two souls of maoism - undergraduate library · two souls of maoism abstract after being exported...
TRANSCRIPT
TwoSoulsofMaoism
Abstract
AfterbeingexportedfromChinatotheWestinthe1960s,Maoismdevelopedintotwovery
differentpoliticaltraditions.Ontheonehandahierarchicalandtraditionalist‘Anti-
Revisionism’defineditselfasthedefenderofthe‘oldways’ofStalin-eraCommunism,
whereasSpontaneousMaoistsmovedinanunrestrainedandalmostanarchisticdirection.
ThisessayseekstounderstandtherelationshipofbothtraditionstoChineseideologythat
inspiredthemandunderstandthemannerinwhichtheydevelopedthroughtheclose
examinationoftheCommunistPartyofBritain(Marxist-Leninist)andGaucheProlétarienne,
thechiefadvocatesofAnti-RevisionisminBritainandSpontaneousMaoisminFrance
respectively.Byinvestigatingthecommonrootsoftwoverydifferentpartiesin
contemporaryyetdivergentsettings,agreaterappreciationoftheimpactofChinauponthe
WesternfarleftaswellasdomesticideologicalconcernsintheWestitselfisgarnered.
TwoSoulsofMaoism
Fromthe1960sthroughthe1970sadiversevarietyofpoliticalgroupsinspiredbyChinese
CommunismandtheideasofMaoZedongemergedacrosstheWesternworld.Thesegroupscanbe
broadlydescribedassubscribingtooneoftwodistinctivevisions-twosouls.Anti-Revisionists,
typifiedbyRegBirch’sCommunistPartyofBritain(MarxistLeninist),sawMaoistthoughtasareturn
toCommunism’smilitanttraditionswhilsttheSpontaneousMaoistsofGaucheProlétarienneaspired
towardsalevelofunstructured,youthful,radicalismalmosttotallyalientoWesternCommunism.
TheCommunistPartyofBritain(MarxistLeninist),orCPB-ML,haditsoriginsinthepersonalityof
RegBirch.HewasaprominentfigureintheAmalgamatedEngineeringUnion(AEU),oneofBritain’s
keybluecollartradeunions.BirchhadalsobeenamemberoftheCommunistPartyofGreatBritain
(CPGB)from1938.Supportingmilitantpoliticsthroughouthiscareer,Birchassociatedhimselfwith
theChineseonAnti-Revisionistgroundsfromtheearly1960s1.However,hedidnotfullybreakfrom
theofficialCommunistPartyuntil1967afteritsupportedanopposingcandidateintheelectionfor
theleadershipoftheAEU2.LeavingtheParty,hebroughtwithhimasmallbutcommittedfollowing
intohisneworganisation–theCPB-ML.DespitebeingthelargestMaoistgroupinBritainformostof
itsexistence,theCPB-MLneverhadmorethanafewhundredmembers,manyofthemdrawntothe
partybyBirch’sprestigeasaprominenttradeunionists,withalargeportionofitsmembership
concentratedaroundtheAEU.AfterChinamovedawayfromMaoZedong’sradicalisminthelate
1LawrenceParker,TheKickInside:RevolutionaryOppositionintheCPGB,1945-1991,(NovemberPublications,2012)p622SamRichards,TheRiseandFallofMaoism:AnEnglishExperience,(Anti-RevisionismOnline)p63
1970s,thepartyshifteditssupporttothestill‘Anti-Revisionist’AlbanianPartyofLabour,placingfar
lessemphasisonitsMaoistroots3.
GaucheProlétariennegrewoutoftheUniondesJeunessesCommunistsMarxistes-Léninistes(UJC-
ML),anAnti-RevisionistMaoistyouthorganisation.InthefaceoftheMayeventsof1968theUJC-
MLhadbeensuspiciousoftheheavyinvolvementofstudentsandrefusedtobecomeinvolvedon
thegroundsthatstudentshadnoconnectiontotheworkingclass4.Itwaslargelyinresponsetothis
inadequatelineduringthegreatupheavalsof1968thatasmallgroup,ofnomorethan40members,
ledbyBennyLévy,andcomingpredominantlyfromrelativelyprivilegedbackgrounds,splitawayto
formtheGaucheProlétariennelaterthatyear5.Itsextremeandviolentpoliticssawthegroupface
repressionfromtheFrenchstatewhilstitsheavydemandsuponitsmemberscontributedtoasense
ofexhaustionthateventuallyforcedittodissolvein1973afterabriefbutdramaticexistence6.
ForallMaoists,theadoptionoftheirideologyrepresentedanexplicitrejectionoftheirown
countries’officialCommunistPartiesandtheSovietledmovementinternationally.Bythe1960s
CommunistsPartiesofWesternEuropehadcometoacceptmoderatepoliticalpositionsthat
abandonedrevolutionaryviolenceinfavourofacceptingthenormsofparliamentarydemocracyand
regulartradeunionactivity7.TheEurope-widerevivalinworkingclassmilitancyfromthelate1960s-
whichinvolvedasubstantialupswinginindustrialactionfrom1968-72aswellasattimesviolent,
politicalconfrontationasinFranceduringMay1968-failedtoprovokeachangeinpolicyasthe
3WilliamPodmore,RegBirch:engineer,tradeunionists,communist,(BellmanBooks,2004)p1474RichardJohnson,TheFrenchCommunistPartyversustheStudents:RevolutionaryPoliticsinMay-June1968,(YaleUniversityPress,1972)p1635JulianBourg,FromRevolutiontoEthics:May1968andContemporaryFrenchThought,(McGill-Queen’sUniversityPress,2007)p536Ibid.,p657PerryAnderson,ArgumentsWithinEnglishMarxism,(Verso,1980)p106
partiesremainedcommittedlyreformist8.Thisabandonmentofrevolutionarypoliticsfrustrated
manyradicals.ItlayatthecentreofboththeCPB-ML’scritiqueoftheCPGBas‘’differingfromsocial
democracyonlyinappearanceandphraseology’’9andGaucheProlétarienne’scriticismofthe
‘’syndicalistspirit’’10ofFrenchCommunistswhoappearedconcernedonlywithimmediateeconomic
issues.Inresponsetotheprevailingattitude,theChineseappearedtopropagateanexplicitly
revolutionaryoppositionfromwithinthewiderCommunistmovement.
