Part One Map Reading

1. HOME

2. Maps

3. MarginalInformation andSymbols

4. Grids

5. Scale andDistance

6. Direction

7. Overlays

8. AerialPhotographs

Part Two Land Navigation

9. NavigationEquipment andMethods

10. Elevation andRelief

11. TerrainAssociation

12. Mounted Land Navigation

13. Navigation in Different Types of Terrain

A. Field Sketching

B. Map Folding

104. TYPES OF SLOPES

Depending on the military mission, soldiers may need to determine notonly the height of a hill, but the degree of the hill's slope as well. Therate of rise or fall of a terrain feature is known as its slope. The speedat which equipment or personnel can move is affected by the slope ofthe ground or terrain feature. This slope can be determined from themap by studying the contour lines—the closer the contour lines, thesteeper the slope; the farther apart the contour lines, the gentler theslope. Four types of slopes that concern the military are as follows:

a. Gentle. Contour lines showing a uniform, gentle slope willbe evenly spaced and wide apart (Figure 106). Consideringrelief only, a uniform, gentle slope allows the defender to usegrazing fire. The attacking force has to climb a slight incline.

Figure 106. Uniform, gentle slope.

b. Steep. Contour lines showing a uniform, steep slope on amap will be evenly spaced, but close together. Remember, thecloser the contour lines, the steeper the slope (Figure 107).Considering relief only, a uniform, steep slope allows thedefender to use grazing fire, and the attacking force has tonegotiate a steep incline.

Figure 107. Uniform, steep slope.

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D. Joint Operations Graphics

E. ExportableTraining Material

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c. Concave. Contour lines showing a concave slope on a mapwill be closely spaced at the top of the terrain feature and widelyspaced at the bottom (Figure 108). Considering relief only, thedefender at the top of the slope can observe the entire slope andthe terrain at the bottom, but he cannot use grazing fire. Theattacker would have no cover from the defender's observation offire, and his climb would become more difficult as he got fartherup the slope.

Figure 108. Concave slope.

d. Convex. Contour lines showing a convex slope on a mapwill be widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the bottom(Figure 109). Considering relief only, the defender at the top ofthe convex slope can obtain a small distance of grazing fire, buthe cannot observe most of the slope or the terrain at the bottom.The attacker will have concealment on most of the slope and aneasier climb as he nears the top.

Figure 109. Convex slope.

Return to Elevation and Relief

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Books

Buy the book this website is based on: Map Reading andLand Navigation

This website is based on the US Army Field Manual:"Map Reading and Land Navigation" Buy a copy fromAmazon.com to take with you out in the field.

Book Review Be Expert with Map and Compass

One of the best ways to learn and become proficient in any subjectis to find a way to make a game or sport of it. That's exactly whatorienteering does! Orienteering began to develop almost 100 yearsago in the Scandinavian countries as a fun and effective method formilitary training in land navigation. Bjorn Kjellstrom was closelyinvolved with the early development of orienteering, and he is theperson who introduced the sport to North America. He, along withhis brother Alvar, and a friend named Gunnar Tillander, inventedthe modern orienteering compass. They manufactured andmarketed it as the Silva Protractor compass. This compass, alongwith Bjorn's book Be Expert with Map and Compass, made it mucheasier for anyone to learn how to use a map and compass.

This book has become the most widely read classic on the subjectof map reading, compass use, and orienteering. Over 500,000copies have been sold in the english language editions alone. Therehave been very successful editions published in French, Italian, andother languages as well. It is a short (just over 200 pages), easy toread, enjoyable book that can help you to have fun while you learnthe subject quickly and effectively.

The book is organized into four main parts, plus a short, usefulintroduction. Part 1 covers having fun with maps alone. Then, Part2 covers having fun with a compass alone. Part 3 puts it togetherand shows you how to have fun with a map and compass together.This section also introduces the game or sport of orienteering. Part4 covers competitive orienteering for those who would like tocompete with others in the sport.

A reproduction of a segment of an actual topographic map isincluded as a foldout in the back of the book. It is used togetherwith the "howto" instructions the book provides. For example, one

of the exercises in Part 3 is an imaginary orienteering "hike" thatuses the sample map.

If you would like to have one of the best books available on mapreading and using a compass, Be Expert with Map and Compass ishard to beat. You can buy a copy from Amazon.com today.

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