tutorial lecture: semiconductor...
TRANSCRIPT
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1Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Tutorial Lecture:Tutorial Lecture: Semiconductor Photoelectrochemistry Semiconductor Photoelectrochemistry
and Solar Water Splittingand Solar Water Splitting
Shannon W. BoettcherAsst. Prof. of ChemistryUniversity of OregonEugene, USA
Mt. Hood Oregon
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2Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Motivation: Powering the Planet Motivation: Powering the Planet
Solar is the only renewable source capable of providing 20-50 TW of power worldwide.
3 TW
*Lewis, MRS Bulletin, (32) 808 2007.
Wind < 4 TWBiomass < 5 TWHydro < 1.5 TWGeothermal < 1 TWSolar ~ 120,000 TW
Worldwide potential*:
Global powerconsumption: ~18 TW
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3Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Cost of solar energy must be reduced to contribute significantly.We must store that energy.
Solar Electricity > 15 ¢
per kWh (sunny climate, large installation)Industrial Electricity ~ 5-10 ¢
per kWh
Solar Energy ChallengesSolar Energy Challenges
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4Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
●
no wires / external electronics●
low-cost semiconducting absorbers●
direct energy storage in chemical bonds●
H2
for fuel cells, turbines, liquid-fuel synthesis from CO2●
closed-loop cycle
Vision for Storage: fuel from sunlight Vision for Storage: fuel from sunlight and waterand water
Advantages:
Disadvantages: Difficult to find right materials and to scale.
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5Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
PEC HPEC H22
production can workproduction can work
•
NREL Photoelectrolysis.mp4
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6Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Integrated architectureIntegrated architecturesolution n-type SC
solution p-type SC
Walter, M.; Warren, E.; McKone, J.; Boettcher, S. W.; Qixi, M.; Santori, L.; Lewis, N. S. Solar Water Splitting Cells. Chem. Rev.
2010, 110, 6446-6473.
Details to follow!!!
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7Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
OverviewOverview
•
Thermodynamics and Electrochemical Reactions
•
Semiconductors Physics•
Liquid junctions and Photoelectrochemistry (PEC)
•
Electrocatalysis and Electrochemical Kinetics•
Integrated devices and Literature examples
PART 1:
PART 2:
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8Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
ThermodynamicsThermodynamics
Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) for overall water splitting
Walter, M.; Warren, E.; McKone, J.; Boettcher, S. W.; Qixi, M.; Santori, L.; Lewis, N. S. Solar Water Splitting Cells. Chem. Rev.
2010, 110, 6446-6473.
+ -2 2
+ -2
2 2 2
1OER: H O O + 2H + 2e2
HER: 2H + 2e H1overall: H O O +H2
E∞
= 1.23 V vs. NHE
E∞
= 0 V vs. NHE
E = Ecath
– Eano
= -1.23 V
G = -nFE
= 237 kJ mol-1
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9Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
(Over(Over--)Simplified Picture)Simplified Picture
~ -4.5 V vs. Evac
at pH 0 El
ectr
oche
mic
al E
nerg
y Sc
ale
Abs
olut
e En
ergy
Sca
le
(+)
(-)
moreoxidizing
morereducing
Basic Idea: (a)
Semiconductor separates photoexcited electron-hole pairs. (b)
e-
reduce H+
to make H2
(c)
h+
oxidizes water to make O2
Ref.
“HOMO”
“LUMO”
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10Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Review of Oxidation/Reduction Review of Oxidation/Reduction
2
2
Red
Ox
2
122
lnln
ln
ln2 [ ]
1ln2 [ ]
HHER HER
OER OER
O
G RT KG G RT Q G nFE
aRTE EnF a
PRTE EF H
RTE EF H P
Nernst Equation
Both HER and OER are pH dependent.
The total potential needed, EOER
-EHER
= 1.23 V, is not.
Bard, A. J.; Faulkner, L. R. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications; Wiley, 2000.
