TWMO

1. What is an organization • Structuur: job descriptions, organizational policies, organizational goals

• ‘The essence of an organization is patterned human behavior’ (Katz & Kahn, 1978)

• De definitie volgens Robbins & Judge: ‘An organization is a consciously coordinated

social unit composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous

basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals’

→ een organisatie is een bewust gecoördineerde sociale eenheid, samengesteld uit

twee of meer mensen, welke functioneren op een relatief continue repetieve wijze, tot

het bereiken van een gezamenlijk doel of meerdere doelen.

1.2 Verschillende niveaus in een organisatie

• Organisatie psychologie is geïnteresseerd in de interactie vinnen de hiërarchie

• Non-Independence: Wanneer organisaties groeien zullen ze in de loop der tijd

evolueren naar een voorspelbaar patroon, er zal een “klimaat” heersen

bv: kan je te laat komen?

• Hoe hoger je stijgt op de organisatie ladder, hoe meer je te maken zult krijgen met

organisatie psychologie

2. What is organizational psychology • ‘Organizationele psychologie is de wetenschappelijke studie van individueel en groeps

gedrag in formele organisationele settings’ (Jex & Brib, 2008)

• Or in a narrow sense: organisationele structuur kan het verband beïnvloeden tussen bv:

work-life balance en welbevinden → cross level moderation effect

Zie ook aanbevolen literatuur

2.1 Organizational psychology as the science of cross-level moderation effect (Bliese &

Jex, 2002)

• Scientist-practitioner model

o Jex & Britt (2008)

▪ ‘Within the general field of Industrial/Organisation psychology (I/O), the scientist-

practitioner model has become so important that it serves as the underlying

philosophy for many if not most graduate training programs in the field. Graduate

training guided by the scientist-practitioner model suggests that, first and

foremost, students need the skills necessary to conduct scientific research.’

o Ryan & Ford (2010)

▪ If the scientist–practitioner model is a central attribute of the organizational

psychologist identity, then this should be core to training and a point of positive

distinction. However, some would argue that ‘‘at present most I-O psychologists . .

. are either one (e.g., scientist) or the other (practitioner)’’

3. Organisationele psychologie vs organizational behavior • Organizational psychology (OΨ) = the scientific study of individual and group behaviour

in formal organizational settings (Jex & Britt, 2008)

• Organizational behaviour (OB) = the study of human behaviour in organizational

settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organization, and the

organization itself (Moorhead and Griffin, 1995)

o It focuses on three determinants of behaviours in organizations: individuals, groups

an structure

o OB includes these core topics: motivation, leader behaviour and power, interpersonal

communications, group structure and processes, attitude development and

perception, change processes, conflict and negotiation, work design

• Beide begrippen komen praktisch op hetzelfde neer. In business schools wordt het OB

genoemd en in een meer psychologische content noemen ze het OΨ.

o OΨ levert de topjournals binnen het management veld

o OB wordt voornamelijk gebaseerd op Ψ onderzoek.

• Andere velden die aanvullende waarde bieden aan (contribute to) de OB =

antropologie, sociologie en sociale psychologie.

o Sociology = Sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles;

that is, sociology studies people in relation to their fellow human beings (politieke,

culturele, religieuze en economische aspecten van menselijke samenlevingen)

o Anthropology = the study of societies to learn about human beings and their

activities (menskunde of mensleer)

• Er zijn weinig of geen eenvoudige en universele principes die het gedrag van de

organisatie verklaren

• Contingency variables → situationele factoren zijn variabelen die de relatie modereren

tussen de onafhankelijke en afhankelijke variabelen.

• Situationele factoren die impact hebben op de relatie tussen 2 variabelen.

o bv: relaties houden stand onder context A maar niet onder B

4. Why is OPsy/OB important? • = ‘OB turns out to be the most important class you can take. Because the ability to

attract people, to pay them the right way, to create culture and values and reinforce

them, that‘s what makes companies great.’

4.1 Minztberg’s Managerial Roles

• Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different, highly interrelated roles or

sets of behaviours, thus serving a critical function in organizations. These 10 roles are

primarily interpersonal, informational or decisional.

o Interpersonal: all managers are required to perform duties that are ceremonial and

symbolic in nature (figurehead, leadership and liaison role)

o Informational: to some degree al managers collect information from outside

organizations and institutions (monitor, disseminator and spokesperson role)

o Decisional: Mintzberg identified four roles that require making choices

(entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator)

4.2 Management rollen • Among managers who were successful (speed of promotion) networking made the

largest relative contribution to success, and human resources management activities

made the least relative contribution

• Among effective (quantity and quality of performance) managers communication made

the largest relative contribution and networking the least

➢ Successful and effective managers give almost the opposite emphases to traditional

management, communication, human resources, management and networking. This

finding challenges the historical assumption that promotions are based on

performance and it illustrates the importance of networking and political skills in

getting ahead in organizations.

5. Historic and modern OPsy/OB

5.1 Why History?

• Kennis van fouten uit het verleden kan toekomstige fouten voorkomen

• Geschiedenis vormt een actuele kwestie voor onderzoek van lopend werk

• Onderzoeksideeën kunnen uit het verleden worden verzameld

• Het verleden helpt ons de toekomst te voorspellen

• Geweldige ideeën uit het verleden kunnen worden herontdekt

• Kennis van de oorsprong van de disciplines maken van een wetenschapper een

volwaardige geleerde

5.2 Taylorism (by Frederic Winslow Taylor)

• = scientific management

• = ‘economic man’

• Taylors vraag:

o Hoe kunnen taken zo worden ontworpen dat ze efficiënter werken?

• Zijn doel:

o Zoeken naar alternatieve manieren om een taal uit te voeren en schrijf de beste

manier voor

o Elimineer alle valse of overbodige bewegingen

• Zijn aanpak:

o Tijd- en bewegingsstudies (motion and time studies)

• Hij nam ook elke discretie over het werk (verticale taakverdeling): het voorschrijven van

wat moet worden gedaan, hoe het moet worden gedaan en de exacte tijd die daarvoor

is toegestaan

5.2.1 De 5 principes van Taylorisme

1. Scheiding van planning en uitvoering

o Verantwoordelijkheid voor planning op managementniveau

2. één beste manier van taakuitvoering

o Definitie van de meest efficiënte manier van taakuitvoering op basis van

wetenschappelijke methoden

o Elke werknemer voert slechts één stap uit in de algemene taak

3. Selectie van de beste persoon

o kwalificatie profiel voor elke taakstap, selectie van de juiste persoon

4. Training reductie

o Training voor de efficiëntere manier om elke taakstap uit te voeren

o Werknemers kunnen makkelijk vervangen worden

5. Controle

o Toezicht op naleving van de voorgeschreven werkmethoden en van behalen van

vereiste resultaten

5.2.2 Henry Ford (1863 – 1947) and the Quadricycle in 1905

• Alles begon bij Henry Ford, de eerste auto die werd gemaakt in massaproductie

o ‘You can paint it any color, so long as it’s black’

• Hij past de ideeën van Taylor tot het uiterste toe, wat resulteerde in de lopende band

(assemblagelijn)

5.2.2 Zijn de dagen van Taylor en Ford voorbij?

• Sleutelelement van het Taylorisme was ‘de inhoud van individuele banen zoveel

mogelijk beperken. Dit lijkt voor sommige managers nog steeds een leidende principe

bv.:

o Just-in-time management

o Ook in sommige moderne systeemontwerpbenaderingen

5.3 Human Relations Movement

• = social man

• Geïnitieerd door de Hawthorne studies: Western Electrics Hawthorne Works in Cicero,

1922

• Elton Mayo (1933) ligt aan de basis van deze beweging. Hij initieerde een nieuwe

manier van omgaan met medewerkers, hij schonk namelijk aandacht aan de menselijke

kant van arbeid en de factoren die prestaties van werknemers beïnvloeden.

o Dit was een grote openbaring, arbeiders blijven tenslotte mensen

5.3.1 Hawthorne studies (1927-1932)

1. Studies naar de relatie tussen verlichting en prestaties

o Prestaties zijn tijdens de studie verbeterd, zelfs wanneer de verlichting weer was

gereduceerd tot maanlichtkwaliteit

2. Studies naar de relatie tussen onderbrekingen en prestaties

o Prestaties zijn onafhankelijk van ontwerponderbrekingen ‘Hawthorne effect’:

sociale factoren zijn cruciaal voor gedrag bv. sociale aandacht voor bestudeerd te

worden

3. Groepscohesie beïnvloedt prestaties door groepsnorm

5.3.2 Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)

• Grondlegger van de sociale psychologie, focus op kleine groepen,

intergroepsprocessen (groepsdynamiek), groepen die hun eigen productienormen

bepalen, …

5.4 Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor, 1960)

• Verouderde theorie X, veronderstellingen over mensen op het werk:

1. De meeste mensen houden niet van werk, ze vermijden het wanneer ze kunnen

2. De meeste mensen moeten worden gedwongen en met straf worden bedreigd

voordat ze gaan werken. Metsen hebben een nauwe richting nodig als ze aan het

werk zijn

3. De meeste mensen gever er eigenlijk de voorkeur aan om geleid te worden. Ze

vermijden verantwoordelijkheid en vertonen weinig ambitie. Ze zijn alleen

geïnteresseerd in beveiliging.

• Moderne theory Y, veronderstellingen over mensen op het werk: (zelf actualiserende

man)

1. Werk is een natuurlijke activiteit, zoals spelen of rusten

2. Mensen zijn in staat tot zelfsturing en zelfbeheersing als ze zich inzetten voor

doelstellingen

3. Mensen worden over het algemeen toegewijd aan organisatiedoelstellingen als ze

hiervoor worden beloond

4. De typische werknemer kan leren verantwoordelijkheid te aanvaarden en te zoeken

5. Het typische lid van de algemene bevolking heeft verbeelding, vindingrijkheid en

creativiteit

5.4.1 Moderne psychology

• = complex man

• Socio-technische aanpak

• Industriele democratie

• Quality of work and working life

• Work & health (stress)

• Technology systeem design

5.5 The Strategy-Structure Relationship

5.6 Organization structure: Its Determinants and Outcomes

6. Work motivation • Definition of motivation (IDPE): we definiëren motivatie als de processen die

verantwoordelijk zijn voor iemand intensiteit, richting en persistentie van inspanningen

om een doel te bereiken

• Defenitions of work motivation (Kanfer): de studie van werkmotivatie onderzoekt de

psychologische processen en mechanismen waarmee individuen werk gerelateerde

doelen vormen en zich eraan verbanden, plannen voor het bereiken van doelen

formuleren, persoonlijke en sociale middelen toewijzen aan een reeks van mogelijke

acties en gedachten reguleren en affect met als doel het bereiken van doelen

6.1 3 C Framework (Kanfer et al., 2008)

• De 3 C’s: context, content, change

o Wat er vernieuwend is aan dit moel boven alle voorheen gebruikte modellen is de

toevoeging van de derde dimensie: Change/Time. Concreet houdt dit in dat je nu ook

overheen de tijd kan kijken of er veranderingen optreden. Zo kan je directe

uitgestelde effecten van tijd opsporen

▪ Bv. Het is mogelijk dat context/content een direct effect heeft op de werknemer

maar dat dit pas na 2 jaar tot uiting komt. Dit kon men vroeger niet verklaren. Dit

model kan dat wel.

7. Team research perspectives ➢ Hoe maak ik een team meer effectief/efficiënt?

• Sociaal- psychologisch perspectief

o Interpersoonlijke interactie is van primair belang

o Taak is slechts een voertuig voor interactie tussen groepsleden

• Organisatieperspectief

o Dingen doen

o Besluiten nemen

o Taak staat centraal

7.1 Classic Input-Process-Outcome Perspective (McGarth, 1964)

7.2 Effect van groepsprocessen

7.3 Multilevel systeem Perspective (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006)

Diversiteit ➢ Diversiteit is niets ‘extra’, het is essentieel. We moeten een manier vinden om verschillende

mensen goed te combineren. Startpunt voor het thema ‘teams’

1. Wat is diversiteit?

1.1 Twee belangrijke vormen van personeelsdiversiteit (‘workforce diversity’)

• Beide vormen zijn belangrijk (mensen moeten gelijke kansen krijgen), maar soms

onethisch gedrag hierdoor is diversiteit management nodig:

o Surface level diversity: differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender,

race, ethnicity, age or disability that do not necessarily reflects the ways people think

or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes

▪ Can lead employees to make stereotypes and assumptions about others from

certain demographic backgrounds

o Deep-level diversity: differences is values, personality and work preferences that

become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to

know one another better

▪ People are less concerned about demographic differences if they see themselves as

sharing more important characteristics, such as personality and values

1.2 Types of diversity (Klein & Harrison, 2007)

• Variety (or cognitive diversity): elke groepslid biedt unieke kennis, informatie of ideeën

aan de groep (kwalitatieve verschillen), iedereen is verschillend

• Separation (deep level): groepsleden zijn gepolariseerd in twee extreme en

tegengestelde facties. Een voor en een tegen een gegeven mening, attitude of waarde

(bv. politieke waarde)

• Disparity: een groepslid overtreft alle anderen in macht, rijkdom, contacten of andere

middelen (bv. er is iemand ‘de baas’ in de groep)

• Er zijn verschillende manieren om naar

diversiteit te kijken. Vanuit psychologie

zien ze het liefst een normale verdeling

binnen en tussen de 3 bovenstaande

groepen in een organisatie. Dat is het

meest gezond voor een bedrijf

• Als je een divers team hebt kan je

stuiten op mogelijke negatieve

consequenties: machtsmisbruik, sexual

harrasment, intimidatie, exclusie, …

o bv. een homogeen team kan helpen

tot het verkrijgen van een neutrale

omgeving maar dat is misschien niet

de beste omgeving om innovatie te

stimuleren

o Je kan niet altijd kiezen bv.

engineering sector vnl. mannen

1.3 Soorten (aspecten van) diversiteit

• Disparity (= ongelijkheid) kan tot problemen leiden bv. power discripanty

machtsmisbruik

• Exclusion: je kan niet altijd kiezen bv. technische sector. Vooral mannen, je kan niet

zeggen ‘ik wil de helft vrouwen in het team’

2. Leeftijd en diversiteit • De werkpopulatie wordt alsmaar ouder, jongere mensen werken iets minder door bv.

educatie die langer duurt of werkloosheid

• Europa

o De gemiddelde arbeidsparticipatie is in veel landen relatief laag

o Situatie sinds 1970:

▪ Brugpensioen (BE), vervroegde uittreding (NL), Fruhpension (DE)

▪ Werkloosheid adolescenten (recessie, olie crisis sinds 1973)

▪ De-industrialisatie

o Out-Of-Work (AOW) leeftijd: in de 70’s waren de meeste Europa landen

industrielanden, maar nu realiseren ze zich dat de toekomst niet hier ligt dus laten ze

de pensioenleeftijd weer stijgen

o ‘Functionele leeftijd’

o We zien veel variatie in hoe lang mensen werken, de meeste zijn rond het gemiddelde

met slechts enkele uitzonderen (bv. Zweden die heel lang werken). We moeten een

manier vinden om mensen langer te laten werken, anders valt het systeem ineen.

