two marks: 1. what do you mean by bioethics? 2. what do ... · two marks: 1. what do you mean by...

Two marks

1 What do you mean by Bioethics

Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies

brought about by advances in biology and medicine Bioethicists are

concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life

sciences biotechnology medicine politics law philosophy and theology

2 What do you mean by Biological Warfare

Biological warfare (BW) also known as germ warfare is the use

of pathogens such as viruses bacteria other disease-causing biological agents

or the toxins produced by them as biological weapons Biological warfare has

been practiced repeatedly throughout history It may also be defined as the

material or defense against such employment

3 Define Human embryo

An embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest

stage of development from the time of first cell division until birth hatching

or germination In humans it is called an embryo until about eight weeks after

fertilization (ie ten weeks LMP) and from then it is instead called a fetus

4 What is Fertilisation

Fertilisation is the fusion of gametes to produce a new

organism In animals the process involves a sperm fusing with an ovum

which eventually leads to the development of an embryo Depending on the

animal species the process can occur within the body of the female in internal

fertilisation or outside in the case of external fertilisation

5 Give a note on Experimental Models

The Experimental model is a species that is extensively

studied to understand particular biological phenomena with the expectation

that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the

workings of other organisms In particular experimental models are widely

used to explore potential cases and treatments for human disease when

human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical This strategy is

made possible by the common descent of all living organisms and the

conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material

over the course of evolution

6 AIDS virus ndash comment

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune

system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) AIDS is now a

pandemic This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the

immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections

and tumors HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane

or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV such as blood semen

vaginal fluid preseminal fluid and breast milk

7 Comment on gene therapy

Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individuals

cells and tissues to treat a disease such as a hereditary disease in which a

deleterious mutant allele is replaced with a functional one Most gene therapy

studies are aimed at cancer and hereditary genetic diseases Gene therapy may

be classified into the following types Germ line gene therapy Somatic

gene therapy

8 What are genetic disorders

A genetic disorder is an illness caused by abnormalities in

genes or chromosomes While some diseases such as cancer are due in part

to a genetic disorders they can also be caused by environmental factors Most

disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or

millions Some types of recessive gene disorders confer an advantage in the

heterozygous state in certain environments

9 Recombinant DNA techniques

The Recombinant DNA technique was engineered by

Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1973 It is a technique to isolate

and amplify genes or DNA segments and insert them into another cell with

precision creating a transgenic bacterium Recombinant DNA technology was

made possible by the discovery of restriction endonucleases by Werner Arber

Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith for which they received the 1978 Nobel

Prize in Medicine

10What is the Biological weapon convention

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) was the first multilateral

disarmament treaty banning the production of an entire category of weapons

Permitted purposes under the BWC are defined as prophylactic protective

and other peaceful purposes The BWC was opened for signature on April 10

1972 and entered into force March 26 1975

11 Hippocratic Oath

The Hippocratic Oath is a pledge supposedly taken by

doctors swearing to ethically practice medicine It is widely believed to have

been written by Hippocrates the father of western medicine in the 4th

century BC Although mostly of historical and traditional value the oath is

considered a rite of passage for practitioners of medicine although nowadays

the modernized version of the text varies among the countries

The original text of the Hippocratic Oath is usually

interpreted as one of the first statements of a moral of conduct to be used by

physicians assuming the respect for all human life even unborn Most

Christian tradition interprets the original Hippocratic Oath as a condemnation

of abortion and infanticide

12 Infliction of pain

Looking around for what could be used to inflict large amounts of

endless bleeding and pain Plastic could be used again to slit their wrists a

knife to cut their throat or an overdose of sleeping pills and never wake up

They feel theyre not doing good if there is no pain applied Broken skin and

flesh cut straight to the bone and left there to bleed But mostly there are

scars to hide for the world not to see the pain deep inside

13 Diseases suitable for gene therapy

The diseases suitable for gene therapy are Severe Combined Immune

Deficiency (ADA-SCID) Chronic Granulomatus Disorder (CGD) Hemophilia

congenital blindness muscular dystrophy Cancer Neurodegenerative

Diseases influenza HIV hepatitis heart disease and diabetes

14 Define genes

A gene is the basic unit of heredity in a living organism All living

things depend on genes Genes hold the information to build and maintain

their cells and pass genetic traits to offspring A modern working definition of

a gene is a locatable region of genomic sequence corresponding to a unit of

inheritance which is associated with regulatory regions transcribed

regions and or other functional sequence regions In cells a gene is a

portion of DNA that contains both coding sequences that determine what

the gene does and non-coding sequences that determine when the gene is

active (expressed)

15 Human Growth Hormone

Growth hormone (GH) is a Protein Poly-peptide hormone It

stimulates growth and cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and

other animals Somatotrophin refers to the growth hormone produced

natively and naturally in animals whereas the term somatropin refers to

growth hormone produced by recombinant DNA technology[1] and is

abbreviated rhGH in humans Growth hormone is used clinically to treat

childrens growth disorders and adult growth hormone deficiency In recent

years replacement therapies with human growth hormones (HGH) have

become popular

16 Give a note on transferred genes

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) also Lateral gene

transfer (LGT) is any process in which an organism incorporates genetic

material from another organism without being the offspring of that organism

By contrast vertical transfer occurs when an organism receives genetic

material from its ancestor eg its parent or a species from which it evolved

Most thinking in genetics has focused upon vertical transfer but there is a

growing awareness that horizontal gene transfer is a highly significant

phenomenon and amongst single-celled organisms perhaps the dominant

form of genetic transfer Artificial horizontal gene transfer is a form of genetic