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11Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
(Over(Over--)Simplified Picture)Simplified Picture
~ -4.5 V vs. Evac
at pH 0 El
ectr
oche
mic
al E
nerg
y Sc
ale
Abs
olut
e En
ergy
Sca
le
(+)
(-)
moreoxidizing
morereducing
Basic Idea: (a)
Semiconductor separates photoexcited electron-hole pairs. (b)
e-
reduce H+
to make H2
(c)
h+
oxidizes water to make O2
Ref.
How to describe carrier statistics?Equilibrium?Steady state?
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12Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Fermi Levels Describe Energy of Carriers Fermi Levels Describe Energy of Carriers
Sze, S. M.; Kwok, K. N. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2007.
DOS
ener
gy
“glass of water analogy”
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13Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Semiconductor Properties and DopingSemiconductor Properties and Dopingintrinsic
n-type
Sze, S. M.; Kwok, K. N. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2007.
DOS occupation10
n,p
(carrier conc.)
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14Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Equilibration with Solution Redox CouplesEquilibration with Solution Redox Couples
A + e- ↔ A-
Generic Redox Couple:
Lewis, N. S. Chemical control of charge transfer and recombination at semiconductor photoelectrode surfaces. Inorg. Chem.
2005, 44, 6900-
6911.
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15Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Dark CurrentDark Current--Voltage BehaviorVoltage Behavior
( ) /
/0
0
1
[ ]
fb B
B
q E E k Ts d
qV k Tet
so et
n N e
J J e
J qn k A
Jet,f
(E) = -qket,f
[A]nsJet,r
(E) = -qket,r
[A-]
Electron transfer at semiconductor-liquid interfaces is “simple”
kinetics:
exponential turn-onin forward bias
constant reversecurrent
DifferentJ0
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16Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
SemiconductorSemiconductor--solution contacts under solution contacts under illuminationillumination
bands unbend; new quasi-equilibriumwith different e-
and h+ conc.
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17Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
The measured current and voltage depends on The measured current and voltage depends on the rates of fundamental processesthe rates of fundamental processes
ns Ndeq(E fb E )/ kBT
Jet
= -qket
[A]ns
0
phBoc
Jnk TV lnq J
Jph
=
photon flux times collection efficiency
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18Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
““Flat BandFlat Band””
potential and absolute energy potential and absolute energy levelslevels
What determines the equilibrium barrier height b
? What semiconductors can split water based on thermodynamics?
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19Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Absolute bandAbsolute band--edge positionsedge positions
Gratzel, M. Photoelectrochemical cells. Nature
2001, 414, 338-344.Bak, T.; Nowotny, J.; Rekas, M.; Sorrell, C. C. Photo-electrochemical hydrogen generation from water using solar energy. Materials-related aspects. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
2002, 27, 991-1022.
oxide VB low,(O 2p states stable)photovoltage from oxide anodes small relative to band-gap
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20Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
BandBand--edges move via surface dipolesedges move via surface dipoles
Surface dipoles are the result of: absorbed ions, protonated/deprotonated
surface hydroxyls, surface termination, charged surface states, etc.
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21Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Semiconductors: Light AbsorptionSemiconductors: Light Absorption
Tan, M. X.; Laibinis, P. E.; Nguyen, S. T.; Kesselman, J. M.; Stanton, C. E.; Lewis, N. S. Principles and application
of semiconductor photoelectrochemistry. Progress in Inorganic Chemistry, Vol
41
1994, 41, 21-144.
wikipedia
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22Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Semiconductors: Light AbsorptionSemiconductors: Light Absorption
Chen, Z. B.; et. al. Accelerating materials development for photoelectrochemical hydrogen production: Standards for methods, definitions, and reporting protocols. J. Mater. Res.
2010, 25, 3-16.Bak, T.; Nowotny, J.; Rekas, M.; Sorrell, C. C. Photo-electrochemical hydrogen generation from water using solar energy. Materials-related aspects. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy
2002, 27, 991-1022.
Research challenge:Design low-cost stable materials (oxides?) with smaller band-gaps?How do we make stabilize conventional semiconductors?
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23Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Semiconductors: Carrier CollectionSemiconductors: Carrier Collection
LD D D kB T
qThree dimensional geometry can enhance carrier collection…
but at a price.
