointly undertaken to provide security for Chad and

eliminate maritime piracy off of the eastern coast of Africa form a good starting point for

further security cooperation. Furthermore, as the two biggest actors in the continent,

securing Eastern Europe should be an equal concern for both parties. The EU cannot

compromise its presence in Eastern Europe but should look for areas where both

countries can agree in order to provide political security in the region.75

72 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Russia In Europe.European Union Institute forSecurity Studies Report7 (2010). http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf

(accessed September 16, 2010)73Ibid.74 de Vasconcelos, Alvaro. A Strategy for EU Foreign Policy. Russia In Europe.European Union Institute for

Security Studies Report7 (2010). http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/A_strategy_for_EU_foreign_policy.pdf

(accessed September 16, 2010)75Ibid.


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The United States

The United States and the European Union form the strongest partnership in the

world, being culturally similar and having interconnected economies. When working

together, the partnership achieves clear results, as seen in the coordinated response to thefinancial meltdown of 2007. However, transatlantic consensus must be a cornerstone for

effective coalition interests. This distinction is clearly demonstrated in the approach taken

towards Iraq in 1990, where the United States militarily intervened with full EU

cooperation, and the approach in 2003 where there were much more serious

disagreements. Because of the Cold War, relations between the US and the European

continent were mostly concerned with Europes security under the threat of Soviet

expansion, however, after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the attacks of 11 September

2001, this relationship has shifted to a greater concern for other regions such as the

Middle East and global matters such as the state of the global economy and the

environment.76

Despite the fact that the US and the EU mostly agree on policy issues, cooperation

has recently proven to be imperfect, with both sides taking different and uncoordinated

agendas to achieve similar interests.77 A primary reason for this is the institutional

weakness of the relationship, exemplified by disagreements between EU and NATO. In

order to strengthen the partnership, actual structures must be put into place in order to

cement the relationship between the two. Cooperation between the US and the EU as a

whole instead on an individual Member State basis must begin to take hold. In the past,

the US has exploited divisions within the EU to gather support for its international

polices, as seen in the 2003 Iraq war, ensuring support from Member States for the US

but it weakened the European Union as a foreign policy actor. Additionally, cooperation

between the two should become more inclusive. Most EU countries agree with the United

76 Ibid.77Ibid.


25/35


States stance on non-proliferation, and climate change, but most Europeans have derided

the lack of consultation with the EU in tackling these matters.


26/35


Discussion Questions

How is the Treaty of Lisbon different from the failed European Constitution?

Why did the European Constitution fail to be ratified?

What political realities does the EU face in your home state? Why are some EU countries more euroskeptic than others? How do your constituents feel about delegating more national powers away from

member states and to the European Union?

Does your state participate in current military operations throughout the world?How has this impacted local politics?

Does your administration wish to engage or disengage the EU, and how do yourconstituents feel about either option?


27/35


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