• Managers’ beliefs about older workers (van der Heijden, 1998)

o Vaak negatieve attitudes tov oudere werknemer:

▪ Minder vermogen om efficiënt en creatief bij te dragen

▪ Stijf en inflexibel

▪ Kunnen niet reageren op veranderingen en uitdagingen

▪ Terughouden om technische veranderingen te accepteren

▪ Eerlijk en loyaal

Dit is vaak een foute veronderstelling, want data toont aan dat ouderen vaak

meer performant zijn

• What is age but a number anyway?

o Studie van 180 proefpersonen: tot welke leeftijd wordt een supervisor als ‘jong’

beschouwd en vanaf welke leeftijd als ‘oud’ (Roschmann, 2010):

▪ Jonge supervisors: 41 (SD 4.9; min 25 en max 55)

▪ Oudere supervisors: 53 (SD 5.5; min 40 en max 65)

▪ De twee curven raken elkaar na 46 jaar

o Amerikaanse leeftijdsdiscriminatie in arbeidswet, 1967: personen ouder dan 40 jaar

worden beschouwd als oudere werknemers

• Ng & Feldman (2012): correlations with age

o Age motivation: oudere mensen zijn meestal meer gemotiveerd idee dat oudere

werknemers minder gemotiveerd zijn is niet waar

o Motivatie om bij te leren is iets lager bij ouderen

o Ouderen zijn meestal meer flexibel voor verandering dan de jongeren

o Fysieke indicatoren bv. cholesterol hoger

o Psychische gezondheid: geen correlatie met ouderendom

▪ Veel leeftijd vooroordelen zijn niet waar

3. Leeftijd en capaciteiten

3.1 What is aging, anyway?

3.2 Definitie Robbins & Judge

• Physical ability: the capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength and

similar characteristics

• Intellectual ability: the capacity to do mental activities – thinking, reasoning and

problem solving

o 7 aspecten: Number Aptitude, Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Speed, Inductive

Reasoning, Deductive Reasoning, Spatial Visualization And Memory

3.2.1 Nine basis physical ability

• Although the changing nature of work suggests intellectual abilities are increasingly

important for many jobs, physical abilities have been and will remain valuable

Figuur: Raven matrices

test (intelligentietest)

3.2.2 Professionele sport: olympiërs en grootmeesters schaken (Berthelot et al., 2012)

• Model: max prestaties bestudeerde carrières

o Blauw: zwemmen 100m mannen

o Rood: zwemmen 200m vrouwen

o Zwart: baan en veld 400m vrouwen

• Model: beste schaakprestaties naar leeftijd

o Paars: schaken

3.2.3 Ability Mean-Level Change Within Cohorts/Generations (Lifespan Change)

• Ander patroon voor gekristalliseerde (crystallized) en vloeibare (fluid) intelligentie

o Crystallized G (dingen die je leert): deze intelligentie neemt toe met leeftijd

o Fluid G (capaciteiten die je van jezelf hebt): deze intelligentie neemt af met leeftijd

3.2.4 Effort & Performance (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004)

• In banen die hoge eisen stellen aan leeftijdsgevoelige

vaardigheden (bv. luchtverkeerleider) kunnen toenemende

inspanningen van medewerkers slechts gedeeltelijk

geleidelijke prestatieverminderingen compenseren. Bij dit

soort jobs zijn jongere werknemers vertegenwoordigd, als ze

te oud worden om de job nog goed te doen gaan ze weg.

Role changes or redeployment naar functies die meer

gebruik maken van leeftijdsongevoelige en

vaardigheden (bv. training geven)

▪ Bv. iemand die ouder is en minder fluid intelligentie

heeft waardoor hij meer moeite moet doen. Dan

kunnen bedrijven er voor kiezen om oudere wn’ers

een andere functie toe te wijzen waar niet zoveel

fluid intelligentie meer voor nodig is

• Gc jobs: in banen die hoge eisen stellen aan opgebouwde

kennis en vaardigheden. Je moet dingen gewoon weten.

Fluid intelligentie maakt minder uit, crystallized

intelligentie wel (bv. accountant).

Figure from McArdle et

al., 2002

o Motivatietekorten op het werk kunnen optreden als gevolg van verveling en

onvoldoende uitdaging op het werk.

• Als bedrijf moet je kijken of het soort nodige intelligentie meer de eerste of de Gc

situatie is. Dit is bepalend voor wat je als bedrijf met de oudere wn’ers moet doen

3.2.5 Mean-Level Change Between Generations (Hypothetical data)

• Flynn effect: mensen worden intelligenter in het algemeen. Het meetinstrument

functioneert niet meer op dezelfde manier. Mensen worden gewoon beter in de tests.

• IQ gains are nog g Gains (Flynn, 2007)

o IQ-winsten zijn geen resultaat van de algemene factor g. Integendeel, sommige

specifieke tests laten grote stijgingen zien en andere niet. Dienstengevolge schat g

verandering, maar g lijkt niet de oorzaak van de veranderingen te zijn.

▪ Nieuwe data zeggen dat er geen verbeteringen meer zijn sinds de jaren ’90.

Huidig onderzoek toont aan dat het Flynn effect geplaffoneerd is.

4. Genderdiversiteit • Trend: meer vrouwen in hoger intellectuele jobs en meer scholing, … maar de verloning

volgt deze trend niet. In de meeste organisaties zijn er veel vrouwen onderaan de

hiërarchie en weinig aan de top. (c-suite = bedrijfsleiders, CEO)

• Pay gap: vrouwen krijgen in veel jobs voor dezelfde functie minder betaald dan mannen

• Harrassement: gaat vaak om power struggles. Vrouwen die hier last van hebben zijn vaak

de high masculine woman, vrouwen met veel macht, leiderschap, …

o Theorie: sexual harrassement als manier om vrouwen te kalmeren die veel macht

hebben, …

• Meestal zijn vrouwen betere leiders dan mannen, hogere scores op leiderschap maar ze

krijgen minder promotie selectie effect: de drempel ligt lager voor mannen dus de

vrouwen die uiteindelijk aan de top raken zijn vaak beter

5. Diversiteit en prestatie • Case study the ocean of Europe: je kan kiezen tussen een team van drie verschillende

nationaliteiten of drie verschillende opleidingen

o De meeste mensen willen het laatste kiezen, maar in de praktijk wordt vaker het

eerste gekozen omdat anders bv. twee met dezelfde nationaliteit zijn en dat ook

problemen kan geven bv. in eigen taal tegen elkaar spreken

5.1 Diversity and team performance (Page, 2007)

• Diversiteit kan in sommige situaties voordelen hebben:

o Verschillende perspectieven: anders naar problemen kijken

o Diverse heuristieken: problemen anders oplossen

o Super additivity (1+1=3): soms hebben groepen iets wat hen samen beter maakt, een

combinatie van een groep mensen die elkaar verbeteren

o Portfolio analogy: je stelt groepen samen als een economisch portfolio (gewoon

allerlei ‘goede’ mensen’

o Cognitieve diversiteit: mensen die verschillende aanpakken hebben als het op

probleemoplossing aankomt

5.2 Diversity trumps ability theorem (Page, 2007)

• = Je moet teams combineren op een manier dat je tot super additivity komt. Er zijn

verschillende condities:

o Difficult condition: het probleem is moeilijk, anders kan iedereen het oplossen

o Calculus conditie: alle probleemoplossers zijn slim (hebben relevante kennis)

o Diversity condition: er moeten diverse perspectieven zijn onder de personen, diverse

probleemoplossers verbeteren elkaars ideeën

o Sampling condition: variatie tussen probleemoplossers bv. verschillende opleidingen,

universiteiten

• = “A randomly selected collection of problem solvers almost always outperforms a

collection of the best individual problem solvers”

• Boundaries:

o Demographic diversity does not appear to either help or hurt team performance in

general, although racial diversity in management groups may increase organizational

performance in the right conditions

o Teams of individuals who are highly intelligent, conscientiousness and interested in

work settings are more effective. Thus, diversity on these variables is likely to be a

bad thing

o Similarly a group made entirely of assertive people who want to be in charge or a

group whose members all prefer to follow the lead of others will be less effective

than a group that mixes leaders and followers

5.3 Wisdom of the crowds

• = Idee: wanneer er mensen zijn die een bepaalde kennis hebben die divers is

combineren je kan dichter bij de waarheid komen

• Een groep mensen moet een persoon selecteren, wanner de mensen samen veel weten

betere keuzes maken

o Draft positions: wat mensen apart weten

o Crowd: wat de mensen weten

o Als je de mening van verschillende mensen vraagt is het meestal beter dan dat je het

slechts aan één iemand vraagt

5.4 The Diversity Prediction Theorem:

• Collective error = average individual error – prediction diversity

o Als de prediction diversity er niet is the wisdom of the crowds breaks down

o Als er niet veel correlatie is tussen de groepsleden je komt zo dicht mogelijk bij de

waarheid

6. Diversiteit management

6.1 Manage Diversity Effectively

• Natuurlijk proces in organisatie: socialization = de mensen die heel verschillend zijn

(outgroups) gaan ofwel weg, ofwel beginnen ze zich meer en meer te gedragen naar de

groep uiteindelijk heb je een minder diverse groep proces van homogenisatie

• Wanneer je promotie wil moet je meestal in een andere groep in het bedrijf gaan

werken om tegen te gaan dat er hele homogene groepen worden gevormd (een

strategie die organisaties soms gebruiken)

• Doel: meestal gewoon diversieit behouden in een berijf en niet te homogeen worden

6.1.1 Effective diversity programs:

• Gewoon divers zijn kan voordelen hebben op de markt, als je geen bepaalde soort

mensen in je bedrijf hebt kan het moeilijk zijn om deze groep mensen in de

maatschappij te bereiken met je bedrijf

• Organizations use a variety of diversity programs in recruiting and selection policies, as

well as training and development practices . Effective, comprehensive workforce

programs encouraging diversity have three distinct components:

1. Teach managers about the legal framework for equal employment opportunity and

encourage fair treatment for all people regardless of their demographic

characteristics

2. Teach managers how a diverse workforce is better able to serve a diverse market of

customers and clients

3. They foster personal development practices that bring out the skills and abilities of

all workers, acknowledging how differences in perspective can be a valuable way to

improve performances for everyone

Job attitudes

1. Job satisfaction • = a positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics

• How is job satisfaction measured?

1. The single global rating: is a response to one question, such as ‘all things considered

how satisfied are you with your job?’

2. The summation of job facets: is more sophisticated. It identifies key elements in a job

such as the type of work, skills needed, supervision, …

➢ Both methods can be helpful. The single global rating method isn’t very time

consuming, while the summation of job facets helps managers zero in on problems

and deal with them faster and more accurately

• Average job satisfaction levels by facet (pay, personality traits, cultural differences, …)

o The facets of job satisfaction can vary widely. People have typically been more satisfied

with their jobs overall, the work itself and their supervisors and co-workers than they

have been with their pay and promotion opportunities

o Job conditions are important predictors of satisfaction and employee well-being. The

intrinsic nature of work is most important

o People who have a positive core self-evaluation (believing in one’s inner worth and basic

competence) are more satisfied with their jobs than people with negative CSE

o Money does motivate people but what motivates us isn’t necessarily the same as what

makes us happy

• Drie factoren die job satisfaction bepalen (multilevel perspective):

o Job characteristics: taakomschrijving

o Social information processing: bv. als je collega’s minder/meer moeten werken of andere

mensen meer/minder verdienen voor dezelfde job en hoe je daar mee omgaat

o Dispositions (aanleg): persoonlijkheidskarakteristieken bv. sommige mensen haten alle

jobs, je kan er niks aan doen

• Job satisfaction heeft bepaalde consequenties bv. wat gebeurt er als je werknemers

gewoon niet tevreden zijn?

• Commitment is de kern van job attitude, hoe toegewijd je ent aan de job

• Je kan job satisfaction op individueel niveau, op teamniveau, … hebben

1.1 Three component of attitude

• Attitude = evaluative statements or judgement concerning objects, people or events

• 3 componenten

o Affective: the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude (‘I am angry over how little

I’m paid.’)

o Cognitive: the opinion or belief segment of an attitude (‘My pay is low.’)

o Behavioral: an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something

(‘I’m going to look for another job that pays better.’)

• Locke’s (1976) definitie van attitude:

o ‘A pleasant or positive emotional state resulting from an appraisal of one’s job or job

experiences’

1.2 Job satisfaction and criteria

• Attitude-behavior linkage is inconsistent in social psychology

o ‘There is considerable variability in the degree to which attitudes predict behavior’

(Glasman & Albarracín, Psych. Bulletin, 2006)

• Why might job satisfaction be different?

o Job satisfaction may be more salient (personal) than typical social attitudes

o Principal source of identity in Western world

o reflected in doing (“what do you do?”) and being (surnames)

• Voor veel mensen is hun job een belangrijke bron van hun identiteit job satisfaction is

daarom de belangrijkste attitude die je kan hebben, want de meeste gedeelte van je

week spender je aan je job. Om dit weer te geven stellen we de vraag: ‘What do you do’

of ‘What are you’ om naar iemands job te vragen

1.3 Voorbeelden van een survey om job satisfaction te meten

1.3.1 The Face Scale of Job Satisfaction

• Respondenten moeten het vakje onder het gezicht kleuren dat uitdrukt: ‘How do you

feel about your job in general, including work, pay, the supervisor, the opportunities

for promotion, people you work with.