Thickness ~ 1/α
Comparison of the device physics principles of planar and radial
p-n
junction nanorod
solar cells
B. M. Kayes, H. A. Atwater and N. S. Lewis
Journal of Applied Physics, 2005,
97,
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24Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
GaAs
RE CEWE
Fc/Fc+ in
LiClO4
/ACN
Gronet, C. M.; Appl. Phys. Lett.
43, 1, 115‐117
NonNon--aqueous photoelectrochemistry is a tool aqueous photoelectrochemistry is a tool to characterize semiconductors for PECto characterize semiconductors for PEC
Fc/Fc+
Fc
Fc+
solarsimulation
reversible redox couple with fast kinetics
GaAs electrodes
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25Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Example: PEC Example: PEC JJ--EE
on non n--GaAsGaAs
(low ff
is due to solution resistance, ~100 quantitative correction yield
> 11 %)
Ritenour, A. J., Boettcher S. W.
IEEE PVSC 38
2012.Ritenour, A. J.; Cramer, R. C.; Levinrad, S.; Boettcher, S. W. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces
2012, 4, 69-73.
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26Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Diffusion length determination Diffusion length determination from quantum efficiency from quantum efficiency
( )
11 ( )
W
intp
eL
Gӓrtner
Model:
Gӓrtner, W. W. Phys. Rev.
1959
116, 84
~1.5 um diffusion length sufficient to design high efficiency PV or PEC device.What defects are present? How can we eliminate them to improve response?
Ritenour, A. J., Boettcher S. W.
IEEE PVSC 38
2012.
Lp
=
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27Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
PART 2: Surface Electrocatalysis and PART 2: Surface Electrocatalysis and Integrated ArchitecturesIntegrated Architectures
catalyst on metal electrode (no photoactivity)
catalyst photoactivesemiconductor
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28Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Electrochemical Reaction KineticsElectrochemical Reaction Kinetics
Bard, A. J.; Faulkner, L. R. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications; Wiley, 2000.
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29Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Electrochemical Reaction KineticsElectrochemical Reaction Kinetics
Bard, A. J.; Faulkner, L. R. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications; Wiley, 2000.
Butler-Volmer
Expression for a single electron-transfer step:
describes the shape of the potential barrier and is normally taken as 0.5. (f = F/RT)
Exchange Current Density
assume fast mass transport
Ignore Reverse Reaction = Tafel Eqn. for Electrode Kinetics
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30Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Tafel Slope and Exchange CurrentTafel Slope and Exchange Current
Tafel (x)-intercept = -a/b = log ioeq. “exchange-current”
Tafel slope = b = 60 mV / only for 1 e-
reaction
convention to plotI on the y-axis!
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31Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Multistep reactionsMultistep reactions
Example:H2
O → *OH → O* + H2
O
→ *OOH → O2
* Indicates bonded to the surface
For multi-step ne-
reaction:
Tafel slope = b = 60 mV / (n’+
n’
is the number of electrons transferred prior to the rate determining step.
n = n’
+ n’’
+ 1
Tafel slope gives mechanistic information (in principle!)
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32Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Hydrogen Evolution ReactionHydrogen Evolution Reaction
HA e* H* A
HA H * e* H2 A
2H * H2
Trasatti, S. J. Electroanal. Chem.
1972, 39, 163.
“Goldilocks”
principle; intermediate absorption energy (here M-H) is not too strong or too weak.w
orse
cat
alys
t
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33Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
HER OverpotentialsHER Overpotentials
-
Pt is a phenomenally fast catalyst for HER.-
Much effort is applied to develop alternative catalysts to replace Pt.-
Different surface areas of materials makes comparison difficult.
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34Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Large loss for driving water oxidation Large loss for driving water oxidation reaction kineticsreaction kinetics
* Indicates bonded to the surfaceH2
O → *OH → O* + H2
O
→ *OOH → O2* Indicates bonded to the surface
What determines the activity of a electrocatalyst?
How do we design catalysts?
Norskov
et. al. J. Electroanal. Chem.
607
(1-2), 83 (2007). Suntivich, J.; et. al Science
2011, 334, 1383-1385.
Trasatti. Electrochim. Acta
29
(11), 1503 (1984).