LeftistdissatisfactionwithofficialCommunismextendedbeyondmerecriticismsoftheirrespective
nationalparties,itstruckattheheartofthedecliningreputationoftheSovietUnionitself.Whereas
theUSSRhadoncebeentheshiningbeaconofrevolutionaryinspirationacrosstheentireworld,by
the1960sitsprestigewasinsteepdeclinewithmanyacrossthefarleftquestioningwhetheritwas
still,orhadeverbeen,agenuineworkers’state11.
Mao’sassessmentoftheSovietUnionasimperialist,conservativeandauthoritarianreverberated
withleft-wingoppositiontomainstreamCommunismintheWest12.China’srhetoricallowed
WesternMaoiststorallyagainstthe‘’hypocriticalfeaturesoftheSovietrevisionistclique’’,asthe
USSRwasbelievedtohavebeguntoembodymanyoftheverycriticismsitfrequentlydirectedat
WesternImperialism13.ByturningawayfromMoscow,towardstheChineseandtheirAlbanian
allies,describedasthe‘’bannerbearers’’ofgenuineanti-imperialismbyRegBirch,Maoistswere
8DonaldSassoon,OneHundredYearsofSocialism:TheWestEuropeanLeftintheTwentiethCentury,(FontanaPress,1997)p3579TheBritishWorkingClassandItsParty,(CommunistPartyofBritian(Marxist-Leninist),1971)10OntheQuestionoftheLineofDemarcationinUnionMatters,trans.MitchellAbidor11RaphaelSamuel,TheLostWorldofBritishCommunism,(Verso,2006)p13712PerryAnderson,ArgumentsWithinEnglishMarxism,p10913CommunistPartyofBritain(Marxist-Leninist)DenouncesSovietRevisionistRenegadeClique’sArmedAggressiononCzechoslovakia,(PekingReview,1968)
abletoadoptanewinternationalperspective14.TheshiftoftheSovietsawayfromanopenly
confrontationalrelationshipwiththeWest,tothepolicyof‘PeacefulCoexistence’advocatedby
PremierNikitaKhrushchevandhissuccessorsfurtherstrengthenedthepotencyofMaoist
accusations15.Fromtheearly1960sitappearedthatChinawastheonlyworldpowerconcerned
withfightingagainstImperialism,allthewhileexudinginfectiousconfidenceininevitabletriumph.
Mao’sbombasticproclamations‘’allreactionariesarepapertigers’’contrastedsharplywiththe
Kremlin’sdovishness16.Inthepast,therejectionoftheSovietUnionhadbeenregardedasmeaning
indirectsupportfortheUnitedStatesbymanyontheleft.Yetthroughthe1960sitbecamelogical
forMaoistsofallshadestorejectthe‘twocamps’theorythatjustifiedthisthinking.Formany,China
hadreplacedtheSovietsasthetrueleaderofworldrevolution.
CriticismofSoviethypocrisyextendedbeyonditsforeignpolicytoitsinternalstructures.Apopular
imageoftheUSSRasauthoritarianandhierarchicalbroughtmanytoquestionitsvitality–
particularlyincomparisontoChina.Thedissimilaritybetweenthetwostateswasexemplifiedin
theircourtsystems–whilstSovietcourtswererigidlyfocusseduponlawandorder,toadegree
conservativeevenbyWesternstandards,theChinesesystemappearedtobebasedaround
revolutionaryimprovisationwithmassopinionplayinganactiverole17.Furthermore,theSoviets
crudelyprioritisedsupportingeconomicgrowthandtheadvanceoftheproductiveforcesaboveall
elseintheEasternBlock,andwithfarlesssuccessthaninthepast18.InthefaceofMoscow’s
mechanisticfixations,Westerngroupsconcernedwithmoreabstractnotionsofequalityand
14RegBirch,quotedinWilliamPodmore,RegBirch:engineer,tradeunionists,communist,p8215NikitaKhrushchev,‘TheNewProgrammeoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(1961)’,ArthurPMendelP(ed.),EssentialWorksofMarxism,(Bantam,1971)p41516QuotationsFromChairmanMaoTse-Tung,(PekingForeignLanguagesPress,1966)p7217GeorgeGinsburg,‘SovietCritiqueofMaoistPoliticalModel’,JamesChiehHsiung,(ed.),TheLogicof‘’Maoism’’CritiquesandExplication,(PraegerPublishers,1974)p16118EricHobsbawm,TheAgeofExtremes1914-1991,(Abacus,1994)p384
freedomwerefarmoreattractedtoMaoZedong’spersistentegalitarianism19.Thesedifferences
wereespeciallyimportanttoGaucheProlétariennewhomaintainedastridentoppositiontoall
hierarchies.Thisdrewthemtowardsafascinationwiththe‘GreatProletarianCulturalRevolution’,
whichwasseentogenuinelyliveuptoitsverbosetitle.Itwasregardedasaseismicstruggle
betweentherevolutionary,democratic,CommunismofMaoandtheSovietstyleconservatismofhis
entrenchedenemieswhoaimedtotransformChinaintoanemptyauthoritarianhusk20.