engineering

17 What is meant by animal rights

Animal rights also referred to as animal liberation is the

idea that the most basic interests of animals should be afforded the same

consideration as the similar interests of human beings[2] Advocates approach

the issue from different philosophical positions but agree that animals should

be viewed as legal persons and members of the moral community not

property and that they should not be used as food clothing research subjects

or entertainment The year 1641 was significant for the idea of animal rights

18 Define character of somatic cell

Somatic cells are any cells forming the body of an organism as opposed to

germline cells In mammals germline cells (also known as gametes) are the

spermatozoa and ova which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a

zygote from which the entire mammalian embryo develops Every other cell

type in the mammalian bodymdashapart from the sperm and ova the cells from

which they are made (gametocytes) and undifferentiated stem cellsmdashis a

somatic cell internal organs skin bones blood and connective tissue are all

made up of somatic cells The word somatic is derived from the Greek word

sōma meaning body

Five marks

1Point out the views of nature

Nature in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world

physical world or material world Nature refers to the phenomena of

the physical world and also to life in general It ranges in scale from the

subatomic to the cosmic

The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura or essential

qualities innate disposition and literally means birth[1] Natura was a

Latin translation of the Greek word physis which originally related to the

intrinsic characteristics that plants animals and other features of the world

develop of their own accord The concept of nature as a whole the physical

universe is one of several expansions of the original notion it began with

certain core applications of the word by pre-Socratic philosophers and has

steadily gained currency ever since This usage was confirmed during the

advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries

Within the various uses of the word today nature may refer to

the general realm of various types of living plants and animals and in some

cases to the processes associated with inanimate objectsndashthe way that

particular types of things exist and change of their own accord such as the

weather and geology of the Earth and the matter and energy of which all these

things are composed It is often taken to mean the natural environment or

wildernessndashwild animals rocks forest beaches and in general those things

that have not been substantially altered by human intervention or which

persist despite human intervention For example manufactured objects and

human interaction generally are not considered part of nature unless

qualified as for example human nature or the whole of nature This more

traditional concept of natural things which can still be found today implies a

distinction between the natural and the artificial with the artificial being

understood as that which has been brought into being by a human

consciousness or a human mind Depending on the particular context the

term natural might also be distinguished from the terms unnatural the

supernatural and the artifactual

Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that

have left traces of the original conditions The outer surface is divided into

several gradually migrating tectonic plates which have changed relatively

quickly several times The interior remains active with a thick layer of molten

mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field

The atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the

original conditions by the presence of life-forms which create an ecological

balance that stabilizes the surface conditions Despite the wide regional

variations in climate by latitude and other geographic factors the long-term

average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods[8] and

variations of a degree or two of average global temperature have historically

had major effects on the ecological balance and on the actual geography of the

Earth

In modern times man occasionally perceives in nature an

apparently contradictory behaviour The advent of quantum theory brought in

a culture shock to theoreticians accustomed to the Newtonian expectations of

definitiveness in the behaviour of nature Special relativity gave a jolt to the

ingrained perception of time as an absolute uniformly flowing entity But the

overall self-consistency of the scheme began to make itself manifest gradually

Today we understand the micro-behaviour of nature better than at the

beginning of this century but several foundational issues remain

The relationship of man and the universe has many facets too It is

pure consciousness without any activity in it for all activity has been included

in objective nature It is consciousness which does not act but only knows as

it continues through a personrsquos experience illuminating the perceptions

thoughts and feelings that appear and disappear in the mind This

illumination is not any kind of act that consciousness starts doing at some

time and stops doing later Instead it is the essential being of consciousness

which shines and illuminates appearances simply by being what it is In the

same way by merely being what it is as it continues unchanged at the

background of experience it provides the underlying impersonal basis upon

which people communicate and put together perceptions thoughts and

feelings in coherent knowledge

For Aristotlersquos concept of nature as self-moving see RG

Collingwoodrsquos The Idea of Nature first published by Clarendon Press Oxford

1945 republished by Oxford University Press paperback (1960) Collingwood

points out the opposition implied by the classical Greek concepts of nature

(phusis) and artifice (techne) As opposed to the artificial objects of technical

manipulation the things of nature lsquohave a source of movement in themselvesrsquo

lsquoWhen a Greek writer contrasts phusis with techne (ie what things are when

left to themselves with what human skill can make of them) he implies that

things have a principle of growth organization and movement in their own

right and that this is what he means by their nature and when he calls things

natural he means that they have such a principle in themrsquo

2Narrate Hippocratic Oath

The Hippocratic Oath is a pledge supposedly taken by doctors swearing to

ethically practice medicine It is widely believed to have been written by

Hippocrates the father of western medicine in the 4th century BC or by one

of his students[1] and is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus Classical

scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written by Pythagoreans

a theory that has been questioned due to the lack of evidence for a school of

Pythagorean medicine[2] The phrase first do no harm is often incorrectly

attributed to the oath Although mostly of historical and traditional value the

oath is considered a rite of passage for practitioners of medicine although

nowadays the modernized version of the text varies among the countries

Original

I swear by Apollo the healer Asclepius Hygieia and Panacea and I take to

witness all the gods all the goddesses to keep according to my ability and my

judgment the following Oath and agreement

To consider dear to me as my parents him who taught me this art to live in

common with him and if necessary to share my goods with him To look

upon his children as my own brothers to teach them this art

I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability

and my judgment and never do harm to anyone

I will not give a lethal drug to anyone if I am asked nor will I advise such a

plan and similarly I will not give a woman a pessary to cause an abortion

But I will preserve the purity of my life and my arts

I will not cut for stone even for patients in whom the disease is manifest I

will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners specialists in this

art

In every house where I come I will enter only for the good of my patients

keeping myself far from all intentional ill-doing and all seduction and

especially from the pleasures of love with women or with men be they free or

slaves

All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or in daily

commerce with men which ought not to be spread abroad I will keep secret

and will never reveal

If I keep this oath faithfully may I enjoy my life and practice my art respected

by all men and in all times but if I swerve from it or violate it may the reverse

be my lot

Modern

Modern translation of the English[4]

I swear by Apollo Physician and Asclepius and Hygieia and Panaceia and all

the gods and goddesses making them my witnesses that I will fulfil

according to my ability and judgment this oath and this covenant

To hold him who has taught me this art as equal to my parents and to live my

life in partnership with him and if he is in need of money to give him a share

of mine and to regard his offspring as equal to my brothers in male lineage

and to teach them this artndashif they desire to learn itndashwithout fee and covenant

to give a share of precepts and oral instruction and all the other learning to my

sons and to the sons of him who has instructed me and to pupils who have

signed the covenant and have taken the oath according to medical law but to

no one else

I will apply dietic measures for the benefit of the sick according to my ability

and judgment I will keep them from harm and injustice

I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it nor will I make a

suggestion to this effect Similarly I will not give to a woman an abortive

remedy In purity and holiness I will guard my life and my art

I will not use the knife not even on sufferers from stone but will withdraw in

favor of such men as are engaged in this work

Whatever houses I may visit I will come for the benefit of the sick remaining

free of all intentional injustice of all mischief and in particular of sexual

relations with both female and male persons be they free or slaves

What I may see or hear in the course of treatment or even outside of the

treatment in regard to the life of men which on no account one must spread

abroad I will keep myself holding such things shameful to be spoken about

If I fulfil this oath and do not violate it may it be granted to me to enjoy life

and art being honored with fame among all men for all time to come if I

transgress it and swear falsely may the opposite of all this be my lot

A widely used modern version of the traditional oath was penned by Dr Louis

Lasagna former Principal of the Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical

Sciences of Tufts University[5]

In the 1970s many American medical schools chose to abandon the

Hippocratic Oath as part of graduation ceremonies usually substituting a

version modified to something considered more politically and medically

correct or an alternate pledge like the Oath or Prayer of Maimonides

The Hippocratic Oath has been updated by the Declaration of Geneva In the

United Kingdom the General Medical Council provides clear modern

guidance in the form of its Duties of a Doctor[6] and Good Medical Practice[7]

statements

Modern relevance

The original text of the Hippocratic Oath is usually interpreted as one of the

first statements of a moral of conduct to be used by physicians assuming the

respect for all human life even unborn Most Christian tradition interprets the

original Hippocratic Oath as a condemnation of abortion and infanticide

According to Margaret Mead For the first time in our tradition there was a

complete separation between killing and curing Throughout the primitive

world the doctor and the sorcerer tended to be the same person He with the

power to kill had power to cure including specially the undoing of his own

killing activities He who had the power to cure would necessarily also be able

to kill With the Greeks the distinction was made clear One profession the

followers of Asclepius were to be dedicated completely to life under all

circumstances regardless of rank age or intellect ndash the life of a slave the life

of the Emperor the life of a foreign man the life of a defective child [1]