2H2
O + 4h+
O2
+ 4H+
(acid)4OH-
+ 4h+
O2
+ 2H2
O (base)
Complicated 4-step reaction!
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35Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Theory: electrocatalysis requires the Theory: electrocatalysis requires the stabilization of intermediatesstabilization of intermediates
H2
O → *OH → O* + H2
O
→ *OOH → O2
* Indicates bonded to the surface
Rossmeisl, J.; Qu. Z.-W.; Zhu, H.; Kroas, G.-J.; Nørskov, J.K. J. Electroanal. Chem.
2007, 607, 83 –
89.
(note: other reaction mechanisms can be drawn; for example requiring the recombination of two surface bound intermediates)
Rate determining Step is the 3rd
electron transferin this case.
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36Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Optimization vs. DesignOptimization vs. Design
(1) Wang et. al., Electrochimica
Acta
50 (2005) 2059–2064(2) Norskov, J. K.; Rossmeisl, J. Oxygen Evolution Electrocatalysis on Oxide Surfaces. ChemCatChem
2011, 3, 1159-1165.
SEM of typical “thick”
film electrocatalyst1…
●
High-surface area thick film
●
Designed for maximum current per geometric area
●
Dark colored –
poorly suited for PEC
Role of composition, conductivity, and porosity?What is the actual active component?Complicated!
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37Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
SolutionSolution--processed ultraprocessed ultra--thin film thin film catalystscatalysts
Advantages for fundamental study:
•
Catalyst conductivity irrelevant
•
Film composition controlled exactly by precursor solution
•
Mass known •
Surface area controlled •
Facile gas and ion transport
= Film
~50 wt% surfactant~ 0.05 M metal nitrateethanol
spincasting
QCM crystal
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38Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Thin Film OER Quantitative Comparison Thin Film OER Quantitative Comparison
sample
η
@ J
= 1 mA
cm-2
(mV)loadingg cm-2 A g-1
TOF (sec-1)
MnOx 512 1.2 1.3 0.0003
FeOx 409 1.7 4.5 0.0009
CoOx 395 1.3 7.6 0.0016
IrOx 381 4.2 24.2 0.014
Ni0.5
Co0.5
Ox 321 1.1 273 0.056
NiOx 300 1.3 773 0.15
Fe:NiOx 297 1.2 1009 0.20
at = 300 mV
Fe:NiOx
>10x more active an IrO2
and >100x more active than CoOx
TOF = # O2
produced per metal per second
Why? Trotochaud
et. al. Submitted 2012.
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39Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Stability: Stability: PourbaixPourbaix
DiagramsDiagrams
Based on free-
energiesof formation; potential-pH “predominance-area diagram”
Ni
When can NiO
be used as a electrocatalyst for OER?
From “Aqueous Chemistry of the Elements”
Schweitzer and Pesterfield.
vs. N
HE
HER
OER
pH independent
pH dependent
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40Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Stability: Stability: PourbaixPourbaix
DiagramsDiagrams
W
Under what conditions can tungsten oxide (WO3
) be used as a photocatalyst?
From “Aqueous Chemistry of the Elements”
Schweitzer and Pesterfield.
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41Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Part III : Examples of integrated devices and some literature
examples.
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42Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Energy Diagrams for Solar Water Splitting Energy Diagrams for Solar Water Splitting Devices: nDevices: n--type photoanodetype photoanode
Example:
n-
SrTiO3
or GaN:ZnO
photoelectrode.Advantage:
Simple design. Cheap?Disadvantage:
requires large Eg
>2.5 eV
to generate required photopotential
Vph
> ~ 1.6 V
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43Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Wide Band Gap PhotocatalystsWide Band Gap Photocatalysts
1. Fujishima, A.; Honda, K. Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode. Nature
1972, 238, 37-38.2. Kumar, A.; Santangelo, P. G.; Lewis, N. S. Electrolysis of Water at SrTio3 Photoelectrodes -
Distinguishing between the Statistical and Stochastic Formalisms for Electron-Transfer Processes in Fuel-Forming Photoelectrochemical Systems. J. Phys. Chem.