TheattitudeoftheCommunistmovementtowardspoliticalideasthatwereproducedoutsideofits
owntraditionfurtheredtheappealofMaoismastheonlyeffectivecounterargumenttothe
dominantdogmas.Itsstatusasacritiqueemanatingfromwithinthemovementitselfgreatly
reinforceditsappealtoallvarietiesofCommunistradical.AsLawrenceParkernotes,the
authoritarianspiritoftheCommunistmovement,andtheprinciplesofDemocraticCentralism,made
thedevelopmentofaneffectiveoppositiontotheleadership’spartylinealmostimpossible21.This
meantthat,despiteradicalslikeBirchsharingmanyoftheircriticismsoftheofficialCommunist
Party’s‘socialdemocratic’inclinationswithTrotskyists,ittooktherebellionofagroupwithin
internationalCommunismforcriticstofeelendowedwiththemoralauthorityandideological
weighttostandagainstpartyleaderships22.Moreover,China’spolemicsagainsttheSovietsplaced
themoralresponsibilityforsplittingtheCommunistmovementonrevisionistleadersandidentified
themastruedeviantsfromMarxistorthodoxy23.Maoismwasthereforeabletoappealtoleftcritics
withintheCommunistmovementinamannerthatnoothertendencyhadeverbeenabletosince
19JohnFMelby,‘MaoismasaWorldForce’,AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience,Volume402,ChinaintheWorldToday(1972),p3120LeszekKolakowski,MainCurrentsofMarxism:ItsOrigins,Growth,andDissolution,VolumeIIITheBreakdown,trans.PSFalla,(OxfordUniversityPress,1978)p50721LawrenceParker,TheKickInside:RevolutionaryOppositionintheCPGB,1945-1991,p4422ErnestMandel,FromStalinismtoEurocommunism,TheBitterFruitsof‘SocialisminOneCountry’,trans.JonRothschild,(FrançoisMaspero,1978)p1923TheLeadersOfTheCPSUAreTheGreatestSplittersOfOurTimes,(ForeignLanguagesPress,1964)
theGreatPurgesofthe1930s24.WhilsttheYugoslavs’rebellionofthelate1940sand1950shad
beensomethingofanexception,thisrebelliontookplaceatatimewhenMuscoviteCommunism
wasnearthepinnacleofitsprestigeandwasthusabletodismisstheYugoslavsinahysterical‘Anti-
Titoite’campaignwhichavertedinternationalcontagion25.Moreover,acountryasvastasChina
possessedincomparablygreaterinternationalstatusinexpoundingitsviewpoint.AMaoistidentity
wasalluringforleftistcriticsofCommunistmovement,evenifitmerelychimedwithexisting
dissatisfactionratherthaninspiringit26.
GaucheProlétariennedidnotsharethesameAnti-Revisionistsensibilities.Maoism’spositionwithin
theCommunisttraditiondidnotappealtoadesiretorejecthereticalnon-Communistthought–
indeedtheadoptionofMaoismwasseenasameansofshiftingawayfromCommunistcircles27.
InsteaditwasthedesiretostakeaclaimtotheFrenchCommunistParty’sheroicResistancelegacy
thatmotivatedGaucheProlétarienne’smilitantsingroundingtheirideologyinwhatwasseenasthe
successoroftheResistancemovement.TheGauchistesretainedanobsessiveinterestinthewartime
Resistance.Outofthe36%ofarticlesintheirnewspaper,LaCauseduPeuple,thatwerehistorical,
thevastmajorityrelatedinsomewaytotheResistance28.Allusionstothewartimemovement
permeatedtheirrhetoricastheycalledforarevivaloftheera’sspiritwithparallelsbeingdrawn
betweentheNazioccupationandCharlesDeGaulle’sauthoritarianregime29.Despitelackingthe
attachmentoftheCPB-MLtotraditionalCommunistmoralvirtues,GaucheProlétariennealsohad
reasontobeattractedtoanideologythatembracedFrenchCommunism’sprestigiousheritage.
24LeszekKolakowski,MainCurrentsofMarxism:ItsOrigins,Growth,andDissolution,VolumeIIITheBreakdown,trans.PSFalla,p10525Ibid.,p16926LawrenceParker,TheKickInside:RevolutionaryOppositionintheCPGB,1945-1991,p7127NiiloKauppi,RadicalisminFrenchCulture,ASociologyofFrenchTheoryinthe1960s,(Ashgate,2010)p7728PhilippeButon,‘InventingaMemoryontheExtremeLeft:TheExampleoftheMaoistsafter1968’,JulianJackson,Anna-LouiseMilne,andJamesSWilliams(eds.),May68:RethinkingFrance’sLastRevolution,(PalgraveMacmillan,2011)p6929SunilKhilnani,‘ArguingRevolution:TheIntellectualLeftinPostwarFrance’,(YaleUniversityPress,1993)p140
Yet,theCPB-MLandGaucheProlétariennedifferedwildlyintheirapplicationofMaoistideology.
TheresponseofGaucheProlétariennetothesupposedcorruptionoftheCommunistswastototally
rejectallexistingformsoforganisationandstruggle‘’weareresolutelyopposedtounions’’,and
insteaddependedonthespontaneityofthemasses30.Inthis,thepartytookinspirationfromMao’s
conceptofthe‘MassLine’whichrelieduponthecreativeforceofthemassesastheparty’sguiding
force.GaucheProlétarienneattemptedtomoveaway,asfaraspossible,fromtheideasof
DemocraticCentralismthathaddominatedboththeofficialCommunistPartyaswellastheUJC-ML,
andwereseentodetachthedecisionsofthepartyfromthepopularwillofthemasses31.Astilted
viewoftheongoingChineseCulturalRevolutionprovidedfurtherinspirationfortheirbreakwith
Communisttraditions.TheCulturalRevolutionwasseentorepresentthespontaneousrebellionof
theChinesemassesandthereforejustifytheiranti-partyideas32.LaCauseduPeuplemakesclear,
GaucheProlétariennebelievedabsolutelythatonlythe‘’powerfulactionfromthemasses’’,rather
thananyexistingstructures,couldbringaboutrealchangeinFrenchsociety33.