Derivations of the oath have been modified over the years in various countries

Most Medicine schools administer some form of oath It has been suggested

that a similar oath should be undertaken by scientists a Hippocratic Oath for

Scientists

Modern challenged parts of the oath

1 To teach medicine to the sons of my teacher In the past medical

schools gave preferential consideration to the children of

physicians[citation needed]

2 To practice and prescribe to the best of my ability for the good of my

patients and to try to avoid harming them This beneficial intention is

the purpose of the physician However this item is still invoked in the

modern discussions of euthanasia

3 I will not give a lethal drug to anyone if I am asked nor will I advise

such a plan Physician organizations in most countries have strongly

denounced physician participation in legal executions However in a

small number of cases most notably the US states of Oregon[9]

Washington[10] Montana[11] and in the Kingdom of the Netherlands[12]

a doctor can prescribe euthanasia with the patients consent In

addition abortion in many western countries is legal rendering the

forbiddance of abortive remedies irrelevant in some circles of medicine

4 Similarly I will not give a woman a pessary to cause an abortion

Since the legalization of abortion in many countries the inclusion of

the anti-abortion sentence of the Hippocratic oath has been a source of

contention

5 To avoid violating the morals of my community Many licensing

agencies will revoke a physicians license for offending the morals of the

community (moral turpitude)

6 I will not cut for stone even for patients in whom the disease is

manifest I will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners

specialists in this art The stones referred to are kidney stones or

bladder stones removal of which was judged too menial for physicians

and therefore was left for barbers (the forerunners of modern

surgeons) Surgery was not recognized as a specialty at that time This

sentence is now interpreted as acknowledging that it is impossible for

any single physician to maintain expertise in all areas It also highlights

the different historical origins of the surgeon and the physician

7 To keep the good of the patient as the highest priority There may be

other conflicting good purposes such as community welfare

conserving economic resources supporting the criminal justice system

or simply making money for the physician or his employer that provide

recurring challenges to physicians

3What are the important stages in human embryo development

Human prenatal development is divided into an embryonic period and a fetal

period The embryonic period begins with fertilization and ends eight weeks

later The staging of human embryos was introduced in 1914 by Franklin P

Mall at the Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington Malls successor George L Streeter later refined the

classification of human embryos into 23 stages or developmental horizons

It is important to note that each of the 23 Carnegie stages represents an

arbitrary point along the time-line of development akin to a freeze-frame in

a movie The stages are based on a variety of morphological features and are

independent of chronological age or size As implied by the original term

horizon the stages are not definitive steps that when combined lead to a

fully formed human foetus but rather they are a series of events that must be

completed during development As the description of each stage is based on

the features seen in an average embryo individual embryos may not fit

exactly into a particular stage There may also be considerable variation within

a stage and overlap between stages

The human embryo

Growth

A 10mm embryo from an ectopic pregnancy still in the oviduct This embryo

is about five weeks old (or from the 7th week of pregnancy)

Week 1-3 5-7 days after fertilization the blastula attaches to the wall of the

uterus (endometrium) When it comes into contact with the endometrium it

performs implantation Implantation connections between the mother and the

embryo will begin to form including the umbilical cord The embryos growth

centers around an axis which will become the spine and spinal cord The

brain spinal cord heart and gastrointestinal tract begin to form

Week 4-5 Chemicals produced by the embryo stop the womans menstrual

cycle Neurogenesis is underway showing brain activity at about the 6th

week[3] The heart will begin to beat around the same time Limb buds appear

where the arms and legs will grow later Organogenesis begins The head

represents about one half of the embryos axial length and more than half of

the embryos mass The brain develops into five areas Tissue formation occurs

that develops into the vertebra and some other bones The heart starts to beat

and blood starts to flow

Week 6-8 Myogenesis and neurogenesis have progressed to where the

embryo is capable of motion and the eyes begin to form Organogenesis and

growth continue Hair has started to form along with all essential organs

Facial features are beginning to develop At the end of the 8th week the

embryonic stage is over and the fetal stage begins

4Describe foetus and feeling pain

A fetus (also spelled foetus or fœtus) is a developing mammal or other

viviparous vertebrate after the embryonic stage and before birth The plural is

fetuses

In humans the fetal stage of prenatal development starts at the beginning of

the 11th week in gestational age which is the 9th week after fertilization

There is much variation in the growth of the fetus When fetal size is less than

expected that condition is known as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)

also called fetal growth restriction (FGR) factors affecting fetal growth can be

maternal placental or fetal

Fetal pain its existence and its implications are debated politically and

academically According to the conclusions of a review published in 2005

Evidence regarding the capacity for fetal pain is limited but indicates that

fetal perception of pain is unlikely before the third trimester[12][13] However

there may be an emerging consensus among developmental neurobiologists

that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 26 weeks) is

a critical event with regard to fetal perception of pain[26] Nevertheless

because pain can involve sensory emotional and cognitive factors it is

impossible to know when painful experiences may become possible even if

it is known when thalamocortical connections are established[26]

Whether a fetus has the ability to feel pain and to suffer is part of the abortion