• Zeer algemene vragenlijst

• Bruikbaar bij jobs waar de werknemers niet goed kunnen lezen, want hier maak je

gebruik van een niet-verbale schaal

1.3.2 Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

• Alleen data, meet alleen de 5 facetten

1.3.3 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)

• Meet 20 facetten

• Grote vragenlijst, neemt zeer veel tijd in beslag

2. Job characteristics

2.1 Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldman, 1975)

2.2 Motivating Potential Score (MPS) from the Job Diagnostic Survey

• = a predictive index that suggests the motivating potential in a job

• We can combine the core dimensions of the JMC into a single predictive index (MPS)

• MPS = (Skill variety + task identity + task significance / 3) x autonomy x feedback

o Vb. ‘Mijn werk biedt veel afwisseling’, ‘Mijn werk kan beslissingen beïnvloeden die

aanzienlijk effect hebben op de organisatie’

• O-NET: een beschrijving van jobs

o Je voert een job in en je krijgt een lijst van info over de work styles, work values, …

3. Social Information Processing • Volgens Locke’s Value-Percept Theory kan arbeidstevredenheid worden gemodelleerd

door de formule:

o Satisfaction = (want - have) x importance

• Defenitie Locke: de waarden van individuen bepalen wat je van je job vindt

o Wat je wil van de job en de graad waarin je dat hebt bepalen satisfaction

• Geen sterke relatie tussen loon en job satisfaction

o Low paid people soms zelf hoger dan high paid

• Van de big 5: relatie is heel hoog bij sommige: neuroticisme en extraversie bepalen job

satisfaction

4. Dispositions • JS en PH kenmerken zoals bv. big 5 correleren hoog

• Deze studie had veel effect: waarom zouden we moeite doen om een job beter te maken

als de job satisfaction toch wordt bepaald door karakter?

Afbeelding: managers

hoger dan customer

service representative,

want manager heeft

meer skill variety, meer

autonomie, …

5. Consequenties job dissatisfaction • Je hebt verschillende reacties op dissatisfaction: (wat doen wn’ers als ze ontevreden zijn?)

o ACTIVE:

▪ VOICE: zoek oplossingen voor problemen, spreken met supervisors, …

▪ EXIT: ontslag nemen

o PASSIVE:

▪ LOYALTY: je bent loyaal aan onderneming, maar onderneemt geen actie

▪ NEGLECT: je maakt de situatie erger, verzuim, te laat komen, …

• Mobley’s model of the turnover process: probeert te

verklaren hoe het proces dat tot turnover leidt gaat

o Job withdrawal: ze komen niet opdagen

o Non job related factors: bv. je kan niet verhuizen voor

een andere job omdat je kinderen naar een bepaalde

school gaan

▪ Organisaties proberen zoveel mogelijk turnover te

verminderen door hoger loon, meer voordelen, …

• Tabel 1: waar hoge job satisfaction allemaal aan

gerelateerd is

6. Commitment

➢ Dominerend perspectief: three component model

6.1 Three component model (Allen & Meyer, 1990)

• Affective commitment: weerspiegelt commitment op basis van emotionele banden die

de medewerker met de organisatie ontwikkelt, voornamelijk via positieve

werkervaringen

o Bv. ‘I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organisation’ of ‘I

do not feel like part of the family at my organization’

• Normative commitment: weerspiegelt commitment gebaseerd op waargenomen

verplichtingen jegens de organisatie, bijvoorbeeld geworteld in de normen van

wederkerigheid

o Bv. ‘I think that people these days move from company to company too often’ or ‘I

was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one organization’

• Continuance commitment: weerspiegelt commitment op basis van de waargenomen

kosten, zowel economische als sociale , van het verlaten van de organisatie

o ‘I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without having another one

lined up’ or ‘It wouldn’t be too costly for me to leave my organization now’

• Tabel 1: hypothetical profiles of affective and continuance commitment

o Correlaties van deze 3 componenten met outcomes

o Andere studie: je moet niet enkel naar correlaties kijken maar ook naar profielen en

karakteristieken van personen

o De free agents gaan niet weg omdat de CC te hoog is en de complacement gaan niet

weg omdat de affective commitment te hoog is

• 4 clusters van profielen van werknemers

o AC = affective commitment (mensen voelen zich verbonden)

o CC = continuance commitment (krijgen bepaalde voordelen)

van zodra free agents hun ‘voordeel’ hoger zien bij een andere organisatie: turnover

7. Multilevel perspectives

8. Workforce and cultural values

8.1 Values

• Basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end- state of existence is personally

or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of

existence.”

• Mensen hebben vaak een stabile beeld over hoe de wereld in elkaar zit

• Er zijn verschillende dominante werkwaarden overheen generaties:

• Generation me

o = ‘Zijn er veranderingen in karaktertrekken en waarden?’ more selfish, change in

work performance

▪ Kritiek: niet populatie-representatief, geen waarneembare verschillen in zelfrespect

op de middelbare school, bespreking van artikelformulering (items die vragen naar

relatieve status)

8.2 Workforce trends (Twenge & Campbell, 2008)

• Narcissisme = narcisten geloven dat ze beter zijn dan anderen en emotionele warme en

zorgzame relaties missen, voortdurend aandacht zoeken en veel waarde hechten aan

materiele rijkdom en fysieke verschijning

o The Narcissism Epidemic: normaalverdeeld, meer opgeschoven naar rechts

8.3 High versus low context cultures

• High context culture: cultuur bepaalt deels wat mensen doen

(collectivisme)

• Low context culture: mensen kunnen bijna alles doen wat ze

willen, er is weinig standaard (individualisme)

8.4 Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory

• Core dimension: individualism collectivism

8.4.1 Power distance (high versus low)

• Beschrijft de mate waarin mensen in een land accepteren dat macht in instellingen en

organisaties ongelijk verdeeld is

o High rating: er bestaan grote ongelijkheden van macht en rijkdom en worden

getolereerd in de cultuur zoals in kastenstelsel dat opwaartse mobiliteit ontmoedigt

o Low rating: kenmerkt maatschappijen die gelooft in gelijke kansen/opportuniteiten

voor iedereen

8.4.2 Individualism versus collectivism

• Individualism: de mate waarin mensen er de voorkeur aan geven op te treden als

individuen in plaats van als leden van groepen en boven alles in individuele rechten

geloven

• Collectivisme: benadrukt een strak sociaal kader waarin mensen verwachten dat

anderen in groepen waarvan zij deel uitmaken voor hen zorgen en hen beschermen

8.4.3 Masculinity versus feminity

• Hofstede’s constructie van mannelijkheid is de mate waarin de cultuur de voorkeur

geeft aan de traditionele mannelijke rollen zoals prestatie, macht en controle in

tegenstelling tot het beschouwen van mannen en vrouwen als gelijken

• Een hoge mannelijkheid: geeft aan er verschillende rollen zijn voor mannen en

vrouwen, waarbij mannen domineren

• Een hoge vrouwelijkheid: wil zeggen dat de cultuur weinig onderscheid ziet tussen

mannelijke en vrouwelijke rollen en vrouwen in alle opzichten als de gelijken van

mannen worden beschouwt

8.4.4 Uncertainty avoidance

• De mate waarin mensen in een land de voorkeur geven aan gestructureerd boven

ongestructureerde situaties bepaalt hun onzekerheid

• Hoge onzekerheid: maken zich meer zorgen over onzekerheid en ambiguïteit en

gebruiken de wetten en controles om onzekerheid te verminderen

• Lage onzekerheid: accepteren meer ambiguïteit, zijn minder regelgericht, nemen meer

risico’s en accepteren verandering sneller

8.4.5 Long term versus short term orientation

• De nieuwste toevoeging aan de typologie van Hofstede meet de toewijding van de

samenleving aan traditionele waarden

• Lange termijn: kijken naar de toekomst en waarderen zuinigheid,

doorzettingsvermogen en traditie

• Korte termijn: waarderen het hier en nu, ze accepteren verandering sneller en zien

verplichtingen niet als belemmeringen voor verandering

Emoties

1. Levels you can differentiate when you look at emotions • Emoties kan je op 5 verschillende levels bestuderen. Voor ons is level 2 het belangrijkste

2. Within person • Vroeger werd er niet over emoties gesproken. Men ging ervan uit dat mens homo-

economicus was, die rationeel handelt

• Sluitende definitie emoties is moeilijk

• Onderscheid tussen 3 termen:

o Affect: a broad range of feelings that people experience

o Emotions: intense, discrete and short lived feeling experiences that are often caused

by a specific event

o Mood: feelings that tend to be longer lived and less intense than emotions and that

lack a contextual stimulus

• Emoties kunnen vaak geuit worden in facial expressions, mensen hebben er weinig

controle over, ze kunnen het wel faken. Een getraind oog ziet of emoties oprecht zijn of

niet

• Twee delen van het gezicht die je niet autonoom onder controle hebt: spiertjes rond de

ogen (obicularis oculi) en spiertjes rond de wangen (zygomatic major)

• Verschillende classificaties: 6 basisemoties

1. Anger

2. Fear

3. Sadness

4. Happiness

5. Disgust

6. Surprise

2.1 Structure van mood

2.2 Simplified Emotional Hierarchy (adapted from Fischer et al., 1990)

• Twee dimensies: positief en negatief

o Positief basis componenten: love and joy

o Negatief basis componenten: anger, sadness and fear

• PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule): kan je gebruiken om te laten invullen

door mensen om erachter te komen hoe ze zich voelen op dat moment

2.3 Mood change over time

• Our moods are affected by the time of day

o Negative moods show very little variation over the day

o Positive moods peaks during the middle part of the day

• Our moods are affected by the day of the week

o Negative moods are highest on Sundays and Mondays and fall throughout the week

o Positive moods are highest at the end of the week

2.4 Affective Events Theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996)

• Personal dispositions: persoonlijke factoren die het omgaan met emoties beïnvloeden

• Affect driven behaviours: dingen die je puur op affect beslist bv. iemand spontaan

helpen

• Bevindingen studie: positieve events hebben geen direct effect op ‘end of the day

fatigue’ terwijl veel negatieve events wel een invloed hebben op vermoeidheid, vooral

als er geen positieve events zijn

2.1.1 AET: The Effect of Positive Events at Work on After-Work Fatigue: They Matter Most in

Face of Adversity

• They find that positive evenst do not have a direct effect on end of day fatigue.

However, they found an interaction effect. In case there are many negative events or

high chronic social stressors, the amount of positive events becomes important. As you

can see when there are few negative events (the black line) positive events have little

impact on fatigue. However when there are many negtaive events (the grey line) there

is a strong negative relaiton between positive events and fatigue.

3 Between persons • Trait affect: sommige mensen ervaren gemiddeld meer positieve/negatieve emoties.

o Positive affect: “the tendency to experience more positive emotions and affective states →

correleert hoog met neurotiscisme

o Negative affect: “the tendency to experience more negative emotions and affective states

→ meta-analyse van ≠ PH predictors van job satisfactie

3.1 Emotional Intelligence

• = ‘The ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist

thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate

emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth’ (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)

o Differentiated from personality measures on theoretical basis

o Differentiated from impression management by emotion focus

o Capable of being changed

• Verschillende definities, maar verschillend van persoonlijkheidsmetingen

• Verschillend van ‘impression management by emotional focus’

• Hoog IQ en hoog EQ zijn gecorreleerd, dus het is niet zo dat als je een laag IQ hebt dat je

per definitie een hoog EQ hebt

• Measure emotional intelligence: MSCEIT, ERP-R and cascading model of EI

o MSCEIT

▪ Branch 1: Emoties waarnemen en identificeren: het vermogen om te herkennen

hoe jij en de mensen om je heen voelen

▪ Branch 2: Faciliteren van emoties, emoties gebruiken

▪ Branch 3: Emoties verstaan

▪ Branch 4: Emoties beheren

o ERP-R (Emotional Regulation Profile – Revised)

▪ Het doel van deze vragenlijst is om te bepalen hoe je gewoonlijk op verschillende

emotionele situaties reageert. Je moet elk scenario een reactie kiezen die het

meest op je eigen reactie lijkt.

o A Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence

▪ Classificeren van emoties in een cascade model

▪ People who know their own emotions and are good at reading emotional cues are

most likely to be effective

▪ Self-report had een goede voorspellende waarde, maar hier is kritiek op want men

zegt soms dat je Emotionele Intelligentie niet kan meten adhv self-report (niet

objectief)

➢ Cascading model of Emotional intelligence (EI) is based on the ability EI concept by

Mayer and Salovey and incorporates three subfacets of performance based EI

1. Emotion perception

2. Emotion understanding

3. Emotion regulation

4 Interpersonal interactions • Emotional labor (the managed heart): a situation in which an employee expresses

organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work

4.1 Types of emotions

• Felt: the individual’s actual emotions

• Displayed: required or appropriate emotions

o Surface Acting: Hiding one’s inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in

response to display rules.

▪ Je toont emoties die je niet echt voelt en verbergt hoe je er echt over denkt. Je

kan dat doen maar meestal valt het op want je hebt geen volledige controle over

je gezichtspieren

o Deep Acting: Trying to modify one’s true inner feelings based on display rules

▪ De emoties die je toont voel je ook echt. Proberen om je binnenste gevoelens aan

te passen zodat je gezicht daar automatisch op afstemt wordt bv. de klant als een

kind voorstellen die je moet helpen

4.2 Costs and benefits of emotional labor

• Costs

o Displaying emotions we don’t really feel can be exhausting

o Surface acting is associated with increased stress and decreased job satisfaction

o Daily surface acting can also lead to emotional exhaustion at home, work and family

conflict, absenteeism and insomnia

o Long term emotional dissonance is a predictor for burn-out, declines in job

performance and lower job satisfaction

• Benefits

o Deep acting has a positive relationship with job satisfaction (especially when the

work is challenging), job performance and even better customer treatment and tips

Gevolgen van surface acting

en deep acting

o Surface acting:

▪ Ill-being

▪ Lower task

performances

o Deep acting:

▪ Personal Ill-being not

affected

▪ Positive correlation met

customer satisfaction

4.3 Andere studie

• Studie bij 151 Duitse studenten voor

leraar

• Resultaten:

o Surface acting strain (overbelasting)

o Deep acting good performance

• Sommige mensen doen tegelijkertijd

aan surface en deep acting maar

meestel neigen ze naar 1 kant

• Jobs met veel emotional demands (veel

emotional labour), vaak niet goed

betaald en vaak uitgevoerd door

vrouwen

o Typische burn-out jobs zijn de jobs met veel emotionall labour, prevalentie groter bij

vrouwen dan mannen

• Jobs met veel cognitieve demands, vaal goed betaald en vaak uitgevoerd door mannen

5 Groups and Organization-wide • Emotional contagion (emotionele besmetting)

o ‘… the tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize facial expressions,

vocalizations, postures and movements with those of another person and,

consequently, to converge emotionally’

▪ Underlying idea is that we automatically mimick someone elses facial expressions

and that mimicking this expressions makes us feel the same emotion (facial

feedback hypothesis)

• The ‘climate’ of one person spills over to another (emotional contagion)

o ‘Years ago, shortly before Wharton Management Associate Professor Sigal Barsade

went to graduate school, she worked in a group that included a curmudgeonly, crabby

coworker. Since Barsade wasn't working closely with "Crabby," she assumed this

woman had no effect on her life. That is, until Crabby went on vacation. "The group

became a much more sociable and pleasant place to be," recalls Barsade, an associate

professor of management. "Then, when she returned the next week, everybody got

uptight again. I remember how striking it was. It wasn't that she was telling us what to

do, but just the way she was in the workplace that was influencing others.’