ThisextremeviewwasatoddswiththebeliefoftheCPB-ML’sleaderthat‘’agenuinerevolutionary
party…isable,inonewayoranother,toputthesealofrevolutiononallslogansandallformsof
organisationandstruggle’’34.WhilstGaucheProlétariennesawasicknessemanatingfromtraditional
formsofworkingclassorganisationandaction,Birchidentifiedtheproblemasnotthenatureof
theseexistingformsbutthemannerinwhichtheyhadbeenrobbedoftheirrevolutionaryélan.The
Anti-RevisionistCPB-MLwasattractedtoMaoismasthebearerofanearlierperspectivewhichsaw
30BlowforBlow,trans.MitchellAbidor,(LaCauseduPeuple)31BeldenFields,‘FrenchMaoism’,SocialTextsNo9/10,The60’sWithoutApology(1984),p16932LanYang,‘MemoryandRevisionism:TheChineseCulturalRevolutionontheInternet’,IngoCornils,andSarahWaters(eds.),Memoriesof1968InternationalPerspectives,(PeterLang,2010)p26633LaCauseduPeuple,quotedinPhilippeButon,‘InventingaMemoryontheExtremeLeft:TheExampleoftheMaoistsafter1968’,p7034RegBirch,GuerrillaStruggleandtheWorkingClass,Podmore,William,RegBirch:engineer,tradeunionists,communist,(BellmanBooks,2004)p227
allactivitiespromotedbythepartyaspartofawiderstruggletoadvancetherevolutionarycause35.
Indeed,Birchmadetheextraordinaryclaimthatthegreatestfactormotivatinghiseventualsplit
fromtheCPGBwas‘’theideaofamunicipalbandofCommunists,notafactorybasedParty’’when
referringtotheshiftthattookplaceduringtheearly1950sfromorganisingbranchesbasedon
occupationtoorganisingaroundgeographicallocation36.Thisclaimhighlightstherealitythat
ultimatedesireoftheAnti-RevisionistswasnotanewformofrevolutionarypartybasedonMao’s
‘pioneeringideas’,butareturntoanidealisedvisionofthemovement’spre-1950sradicalpast.
FromacceptingthesameChinesecritiqueofrevisionism,theCPB-MLandGaucheProlétarienne
producedextremelydivergentconceptsofhowtoovercomeitandadvancethecauseofsocial
revolution.TheanarchisticoutlookofGaucheProlétarienneonwildcatactions,thatwere
independentofthereformiststructuresoftheworkers’movement,contrastedsharplywiththe
CPB-ML’sconcentrationontransformingtheexistinglabourmovement.
PerhapsthesinglemostdistinctiveelementofMaoisminWesternpoliticswasitsjustificationof
violenceandillegalism.Bythemid-1960sthelefthadalmostuniversallyturneditsbackonpolitical
violencewiththeleaderofthecomparativelyradicalFrenchCommunistParty,WaldeckRochet,
expressinghisunreservedsupportfor‘’thepeacefulpassagetosocialism’’throughlawful
parliamentarymeansin196537.Inthisatmosphere,theChineseglorificationofviolence,epitomised
byMaoZedong’sslogan‘’politicalpowergrowsoutofthebarrelofagun’’,becameriotously
popularamongsttheWesternleft’smostextremeelements38.
35EricHobsbawm,Revolutionaries:ContemporaryEssays,(WeidenfeldandNicolson,1973)p18736RegBirch,quotedinWilliamPodmore,RegBirch:engineer,tradeunionists,communist,p4437WaldechRochet,quotedinRonaldTiersky,FrenchCommunism,1920-1972,(ColumbiaUniversityPress,1974)p27138QuotationsFromChairmanMaoTse-Tung,p61
AlthoughafascinationwithillegalactivitygrippedtheMaoistmovementasawhole,itwasmuch
morecentraltothepoliticsofGaucheProlétariennethantotheCPB-ML.AsRegBirchmadeclear
withhisproclamation‘’therevolutionhastobeviolent’’,theBritishpartydidnotshirkawayfrom
supportingrevolutionaryviolencedirectedagainststatepowerbutopenlyexpresseditssupportfor
it39.However,Birch’sadvocacyofsuchactivityalwaysremainedexclusivelytheoretical.Hebelieved
thattheclassstrugglewouldonlycometoopenconflictafteranextendedperiodofincreasingly
radical‘massstruggle’thatwouldevolveoutoflegalindustrialaction(aphasetheCPB-MLnever
movedpast)andtheradicalisationoftheworkingclass40.Inthis,theCPB-MLwasagainreturningto
earlierCommunistpractiseratherthanadoptingafreshposition.Itssupportforrevolution
sometimeinthefuturewassimilartothepartylinepriortotheCPGB’spledgeto‘’theadvanceto
socialismwithoutarmedstruggle’’throughtheadoptionoftheBritishRoadtoSocialismmanifesto
in195141.