debate[27] [28] For example in the USA legislation has been proposed by pro-

life advocates requiring abortion providers to tell a woman that the fetus may

feel pain during the abortion procedure and that require her to accept or

decline anesthesia for the fetus

5What are the ethical limits of animal use

Animals are used in many ways by people Do animals have a right to live

without pain caused by people Do they have a right to live free If animals

have rights then human beings have corresponding duties towards them

While we would all agree that we have some duties to animals there is

disagreement about just how many and what kind of duties we have We come

across these issues every day when we eat meat play with our pets or use

products made from or tested by animals

All people are members of Homo sapiens one of the millions of species alive

on the planet Earth Fundamentally we should ask whether humans are a

special form of life Are humans different from other living creatures By

comparing humans with other species we may be able to understand both the

differences and similarities of living organisms

In most peoples minds there are some differences between animals and

plants One significant difference between some animals and plants is the

capacity to feel pain Animals which feel pain are called sentient animals In

practice one important criteria we use in judging the use of animals is how

much pain is caused

Many extrinsic factors are important in deciding whether it is ethical to use

animals or not Destruction of nature and life by humans is caused by two

human motives - necessity and desire It is more ethically acceptable to

cause harm if there is necessity for survival than if it is only desire for more

pleasure

If we are going to harm life a departure from the ideal of doing no harm

or love of life it should be for a good reason Such a reason might be survival

and we can see this as natural - all organisms consume and compete with

others Plants compete with each other for space to grow animals eat plants

or other animals bacteria and fungi also compete for resources and space -

sometimes killing other organisms and other times competing without direct

killing This distinction is required ever more as human desire continues to

destroy the environment of the planet including many endangered animal

species

Other extrinsic factors that are important include human sensitivity to

suffering or the effects of upsetting other animals Being cruel to animals may

also lead to brutality in people There is debate over what is the natural way to

treat animals but certain religions give special status to some animals for

example Hindu religion gives cows a high status so that few Hindu persons

will kill cows for food

The issue of animal experiments has caused more debate than eating

animals It is a little ironic because in most countries eating animals is a

choice based on desire more than necessity However some animal

experiments are done with the hope of directly saving human life in medical

research On the other hand cosmetic testing can be said to be not necessary

In the past decade there have been less animal experiments conducted and

we can expect more ethical alternatives to continue to be developed using

alternative methods for testing product safety is also often cheaper and more

efficient

Some of the factors that are used in the guidelines to assess whether animals

should be used in experiments or not include

- Aim of the experiment - Realistic potential to achieve goals

- Species of animal - Possible pain

- Duration of discomfort or distress - Duration of experiment (in terms of

lifespan)

- Number of animals - Quality of animal care

- Available alternatives to the experiment

At the practical level the feeling of pain is the first major guiding principle for

animal treatment There is a debate about self awareness which would be

necessary for animals to express autonomy Also about which animals are

capable of thinking These concerns are one reason why researchers try to

chose the animals lower on the evolutionary scale for experiments and

product testing

Some people choose not to eat animals A vegetarian is a person who does not

eat animals It can have some health advantages to eat less meat to lower the

level of saturated fat especially in middle-aged persons living in countries

where people eat too much Some chose not to eat animals for moral or

religious reasons Eating more plants also may have some environmental

advantages as food and energy is wasted in the transfer from plants to

animals However most people say it is natural for us to eat animals

Beyond the motive another important criteria we use in judging the use of

animals is avoiding the infliction of pain Pain is more than sensation of the

environment While plants do send ionic potential signals in response to

harm that are similar to action potentials in animal nerves the difference is in

the processing of those signals to become the perception of pain Some

distinguish pain from suffering but they are both departures from the ideal

of avoiding harm Suffering can be defined as prolonged pain of a certain

intensity and it is claimed that no individual can suffer who is incapable of

experiencing pain The capacity for suffering andor enjoyment has been

described as a prerequisite for having any moral interests

Judging pain is subjective and there are parallels in the way animals and

humans respond Many of the neurotransmitters are similar between higher

animals and humans It is possible that animals do have a different quality of

pain as the frontal region of the cerebral cortex of humans is thought to be

involved in feelings of anxiety apprehension and suffering components of

pain This region is much smaller in animals and if it is surgically treated in

humans it can make them indifferent to pain There are differences seen in the

types of pain receptors some respond to mechanical stimuli some to noxious

or irritant chemicals and some to severe cold or heat The difference between

pain of animals and responses of plants (which include electrical response like

animals) is that a signal is only a signal whereas pain is something after the

reception and processing of the signal in the nervous system

There are numerous books and materials on animal experiments and animal

rights and these are written in many languages Often they are written from

the extreme support or extreme protest against animal use Please receive

suggestions from your country coordinator Often newspapers and magazines

have discussed these issues and the cases in those articles can be useful to

stimulate students In these teaching materials there are numerous examples

from different topics that can be used to show bioethics in real situations

6When should we use gene therapy

Three young adults who received gene therapy for a blinding eye condition

remained healthy and maintained previous visual gains one year later

according to an August online report in Human Gene Therapy One patient

also noticed a visual improvement that helped her perform daily tasks which

scientists describe in an Aug 13 letter to the editor in the New England

Journal of Medicine

These findings have emerged from a phase I clinical trial supported by the

National Eye Institute (NEI) at the National Institutes of Health and

conducted by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia and

the University of Florida Gainesville This is the first study that reports the

one-year safety and effectiveness of successful gene therapy for a form of

Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) a currently untreatable hereditary

condition that causes severe vision loss and blindness in infants and children

These results are very significant because they represent one of the first steps

toward the clinical use of gene therapy for an inherited form of blindness

said NEI director Paul A Sieving MD PhD I anticipate that it is only a

matter of time before similar techniques will be applied to other genetic

diseases affecting vision

The three patients in the study mdash aged 22 24 and 25 mdash have been legally blind

since birth due to a specific form of LCA caused by mutations in the RPE65

gene The protein made by this gene is a crucial component of the visual cycle

The RPE65 protein is necessary for the production of a retina-specific form of

vitamin A that is required for the light-sensitive photoreceptor cells to

function Mutations in the RPE65 gene prevent this production which halts

the visual cycle and blocks vision

The RPE65 disease offers an opportunity for treatment in that it leaves some

photoreceptors intact In this study researchers pinpointed an area of intact

photoreceptors in the retina of each patient They injected healthy copies of

the RPE65 gene under the retina in this area in an attempt to repair the visual

cycle

One year after the procedure the therapy had not provoked an immune

response in the eye or in the body Though the patients visual acuity or ability

to read letters on an eye chart remained unchanged all three patients could

detect very dim lights that they were unable to see prior to treatment This

visual benefit provides evidence that the newly introduced RPE65 gene is

functional and is increasing the light sensitivity of the retina

These new reports extend our previous findings from three months after the

procedure At one year we have now found that the RPE65 gene therapy

appears to be safe and leads to a stable visual improvement in the patients

studied We are cautiously optimistic about these results and look forward to

additional reports that address the key issues of safety and effectiveness said

Artur V Cideciyan PhD research associate professor of ophthalmology at

the University of Pennsylvania and lead author of the publications

At 12 months one patient also noticed that while riding in a car she could

read an illuminated clock on the dashboard for the first time in her life When

researchers performed additional visual testing they found that this patient

focused on images with a different part of the retina than they expected

The fovea is the area of the retina where the sharpest central vision normally

occurs However instead of focusing on images with the fovea this patient

had gradually begun to use the area of the retina that had been treated with

gene therapy The area had already become more light sensitive than her fovea

at one month after treatment but it took 12 months for her to read dim

numerals mdash such as the illuminated clock mdash that she was previously unable to