1992, 96, 834-842.3. Kudo, A.; Miseki, Y. Heterogeneous photocatalyst
materials for water splitting. Chem. Soc. Rev.
2009, 38, 253-278.
Photoelectrodes(“Fujishima
–
Honda Effect”)Dispersed nano/micropowders
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44Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Powdered PhotocatalystsPowdered Photocatalysts
Kudo, A.; Miseki, Y. Heterogeneous photocatalyst
materials for water splitting. Chem. Soc. Rev.
2009, 38, 253-278.
Advantage:
No support, high surface area, easy to scale-up.
Disadvantage:
1. Single junction cell requires large Eg
>2.5 eV
to generate required photopotential; fundamentally inefficient with solar spectrum. 2. Separation of H2
and O2
flammable mixture difficult. How to prevent reverse electrochemical reaction?
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45Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Example: Visible light activity via tuning Example: Visible light activity via tuning materials propertiesmaterials properties
(1) Kudo, A.; Miseki, Y. Heterogeneous photocatalyst
materials for water splitting. Chem. Soc. Rev.
2009, 38, 253-278.(2) Maeda, K.; Teramura, K.; Lu, D. L.; Takata, T.; Saito, N.; Inoue, Y.; Domen, K. Photocatalyst
releasing hydrogen from water -
Enhancing catalytic performance holds promise for hydrogen production by water splitting in sunlight. Nature
2006, 440, 295-295.(3) Maeda, K.; Domen, K. New Non-Oxide Photocatalysts Designed for Overall Water Splitting under Visible Light. J. Phys. Chem. C
2007, 111, 7851-7861.
Low QE, likely large electronic and chemical recombination
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46Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Particle PEC and Sacrificial Reagents Particle PEC and Sacrificial Reagents
Often used to interrogate half-reactions individually.
However:
Overall reaction can be energetically neutral or even downhill.Hard to test semiconductor photovoltage generation, which is important to split water.
Ag+
+ e-
→ Ag E∞
= 0.8 V vs. NHEO2
+ 4e-
+ 4H+
→ 2H2
O E∞
= 1.23 V vs. NHE
4Ag+
+ 2H2
O
→ O2
+ 4H+
+ 4Ag E∞
= -
.43 V G = -nFEKudo, A.; Miseki, Y. Heterogeneous photocatalyst
materials for water splitting. Chem. Soc. Rev.
2009, 38, 253-278.
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47Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Example: TiOExample: TiO22
based black photocatalystsbased black photocatalysts
Chen, X.; Liu, L.; Yu, P. Y.; Mao, S. S. Increasing Solar Absorption for Photocatalysis
with Black Hydrogenated Titanium Dioxide Nanocrystals. Science
2011, 331, 746-750.
“The energy conversion efficiency for solar hydrogen production, defined as the ratio between the energy of solar-produced hydrogen and the energy of the incident sunlight, reached 24% for disorder-
engineered black TiO2
nanocrystals.”
But a sacrificial agent was used:
Cathode: 2H+
+ 2e-
→ H2
E∞
= 0 V vs. NHEAnode: HCHO + 2e-
+ 2H+
→ CH3
OH
E∞
= 0.13 V vs. NHE
Total Reaction: CH3
OH
→ H2
+ HCHO
E∞
= -
.13 V
Could map photovoltage generation using a series of sacrificial reagents with different chemical potentials.
Almost zero net energy storage in this system.
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48Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Energy Diagrams for Solar Water Splitting Energy Diagrams for Solar Water Splitting Devices Devices ––
p/np/n
PEC zPEC z--schemescheme
Advantage:
no pn junctions, could be particulate basedDisadvantage:
need to integrate two high-quality semiconductors with appropriate Eg
and band edge positions.
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49Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Individual component testing using a 3Individual component testing using a 3-- electrode potentiostatelectrode potentiostat
Chen, Z. B.; Jaramillo, T. F.; et. al. J. Mater. Res.
2010, 25, 3-16.
Reference electrode (RE) used to measure applied voltage versus absolute reference.
Counter electrode (CE) used to complete circuit, potential required to pass current at CE usually not measured.
Semiconductor working electrode (WE) control majority carrier Fermi level versus the reference electrode and measure current.