• The ripple effect: substantial evidence on emotional contagion in an experiment involving

business students engaged in a group decision making exercise

Motivational theories

Definition of Motivation (IDPE) • = we define motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction

and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

• Twee stromingen in motivatie:

o Kanfer, 2012: How you strive for your goals / cognitieve aanpak

▪ ‘In the narrow sense, the study of work motivation examines the psychological

processes and mechanisms by which individuals form and commit to work-related

goals, formulate plans for goal accomplishment, allocate personal and social resources

across a range of possible actions, and regulate thoughts, behaviours, and affect for

the purpose of goal attainment.’

o Pinder, 1998: Energetic forces

▪ ‘A set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s

being to initiate work-related behaviour and to determine its form, direction, intensity,

and duration.’

General frameworks/Overviews

1. Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation

• We begin by explicitly recognizing that opportunities can either aid or hinder individual

effort. The individual effort box on the left also has another arrow leading into it, from

the person’s goals. Consistent with goal-setting theory, the goals-effort loop is meant to

remind us that goals direct behaviour. The model also considers achievement motivation,

job design, reinforcement and equity theories/organizational justice.

• A high achiever are internally driven as long as their jobs provide them with personal

responsibility, feedback and moderate risks. They are not concerned with the effort

performance, performance rewards or reward goal linkages.

2. Three C Framework (Kanfer et al. 2008) ➢ In principe: interactie tussen persoon-situatie met invloeden op meerdere niveaus

➢ We kunnen in het onderzoek naar motivatie naar drie verschillende thema’s kijken:

1. Context: hoe omgeving motivatie beïnvloedt

a. Cultural/non-work context

b. Socio Technical work context: vooral hier ligt focus op bij IO psychology

2. Content: waarom mensen dingen doen

a. Cognitie, persoonlijkheid

b. Genetische/biologisch aspect

3. Change: het positieve/nieuwe aan deze theorie is dat je nu ook kan kijken naar

indirecte uitgestelde effecten door de toevoeging van de tijds/change dimensie

Historical roots of motivational theories

1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

• Valt onder de Rogeriaanse psychologie, veel kritiek op dit model

• Within every human being there is a hierarchy of five needs. As each needs becomes

substantially satisfied the next one becomes dominant (veel kritiek op)

2. Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor, 1960)

• Outdated (Theory X), Assumptions about people at work:

1. Most people dislike work, they avoid it when they can

2. Most people must be coerced and threatened with punishment before they will work.

People require close direction when they are working

3. Most people actually prefer to be directed. They tend to avoid responsibility and

exhibit little ambition. They are interested only in security

mensen houden er niet van om te werken, je moet ze laten werken door ze te belonen

of te straffen. Ze werken alleen om geld te verdienen, houden niet van

verantwoordelijkheid

• Modern (Theory Y), Assumptions about people at work:

1. Work is a natural activity, like play or rest

2. People are capable of self-direction and self-control if they are committed to

objectives

3. People generally become committed to organizational objectives if they are rewarded

for doing so

4. The typical employee can learn to accept and seek responsibility

5. The typical member of the general population has imagination, ingenuity, and

creativity

mensen houden van werken, ze willen zich ontwikkelen, ze streven naar verbetering,

willen de organisatie beter maken

3. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory or Two-Factor Theory (1959)

• = A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors

with dissatisfaction

o Intrinsic factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibility and achievement seem

related to job satisfaction. Respondent who felt good about their work tended to

attribute these factors to their situations while dissatisfied respondents tended to cite

extrinsic factors such as supervision, pay, company policies and work conditions

• Twee-factor theorie maakt onderscheid tussen:

o Motivators: if we want to motivate people on their jobs we should emphasize factors

associated the work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it such as

promotional opportunities, personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibilities

and achievement. These are the characteristics people finds intrinsically rewarding

o Hygiene factors: conditions such as quality if supervision, pay, company policies,

physical work conditions, relationships with others and job security are hygiene

factors. When they’re adequate people will not be dissatisfied neither will they be

satisfied

• Vier mogelijke combinaties:

o Hoge hygiëne + hoge motivatie: de ideale situatie waarin werknemers zeer

gemotiveerd zijn en weinig klachten hebben.

o Hoge hygiëne + lage motivatie: werknemers hebben weinig klachten, maar zijn niet erg

gemotiveerd. De taak wordt gezien als een salaris.

o Lage hygiëne + hoge motivatie: medewerkers zijn gemotiveerd maar hebben veel

klachten. Een situatie waarin het werk spannend en uitdagend is, maar salarissen en

werkomstandigheden niet in orde zijn.

o Lage hygiëne + lage motivatie: dit is de slechtste situatie waarin werknemers niet

gemotiveerd zijn en veel klachten hebben

• Contrasting view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

o The data suggests that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing

dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying.

Herzberg proposed a dual continuum: the opposite of ‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’

and the opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisfaction’

Context themes in motivation

1. Job Characteristics Model

• Three C Framework: Context

• Motivating by Job Design: the way elements in a job are organized

• Job Characteristics Model (JCM): describes jobs in terms of five core job dimensions

(Hackman & Oldman, 1975)

1. Skill variety: the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities

2. Task identity: the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and

identifiable piece of work

3. Task significance: the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or

work of other people

4. Autonomy: the degree to which a job provides freedom and discretion

5. Feedback: the degree to which the individual obtains direct and clear information

about the effectiveness of his performance

o Examples:

• Ways to put the JCM into practice to make jobs more motivating Job redesign:

o Job enlargement: adding tasks to a job in accordance with the job specification

o Job rotation: the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another

o Job enrichment: adding high-level responsibilities to a job to increase intrinsic motivation

• Guidelines for enriching a job

2. Organizational justice

2.1 Model of organizational justice

• = Is concerned more broadly with how employees feel authorities and decision makers

at work treat them. For the most part employees evaluate how fairly they are treated

o Distributive justice: perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards

among individuals

o Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the process used to determine the

distribution of rewards

o Interactional justice: the degree to which employees are provided truthful

explanations for decisions

• Employees care about two other types of fairness that have to do with the way they are

treated during interactions with others:

o Informational justice: the degree to which employees are provided truthful

explanations for decisions

o Interpersonal justice: the degree to which employees are treated with dignity and

respects

2.2 Equity theory

• = a theory stating that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of

others and then respond to eliminate any inequities

• Consequences based on equity theory employees who perceive inequity will make

one of six choices:

1. Change inputs: input veranderen

bv. meer werken indien overpaid of minder werken indien underpaid

2. Change outcomes: uitkomst veranderen

bv. onderhandelen over loon

3. Distort perceptions of self: perceptie over jezelf aanpassen

bv. ik word dan wel slechts betaald, maar mijn buurman verdient nog minder dan mij

4. Distort perceptions of others: perceptie over anderen aanpassen

bv. Jan zijn job is toch niet zo aantrekkelijk dan ik initieel dacht

5. Choose a different referent: een ander referentiepunt kiezen

bv. Ik mag dan wel niet zoveel verdienen als mijn buurman, maar ik verdien nu meer

dan mijn vader vroeger.

6. Leave the field: iets complete anders, nieuw doen bv. ontslag nemen

• The referent choice an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory.

There are four referent comparisons:

1. Self-inside: an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s

current organisation

als de WN zijn huidige positie vergelijk met een vorige functie die hij had binnen

hetzelfde bedrijf

2. Self-outside: an employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the

employee’s current organization

de WN vergelijkt zichzelf met zichzelf bij een andere organisatie

3. Other-inside: another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s

organizations

als je jezelf vergelijkt met andere WN binnen dezelfde organisatie

• Equity: als je hetzelfde werk doet als een

ander en ook beiden hetzelfde verdient

of als iemand meer verdient maar ook

meer doet

• Overrewarded: als je meer betaald

wordt voor hetzelfde werk

• Underrewarded: als je minder betaald

wordt voor hetzelfde werk

4. Other-outside: another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s

organization

als je jezelf vergelijkt met andere WN buiten de eigen organisatie

• Hoe inequity oplossen?

o Input veranderen (meer/minder werken)

o Outcome veranderen (onderhandelen over loon)

o Perceptie over jezelf aanpassen

o Perceptie over anderen aanpassen

• Caveat

o Over rewarding does not really affect work behaviour

o Differences in equity-sensitivity between people

o Preference for lower input-output rations than referents in some people

• Greenberg: als je iets oneerlijks (injustice) doet met werknemers creëert dit veel

slapeloosheid (AV = insomnia)

3. Expectancy theory, self-determination theory & pay

3.1 Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964)

• = A theory stating that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the

strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the

attractiveness of that outcome to the individual

• The theory focuses on three relationships:

o Expectancy: the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount

of effort will lead to performance

o Instrumentality: the degree to which the individual believes performing at a

particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome

o Valence: the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individuals personal

goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual

• How to pay: rewarding individual employees through variable pay programs (different

reward methods/pay models):

• Mensen tonen effort

Dit leidt tot

performance Dit

zorgt voor rewards

waardoor je je personal

goals kan bereiken

• Idee: rewarding people

leads to more

performance bv. bonus

1 2 3

Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP)

A company-established benefits plan which employees acquire stock, often at below market prices, as part of their benefits - Increase employee satisfaction and innovation

Piece-rate pay plan A pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed

- Piece rate plans are known to produce higher productivity and wages

- In the work place employees most likely to be motivated are managers and more tenured workers. Low performing workers not interested because they won’t get paid much

- Limitation is that they’re not feasible for many jobs

Merit-based pay plan A pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings

- An advantage is that high performers can get bigger raises - A limitation is that they are typically based on an annual

performance appraisal, which are often subjective (discrimination)

- Another limitation is that the pay raise pool of available funds fluctuates on economic or other conditions that have little to do with individual performance

Profit-sharing plan An organization wide program that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability - Higher levels of employee commitment, especially in small

organizations - Positive impact on employee attitude, greater feeling of

psychological ownership

Bonus A pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance - The incentive effects should be higher than those of merit

pay because, rather than paying for previous performance bonus reward recent performance

- Bonusses motivate the workers - Splitting bonusses into categories may increase motivation - Limitation: they leave employees pay more vulnerable to

cuts

Skill-based pay A pay plan that sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do

Variable-pay program A pay plan that bases a portion if an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance

3.2 Self determination theory

• Self-determination theory: a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial

effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

Change themes

1. Aging

• Increasing workforce diversity

• Workers 45-70 will make up an increasing larger segment of the available workforce

(vergrijzing)

• Not very much research on motivation of older workers

• Effort & Performance model (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004)

o Bij een job waar vooral fluid intelligence (Gf) gebruikt wordt: zelfs al heb je heel veel effort,

dan is de performance nog steeds minder goed als iemand jonger die evenveel effort doet

o Vooral chrystallized intelligence (Gc): oudere werknemers hebben hogere performance

wanneer hun effort even hoog is als een jongere werknemer (meer ervaring)

- For individuals it means you should choose

your job for reasons other than extrinsic

rewards

- For organizations it means managers should

provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives

2. Goal setting theory

• = a theory stating that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher

performances

• Characteristics of well set goals:

o Specific goals increase performance

o Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals

o Feedback leads to higher performance than does non feedback

• Joint effects of goals and self-efficacy on performance

o Employees whose managers set difficult goals for them have a higher level of self-

efficacy and set higher goals for their own performance. Why? Setting difficult goals

for people communicates your confidence in them

▪ Self-efficacy: an individual’s belief that he is capable of performing a task

• Goal-setting, goal commitment & self-efficacy

• Goal-setting: SMART (waar een goal aan moet voldoen)

o Specific

o Measurable

o Attainable

o Relevant

o Place within a Time-frame

• Galatea effect on motivation

o Galatea effect: High self-expectations lead to high performance je denkt dat je veel

kan bereiken

▪ Expectancies: communicated by an interview (auditors in an accounting firm)

▪ Motivation: positive effects on self-efficacy and motivation, temporary positive

effects on job performance

• Management by objectives (MOB) (utilize goal setting)

o = a program that encompass specific goals, participatively set for an explicit time

period with feedback on goal progress

▪ Kritiek: goals may cause systematic problems in organisations due to narrowed

focus, increased risk taking, unethical behaviour, inhibited learning, decreased

cooperation and decreased intrinsic motivation. Use care when applying goals in

your organization

3. Self-efficacy

3.1 Efficacy-performance/motivation controversy (Vancouver et al., 2008)

• One’s belief in the capacity to perform some action (Bandura, 1997)

o Positive model: the higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your

ability to succeed

o Discontinuous model: als je self-efficacy laag is geen motivatie, vanaf een bepaald

punt ga je wel motivatie hebben MAAR als self-efficacy te hoog is ‘Ik ga toch

slagen op dat examen’ motivatie (hier: om te leren) lager

o Inverted U-model: ongeveer hetzelfde als discontinuous model maar daar is er een

plotselinge verandering

• ‘ Sweet spot’ in efficacy/motivation relationship

Content themes/factors of motivation

1. Personality: big 5 traits (B5)

1.1 Conscientiousness

• Meten via Five-Factor model

o Achievement striving

o Dependability (betrouwbaarheid)

• People who score in the average range

o Tend to be dependable, moderately well-organized

o Generally have clear goals but are able to set your work aside

• People who score above average

o Tend to be conscientious and well-organized

o Have high standards and always strive to achieve goals

• People who score below average

o Tend to be easygoing, not very well-organized, sometimes careless

o Prefer not to make plans.