read

This interesting finding shows that over time a person visually adapted to

gene therapy in a meaningful way said Samuel G Jacobson MD PhD

professor of ophthalmology at the University of Pennsylvanias Scheie Eye

Institute and principal investigator of the clinical trial As we continue our

studies we will look more closely at whether these slow visual gains could be

accelerated with visual training

Researchers will continue to follow these patients over the next several years

to monitor safety and to learn whether the visual benefits remain This

ongoing phase I trial also includes additional groups of LCA patients mdash

children as well as adults mdash who are receiving different doses of the RPE65

gene therapy

The National Eye Institute (NEI) part of the National Institutes of Health

leads the federal governments research on the visual system and eye diseases

NEI supports basic and clinical science programs that result in the

development of sight-saving treatments The National Institutes of Health

(NIH) mdash The Nations Medical Research Agency mdash includes 27 Institutes and

Centers and is a component of the US Department of Health and Human

Services It is the primary federal agency for conducting and supporting basic

clinical and translational medical research and it investigates the causes

treatments and cures for both common and rare diseases

7What about the public perception of science

Public perception of science has direct bearing on social progress and national

prosperity as has been proved since ancient times even long long before the

appearance of modern scienceThe influence of science on the society is

determined by the level of development of science on the one hand and by the

extent of public understanding of science on the other It is through the

popularization of science that all scientific achievements without exception

produces an enormous impact on the society

Exploration is the life of science while popularization provides science with a

base for its existence and development People love science precisely because

it can be quickly turned into social wealth into a precious kind of material and

spiritual wealth The power of science lies in popularization which in a certain

sense is the end result and ultimate aim of all scientific pursuits

Today our world is confronted with the serious problem of public perception

of science which is exerting an influence upon the mankind on an enormous

scale as never before upon economic prosperity social progress and all

individuals welfare However science is getting farther and farther beyond

peoples common sense It is difficult even for those with the richest

imaginative power to get merely by means of their experiences and instincts

an exact understanding of modern science and the changes brought about by

itfor people to judge their values and meanings against the background of

their experience and knowledge The contradiction between functions of

science and the lack of knowledge has aroused attention and concern among

more and more people who consider it to be a new challenge to the world

today

Since the modern science took its place in the world tremendous progress

made in science and technology while bringing the mankind happiness very

often produces new problems with us and has negative influence on the

society The science and technology should be conditioned and judged by the

humanism the manrsquos rational and conscience and derive from this basis the

moral principles and the judgement of value with regard to the science and

technology For lack of control by these moral principles science and its

products could impair the human society and its future

The science and humanism should ever have been deep and everlasting

partners and the science in the 21st century ought to be the one of their

reunion and always lead the people to open the door of the paradise with their

boundless wisdom

At present in china there are approximately two thousand kinds of popular

science journals and around five thousand sorts of popular science books

being published every year A certain number of renowned research

institutions and university laboratatories are regularly opened to the public

for the purpose of helping them to keep abreast of current scientific forward

works and the activities of scientistsChina has 340 million households

owning more than 300 million domestic TVsets The CCTV broadcasts its

daily scientific programme at PM800 the peak viewing time transmitting

scientific knowledge with special channels in their efforts to build up an

Information Expressway on the Air between the science and the public

The growth in size of the science centre industry the increasing trends of

visitors and research on informal learning and visitor behaviour in science

centres all suggest that science centres perform an important role in science

communication raising public awareness of science and enhancing the

motivation of visitors to learn science

In the modern world science fundamental science should e seen as

part of culture If applied science is the basis of many industrial development

and the input of science into the economy of our civilization is obvious and

undisputed the interaction with society education and culture is much more

complex and even controversial On one hand science natural sciences for

that matter have now developed into an international enterprise

transcending national borders and acquiring a global scale

On the other hand culture is coupled ever more strongly to the

identity of nations and languages to local traditions Science is developing

mainly in terms of specific field of knowledge mainly connected by a common

subject and assessed by the inner circle of colleagues At the same time

society education to a great extent receive the message of science through

interdisciplinary studies Unfortunately the way modern science is managed

and funded these studies are not properly supported and recognized

These studies in most cases have a socially relevant message that is

poorly broadcast and understood by the layman and even those in power This

has become one of the reasons of the separation and loss of contact of science

from society and human needs in a world of those who know and those who

do not have access to knowledge The lack of a human and cultural message of

science has definitely contributed to the estrangement and even the divorce of

science from society can be seen in many instances

8How the Hippocratic Oath is adopted by the western medicine

The original text of the Hippocratic Oath is usually interpreted

as one of the first statements of a moral of conduct to be used by physicians

assuming the respect for all human life even unborn Most Christian tradition

interprets the original Hippocratic Oath as a condemnation of abortion and

infanticide













Scientists




















contention


















9Explain the concepts of fertilization

Fertilization is the process by which the nucleus of a sperm (a male

reproductive cell) fuses (combines) with the nucleus of an egg (a female

reproductive cell also called an ovum) Fertilization occurs somewhat

differently in plants and animals In flowering plants two sperm cells are

involved in the process of fertilization The first sperm cell combines with an

egg cell while the second sperm cell combines with two nuclei present in the

ovule (the structure that eventually becomes the seed) The structure formed

in the second fertilization eventually forms a storage site for nutrients needed

by the fertilized egg cell

A fertilized egg cell is known as a zygote Once formed the zygote undergoes

continuous cell division that eventually produces a new multicellular

organism

Sperm penetrating a hamster egg cell (Reproduced by permission of

Photo Researchers Inc

Fertilization in humans

In humans fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes of the female

reproductive tract It takes place within hours following sexual intercourse

Approximately 300 million sperm are released into a females vagina during

intercourse However only one of these sperm can actually fertilize the single

female egg cell (also called an ovum) The successful sperm cell must enter the

uterus and swim up the fallopian tube to meet the egg cell There it passes

through the thick coating surrounding the egg This coating is known as the

zona pellucida

The head of the sperm cell contains enzymes (certain types of chemicals) that

break through the zona pellucida and make it possible for the sperm to

penetrate into the egg Once the head of the sperm is inside the egg the tail of

the sperm falls off The outside of the egg then thickens to prevent another

sperm from entering

In humans a number of variables affect whether or not fertilization occurs

following intercourse One factor is a womans ovulatory cycle The ovulatory

cycle is the series of events that bring about the ripening of an egg and its

release from the ovaries Human eggs can be fertilized for only a few days after

ovulation which usually occurs only once every 28 days

Fertilization in other species

Nearly all forms of terrestrial (land) animals use some form of internal

fertilization similar to that in humans External fertilization however is more

common among aquatic animals It is simple enough for aquatic animals

simply to dump their sperm and eggs into the water and let currents mix the

two kinds of cells with each other

Reproduction of the sea urchin is a typical example of external fertilization

among aquatic animals A male sea urchin releases several billion sperm into

the water These sperm then swim towards eggs released in the same area

Fertilization occurs within seconds when sperm come into contact and fuse

with eggs

External fertilization in animals

Although it does not occur naturally in animals very often external

fertilization is also a possibility In the case of humans for example some

form of external fertilization may be necessary when a male and female wish

to have a child but one or the other is biologically incapable of contributing to