Typically bubble O2
or H2
through solution to maintain well-defined Nernstian
potential
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50Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
pp--Si Photocathode ExampleSi Photocathode Example
Boettcher, S. W.; Warren, E. L.; Putnam, M. C.; Santori, E. A.; Turner-Evans, D.; Kelzenberg, M. D.; Walter, M. G.; McKone, J. R.; Brunschwig, B. S.; Atwater, H. A.; Lewis, N. S. Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Evolution Using Si Microwire
Arrays. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
2011, 133, 1216-1219.
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51Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
pnpn++
Si photocathodeSi photocathode
Boettcher, S. W.; Warren, E. L.; Putnam, M. C.; Santori, E. A.; Turner-Evans, D.; Kelzenberg, M. D.; Walter, M. G.; McKone, J. R.; Brunschwig, B. S.; Atwater, H. A.; Lewis, N. S. Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Evolution Using Si Microwire
Arrays. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
2011, 133, 1216-1219.
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52Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Overlaid JOverlaid J--E behavior System PerformanceE behavior System Performance
Walter, M.; Warren, E.; McKone, J.; Boettcher, S. W.; Qixi, M.; Santori, L.; Lewis, N. S. Solar Water Splitting Cells. Chem. Rev.
2010, 110, 6446-6473.
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53Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Cells with integrated PV/PEC junctionsCells with integrated PV/PEC junctions
Advantage:
build on existing solar technology; it can work now
Disadvantage:
-
Increased complexity from already (relatively) expensive photovoltaic device. -
Stability of conventional PV materials in water for 30 yrs questionable.
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54Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Ex. Ex. ““TurnerTurner””
NREL Water Splitting CellNREL Water Splitting Cell
Khaselev, O.; Turner, J. A. A Monolithic Photovoltaic-Photoelectrochemical Device for Hydrogen Production via Water Splitting. Science
1998, 280, 425-427.
12.4% efficiency (STH) with a cost of ~$10,000 m-2 and limited stability
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55Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Buried PVBuried PV--electrolyzerelectrolyzer
combinationcombination
Advantage:
build on existing solar technology, wireless design reduces cost relative to separate PV + electrolyzer?
Disadvantage:
Multijunction
solar cells are expensive (III-V) or inefficient (a-Si), protection of surface needed, catalyst integration.
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56Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Integrated PVIntegrated PV--Electrolysis Electrolysis ““Artificial LeafArtificial Leaf””
(1) Rocheleau, R. E.; Miller, E. L.; Misra, A. High-efficiency photoelectrochemical hydrogen production using multijunction
amorphous silicon photoelectrodes. Energy Fuels
1998, 12, 3-10.(2) Reece, S. Y.; Hamel, J. A.; Sung, K.; Jarvi, T. D.; Esswein, A. J.; Pijpers, J. J. H.; Nocera, D. G. Wireless Solar Water Splitting Using Silicon-Based Semiconductors and Earth-Abundant Catalysts. Science
2011, 334, 645-648. (3) Nocera, D. G. The Artificial Leaf. Acc. Chem. Res.
2012, 45, 767-776.
Challenge:
Triple-junction a-Si solar cell too expensive and efficiency too low (<5%). Ohmic losses are significant without engineering pathways for ion transport. Need new low cost solar materials and catalysts with better transparency.http://www.nature.com/news/artificial-leaf-hits-development-hurdle-1.10703
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57Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
Calculation of Overall EfficienciesCalculation of Overall Efficiencies
STH = solar-to-hydrogen efficiency Faradaic efficiency
Based on total measured Hydrogen output:
Based on measured current (in 2-electrode configuration)
Chen, Z. B.; Jaramillo, T. F.; et. al. J. Mater. Res.
2010, 25, 3-16.
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58Shannon Boettcher – ICMR Tutorial PEC Water Splitting
AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements
Young Professor Program
To all the mentors and co-workers!
"If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants”-
Isaac Newton.
Basic Energy ScienceSolar Photochemistry
Boettcher Group Summer 2012
Lena Trotochaud
AndyRitenour
Lena Trotochaud
Fuding
Lin
T.J. Mills