2. Core self-evaluations (CSE)

• Core self-evaluations (CSE) are individuals’ fundamental evaluations of their worthiness

and competence (to perform, cope, persevere, and succeed)

• Indicated by at least four traits: self-esteem, locus of control, generalized self-efficacy,

and emotional stability

• CSE is broad factor that causes these measures to be correlated

• One can measure CSE as latent factor indicated by individual core traits, or use direct

measure: Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES)

• CSE and Job Performance

o This shows that very few high-CSES individuals are below-average performers, and

very few low-CSES individuals are above average performers

• CSE and Career Trajectories

o Careers (in form of pay [shown here], occupational prestige, job satisfaction, and

career Satisfaction) ascend more rapidly with the passage of time for those with high

CSE (+1 SD) than those with low CSE (-1 SD).

o Over 25 years, pay gap increases from $7,791 to $20,778

• CSE and Opportunities

o High CSE people profit more from parents’ occ. prestige

3. Myer-Briggs type indicator (MBTI)

• Extraversion (E) / Introversion (I): describes where people prefer to focus their

attention and get their energy from, either the outer world of people and activity or

their inner world of ideas and experiences

• Sensing (S) / Intuition (N): describes how people prefer to take in information, either

focused on what is real and actual or on patterns and meanings in data

• Thinking (T) / Feeling (F): describes how people prefer to make decisions, either based

on logical analysis or guided by concern for their impact on others

• Judging (J) / Perceiving (P): describes how people prefer to deal with the outer world,

either in a planned orderly way, or in a flexible spontaneous way

• Critique:

o Claims to be based on Carl Gustav Jungs’ work but this is questionable

o Classification may be too simple especially for people in the middle of the distribution

o Interpretation of the scales not scientifically supported (is an ESFJ really a good

hostess?)

o Forer/Barnum-Effect

Not a valid instrument!

4. Personality controversy in Industrial and Organizational Psychology

• Probleem: alles is gebaseerd op questionnaires

• Mensen zeiden dat persoonlijkheid niet nuttig is, correlaties zijn heel laag

• Mensen zeiden dat de big 5 en vragenlijsten gebruiken geen goede manier is om

motivatie te meten, we gebruiken het de hele tijd maar het is niet het beste dat we

hebben

5. Explicit motives

• What is a motive?

o ‘[…] the disposition to be concerned with and to strive for a certain class of incentives

or goals’

o ‘Wishes and desires’

• Explicit motives

o David McClelland preferred the term ‘self-attributed motives’ or ‘values’

o Respondent behaviour in response to social incentives and other factors extrinsic to

the activity

o Example: Teacher asks class who wants to do extra work. Those who believe that they

are achievement motivated/want to appear motivated react (explicit motive)

o Cognitive concept of motivation

o Example of Explicit Achievement Motivation Items (AMS-R)

▪ HS = Hope for success

▪ FF = Fear of failure

5.1 McClelland’s Theory of Needs (Robbins & Judge)

• Need for Achievement: ‘The drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of

standards, and to strive to succeed.’

• Need for Power: ‘The need to make others behave in a way in which they would not

have behaved otherwise.’

• Need for Affiliation: ‘The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.’

These three needs explain motivation.

• Comparison: Hogan states the needs getting ahead [status, power, control], getting

along [attention, approval, acceptance], and finding meaning [predictability and order in

everyday lives] as main motivators

6. Implicit motives

• Base: Motives cannot be measured by questionnaires (because people cannot directly

report motives)

• Activated by factors intrinsic to the activity

• Predict “free” or operant behaviour

• Three major dimensions:

o Power (hiërarchie, al er iemand een hogere positie heeft)

o Affiliation (mensen willen close zijn met andere mensen of hebben schrik om

afgewezen te worden)

o Achievement (bv. basketballen in de ring proberen gooien als niemand kijkt)

o Other relevant dimensions: Aggression

• Historical background: Henry Murray’s personology

o Multiform (many assessors, many tests)

o Life-cycle focus

o Needs (e.g., dominance, need for achievement, harm avoidance)

o Press (environmental facilitation or obstruction of a need)

o Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) or Picture Story Excercise: een foto krijgen en er een

verhaaltje rond verzinnen. De grote lijnen van het verhaal zouden iets moeten zeggen

over je impliciete motieven

• Testing implicit motives

o Picture Story Excercise = TAT

o Multi-Motive Grid

o Operant Motive Test (OMT): je toont de respondent een afbeelding en stelt hier

vragen over bv. wat voelt de persoon op de foto?

▪ OMT scoring

7. Channeling effects (Winters et al., 1998)

• Explicit traits (i.e., Big 5) allow the expression of implicit motives

• Interplay between personality traits and motives, which then results in behavior. Motives

alone are not enough, traits serve a channelling function for motive expression

• The expression of an explicit trait can have different reasons

o Noisy parties / social functions example

o People with a high affiliation motive may like to go to parties and social functions

because parties and social functions present an opportunity to establish and enjoy

relationships with others

o People with a low affiliation motive might also endorse the items because parties and

social functions are essentially impersonal events where one can easily avoid deeper

and closer conversations by walking away, getting a drink, and so forth.

8. Compensatory model of motivation (Kehr, 2004, AMR)

• The structural components of the model: implicit motives, explicit motives, and

perceived abilities

o Perceived ability: ‘an individual’s perception of the amount of actual control she or he

can exert over the environment’ (tot welk niveau ben ik competent?)

▪ Link to self-efficacy (Bandura)

▪ Expectancy (Vroom’s VIE)

• The functional processes:

o Volitional regulation: volition can be defined as an array of self-regulatory strategies to

support explicit action tendencies against competing behavioural impulses

(compensating for inadequate motivation)

o Problem solving: compensating for inadequate perceived abilities. Je kan als oplossing

hiervoor coaching krijgen, networking, …

• Match tussen alle elementen: flow experience, heel goed in termen van motivatie, je

vindt leuk wat je doet

• Je hebt geen zin, wil iets niet doen: no motivation significance

• Model werkt zeer goed bij coaching!

9. Leadership motive pattern (Jacobs & McClelland, 1994)

• In order to be successful as a leader you need to have:

1. Cognitive preferences/goals:

‘what is important to me?

2. Routines: ‘what is my

knowledge/experience?

3. Affective preferences/wishes:

‘what do I like?’

4. Insufficient motivational

support

5. Suppress unwanted implicit

impulses

1 3

2

5 4

o High power motive

o Low need for affiliation

o High activity inhibition (socialized power), aka self-control

10. Leader taxonomy

• Dit gebruiken om het succes van een VS president te voorspellen

• Door speeches te coderen en analyseren

• Achievement motive: niet goed (mensen die hier hoog in scoren zijn heel idealistisch, kan

slecht zijn in politiek, soms is het daar gewoon moeilijk om een doel te bereiken)→

reden waarom business mensen vaak falen in politiek.

• High power: scoren hier beter op, zijn meer geïnteresseerd in het feit dat zij de baas zijn

ipv in de politiek (als ze toegeven bij een bepaald aspect in de politiek blijven ze de

baas, ze durven dingen toe te geven) MAAR: high power: hebben de neiging om oorlog te

starten

• Affiliation maakte niet echt iets uit bij de presidenten

• Achievement > power: beter in business,

• Achievement < power: beter in politiek (charismatische leider)

Team processes 1. What is a team

1.1 Work group and work team

• Work group = a group that interact primarily to share information make decisions and help

each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility

• Work team = a group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than

the sum of the individual inputs

1.2 Non-Independence (also: within-unit sharedness)

• Degree to which members of the same group are influenced by the group (aka each

other) in behaviour, affect, cognition, etc. (aka responses while being studied):

interdependence, clustering of responses

• ‘Observations may be dependent, for instance, because they share some common

feature, come from some common source, are affected by social interaction, or are

arranged spatially or sequentially in time.’ (Kenny & Judd, 1996, p. 138)

1.2.1 The Punctuated-Equilibrium model

• The stages in this model include the following:

1. The first meeting sets the group’s direction

2. The first phase of group activity is one of inertia and thus slower progress: the

group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action

3. A transition takes place exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time

4. This transition initiates major changes

5. A second phase of inertia follows the transition

6. The groups last meeting is characterises by markedly accelerated activity

1.3 Five stages of Group Development

• Forming: Het team is aanvankelijk bezig met oriëntatie. Teamleden gedragen zich

onafhankelijk. Zij kunnen gemotiveerd zijn, maar ze zijn ook tamelijk slecht

geïnformeerd over de doelstellingen van het team. Men is onzeker en bezorgd, maar zal

dit niet laten blijken. In deze fase is een dirigerende leiderschapsstijl gewenst.

Teamleden verwachten richting en duidelijkheid van de teamleider.

• Storming: Het team wint aan vertrouwen. Er ontstaan conflicten rond de manier van

samenwerken, interpersoonlijke kwesties en de doelen van het team. Frustratie of

onenigheden worden beetje bij beetje meer openlijk geuit. In het uiten van hun eigen

persoonlijkheden worden ze gehinderd door de angst om buiten de groep te vallen, en

gestimuleerd door de angst om zich teveel aan de groep aan te moeten passen. De

teamleider dient het team te begeleiden in deze moeilijke overgangsfase.

• Norming: Als het team de stormfase door is kan er op een meer volwassen manier

worden gepraat over de samenwerking. Men zal kritische punten niet meer ervaren als

een persoonlijke aanval maar als een constructieve, taakgerichte discussie. De regels,

waarden en normen van het team worden verder uitgewerkt. De doelmatigheid van het

team stijgt en ze begint met het ontwikkelen van een eigen identiteit. De samenwerking

zal in deze fase steeds soepeler gaan verlopen. De teamleider geeft in deze fase het

team meer autonomie, een participatieve stijl is wenselijk.

• Performing: Het projectteam functioneert nu als een echte eenheid. Het werken in het

team is plezierig en gaat als vanzelf. Teamleden hebben een duidelijk inzicht in de

doelen van het team en staan hier ook gezamenlijk achter.

• Adjourning: De taken van het team worden voltooid en het team wordt ontmanteld.

Door de angst om de groep te missen gaat men reeds voor het definitieve eind afstand

van elkaar nemen. Op deze manier maakt men het gemis van de groep meer dragelijk.

De motivatieniveaus van de teamleden zal waarschijnlijk dalen.

2. Research Perspectives

2.1 Socio-psychological perspective vs. Organizational perspective

• Social-psychological perspective:

o Interpersonal interaction is of primary interest

o Task is only a vehicle for interaction between group members

• Organizational perspective:

o Doing things

o Making decisions

o Task is central (taak domineert de groep interactie)

2.2 Input-Process-Outcome (IPO) vs. Multilevel Systems

2.2.1 Classic Input-Process-Outcome Perspective (McGrath, 1964, see Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006)

• Why are processes important to team effectiveness? Teams should create outputs

greater than the sum of their inputs. Group processes can have an impact on a group’s

actual effectiveness.

o Potential: wat mensen samen kunnen doen

o Process gains: 1 + 1 = 3

o Process losses: bv. ruzies

o Actual group effectiveness: hoe de process gains en de process losses in balans zijn

2.2.2 Multilevel systems perspective (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006)

• Team processes = Emergent

States

o Cognitive

o Motivational

o Behavioral

• Factors that shape

o Er zijn factoren die invloed

hebben op het team

proces (moderatoren)

3. Team Conformity & Group Think

3.1 Team conformity

3.2 Norms and behaviour

3.3 Group cohesiveness

• Cohesiveness: the degree to which group member are attracted to each other and are

motivated to stay in the group

o Group cohesiveness affect group productivity

▪ If norms for quality, output and cooperation with outsiders are high, a cohesive

group will be more productive than a less cohesive group

▪ If cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low

▪ If cohesiveness is low and performance norms are high, productivity increases but

less than in the high cohesiveness/high norms situation

▪ When cohesiveness and performance related norms are both low, productivity

tends to fall into the low to moderate range

• Onderzoek Asch: ‘Welke lijn komt overeen met X

qua lengte?’

o Wanneer alle pp hetzelfde fout antwoord kozen

koos het subject ook het foute antwoord

▪ We feel the pressure toward conformity with

group norms

▪ We don’t tend to like the pressure we feel to

conform

• Typology of deviant workplace

behaviour: voluntary behavior

that violates significant

organizational norms and, in so

doing, threatens the well-being

of the organizations or its

members

• Also called antisocial behaviour

or workplace incivility

Relationship between

group cohesiveness,

performance norms

and productivity

3.4 Group think (AKA: the most blamed concept when decisions go awry)

• Komt voor wanneer mensen elkaar onder druk zetten (de individuen in de groep kunnen

niet meer vrij denken). Komt voor als er een dominant lid is, of als iedereen dezelfde

optie kiest (Asch ~ conformiteit). Leden zeggen niet wat ze denken omdat ze denken dat

het een negatieve invloed zal hebben op de samenhang van de groep

o Bv. als er een survival expert in de groep zou zitten en heel zelfverzekerd de foute

antwoorden zou geven op een vragenlijst waar men survivalvragen moet oplossen zal

iedereen hem geloven

3.5 Group decision-making techniques: Interacting, Brainstorming and Nominal

• Interacting groups: typical groups in which members interact with each other face-to-face

• Brainstorming: an idea generation process

• Nominal group technique: a group decision making method in which individual

members meet face-to-face to pool their judgement in a systematic but independent

fashion

• Key roles of teams: we can identify nine

potential team roles. Successful work teams

have selected people to play all these roles

based on their skills and preferences

o Linker, creator, promoter, assessor,

organizer, producer, controller, maintainer

and adviser (pg. 368)

4. Motivational Team Processes

4.1 Team cohesion

• = a situation when team members are emotionally attached to one another and

motivated toward the team because of their attachment

• Definition by Festinger (1950): ‘the resultant of all the forces acting on the members to

remain in the group’

• Three facets (Festinger, 1950):

o Member attraction

o Group activities (i.e., task commitment)

o Prestige or group pride

4.2 Team efficacy

• = a team’s collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks (Gully et al., 2002)

• Team-efficacy is not simply the sum of the efficacy beliefs of individual members

o ‘Can we do this task?’ is different from the cognition of ‘Can I do this task?’