the normal process of internal fertilization

An example is the process known as in vitro fertilization The expression in

vitro means in glass that is in a glass test tube or petri dish The term is

used in contrast to in vivo fertilization where in vivo means in a living

organism

During in vitro fertilization eggs are removed surgically from a females

reproductive tract Those eggs then can be fertilized by sperm that has been

taken from a male and then stored in a test tube or petri dish After the

fertilized eggs have divided twice they are reintroduced into the females

body If all goes well the embryo and fetus develop eventually resulting in a

normal birth

In vitro fertilization has been performed successfully on a variety of domestic

animals since the 1950s In 1978 the first human birth following in vitro

fertilization occurred in England Since that time the procedure has become a

routine treatment for infertile couples who wish to have children

10How gene therapy affects the humans

Some of the problems of gene therapy include

Short-lived nature of gene therapy - Before gene therapy can become a

permanent cure for any condition the therapeutic DNA introduced into target

cells must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA

must be long-lived and stable Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA

into the genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene

therapy from achieving any long-term benefits Patients will have to undergo

multiple rounds of gene therapy

sometimes the new gene fails to express itself or the virus does not produce

the desired response

Immune response - Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues

the immune system has evolved to attack the invader The risk of stimulating

the immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is always

a possibility Furthermore the immune systems enhanced response to

invaders it has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in

patients

Problems with viral vectors - Viruses while the carrier of choice in most gene

therapy studies present a variety of potential problems to the patient --

toxicity immune and inflammatory responses and gene control and targeting

issues In addition there is always the fear that the viral vector once inside

the patient may recover its ability to cause disease

Multigene disorders - Conditions or disorders that arise from mutations in a

single gene are the best candidates for gene therapy Unfortunately some of

the most commonly occurring disorders such as heart disease high blood

pressure Alzheimers disease arthritis and diabetes are caused by the

combined effects of variations in many genes Multigene or multifactorial

disorders such as these would be especially difficult to treat effectively using

gene therapy

Chance of inducing a tumor (insertional mutagenesis) - The main problem

that geneticists are encountering is the viruses may target the wrong cellsIf

the DNA is integrated in the wrong place in the genome for example in a

tumor suppressor gene it could induce a tumor

ethical and legal problems - Many believe that this is an invasion of privacy

They believe that if prenatal tests are performed that these could lead to an

increase in the number of abortions

Religious concerns - Religious groups and creationists may consider the

alteration of an individuals genes as tampering or corrupting Gods work

since human experimentation is not allowed how much of simulated ampor

animal research findings amp observations can be reliably transferred to humans

remains a question

11Explain Biological warfare

Biological warfare (BW) also known as germ warfare is the use of

pathogens such as viruses bacteria other disease-causing biological agents or

the toxins produced by them as biological weapons (or bioweapons)

There is a clear overlap between biological warfare and chemical warfare as

the use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the

provisions of both the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention and the

Chemical Weapons Convention (Toxins of organic origin are often called

midspectrum agents)

A biological weapon may be intended to kill incapacitate or seriously impair

a person group of people or even an entire population It may also be defined

as the material or defense against such employment

Biological warfare is a military technique that can be used by nation-states or

non-national groups In the latter case or if a nation-state uses it

clandestinely it may also be considered bioterrorism[1]

[edit] The ancient world

The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is

recorded in Hittite texts of 1500-1200 BC in which victims of plague were

driven into enemy lands Although the Assyrians knew of ergot a parasitic

fungus of rye which produces ergotism when ingested there is no evidence

that they poisoned enemy wells with the fungus as has often been claimed

According to Homers Iliad and Odyssey epic poems about the legendary

Trojan War spears and arrows were tipped with poison During the First

Sacred War in Greece in about 590 BC Athens and the Amphictionic League

poisoned the water supply of the besieged town of Kirrha (near Delphi) with

the toxic plant hellebore The Roman commander Manius Aquillus poisoned

the wells of besieged enemy cities in about 130 BC

During the 4th century BC Scythian archers tipped their arrow tips with snake

venom human blood and animal feces to cause wounds to become infected

There are numerous other instances of the use of plant toxins venoms and

other poisonous substances to create biological weapons in antiquity[2]

In 184 BC Hannibal of Carthage had clay pots filled with venomous snakes

and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of Pergamene

ships In about AD 198 the city of Hatra (near Mosul Iraq) repulsed the

Roman army led by Septimius Severus by hurling clay pots filled with live

scorpions at them[3]

[edit] Modern times

[edit] The 18th century

The Native American population was decimated after contact with the Old

World due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases[8] There is

however only one documented case of alleged germ warfare involving British

commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry

Bouquet whose correspondence included a reference to the idea of giving

smallpox-infected blankets to Indians as part of an incident known as

Pontiacs Rebellion which occurred during the Siege of Fort Pitt (1763) late in

the French and Indian War

Any smallpox transmitted by Native American tribes was due to the transfer of

the disease to blankets during transportation Historians have been unable to

establish whether or not this plan was implemented particularly in light of the

fact that smallpox was already present in the region and that scientific

knowledge of disease at that time had yet to discover bacteria or develop an

understanding of plague vectors

The roots of diseases that killed millions of indigenous peoples in the

Americas can be traced back to Eurasians living for millennia in close

proximity with domesticated animals Without long contact with domesticated

animals indigenous Americans had no resistance to plague measles

tuberculosis smallpox or most influenza strains

As it was well documented that many of European origin wished to

exterminate the Native peoples[citation needed] it has been assumed[by whom] that

there could have been many cases of smallpox being used as a quick way to kill

off the locals[9]

Despite the lack of historical evidence the belief that British and American

soldiers used germ warfare against North American tribes has remained fairly

strong in certain oral traditions and in popular culture Such claims that

smallpox infested blankets were used are especially strong in the oral

traditions of native nations in the Plains and along the west coast of

Canada[10]


In 1834 Cambridge Diarist Richard Henry Dana (Two Years Before the Mast

available in Project Gutenberg) visited San Francisco on a merchant ship His

ship traded many items including blankets with Mexicans and Russians who

had established outposts on the northern side of the San Francisco Bay

Local histories document that the California smallpox epidemic began at the

Russian fort soon after they left Blankets were a popular trading item and the

cheapest source of them was second-hand blankets which were often

contaminated

During the American Civil War General Sherman reported that Confederate

forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for

drinking water This would have made the water unpleasant to drink although

the actual health risks from dead bodies of humans and animals which did not

die of disease are minimal

Jack London in his story Yah Yah Yah describes a punitive European

expedition to a Pacific island deliberately exposing the Polynesian population

to Measles of which many of them died [3] While much of the material for

Londons South Sea Tales is derived from his personal experience in the

region it is not certain that this particular incident is historical


During the First World War Germany pursued an ambitious biological

warfare program Using diplomatic pouches and couriers the German

General Staff supplied small teams of saboteurs in the Russian Duchy of

Finland and in the then-neutral countries of Romania the US and Argentina

In Finland Scandinavian freedom fighters mounted on reindeer placed

ampules of anthrax in stables of Russian horses in 1916 [4] Anthrax was also

supplied to the German military attache in Bucharest as was Glanders which

was employed against livestock destined for Allied service

German intelligence officer and US citizen Dr Anton Casimir Dilger

established a secret lab in the basement of his sisters home in Chevy Chase

Maryland that produced Glanders which was used to infect livestock in ports

and inland collection points including at least Newport News Norfolk

Baltimore and New York and probably St Louis and Covington Kentucky In

Argentina German agents also employed Glanders in the port of Buenos Aires

and also tried to ruin wheat harvests with a destructive fungus

The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the use of chemical weapons and