GaucheProlétariennetookthetheoreticalembraceofrevolutionaryviolencemuchfurtherby
wranglingwiththepracticalimplicationsofbecominginvolvedinillegalactivity.Astheirclosest
intellectualally,Jean-PaulSartre,noted‘’theonlyoneswhoweretrulyontheplainofcomplete
illegality…weretheMaoists’’42.Thepartyplacedafundamentaldichotomyinfrontofallforces
challengingtheexistingorder‘’resistanceorcapitulation’’,tochoosethepathofresistancemeant
placingoneself‘’outsidetheboss’slaw’’asonlyforcewasregardedaseffective43.Indeed,Sartre
identifiedtheleft’srejectionofviolencetheprimaryreasonforitsinabilitytochallenge
39TheBritishRevolution(TheWorker,1975)40RegBirch,GuerrillaStruggleandtheWorkingClass,Podmore,William,RegBirch:engineer,tradeunionists,communist,p22941TheBritishRoadtoSocialism,(CommunistParty,1978)p3742PhilippeGavi,Jean-PaulSartre,andPierreVictor,IllegalismandUltra-Leftism,trans.MitchAbidor,(Gallimard,1974)43BlowforBlow
contemporaryGaullistpredominance44.LaCauseduPeuplewasfilledwithadulationfor
revolutionaryviolenceinbothhistoricalandcontemporarysettings,seenasinherentlyjust45.Yet,
unlikeotherurbanguerrillamovementsactiveinmanyadvancedcountriesatthetime,Gauche
Prolétarienneneveradoptedthesamelevelofextremeviolencenoractsofterrorismassociated
withorganisationslikeItaly’sRedBrigades46.AsBennyLévy47explained,thepartytookamore
nuancedviewontheuseofillegalactionthanthe‘Redterrorist’groups‘’in[arevolutionary]action
[thereis]alegalelementandanelementthatbreakswithlegality.Itisthisunstablecombination
thatgivestheactionitsforce’’48.Withthisinmind,GaucheProlétarienneinsteadattemptedto
inciteconflictthatblurredthelinesbetweenpopularlyacceptedandbourgeoisjustice.Theymade
attemptstoprovokeviolencebetweenstrikingworkersandpolice,alsoencouragingcommutersto
jumpbarriersandrefusetopayforParismetroticketsfollowingapricerise–theseactions,amongst
others,weredesignedtoencouragethemassestochallengeexistinglaws,andthosewhomade
them,throughamoreincrementalapproach49.MaoismprovidedGaucheProlétariennewithcritical
ideologicalsupportforviolenceandthevoluntaristassertionthatthroughsheerforceofwillthe
party’sactionscouldspeeduptheclassstruggletowardsrevolution50.Yetitwastheparty’sown
theoreticalinnovations–evolvedlargelyindependentofMaoistthought–thatpreventeditfrom
becominganotherterroristicurbanguerrillamovement.
DespitetheoreticallyembracingGramsciannotionsofa‘’broaddemocraticalliance’’thatinvolved
theworkingclassandCommunistscooperatingwithvarious‘progressiveforces’,inpractiseWestern
EuropeanCommunistpartiesremainedoverwhelminglyfocusedontheircoreindustrialworking
44Jean-PaulSartre,TheMaoistsinFrance,(PantheonBooks,1977)45PhilippeButon,‘InventingaMemoryontheExtremeLeft:TheExampleoftheMaoistsafter1968’,p6346YonahAlexander,andPluchinsky,DennisA,Europe’sRedTerrorists:TheFightingCommunistOrganizations,(FrankCass,1992)p19447BennyLévywasworkingunderthepseudonymPierreVictor48PhilippeGavi,Jean-PaulSartre,andPierreVictor,Pierre,IllegalismandUltra-Leftism,49BeldenFields,‘FrenchMaoism’,p15650IanHBirchall,TheRevolutionaryLeftinEurope,(InternationalSocialism,1976)
classbase51.ThisrigiditymadeMaoZedong’sfluidconceptionofclasssocietybeingsimplydivided
betweenthebroadmassesof‘thepeople’andtheirenemies,aninspirationforGauche
ProlétarienneevenasitwaslargelyoverlookedbytheCPB-ML52.
TheCommunistPartyofBritain(Marxist-Leninist)endorsedthestrikingclaim‘’Britainhasonlytwo
classes’’unifyingvirtuallytheentirepopulationofthecountryintoasingleproletariatdialectically
opposedtothebourgeoisie53.Byexplicitlydenyingadiversityofinterestsamongstthevastmajority
ofthecountrytheCPB-MLfosteredaManicheanconceptionofsocietythatallowedthemtoreturn
toacombative‘class-versus-class’viewpoint,longabandonedbytheCommunistmainstream.With
thisanalysisthepartycouldorganiseamongstsocialgroupslikestudentsandwhitecollarworkers,
whoseproletariannaturehadbeenquestionedbysocialistideologues54.Thesetheoretical
innovationsallowedthepartytomaintainamilitantbutorthodoxclassanalysiswithoutcuttingitself
offfromnewlyemergingstrugglesoutsideofthetraditionalworkingclass.Yet,byregardingthevast
majorityofthepopulationasappendagestotheproletariat,theCPB-MLleantthemselvestowards
conventionaltheoriesandpractisesemployedwhendealingwiththeindustrialworkingclass55.The
organisationcontinuedtorallyagainstthe‘’attitudeofsubjugation’’permeatingthroughoutthe
workingclassandinturnproposedpredictablemethodsofcombattingitthroughparticipationin
industrialdisputes,protestsandideologicalpolemic56.Inreality,thepartyremainedjustasnarrowly
workeristinoutlookastheofficialCommunists,withlittlemorethanarhetoricaledgetotheirclass
analysis.
51TheBritishRoadtoSocialism,p1752StuartSchrim,ThePoliticalThoughtofMaoTse-Tung,(PallMallPress,1963)p17053StudentsIntoClassStruggle,(1971)54WhiteCollar–amythdestroyed,aclassmadestronger,(1973)55LawrenceParker,TheKickInside:RevolutionaryOppositionintheCPGB,1945-1991,p6956TheDefinitiveStatementontheInternalPolemic,1972-1974,(1974)
TheverydifferentsocialcompositionofGaucheProlétariennedrasticallyaffecteditsviewofFrench
society.WhilsttheCPB-ML’smembershipwasheavilyproletarian,scarcelyanymilitantsandnoneof
theleadersofGaucheProlétariennecamefromworkingclassbackgrounds.Despiteeffortstoplant
militantsinfactoriesinordertoorganiseworkers,themembersofthegroupremainedtotally
disconnectedfromtheworkingclass–facilitatingtheirextremeromanticisationoftheFrench
proletariat’srevolutionarypower57.Foragroupdisgustedbytheexistinglabourmovementbut
confidentinafuturerevolution,Mao’sideasofthecreative,spontaneous,revolutionaryforceofthe
peoplewereacompellinginspiration58.Asthelyricstoasongreleasedbythepartyinsinuate‘’vote,
manipulate,Grenelle59again;youwon’tfoolus’’GaucheProlétariennebelievedthattheworkers
wereheldbackonlybytheirMachiavellianpoliticalandtradeunionleaders60.Theybelievedthat
withoutthesereformistrestraintstheywouldundoubtedlybecomeunstoppablypowerful.Without
reservationtheybelieved‘’theworkingclasswantsrevolution’’61.Takingforgrantedthatthe
workershadalreadybeen‘converted’totheideaofrevolution,GaucheProlétarienne’sanalysisof
Frenchsocietyanditsapplicationofthatanalysiswereshapedtowardsverydifferentendsthanthe
Anti-Revisionists’.