4.3 Team Potency vs. Team Efficacy

• Team (group) potency refers to a broader sense of team

o Across tasks and contexts (i.e., our team will be successful no matter what the task).

• Distinguishable on the basis of sharedness and task specifity

• Gully et al. provide this example:

o ‘members of an engineering team might believe that they can design a specific new

product (high team efficacy) but might not believe that they can effectively produce,

market, and sell the product (low potency).’

• Team potency verschillend van team efficacy het denken van ‘met deze groep kan ik

alles aan’ het team zal slagen in zijn doel, het maakt niet uit hoe moeilijk de taak is.

Gaat eerder over het potentieel dat het team heeft

4.4 Team conflict

• Jehn (1995) differentiated between task and relationship conflict:

o Task conflict: stimulate discussions, promote critical assessment of problems and

options and van led to better team decisions though it may not lead to more

innovative products (positive)

o Relationship conflict: based on interpersonal incompatibility, tension and animosity

toward others are almost always dysfunctional (negative)

4.5 Curvilinear Relationship (De Dreu, 2006)

• Meta-analyse over team conflict:

Moderate levels of task conflict during the

initial phases of team performances were

positively related to team creativity, but both

very low and very high levels of task conflict

were negatively related to team performance.

In other words both too much and too little

disagreement about how a team should

initially perform a creative task can inhibit

performance

• De Dreu: average task conflict may be

good, maar het is geen lineaire relatie (

curvilineaire relatie!) absoluut geen task

conflict is slechter dan een beetje task

conflict voor de innovatie (bv Kennedy)

5. Composition Models (Chan, 1998) • Non-independence: je verwacht dat de percepties van de individuele teamleden meer

gelijk/gedeeld zijn dan als je een random team zou samenstellen. Je hebt verschillende

individuele scores je verwacht niet al te veel variabiliteit

• Composition models = aggregate-level measures (team/group, department, division, …

bottom up, je gaat van het individuele niveau naar het groepsniveau)

• Possible differences between composition models:

o Data collection level: individual or aggregate

o Referent level: individual or aggregate

o Emergence process: composition, fuzzy-composition or compilation

o Assumption regarding within - unit agreement/sharedness

• 5 types of CMT main differences:

o How is individual level score aggregated to a group score?

o Which level is the reference on?

o Do members need to agree/share?

5.1 Five types

5.1.1 Selected Score Model

• Aggregated based on individual-level measures (using minimum or maximum scores

within units)

• Individual-level referent

• Inter-member agreement/sharedness is NOT needed

• Individual-level psychometric evidence (e.g., alpha)

• Examples:

o Most conscientious team member

o CEO’s educational background in TMT (top management team)

5.1.2 Summary Index Model (Additive or Pooled Unconstrained models)

• Aggregated based on individual-level measures (using average or sum of scores within

units)

• Individual-level referent

• Inter-member agreement/sharedness is NOT needed

• Individual-level psychometric evidence (e.g., alpha

• Examples:

o Team expertise (avg. team experience)

o Group goal orientation (avg. goal orientation in groups)

5.1.3 Consensus Model (Pooled Constrained model)

• Aggregated based on individual-level measures (using average or sum of scores within

units)

• Individual-level referent

• Inter-member agreement/sharedness IS needed

• Aggregate-level psychometric evidence (e.g., alpha)

• Examples:

o Psychological climate (e.g., “My work is challenging”)

o Group affective tone (e.g., “I am anxious at work”)

5.1.4 Referent Shift Model (Convergent model)

• Aggregated based on individual-level measures (using average or sum of scores within

units, or group-consensus method)

• Aggregate-level referent

• Inter-member agreement/sharedness IS needed

• Aggregate-level psychometric evidence (e.g., alpha)

• Examples:

o Group climate (e.g., “The work in our team is challenging”)

o Collective efficacy (e.g., “Our unit can successfully meet its work assignments”)

5.1.5 Dispersion Model (Configural model)

• Aggregated based on individual-level measures (using variance or some other pattern

index of within unit scores)

• Individual-level referent

• Inter-member agreement/sharedness NOT needed

• Individual-level psychometric evidence (e.g., alpha)

• Examples:

o Functional diversity (e.g., variance in team members’ KSAs)

o Climate strength (e.g., variance in climate perceptions in teams)

6. Behavioral Team Processes

6.1 Team Member Competencies

• Configuration of team member characteristics (ethnic, gender, etc.)

• Configuration of specific ‘teamwork’ competencies

• Configuration of team member traits

• Configuration of specific task relevant characteristics (knowledge, skills, abilities)

6.2 Trait Configurations

6.2.1 Individual vs. Team Level

• Important on the individual level does not necessarily mean important at the team

level

o In theory, good for the individual can mean bad for the team

6.2.2 Variance

• Effect of high or low variance (Humphreys et al., 2007)

o Supplementary fit: people are more comfortable and productive when they are

similar to others

▪ Supplementary fit in conscientiousness: wanneer erg grote verschillen zijn in

conscientiousness kan dit voor frustratie zorgen bij high-C individuen

o Complimentary fit: he or she brings something unique to the collective that ‘makes

it whole’

▪ Bij extraversion beter complimentary fit: ene meer spraakzaam dan de andere,

als iedereen extravert is in een team is het te druk in de groep

7. Cognitive Team Processes

7.1 Team cognition

• Shared mental models: Common knowledge among team members Compositional

emergence

• Transactive memory: Complete knowledge that is available and distributed among the

team members with awareness of who knows what Compilational emergence

• Complex measurement and a variety of measurement issues

7.2 Shared Mental Models

• The perception of, understanding of, or knowledge about a situation or process that is

shared among team members through communication = ‘Teams that perform well hold

shared mental models’

• Link netwerk: je kan zien wat met wat geassocieerd wordt en hoe sterk de connecties

zijn. Die data kan je op een bepaalde manier te weten komen. Woorden activeren

bepaalde nabij gelegen concepten → wanneer verschillende individuen éénzelfde

patroon vertonen: shared mental model

• TMS (transactive memory system): je brengt alles wat elk lid weet samen (alle kennis

die beschikbaar is). Er zijn bepaalde elementen nodig (bv de teamleden moeten

een lid geloven als die zegt dat hij/zij een ingenieur is) → alle kennis die in het team

beschikbaar is.

• DeChurch & Mesmer-Magnus: Transactive Memory is de beste predictor van

performance (dus om efficientie te verhogen: zorg er bv voor dat mensen zich ervan

bewust zijn dat een lid een expert in iets is.

8. Team-Research Across Levels • Multilevel framework: je hebt de mensen in de teams en je hebt de teams

o Typical psychology: er wordt enkel gekeken naar de individuen in het team

o Je moet altijd denken: disfunctioneel teamlid of team dat gewoon niet goed samenwerkt?

• Team level research: je doet onderzoek op groesniveau

o Justice climate (fairheid) is gecorreleerd met de productiviteit van een groep

o Work hours in een groep zijn negatief gecorreleerd met well-being

o Je kan nooit iets generaliseren van het individuele niveau naar groepsniveau

(Important on the individual level does not necessarily mean important at the team

level ) In theory, good for the individual can mean bad for the team

• Top down effect: het effect van het groepsniveau naar individueel niveau

o Bv. het klimaat in de groep beïnvloedt de individuele well-being

• Bottum up processes: bv. je hebt iets meegemaakt op individueel niveau wat beinvloedt

hoe je je team waarneemt

• Cross level moderation: bv. het klimaat in de groep beïnvloedt de relatie tussen

individuele werkuren en well being moderator je combineert de environment en een

relatie op individueel niveau

9. New Types of Teams

9.1 Four types of teams

• Problem solving teams: groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who

meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, …

• Self-managed work teams: groups of 10 to 15 employees who take on responsibilities

of their former supervisors

• Cross functional teams: employees from about the same hierarchical level but from

different work areas who come together to accomplish a task

• Virtual teams: teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed

members in order to achieve a common goal

9.2 Multi Team Systems (MTS)

• Mathieu et al. (2001) defined MTSs as follows: 'two or more teams that interface

directly and interdependently in response to environmental contingencies toward the

accomplishment of collective goals. MTS boundaries are defined by virtue of the fact

that all teams within the system, while pursuing different proximal goals, share at least

one common distal goal; and in doing so exhibit input, process and outcome

interdependence with at least on other team in the system.’

o Mensen uit verschillende teams moeten samenwerken om iets te verwezenlijken bv.

ziekenhuizen, de chirurg moet samenwerken met verpleegsters etc.

10. Team training: Example Team STEPP • Team STEPPS: Strategies and Tools to Enhance Performance and Patient Safety

10.1 Outcomes of Team Competencies

• Sentinel events = treatment errors: mensen die doodgaan in ziekenhuizen door

menselijke fout Oorzaak vaak communicatieve fout, hoe kunnen deze problemen

opgelost worden? Er zijn verschillende componenten die je kan trainen (zie afb.

driehoek) aan die aspecten werken om shared mental models te creëren → als je

attitude, skills en kennis kan beïnvloeden verhoog je team performance. Ontwikkeling

van een team training waar je moet proberen om een probleem te identificeren en op

te lossen

• Knowledge:

o Shared Mental

Model

• Attitudes

o Mutual Trust

o Team Orientation

• Performance:

o Adaptability

o Accuracy

o Productivity

o Efficiency

o safety

10.2 Teamwork actions

• High-performance teams create a safety net for your healthcare organization as you

promote a culture of safety:

o Recognize opportunities to improve patient safety

o Assess your current organizational culture and existing Patient Safety Program

components

o Identify teamwork improvement action plan by analyzing data and survey results

o Design and implement initiative to improve teamrelated competencies among your

staff

o Integrate TeamSTEPPS into daily practice.

10.3 TADMUS: Tactical Decision-making Under Stress

• Cross-Training (mensen in een andere positieve zetten om te begrijpen wat de person in

deze functie doet om beter te communiceren)

• Scenario-Based Training and Simulation (een situatie naspelen)

• Team Assessment (kijken wat er mis gaat)

• Stress Exposure Training, Team Coordination Training (CRM), Team Leader Training, Team

Dimensional Training, …

10.4 Eight Steps of Change

• Het is niet altijd gemakkelijk om grote veranderingen door te voeren proces om dat

geleidelijk aan te doen

Leadership and communication

1. Leadership

1.1 Definition

• Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set

of goals.

o Not all leaders are managers nor are all managers leaders formal rights do not

guarantee effective leadership!

o Non-sanctioned leadership (ability to influence outside the formal structures) is often

as important or more important than formal influence

▪ Non-sanctioned leadership: belangrijker dan sanctioned leadership, het gaat hier

om het beïnvloeden van mensen zonder ze te straffen

1.2 The forgotten ones: Ohio State Studies (behaviour) ➢ Oudere modellen die reeds achterhaald zijn maar in de praktijk nog steeds gebruikt

worden

• Behavioral approach

• Ohio studies in the 1940s (Stogdill, Startle, Hemphill)

• Two dimensions

o Consideration: Degree to which a leader shows concern and respect for followers

(people orientation)

▪ bv. helps with personal problems, is approachable, …

o Initiating structure: Degree to which a leader defines and organizes his role and the

role of followers, is oriented toward goal attainment, and defines well-defined

patterns and channels of communication (task orientation)

▪ bv. assigns tasks, sets standards for performance, emphasizes deadlines

1.2.1 Meta-analysys by Judge, Piccolo & Ilies (2004)

1.3 Fiedler‘s model (contingency)

1.3.1 The Fiedler Contingency Model

• Base: Performance of the group depends on the fit between leaders style and situation

(how much control?)

• According to this model the individual leadership style is assumed to be:

o Stable

o Can be task- or relationship-oriented

• We can assess the situation in terms of three contingency (situational) dimensions:

1. Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust and respect that

subordinates have in their leader

2. Task structure: the degree to which job assignments are regimented

3. Position power: influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the

organization, includes the power to fire, hire, promote, …

1.3.2 Leadership style according to Fiedler: The Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) measure

• Instructions: Think about the person with whom you can work least well. He or she may

be someone you work with now or someone you knew in the past. That person does not

have to be the person you like the least but should be the person with whom you had

the most difficulty in getting a job done. Describe this person as he or she appears to

you by circling the appropriate number for each of the following items

• An unfavourable situation (to the right): low leader-member relations, low task

structure and low position power. The favourable situation are on the left side of the

model.