biological weapons but said nothing about production storage or transfer

later treaties did cover these aspects Twentieth-century advances in

microbiology enabled the first pure-culture biological agents to be developed

by WWII

There was a period of development by many nations and Japanese Unit 731

based primarily at Pingfan in occupied China and commanded by Shirō Ishii

did research on BW conducted forced human experiments often fatal on

prisoners and provided biological weapons for attacks in China[11] Biological

experiments often using twins with one subject to the procedure and the

other as a control were carried out by Nazi Germany on concentration camp

inmates particularly by Joseph Mengele

[edit] Biological agents

Biological warfare is the deliberate use of disease and natural poisons to

incapacitate humans It employs pathogens as weapons Pathogens are the

micro-organism whether bacterial viral or protozoic that cause disease

There are four kinds of biological warfare agents bacteria viruses rickettsiae

and fungi Biological weapons are distinguished by being living organisms

that reproduce within their host victims who then become contagious with a

deadly if weakening multiplier effect Toxins in contrast do not reproduce in

the victim and need only the briefest of incubation periods they kill within a

few hours[31]

[edit] Identification of bioweapons

The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and

homeland security medical public health intelligence diplomatic and law

enforcement communities Health care providers and public health officers

are among the first lines of defense In some countries private local and state

(province) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal

assets to provide layered defenses against biological weapons attacks During

the first Gulf War the United Nations activated a biological and chemical

response team Task Force Scorpio to respond to any potential use of

weapons of mass destruction on civilians

The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture food and water

focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being

strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future

biological weapons threats that may be deliberate multiple and repetitive

The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the

development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and

identification of encountered suspect materials One such technology being

developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

(LLNL) employs a sandwich immunoassay in which fluorescent dye-

labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold

nanowires [33]

Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a different

device called the BioPen essentially a Lab-in-a-Pen which can detect known

biological agents in under 20 minutes using an adaptation of the ELISA a

similar widely employed immunological technique that in this case

incorporates fiber optics

Ten marks

1What are the experimental goals of human embryo research

This is a microphotograph of a just-fertilized ovum it is called

a zygote It will divide and re-divide repeatedly at about 20 hour intervals

It develops into a solid shapeless mass of cells called a morula Later it

becomes a blastocyst Some 2 weeks after fertilization when it becomes

implanted into the wall of the womb it is called an embryo Later from 9

weeks after fertilization until birth it is called a fetus 1

But this series of terms is mainly used by medical sources In popular usage

the term embryo is often used to refer to any stage of pre-natal mammalian

development from 0 to 8 weeks after fertilization We will use this

definition here

Definitions of terms

Much confusion is created when various groups assign different definitions to

the same terms For example

Item Pro-life definition Pro-choice and medical

definitions

Start of pregnancy At conception

When the embryo imbeds

itself in the womb lining

about 12 days after

conception

Start of human life At conception Various definitions eg

at viability or at birth

Abortion

The artificial

termination of human

life at any time from

conception to birth

Any termination of life

between implantation

and the start of the 3rd

trimester

Term used to refer to

the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula

blastocyst embryo fetus

History of embryo research funding in the US

Human embryo research in the US has been controlled by restricting the

flow of federal government funds to research projects 2 Some limited

research has been performed in private research projects without

government funding

1995 to 1999 During each fiscal year Congress has passed appropriation

bills which totally banned all federal government funding of human embryo

research The ban continues as of mid-1999 For example the 19967

appropriation act which funds the NIH included the amendment

No federal research funds may be used for the creation of a human embryo

for research purposes or for research in which a human embryo is

destroyed discarded or subjected to more than minimal risk 4

The National Institutes of Health interpreted the 19989 appropriation act

as follows

Section 513 reinstates the current ban that prohibits NIH from using

appropriated funds to support human embryo research Grant cooperative

agreement and contract funds may not be used for

1 the creation of a human embryo or embryos for research purposes

or

research in which a human embryo or embryos are destroyed discarded or

knowingly subjected to risk of injury or death greater than that allowed for

research on fetuses in utero underthe Public Health Service Act 5

Ethics of embryo research -- two views

Embryo research centers around the numerous frozen embryos which are

left over at fertility clinics as a result of in-vitro fertilization (IVF)

procedures Typically during IVF a womans ovaries are stimulated to

produce multiple ova These are fertilized by the husbands sperm Some of

the healthy embryos produced by this process are implanted in the womans

womb Hopefully one will develop normally into a fetus and be born nine

months later Excess embryos are generally frozen so that they can be used

in the future in the event that pregnancy did not develop or that the

couple wants another baby Some of these frozen embryos are used by

scientists to do research

Embryo research will likely develop new techniques for contraception as

well as methods to detect and treat many diseases and disorders

There is strong opposition to this research from pro-life groups and strong

support from pro-choice organizations No common ground no compromise

appears possible

C Ben Mitchell is a biomedical consultant for the Ethics amp Religious Liberty

Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention He said It is

unconscionable to create human embryos for the purpose of

experimentation and destruction This is biotech cannibalism consuming our

young for the sake of our own potential prosperity 13

They are concerned that if scientists can perform embryo experiments on

human persons who are a few weeks old there may be no stopping

scientists who want to experiment on older humans -- even newborns

infants humans and adults

They feel that leftover embryos should be retained indefinitely -- alive but

frozen -- at fertility clinics They might perhaps be offered to other infertile

couples who wish to have a child There are a very small percentage if

infertile couples in which the woman is unable to produce ova and the

husband does not produce sperm Those couples could use a few of the

frozen sperm

Some argue that this may happen

when the fetus resembles a human

the point of viability when the fetus can live independently or

when the fetal brain develops to the point where it experiences self-

awareness or

at birth or

at some other stage of pregnancy

An example of embryo research

Dr Mark Hughes was director of the Institute for Molecular and Human

Genetics at Georgetown University He was performing research into Pre-

implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) 6 This would lead to a pre-natal test