IncontrasttotheCPB-ML,GaucheProlétariennewholeheartedlyembracedMaoistideasofbroad
massesfrommanydifferentsocialgroupsfightingagainsttheircommonrulingclassenemyasthe
proclamation‘’theworkersarenotalone’’makesclear62.TheGauchistesplacedespecialemphasis
onbringingnewgroupsintothestruggle.GaucheProlétariennemadesincere,iflargely
unsuccessful,effortstomobiliseFrance’ssocialgroups,mostlyignoredbytheleftduetotheir
57JulianBourg,FromRevolutiontoEthics:May1968andContemporaryFrenchThought,p5858WolfgangLeonhard,ThreeFacesofMarxism:ThePoliticalConceptsofSovietIdeology,MaoismandHumanistMarxism,trans.EwaldOsers,(Holt,RinehartandWinston,1970)p22259AtradeunionnegotiatedagreementthatfollowedtheMay’68eventsgrantingworkersa10%payincrease60Textof‘’NewPartisans’’,trans.MitchellAbidor61ANewFormofOrganization...,trans.MitchellAbidor,(LaCauseduPeuple,1969)62Ibid.
deeplyconservativeinclinationsincludingshopkeepers,smallpropertyownersandfarmers63.Also
takinginspirationfromtheCulturalRevolutioninmobilisingschoolanduniversitystudents,they
attemptedtoreconcilethestrugglesofdisparatesocialgroupsandbringthemtogetherbehinda
quasi-mythologicalrevolutionaryworkingclass,BennyLévyclaiming‘’ifthestudentsdon’tgotothe
factorygatestheyhavenofuture’’64.
YetGaucheProlétarienne’srevolutionismappearedasanti-hierarchicalasitwasproletarian.Their
antagonism‘’totheentireorganisationoftoday’ssociety’’includedforthrightoppositiontoall
bodiesdeemednon-revolutionaryandfundamentallyhierarchical,regardlessoftheirclassorigins,
andsupportforallstrugglesdeemedtobehostiletothosehierarchies65.InadoptingaMaoist
inspireddualisticvisionoftheworldthepartyfounditselfsupportinggroupswithouttheslightest
egalitarianinclinations,followingonfromMao’snotion‘’weshouldsupportwhatevertheenemy
opposesandopposewhatevertheenemysupports’’66.Yettheyappearedlessconcernedwiththe
replacementoftheruleofoneclasswithanother,butratherwitharevolutionthatwouldproduce
thesortofnon-hierarchicalsocietyenvisionedintheiridealisationofCulturalRevolution-eraChina.
ThelatershiftofthemajorityofGaucheProlétarienneactivistsawayfromMarxism,andsomeaway
fromleft-wingpoliticsentirely,addscredencetosuspicionsthattheirideologywasalwaysone
aimedagainsthierarchyratherthanworkingclasspower67.
Bothpartiesheldasharedhostilitytowardsintellectualactivityseparatedfromthestruggle,a
themethatisalsopresentintheideasofMaoZedong.RegBirch’sdeclarationthat‘’theorisingis
63BeldenFields,‘FrenchMaoism’,p16564BennyLévy,InvestigationintotheMaoistsinFrance,(CommunistArchives,1971)65BlowforBlow66QuotationsFromChairmanMaoTse-Tung,p1567TonyJudt,MarxismandtheFrenchLeft:StudiesonLabourandPoliticsinFrance1830-1981,(ClarendonPress,1986)p170
idle’’succinctlyexpressedthistendency68.TheCPB-MLclaimedthattherewasnoneedforany
connectionbetweendistantintellectualsandthemovement‘’infacttheintellect;andleadership
mustcomefromtheworkingclass,foritisthisclassthatmakestherevolution’’69.Although
broachingthequestionfromadifferentperspective,GaucheProlétarienne’sconclusionsdrew
similaritiestotheirBritishcounterpart’s.Inexplainingtheparty’sapproachtotheory,BennyLévy
claimed‘’wesaidyouhavetostartfromreality’’70.LiketheCPB-ML,GaucheProlétariennerejected
thebeliefthattheoryandthestrugglecouldbeseparate.However,thefundamentaldividebetween
thetwoparty’sviewsofclasssocietyensuredthattheCPB-MLplacedvalueontheclassoriginsof
particularideaswhilstGaucheProlétariennefocussedonlyonwhethertheseideascamefrom
politicalstruggle.Inpractise,thebeliefsofbothpartiesactedasshieldsagainstanyeffortsto
corrupttheirrespectivedogmatisms.TheCPB-MLwasabletorejectallopposingideasaseither
bourgeoisorrevisionistandthereforealientotheworkingclass,whilstGaucheProlétariennesaw
itselfasmonopolisingtheconnectionbetweentheoryandstruggle.Bothparties’rejectionof
intellectualismwasthereforeameansofgrantingtheirideasmoralsuperiorityovertheirmyriad
left-wingcompetitors.