• When faced with a category I, II, III, VII or VIII situation task oriented leaders perform

better

• Relationship oriented leaders perform better in moderately favourable situations,

categories IV, V and VI

1.4 Leader-Member-Exchange (LMX) Theory

• = a theory that supports leaders creation of ingroups and outgroups, subordinates with

ingroup status have higher performance ratings, less turnover and greater job

satisfaction

• Leaders‘ relationships to individual followers can differ (and are relatively stable):

varying amount of trust, attention, information, support, etc. directed at individuals; in

turn varying amount of commitment, loyalty, performance etc. received

• Better leader-member-exchange leads to better outcomes

• Divisive: ingroup and outgroup

o Ingroup: they are trusted, get more attention of the leader and are more likely to receive

special privileges

o Outgroup: other followers fall into the outgroup

1.5 Full range model

1.5.1 Charismatic leadership

• Charismatische leider (Max weber): ‘exceptionele’ kwaliteiten, je weet niet waarom

maar de persoon is heel succesvol, heeft ‘iets’

• Latere definitie van charismatische leider:

1. Vision and articulation: has a vision that proposes a future better than the status

quo, and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are

understandable to others

2. Personal risk: willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs and engage in

self-sacrifice to achieve the visions

3. Sensitivity to follower needs: perceptive of others abilities and responsive to their

needs and feeling

4. Unconventional behaviour: engages in behaviours that are perceived as novel and

counter to norms

1.5.2 Transformational Leadership

• = leaders who inspire, act as role models and intellectually stimulate, develop or

mentor their followers thus having a profound and extraordinary effect on them

• 4 core dimensions (the 4 I’s)

o Idealized influence

Provides vision and sense of mission, instils pride, gains respect and trust

o Inspirational motivation

Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses

important purposes in simple ways

o Intellectual stimulation

Promotes intelligence, rationality and careful problem solving

o Individualized consideration

Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises

1.5.3 Transactional leadership

• = leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by

clarifying role and task requirements

• 4 core dimensions:

o Contingent Reward

Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance,

recognizes accomplishments

o Management-by-Exceptions (MbE) Active

Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective

actions

o Management-by-Exceptions (MbE) Passive

Intervenes only if standards are not met

o Laissez-faire

Abdicates responsibilities, avoids makings decisions

1.5.4 Full range leadership model

• = a model that depicts 7 managements styles on a continuum: laissez-faire,

management by exception, contingent reward leadership, individualized consideration,

intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized influence

1.5.4.1 Meta-analysis by Judge & Piccolo (2004)

1.5.4.2 Ling et al (2008): CEO Transformational leadership and firm size

1.6 Big 5 (trait)

• Conscientiousness voorspelt job performance het beste, extraversion voorspelt dit een

beetje

• Extraversie: belangrijk voor transformational leadership, voor de rest weinig correlaties

o Idee dat persoonlijkheid leiderschapsstijl voorspelt is niet zo goed ondersteund

• Idee dat je een leider niet kan trainen, dat je gewoon de juiste persoon moet kiezen

o Wordt niet echt ondersteund

1.6.1 Case study example

‘Adam Baker had been bothered all day by the blunt message his boss and mentor,

Merwyn Straus, had delivered to him on the phone that morning: Adam was not the right

guy to lead their company’s latest venture. That door isn’t open to you” was how Merwyn

had put it. It was one of those comments that sting a bit at first but inflict much more pain

as time passes. So now, in considerable distress, Adam was driving from downtown

Washington to the suburban Maryland headquarters of Straus Event Specialists (SES),

Judge & Piccolo: kijken hoe

mensen reageren op de

verschillende types van

leider

Laissez-faire het

slechtste

Transactioneel en

transformationeel gemeten

MLQ en/of CLIO

Als je een kleine firma hebt heeft een

transformationele leider meer invloed.

in een groter bedrijf gaat hij maar

tegen een bepaald deel kunnen spreken,

deze zeggen dat dan door aan hun

ondergeschikten (het effect gaat weg)

where he served, for all intents and purposes, as COO. He wanted Merwyn, his CEO, to

explain in person why this door that Adam cared so much about was closed.’

• Adam heeft te weinig transformational leadership (de ‘vision’)

• Scoort te hoog op agreeableness het is moeilijk om te onderhandelen

• Forgotten ones: scoort te laag op initiating structure en te hoog op consideration

• LPC: hij is relationship oriënted

• Fiedler: hij is TE relationship oriënted voor de ‘harde’ hotel-business

• Advies? ergens anders een job zoeken als CEO (want in dat bedrijf zal hij altijd de

‘number two’ blijven)

1.7 The role of trust / the nature of trust

• What key characteristics lead us to believe a leader is trustworthy? Evidence has

identified three:

o Integrity: refers to honesty and truthfulness

o Benevolence: means the trusted person has your interest at heart

o Ability: encompasses an individual technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills

• Propensity to trust: how likely an employee us to trust a leader

1.8 Mentoring

• Leaders often take responsibility for developing future leaders. A mentor is a senior

employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee.

• Mentoring relationships serve career and psychological functions

1.9 Critique

1.9.1 Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership

• Substitutes: attributes, such as experience and training, hat can replace the need for a

leader’s support or ability to create structure

• Neutralizers: attributes that make it impossible for leader behaviour to make any

difference to follower outcomes

1.10 Women & leadership

• Glas ceiling: moeilijker voor vrouwen om aan de top van een bedrijf te komen

• Een bedrijf kan 50% vrouwen hebben als werknemer, maar als je naar de top van het

bedrijf gaat kijken veel kleiner percentage

• Vrouwen krijgen dikwijls minder loon dan mannen voor dezelfde job (vooral in de

sales)

• ‘Through the labyrinth’: gaat niet echt uit van een glazen plafond maar meer van een

labyrinth, vrouwen geraken er wel maar ze moeten door het ‘labyrinth’ komen om aan

de top te geraken

• Scandinavische landen hoogst voor female board members hebben bepaalde

wetten

• Waarom is het zo moeilijk? Want vrouwen scoren doorgaans beter op dingen die

belangrijk zijn om een goede leider te vormen

o Mannen scoren hoger op laissez-faire, active en passive leadership

o Mogelijke verklaring: er is een ‘double standard’ als een vrouw een leider wil

worden moet ze super-tranformationeel zijn hogere drempel

• Als een man heel laag scoort op agreeableness is dat accepteerbaar, als een vrouw

diezelfde score behaalt is het niet accepteerbaar

o Bij mannen: disagreeableness net meer promoted

o Voor vrouwen is er geen + noch – effect van de mate van agreeableness

2 Communication

2.1 Process

2.1.1 Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication (1949)

• Communication process: the steps between a source and a receiver that results in the

transfer and understanding meaning

o Noise: represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message

o Feedback: the check on how successful we have been in transferring our message as

originally intended

2.2 Organizational context

2.2.1 Directions of communication

• Communication can flow vertically or laterally. We subdivide he vertical dimension

into downward and upward directions:

o Upward: flows to a higher level in the group or organization (e.g. employee to

manager)

o Downward: communication that flows from one level of a group or organizations to

a lower level (e.g. manager to employee)

o Lateral: when communication occurs between member of the same work group,

members at the same level in separate work groups or any other horizontally

equivalent workers (same level)

2.2.2 Small-group networks

• Formal organizational networks can be complicated. We’ve condensed these

networks into three common small groups:

o Chain: follows the formal chain of command

o Wheel: relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication

o All-channel: permits group members to actively communicate with each other,

characterised by self-managed teams and no one takes on a leadership role

2.2.3 How to deal with gossip and rumors

2.3 Richness

2.3.1 Information richness and communication channels

• Channels differ in their capacity to convey information:

1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously

2. Facilitate rapid feedback

3. Be very personal

• Channels can be rich (score high on these factors) or lean (score low on these factors)

• Face-to-face conversations scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the

most information per communication episode

• Impersonal written media such as formal reports and bulletins rate lowest in richness

o Bv. emails

Example email

Politics and negotiations 1. Conflict

1.1 Definition of conflict: from interaction to disagreement

• Conflict: A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has

negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares

about

o The parties to it must perceive conflict

o Commonalties in the definitions are opposition or incompatibility and some form of

interaction.

1.2 Conflict and unit performance

• Functional conflict supports the goal of the group, improves its performance and is a

constructive form of conflict. A conflict that hinders group performance is a

dysfunctional conflict

1.3 The conflict process

• The conflict process has 5 stages: potential opposition or incompatibility, cognition and

personalization, intentions, behaviour and outcomes

Dimentie hoog – laag

o Low conflict Dysfunctional

o Optimaal conflict Functional

o High conflict Dysfunctional

Het beste is dus om een gezonde

mate van conflict te hebben

1.3.5.1 Stage I: potential opposition or incompatibility

• The first stage of conflict is the appearance of conditions. These conditions may not

lead directly to conflict, but one of them is necessary if it is to surface. We group

the conditions into 3 general categories than can be a source of conflict:

o Communication: misunderstanding, noise in the communication channels,

overcommunication, …

o Structure: size of the group, degree of specialization in tasks, leadership styles, …

o Personal variables: personality, emotions and values

1.3.5.2 Stage II: cognition and personalization

• If the conditions cited in stage I negatively affect something one party cares

about, then the potential for opposition becomes actualized in stage II:

o Perceived conflict: awareness by one ore more parties of the existence of

conditions that create opportunities for conflicts to arise

o Felt conflict: emotional evolvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness,

frustration or hostility

1.3.5.3 Stage III: intentions

• Intentions intervene between people’s perceptions, emotions and their overt

behaviour. There are 5 conflict-handling intentions:

o Competing: a desire to satisfy one’s interest regardless of the impact on the

other party of the conflict (assertive an uncooperative)

o Collaborating: a situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy

fully the concerns of all parties (assertive and cooperative)

o Avoiding: the desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict (unassertive an

uncooperative)

o Accommodating: the willingness of one party in a conflict to place the

opponent’s interests above his own (unassertive and cooperative)

o Compromising: a situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up

something to resolve the conflict (midrange on assertiveness and cooperativeness)

Dual-concern model: Dimensions of

Conflict Handling Intentions

1.3.5.4 Stage IV: behaviour

• This is where conflicts become visible. The behaviour stage includes statements

actions and reactions made by conflicting parties.

• Conflict intensity continuum

• Conflict management techniques

o = lists the major resolution and stimulation techniques that allow managers to

control conflict levels

1.3.5.5 Stage V: outcomes

• The action-reaction interplay between conflicting parties creates consequences.

These outcomes may be functional if the conflict improves the group’s performance

or dysfunctional if it hinders performance

= provides a way of visualizing

conflict behaviour. All conflicts exist

somewhere along this continuum

= On the lower end are conflict

characterized by subtle, indirect and

highly controlled forms of tension

2 Negotiating

2.1 Define negotiation

• Negotiation = a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and

attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them

• Note that we use the terms negotiation and bargaining interchangeably.

2.2 Bargaining strategies / Two general approaches to negotiation

• Distributive bargaining (win-lose situation)

o Research consistently shows one of the best things you can do is make the first offer,

and make it an aggressive one

o Another distributive bargaining tactic is revealing a deadline

o Leaves one party a loser

• Integrative bargaining (win-win situation)

o Assumes one or more of the possible settlements can create a win– win solution

o Both parties must be engaged for it to work

o Integrative bargaining, in general, is preferable to distributive bargaining

o Requires trust and information sharing

2.3 Negotiation process

• Negotiation is made up of 5 steps:

1. Preparation and planning:

Before you start negotiating, do your homework

2. Definition of ground rules

Now you’re ready to define with the other party the ground rules and

procedures of the negotiations itself

3. Clarification and justification

Opportunity for educating each other on the issue

4. Bargaining and problem solving

Essence of negotiating, actual give-and-take to hash out an agreement

5. Closure and implementation

Formalizing your agreement, developing procedures necessary for implementing

Distributive and

integrative bargaining

differ in their goal and

motivation, focus,

interest, information

sharing and duration

of relationships

2.4 Individual differences

• Negotiators who are agreeable or extraverted are not very successful in distributive

bargaining

• Extraverts are outgoing and friendly, they tend to share more information than they

should

• Agreeable people are more interested in finding ways to cooperate rather than to butt

heads

• Research also suggests intelligence predicts negotiation effectiveness, but, as with

personality, the effects aren’t especially strong.

• Moods and emotions influence negotiation, but the way they do appears to depend on

the type of negotiation

• In distributive negotiations, negotiators in a position of power or equal status who

show anger negotiate better outcomes because their anger induces concessions from

their opponents

• Anxiety also appears to have an impact on negotiation

2.5 Culture

• Verschillende stijlen van onderhandelen volgens cultuur:

o Japanese negotiators were found as generally conflict avoidant

o Managers with high levels of economic power from Hong Kong, which is a high

power-distance country, were more cooperative in negotiations over a shared

resource than German and U.S. managers, who were lower in power distance. This

suggests that in high-power distance countries, those in positions of power might

exercise more restraint.

2.6 Gender

• Men and women do not negotiate differently

• A popular stereotype is that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationship-

oriented in negotiations than are men. The evidence doesn’t support this belief.

• Because women are expected to be ‘nice’ and men ‘tough’, research shows women are

penalized when they initiate negotiations

2.7 Third-Party Negotiations

• When individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to

resolve their differences through direct negotiations, they may turn to a third party:

o A mediator: a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using

reasoning, persuasion and suggestions for alternatives

o An arbitrator: a third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an

agreement

o A conciliator: a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link

between the negotiator and the opponent

o A consultant

3 Power

3.1 Power

• Power = a capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B, so that B acts in

accordance with A’s wishes

o Power may exist but not be used

o Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency

o A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire

• Dependence = B’s relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires

• What creates dependency?

o Importance: if nobody wants what you have, it’s not going to create dependence

o Scarcity: where the supply of labor is low relative to demand workers can negotiate

compensations an benefits packages far more attractive than those in occupations

with an abundance of candidates

o Non substitutability: the fewer viable substitutes for a resource the more power a

person controlling that resource has

3.2 Leadership and power

• Goal compatibility: Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence

• The direction of influence (leadership always downward)

3.3 Five Bases of Power (‘where does power come from?’)

• We can divide power into two general groupings – formal and personal – and breaking

down each into more specific categories:

o Formal power

▪ Coercive Power: a power base that depends on fear of the negative results from

failing to comply bv. ‘als je niet doet wat ik wil verlaag ik je salaris’

▪ Reward Power: compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards

that others view as valuable

▪ Legitimate Power: the power a person receives as a result of his position in the

formal hierarchy of an organization

o Personal power

▪ Expert Power: influence based in special skills of knowledge

▪ Referent Power: influence based on identification with a person who has desirable

resources or personal traits

3.4 Nine power tactics or influence tactics

• What power tactics do people use to translate power bases into specific action? What

options do they have for influencing their bosses, co-workers, …

o Legitimacy: relying on your authority position or saying that a request is in

accordance with organizational policies or rules

o Rational persuasion: presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to

demonstrate that a request is reasonable

o Inspirational appeals: developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s

values, needs, hopes and aspirations

o Consultation: increasing support by involving the target in deciding how to

accomplish your plan

o Exchange: rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for acceding to a

request

o Personal appeals: asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty

o Ingratiating: using flattery, praise or friendly behaviour prior to making a request

o Pressure: using warnings, repeated demands and threats

o Coalitions: enlisting the aid or support if others to persuade the target to agree

3.4.1 Preferred power tactics by influence direction

• Rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels

• Inspirational appeals work best as a downward influencing tactic with subordinates

• Personal appeals and coalitions are more effective as lateral influence

4 Politics

4.1 Political behaviour (Robbins & Judge)

• Political behavior: activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the

organization, but that influence the distribution of advantages within the

organization.

o Outside of one’s specified job requirements

o Encompasses efforts to influence decision- making goals, criteria, or processes.

o Includes such behaviors as withholding information, whistle-blowing, spreading

rumors, and leaking confidential information.