that would detect genetically caused devastating diseases such as Tay

Sachs Pregnant women who are at risk of producing a baby with one of

these diseases must currently wait until the 15th week of pregnancy and

then undergo amniocentesis If the fetus is found to have the disease the

women must then decide whether to have a late term abortion In a small

percentage of cases the test itself can cause the fetus to abort

If Dr Hughes study was successful an embryo could be checked for one or

more genetically caused diseases One cell would be removed from the

morulla when it is an undifferentiated mass of 8 cells If the embryo was

found to be normal the morulla would be implanted into the womans

womb If it was defective it would have been destroyed and the woman

would start over from the beginning

Different women would see certain of these options as moral and certain as

immoral Since there is no societal consensus on which is moral and which is

the best choice for the couple involved most pro-choicers would prefer to

let the couple make an informed choice on their future

Dr Hughes studies would probably have met all of the requirements of the

Human Embryo Research Panels 1994-SEP recommendations They probably

would have met President Clintons 1994-DEC criteria But the NIH and

Georgetown University said that he had violated regulations of both the

Federal government and Roman Catholic church He resigned his post in

1997-JAN Women still must wait until their 15th week to have their

amniocentesis procedures unless they are are lucky enough to arrange a

PGD test

Recent developments

2001-MAR-14 Debate over continuing embryo research The George W

Bush administration the Republican-controlled Congresses and

conservative Christian pro-life groups are all actively promoting an end to

embryo research They are opposed by numerous agencies which promote

research into various debilitating and fatal diseases and by pro-choice

groups

2001-APR-27 Embryo research funding cancelled The National

Institutes of Health had planned a meeting to review researchers

requests for funding The Bush administration cancelled the meeting

even as scientists reported new advances in embryo research

Presumably when existing grants run out researchers will only be able to

obtain funding from non-governmental sources The administration has

ordered a review of the entire funding program it is scheduled to be

completed during 2001-Summer

2Write any 2 types of treatment of human genetic diseases

Scientists discover possible new treatment for genetic diseases

Scientists from Imperial College London the University of Leicester and

Hammersmith Hospital have found a way to stop certain types of genetic

diseases from occurring by modifying the way DNA is turned into proteins

The research published in this months Proceedings of the National Academy

of Science shows how the researchers have been able to restore proper

expression of defective genes and that this might potentially have a positive

effect in genetic diseases such as spinal muscular atrophy

The research was carried out at Imperial College London and the University of

Leicester as collaboration between Professor Francesco Muntoni and

Professor Ian Eperon

Professor Francesco Muntoni from Imperial College London and the

Hammersmith Hospital comments Many genetic diseases are caused by the

mutation of just one or two of the 32 billion base pairs of DNA which

comprise our genome The technique we have developed with our colleagues

at the University of Leicester allows us to correct genetic mutations which

result in abnormal splicing as it is the case for spinal muscular atrophy

Splicing is part of the process by which genes are converted into proteins

Large chunks of useless and meaningless sequence have accumulated in the

genes of higher organisations and the mutation of just one or two of the 32

billion base pairs which make up our genome can interfere with splicing

To make proteins genes first need to be processed into RNA (ribonucleic acid)

The information in the genes is broken up into islands of information called

exons which need to be stitched together while the meaningless sequences

are removed If the sequence of an exon is changed splicing can be disrupted

causing genetic mutations

The researchers were able to stick the right sequences back into the exon by

using short pieces of RNA (oligos) which stick to the exon of interest and had

been modified to recruit signals that influence splicing Using this novel

strategy the splicing reaction can be manipulated

This treatment was tested on cells from a patient suffering from spinal

muscular atrophy By putting these oligos into the cells much of the protein

required for the splicing process could be produced allowing normal

development of the cells

Professor Ian Eperon from the University of Leicester adds Although oligos

have previously been developed to block expression of genes this research

indicates that we can also use them to restore the proper expression of

defective genes As well as working in diseases with a clear genetic basis such

as spinal muscular dystrophy we are aware that other conditions such as

inflammation or cancer involve changes in the splicing of normal genes and

our method might allow us to reverse these and facilitate treatment of the

illness

Spinal muscular atrophy is a serious and common disease affecting 1 in

10000 births resulting in mortality in babies who have the more serious

form The disease is caused by a mutation in a gene called SMN1 About 1 in

50 people have the defective version of SMN1

Even though everyone carries a second copy of the SMN1 gene SMN2 this

does not compensate for the problem as a difference in a single base pair from

SMN1 in just one exon prevents proper splicing This novel method that could

have broad applications also in other disease offers new hope for individuals

affected by spinal muscular atrophy

workings of other organisms In particular experimental models are widely

used to explore potential cases and treatments for human disease when

human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical This strategy is

made possible by the common descent of all living organisms and the

conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material

over the course of evolution

6 AIDS virus ndash comment

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune

system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) AIDS is now a

pandemic This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the

immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections

and tumors HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane

or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV such as blood semen

vaginal fluid preseminal fluid and breast milk

7 Comment on gene therapy

Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individuals

cells and tissues to treat a disease such as a hereditary disease in which a

deleterious mutant allele is replaced with a functional one Most gene therapy

studies are aimed at cancer and hereditary genetic diseases Gene therapy may

be classified into the following types Germ line gene therapy Somatic

gene therapy

8 What are genetic disorders

A genetic disorder is an illness caused by abnormalities in

genes or chromosomes While some diseases such as cancer are due in part

to a genetic disorders they can also be caused by environmental factors Most

disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or

millions Some types of recessive gene disorders confer an advantage in the

heterozygous state in certain environments








Prize in Medicine







11 Hippocratic Oath
























14 Define genes









active (expressed)










become popular











engineering


















sōma meaning body

Five marks












































Earth











































Original














art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness

















Prize in Medicine







11 Hippocratic Oath
























14 Define genes









active (expressed)










become popular











engineering


















sōma meaning body

Five marks












































Earth











































Original














art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness






















14 Define genes









active (expressed)










become popular











engineering


















sōma meaning body

Five marks












































Earth











































Original














art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness












become popular











engineering


















sōma meaning body

Five marks












































Earth











































Original














art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness













sōma meaning body

Five marks












































Earth











































Original














art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness



























Earth











































Original














art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness







































Original














art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness























art




slaves






be my lot

Modern












no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness




















no one else



























statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness




















statements

Modern relevance

















Scientists




















contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness





























contention



































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness




































The human embryo

Growth

























fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness


































fetuses







































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness












































much pain is caused





pleasure









species















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness


















efficient






lifespan)








product testing











































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness













































Journal of Medicine
























cycle
























read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness

































read











gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness














gene therapy


































today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness

















today












boundless wisdom










































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness









































infanticide













Scientists




















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness















contention






























organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness
















organism











zona pellucida





sperm from entering
















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness




















with eggs










organism






normal birth





















patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness




























patients












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness












gene therapy












remains a question









midspectrum agents)




























[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness


































[edit] Modern times
























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness






























off the locals[9]






Canada[10]









contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness















contaminated































by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness

















by WWII

















few hours[31]





















nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness

























nanowires [33]






Ten marks











definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness















definition here





definitions




about 12 days after

conception



Abortion

The artificial



conception to birth




trimester


the products of

conception

Baby the unborn the

pre-born

Zygote morula






government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness














government funding









as follows





or



















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness




















appears possible















frozen sperm





awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness












awareness or

at birth or





























PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness












PGD test

Recent developments






groups



















































illness











































illness










two marks: 1. what do you mean by bioethics? 2. what do ... · two marks: 1. what do you mean by...

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