IntheWest,Maoistsproducedmovementswithtwoverydifferentsouls.Despitenoticeable
similaritiesinsomeofthetheoriesespousedbyGaucheProlétarienneandtheCommunistPartyof
Britain(Marxist-Leninist),thetwoorganisations’actionsandaimswereunrecognisableaspartofthe
samemovement.Thecompositionsofthetwoorganisations’membershipbestexplaintheir
divergentreactiontotheideasofMaoZedong.TherewasaclearclassdividewiththeCPB-ML’s
membershipbeingprimarilyworkingclass,withmanyinvolvedinthetradeunions,whilstGauche
Prolétarienne’sweremostlyfrommoreprivilegedbackgrounds.Atthesametimethegenerational
68TheBritishRevolution69EconomismorRevolution?ACritiqueoftheCommunistPartyofBritain(M-L),(CommunistUnityAssociation(Marxist-Leninist),1973)70BennyLévy,InvestigationintotheMaoistsinFrance,
dividebetweentheyouthfulcadreofGaucheProlétarienne,whohadcomefromthelate1960s
generationofrebelliousyouthandrejectedoutrighttheideas,aspirationsandorganisationsoftheir
parents,andtheCPB-ML’soldermembershipwhowerefarmoreattachedtotheCommunist‘old
ways’oftheiryouth71.Theseclassandgenerationaldivisionsmadethetwopartiesfarmoreinclined
totherespectivesoulsofMaoismthattheyeventuallyadopted.TheFrenchgrouplookedtofind
newmethodsinallthingsandtheBritishgrouplookedtoreturntoglorifiedtradition.Gauche
Prolétarienneproducedanetherealmovementcloselyattachedtodramaticactionandsurvivedfor
onlyashorttime72,whilsttheCPB-MLprovedfarmorerobust,althoughstaticanduninspired,
maintaininginfluenceoveratinycorneroftheBritishlabourmovementfordecades73.Maoist
ideologyitselfshowedaremarkable,andperhapsunique,degreeofflexibilityasbothAnti-
RevisionistandSpontaneousMaoiststookinspirationfromitstenantsandemployedthemas
justificationfortheirownbeliefs.
71DanielAGordon,‘Memoriesof1968inFrance:Reflectiononthe40thAnniversary’,Cornils,InigoandWaters,Sarah(eds.),Memoriesof1968:InternationalPerspectives,(PeterLand,2010)p5172BeldenFields,‘FrenchMaoism’,p15873EconomismorRevolution?ACritiqueoftheCommunistPartyofBritain(M-L)
Bibliography
QuotationsFromChairmanMaoTse-Tung,(PekingForeignLanguagesPress,1966)
TheBritishRoadtoSocialism,(CommunistParty,1978)
Birchall,IanH,TheRevolutionaryLeftinEurope,(InternationalSocialism,1976)
https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/birchall/1976/02/revleft.htm
Gavi,Philippe,Sartre,Jean-PaulandVictor,Pierre,IllegalismandUltra-Leftism,trans.MitchAbidor,
(Gallimard,1974)
https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/1972/illegalisme.htm
Lévy,Benny,InvestigationintotheMaoistsinFrance,(CommunistArchives,1971)
http://www.marxists.org/archive/levy-benny/1971/investigation.htm
Lévy,Benny,InterviewWithSalomonMalka,(Radio-CommunautéJuive,1982)
http://www.marxists.org/archive/levy-benny/1982/interview.htm
Richards,Sam,TheRiseandFallofMaoism:AnEnglishExperience,(Anti-RevisionismOnline)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.firstwave/uk-maoism.pdf
Ruddock,Ken,RegBirch–aliferemembered,(NewWorker,2006)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/reg-book-review.htm
Sartre,Jean-Paul,TheMaoistsinFrance,(PantheonBooks,1977)
http://www.oocities.org/c_ansata/Maoists.html
Textof‘’NewPartisans’’,trans.MitchellAbidor
http://marxists.org/history/france/post-1968/gauche-proletarienne/new-partisans.htm
OntheQuestionoftheLineofDemarcationinUnionMatters,trans.MitchellAbidor
http://marxists.org/history/france/post-1968/gauche-proletarienne/ib-11-1969.htm
TheLeadersOfTheCPSUAreTheGreatestSplittersOfOurTimes,(ForeignLanguagesPress,1964)
https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/polemic/splitters.htm
ConstitutionoftheCommunistPartyofBritain(Marxist-Leninist),(1968)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/constitution.pdf
CommunistPartyofBritain(Marxist-Leninist)DenouncesSovietRevisionistRenegadeClique’sArmed
AggressiononCzechoslovakia,(PekingReview,1968)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/xinhua.htm
LabourGovernment–Workers’Enemy!,(TheWorker,1969)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/cpb-69.htm
TheJ.C.R.inMay-June1968,trans.MitchellAbidor,(CahiersdelaGaucheProlétarienne,1969)
http://marxists.org/history/france/post-1968/gauche-proletarienne/cahiers-04-1969.htm
ANewFormofOrganization...,trans.MitchellAbidor,(LaCauseduPeuple,1969)
http://marxists.org/history/france/post-1968/gauche-proletarienne/cause-03-1969.htm
IWillTestifyintheStreets,trans.MitchellAbidor,(LaCauseduPeuple,1970)
http://marxists.org/history/france/post-1968/gauche-proletarienne/cause-29-1970.htm
TheBritishWorkingClassandItsParty,(CommunistPartyofBritian(Marxist-Leninist),1971)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/cpb2nd.htm
StudentsIntoClassStruggle,(1971)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/cpb-students.htm
EconomismorRevolution?ACritiqueoftheCommunistPartyofBritain(M-L),(CommunistUnity