4.2 Factors that influence political behaviour

• Both individual and organizational factors can increase political behaviour and

provide favourable outcomes for individuals and groups in the organizations:

o Individual: employees who are high self-monitors possess an internal locus of

control and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political

behaviour

o Organizational: when an organization’s resources are declining, when the existing

pattern of resources is changing and when there is opportunity for promotions

politicking is more likely to surface

• Ander probleem:

o Democratic decision making: het basisidee is om met iedereen vriendjes te blijven

more political behavior

o Self serving senior managers: die louter hun carrière willen verbeteren

4.3 Employee responses to organizational politics

4.4 Defensive behaviour ➢ = reactive and protective behaviours to avoid action, blame or change

4.4.1 Avoiding action

• Overconforming: strictly interpreting your responsibility by saying things like “The

rules clearly state...”or “This is the way we’ve always done it.”

• Buck passing: transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to

someone else

• Playing dumb: avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability.

• For most people who have modest political

skills or are unwilling to play the politics

game, outcomes tend to be negative:

o Reduced performance

o Increased turnover

o Increased anxiety and stress

o Decreased job satisfaction

• Stretching: prolonging a task so that one person appears to be occupied—for

example, turning a two-week task into a 4-month job

• Stalling: appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing little or

nothing privately

4.4.2 Avoiding blame

• Bluffing: rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and

thoroughness, known as “covering your rear.”

• Playing safe: evading situations that may reflect unfavourably. It includes taking on

only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by

superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in

conflicts.

• Justifying: developing explanations that lessen one’s responsibility for a negative

outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both

• Scapegoating: placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that

are not entirely blameworthy

• Misrepresenting: manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment,

deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation

4.4.3 Avoiding change

• Self-protection: acting in ways to protect one’s self-interest during change by

guarding information or other resources

• Prevention: trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring

4.5 From politics to impression management

• Impression management (IM): the process by which individuals attempt to control

the impression others form of them

o Mostly high self-monitors

o Impressions people convey are not necessarily false – they might truly believe

them

o Intentional misrepresentation may have a high cost

• The effectiveness of IM depends on the situation

• If you want to control the impressions other form of you, what IM techniques can you

use?

The organizational environment

Key Design Questions and Answers for Designing the Proper

Organizational Structure (RJ Ex 15-1)

1. Organizational structure

1.1 Work specialization: the division of labour into separate activities

• Work specialization = the degree to which tasks in an organization are subdivided

into separate jobs

• Henry Ford and Frederick Taylor:

o Repetition of work: every worker was assigned a specific, repetitive task

o Training for specialization: individuals specialize in doing part of an activity rather

than the entirety. Specializations is a means of making the most efficient use of

employees skills and even successfully improving them through repetition

o Increasing efficiency through invention: work specialization increases efficiency and

productivity by encouraging the creation of customized inventions and machinery

1.1.1 Economies and diseconomies of work specialization

By the 1960’s it increasingly seemed that the

good news of specialization could be carried

too far. Human diseconomies began to surface

in the form of boredom, fatigue, stress,

increased absenteeism, low productivity,

inferior quality, high turnover, … which more

than offset the economic advantages

1.2 Departmentalization

• Departmentalization = the basis by which jobs in an organization are grouped

together so common tasks can be coordinated

• You can group activities by:

o Functions

▪ Manufacturing: Engineering, accounting, manufacturing, personnel, supply

o Type of Product or Service

▪ Procter & Gamble: Tide, Pampers, Charmin, Pringles

o Geography/Territory

▪ When geographic area is large and product needs to be ‘distributed’: e.g.,

Delhaize

o Process Differences

▪ e.g.: motor vehicles office

o Customer

▪ Microsoft: Consumers, large corporations, software developers, small

businesses

1.3 Chain of command

• Chain of command = the unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the

organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom

• Complementary concepts of chain of command:

o Unit of command: the idea that a subordinate should have only one supervisor to

whom he/she is directly responsible

o Authority: the right inherent in a managerial position to give orders and to expect

the orders to be obeyed ( conflicting demands from several superiors)

• But: less important today (technology, employee empowerment)

o Operating employees are empowered to make decisions previously reserved for

management

o Increased popularity of self-managed and crossfunctional teams

1.4 Span of control

• Span of control = the number of subordinates that a manager can direct efficiently

and effectively

Advantage narrow or small spans: a manager

can maintain close control

But narrow spans have three major drawbacks:

1) Expensive, because they add levels of

management

2) Makes vertical communication more

complex, slows down decision making and

can isolate upper management

3) Encourage overly tight supervision and

discourage employee autonomy

1.5 Centralization & formalization

1.5.1 Centralization/decentralization

• Centralization = the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single

point in an organization

• Centralized organizations better at avoiding bad choices, decentralized

organizations better at avoiding missed chances

o Centralized organisations: top managers make all the decisions and lower level

managers merely carry out their directives

o Decentralized organisations: pushed down to the managers closest to the action

or to workgroups

• Advantages of a decentralized organization:

o Can act more quickly to solve problems

o More people provide input into decisions

o Employees are less likely to feel alienated from those who make decisions that

affect their work lives.

1.5.2 Formalization

• Formalization = the degree to which jobs within an organization are standardized

o High formalization: minimum amount of discretion, resulting in uniform and

consistent output

▪ High formalization therefor limits alternative behavior or problem-solving

o Low formalization: job behaviors relatively nonprogrammed, employees have

many degrees of freedom to exercise discretion in their work

1.6 Structure

1.6.1 Simple structure

• An organizational structure characterized by:

o Low degree of departmentalization

o Wide spans of control

o Authority centralized in a single person

o Little formalization

• Strength: simplicity, fast, flexible, inexpensive to operate, clear accountability

• Weakness: becomes increasingly inadequate as an organization grows because its

low formalization and high centralization tend to create information overload at the

top

1.6.2 Matrix structure

• Matrix structure = an organizational structure that creates dual lines of authority

and combines functional and product departmentalization

• Dual chain of command: functional department and product group (program)

• Strength:

o ability to facilitate coordination when the organization has many complex and

interdependent activities

o Direct and frequentc contacts between different specialities can let information

permeate the organization and reach the people who need it more quickly

o Reduces so called bureau pathologies

o Achieves economies on a scale and facilitates the allocation of specialists by both

providing the best resources and ensuring that they are efficiently used

• Weakness:

o Creates confusion

o Tendency to foster power struggles

o Places stress on individuals

1.6.3 Virtual structure

• Virtual structure (network/modular strcuture): a small, core organization that

outsources major business functions

o Highly centralized, with little or no departmentalization

• Strength:

o Flexible (innovative idea, little money)

o Saves money by using outsourced functions

• Weakness:

o Franchisees do not tend to collaborate or coordinate with one another and may

actually be in direct competition for resources from the executive group

o State of perpetual flux and reorganization, roles, goals, … are unclear

1.6.4 Mechanic vs. organic model

• Mechanic model = a structure characterized by extensive departmentalization, high

formalization, a limited information network and centralization

• Organic model = a structure that is flat, used cross-hierarchical and cross-functional

teams, has low formalization, possesses a comprehensive information network and

relies on participative decision making

1.6.5 The strategy-structure relationship

1.6.6 3D model of the environment: Capacity, Volatility and Complexity

• Capacity: to degree to which the environment can support growth

o Rich and growing environments generate excess resources which can buffer the

organization in times of relative scarcity

• Volatility: the degree of instability in the environment

o A dynamic environment with a high degree of unpredictability change makes it

difficult for management to make accurate predictions (bv. technology)

• Complexity: the degree of heterogeneity (complex and divers) and concentration

among environmental elements.

1.6.7 Organization structure: its determinants and outcomes

2. Organizational culture

2.1 Definitions

• Organization culture = a system of shared meaning held by an organization’s

members that distinguished the organization from others

• 7 primary characteristics seem to capture the essence of an organization culture:

1. Innovation and risk taking: the degree to which employees are encouraged to be

innovative and take risks

2. Attention to detail: the degree to which employees are expected to exhibit

precision, analysis and attention to detail

3. Outcome orientation: the degree to which management focuses on results or

outcomes rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve them

4. People orientation: the degree to which management decisions take into

consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organization

5. Team orientation: the degree to which work activities are organized around teams

rather than individuals

6. Aggressiveness: the degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather

than easy going

7. Stability: the degree to which organizations activities emphasize maintaining the

status quo in contrast to growth

• The arrows = movement toward higher

uncertainty o Thus organizations that operate in environments

characterized as scarce, dynamic and complex face the

greatest degree of uncertainty because they have high

unpredictability, little room or error and a diverse set

of elements in the environment to monitor constantly

• The more scarce, dynamic and complex the

environment the more organic a structure should be

• The more abundant, stable and simple the

environment the more the mechanic structure will

be preferred

• What does culture do?

o Boundary-defining role

o Conveys a sense of identity for members

o Facilitates the generation of commitment

o Enhances the stability of the social system

o Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism

2.2 Culture vs. Climate

• Organizational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that

distinguishes the organization from other organizations

• Culture creates climate!

• Organizational climate is shared perceptions about the organization and work

environment ( Team spirit at organizational level)

• Climates influence the habits of people

• Climates can interact

2.2.1 Primary Characteristics of Organizational Culture

• 6 primary characteristics capture the essence of an organizations culture:

1. Adaptability: The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative

and flexible as well as to take risks and experiment

2. Detail orientation: The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit

precision, analysis, and attention to detail

3. Results/Outcome orientation: The degree to which management focuses on

results or outcomes rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve

them

4. People/Customer orientation: The degree to which management decisions take

into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within and outside of the

organization

5. Collaboration/Team orientation: The degree to which work activities are

organized around teams rather than individuals

6. Integrity: The degree to which people exhibit integrity and high ethical standards

in their work

2.3 Organizational socialization

2.3.1 A Socialization Model

• We can think of socialization as a process with three stages:

o Prearrival: the period of learning in socialization process that occurs before a

new employee joins the organization

o Encounter: the stage in which employees sees what the organization is really like

and confronts the possibility that expectations and reality may diverge

o Metamorphosis: the stage in which a new employee changes and adjusts to the

job, work group and organization

• The three part entry socialization process is complete when new members have

internalized and accepted the norms of the organisation and their work groups, are

confident in their competence and feel trusted and valued by their peers. This should

have a positive impact on new employees productivity and their commitment to the

organisation, and reduce their propensity to leave the organization (turnover)

2.3.2 Entry Socialization options

2.3.3 How organizational cultures form

• The original culture derives from the founders philosophy and strongly influences

hiring criteria as the firm grows. The success of socialization depends on the

deliberateness of matching new employees values to those of the organization in

the selection process and on top managements commitment to socializations

programs

2.4 Climate strength

2.4.1 How organizational cultures have an impact on employee performance and satisfaction

(organizational culture as intervening variable)

• Employees form an overall subjective perception of the organization based on

objective factors. This overall perception represents the organisations culture or

personality and affects employee performance and satisfaction with stronger

cultures having greater impact.

2.5 National and organizational culture

• In China, India, Russia and Morocco firms share a high tolerance for density and are

extremely hierarchical. Many employers optimize their office layouts by reducing

worker’s space and giving managers and executive plenty of room

• In France, Spain and Italy where space allocation is more egalitarian, firms tend to

optimize by reducing the size of both private offices and open work spaces. Firms

there are beginning to explore alternative locations such as coworking facilities and

satellite offices to address overcrowding

• In the US, UK, Germany and the Netherlands spaces reflects a progressive view of

work with all levels of employees sharing spaces. At the same time workers don’t like

to feel crowded which has led to the liberal use of hotel spaces and telecommuting

3. Organizational change

3.1 Why change? Forces can change

3.2 Sources of resistance to change

3.2.1 Individual sources

• Habit: to cope with life’s complexities, we rely on habits or programmed responses.

But when confronted with change, this tendency to respond in our accustomed

ways becomes a source of resistance

• Security: people with a high need for security are likely to resist change because it

threatens their feelings of safety

• Economic factors: changes in job tasks or established work routines can arouse

economic fears if people are concerned that they won’t be able to perform the new

tasks or routines to their previous standards, especially when pay is closely tied to

productivity

• Fear of the unknown: change substitutes ambiguity and uncertainty for the

unknown

• Selective information processing: individuals are guilty of selectively processing

information in order to keep their perceptions intact. They hear what they want to

hear, and they ignore information that challenges the world they’ve created

3.2.1 Organizational sources

• Structural inertia: organizations have built-in mechanisms—such as their selection

processes and formalized regulations—to produce stability. When an organization is

confronted with change, this structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain

stability.

• Limited focus of change: organizations consist of a number of interdependent

subsystems. One can’t be changed without affecting the others. So limited changes

in subsystems tend to be nullified by the larger system

• Group inertia: even if individuals want to change their behavior, group norms may

act as a constraint

• Threat to expertise: changes in organizational patterns may threaten the expertise

of specialized groups

• Threat to established power relationships: any redistribution of decision-making

authority can threaten long-established power relationships within the

organization.

3.3 Lewin’s three-step change model

• Kurt Lewin argued that successful change in organizations should follow three

steps:

o Unfreezing the status quo

o Movement to a desired and state

o Refreezing the new change to make it permanent

3.4 Unfreezing the status quo

• Unfreezing must happen in one of three ways:

o The driving forces which direct behaviour away from the status quo can be

increased

o The restraining forces which hinder movement away from equilibrium can be

decreased

o A third alternative is to combine the first two approaches

• Once the movement stage begins its important to keep the momentum going. When

change has been implemented the new situation must be refrozen so it can be

sustained over time. Without this last step change will likely be short lived and

employees will attempt to revert to the precious equilibrium

3.5 Kotter’s eight step plan for implementing organizational change 1. Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is

needed.

2. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change

3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision.

4. Communicate the vision throughout the organization

5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging

risk taking and creative problem solving

6. Plan for, create, and reward short-term “wins” that move the organization toward

the new vision

7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in

the new programs

8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors

and organizational success.

3.6 Approaches to managing organizational change:

3.6.1 Action research

• Action research: a change process based on the systematic collection of data and

selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate

o Five steps: Diagnosis, Analysis, Feedback, Action, and Evaluation

o Provides at least two specific benefits:

▪ It is problem-focused

▪ It reduces resistance to change.

3.6.2 Organizational development

• Organizational development (OD): a collection of change methods that try to

improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being

o OD methods value human and organizational growth, collaborative and

participative processes, and a spirit of inquiry

o Focuses on how individuals make sense of their work environment.

3.6. 3 Characteristics of learning organization