Association(Marxist-Leninist),1973)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/cua-2/index.htm
WhiteCollar–amythdestroyed,aclassmadestronger,(1973)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/cpbwhitecollar.htm
TheDefinitiveStatementontheInternalPolemic,1972-1974,(1974)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/cpbdefinitive.htm
TheBritishRevolution(TheWorker,1975)
http://www.marxists.org/history/erol/uk.secondwave/worker-14.htm
BlowforBlow,trans.MitchellAbidor,(LaCauseduPeuple)
http://marxists.org/history/france/post-1968/gauche-proletarienne/couppourcoup.htm
Adereth,M,TheFrenchCommunistpartyacriticalhistory(1920-84)fromCominternto‘thecolours
ofFrance’,(ManchesterUniversityPress,1984)
Alexander,Yonah,andPluchinsky,DennisA,Europe’sRedTerrorists:TheFightingCommunist
Organizations,(FrankCass,1992)
Anderson,Perry,ArgumentsWithinEnglishMarxism,(Verso,1980)
Baker,Blake,TheFarLeft:AnExposéoftheExtremeLeftinBritain,(WeidenfeldandNicolson,1981)
Birchall,Ian,SartreAgainstStalinism,(BerghahnBooks,2004)
Black,CyrilE,andThornton,ThomasP(eds.),CommunismandRevolution:TheStrategicUseof
PoliticalViolence,(PrincetonUniversityPress,1964)
Bourg,Julian,FromRevolutiontoEthics:May1968andContemporaryFrenchThought,(McGill-
Queen’sUniversityPress,2007)
Cornils,InigoandWaters,Sarah(eds.),Memoriesof1968InternationalPerspectives,(PeterLang,
2010)
Dubinsky,Karen,Krull,Catherine,Lord,Susan,Mills,SeanandRutherford,Scott(eds.),NewWorld
Coming:TheSixtiesandtheShapingofGlobalConsciousness,(BetweentheLines,2009)
Esmein,Jean,TheChineseCulturalRevolution,trans.WJFJenner,(AndreDeutsch,1975)
Fejto,François,AMaoistinFrance:JacquesVergèsandRevolution,TheChineseQuarterlyNo.19
(1964),pp120-127
Fields,Belden,FrenchMaoism,SocialTextsNo.9/10,The60’sWithoutApology(1984),pp148-177
Hobsbawm,Eric,TheAgeofExtremes1914-1991,(Abacus,1994)
Hobsbawm,Eric,Revolutionaries:ContemporaryEssays,(WeidenfeldandNicolson,1973)
Hsiung,JamesChieh(ed.),TheLogicof‘’Maoism’’CritiquesandExplication,(PraegerPublishers,
1974)
Jackson,Julian,Milne,Anna-LouiseandWilliams,JamesS(eds.),May68:RethinkingFrance’sLast
Revolution,(PalgraveMacmillan,2011)
Jefferys,Kevin,PoliticsandThePeopleAHistoryofBritishDemocracySince1918,(AtlanticBooks,
2007)
Johnson,Richard,TheFrenchCommunistPartyversustheStudents:RevolutionaryPoliticsinMay-
June1968,(YaleUniversityPress,1972)
Judt,Tony,MarxismandtheFrenchLeft:StudiesonLabourandPoliticsinFrance1830-1981,
(ClarendonPress,1986)
Kauppi,Niilo,RadicalisminFrenchCulture,ASociologyofFrenchTheoryinthe1960s,(Ashgate,
2010)
Kelly,Michael,ModernFrenchMarxism,(BasilBlackwell,1982)
Khilnani,Sunil,ArguingRevolution:TheIntellectualLeftinPostwarFrance,(YaleUniversityPress,
1993)
Kolakowski,Leszek,MainCurrentsofMarxism:ItsOrigins,Growth,andDissolution,VolumeIIIThe
Breakdown,trans.PSFalla,(OxfordUniversityPress,1978)
Kurlansky,Mark,1969TheYearThatRockedtheWorld,(JonathonCape,2004)
Meisner,Maurice,Marxism,Maoism,andUtopianism,(UniversityofWisconqq sinPress,1982)
Mendel,ArthurP(ed.),EssentialWorksofMarxism,(Bantam,1971)
Narkiewicz,OlgaA,MarxismandtheRealityofPower1919-1980,(CroomHelm,1981)
Parker,Lawrence,TheKickInside:RevolutionaryOppositionintheCPGB,1945-1991,(November
Publications,2012)
Podmore,William,RegBirch:engineer,tradeunionists,communist,(BellmanBooks,2004)
Laybourn,KeithandMurphy,Dylan,UndertheRedFlag:AHistoryofCommunisminBritain,c.1849-
1991,(SuttonPublishing,1999)
Leonhard,Wolfgang,ThreeFacesofMarxism:ThePoliticalConceptsofSovietIdeology,Maoismand
HumanistMarxism,trans.EwaldOsers,(Holt,RinehartandWinston,1970)
Mandel,Ernest,FromStalinismtoEurocommunism,TheBitterFruitsof‘SocialisminOneCountry’,
trans.JonRothschild,(FrançoisMaspero,1978)
Melby,JohnF,MaoismasaWorldForce,AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocial
Science,Volume402,ChinaintheWorldToday(1972),pp26-39
Reader,KeithA,IntellectualsandtheLeftinFranceSince1968,(Macmillan,1987)
Samuel,Raphael,TheLostWorldofBritishCommunism,(Verso,2006)
Sartre,Jean-Paul,BetweenExistentialismandMarxism,trans.JohnMatthews,(Verso,2008)
Sassoon,Donald,OneHundredYearsofSocialism:TheWestEuropeanLeftintheTwentiethCentury,
(FontanaPress,1997)
Schrim,Stuart,ThePoliticalThoughtofMaoTse-Tung,(PallMallPress,1963)
Tiersky,Ronald,FrenchCommunism,1920-1972,(ColumbiaUniversityPress,1974)
Tyler,Wat,BehindtheRevolutionaryMask:ACritiqueofNeo-MaoismandHowItHelpsFascism,
(AppealGroup,1974)
Walder,AndrewG,Marxism,MaoismandSocialChange,ModernChina,Volume3No.1(1977),pp
101-118
Wolin,Richard,TheWindfromtheEast:FrenchIntellectuals,theCulturalRevolutionandtheLegacy
ofthe1960s,(PrincetonUniversityPress,2010)
Wolin,Richard,TheWindfromtheEast:FrenchIntellectuals,theCulturalRevolution,andtheLegacy
ofthe1960s,JournalofWorldHistory,Volume23No.3(2012),pp756-759