GENESIS OF THE TÜRKIC RUNIC ALPHABET Posted: 13-Oct-2009 at 09:22Source : http://www.allempires.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=27831

Introduction

The origin of the Türkic runic alphabet, despite the efforts of several generations of Türkologists, still remains problematic.

Guesses about the origin of the Yenisei script suggested before their decoding were only based on visual, external resemblances of the Türkic runes with the Gothic runes (O.G.Tichzen, G.Rommel, N.Popov) or with Greek, Etruscan and Anatolian (G.Spassky, J.Klaprot, O.Donner) letters1. When N.M.Yadrintsev discovered the Orkhon runic inscriptions, he also saw in them "an Indo-European alphabet, reminding for a long time the Phoenician, Gothic, Greek, etc. letters " 2.

However in the 19th century science had not yet accumulated significant proofs for the problem. Therefore, W.Thomsen had a reason to state the following: "It should be firmly remembered that all likewise resemblances, thus, are like an optical illusion. Only when other means allow to determine the meaning of the letters, such comparisons to other alphabets would be of value for the origin of this script" 3.

And the suggestion by A.Shifner4 about independent origin of the enigmatic Yenisei script from the tamgas was, in essence, an equation with two unknowns.

The decipherer of the Türkic runic alphabet W.Thomsen5 tentatively linked the Orkhon alphabet to the Aramaic, or more precisely to its version, Pehlevi (Perso-Aramaic) alphabet. The hypothesis of W.Thomsen about Aramaic (Aramaic-Pehlevi and Aramaic-Sogdian) as a basis for the Türkic runic alphabet was construed on a rather remote analogies of some (about half) letters of the Orkhon alphabet. We should note that Türkic runes have much more likeness with the ancient Phoenician-Aramaic letters, instead of the Pehlevi and Sogdian. Unfortunately, an uncritical attitude toward the W.Thomsen's hypothesis is observed until now. As an example can serve a not yet confirmed by any facts suggestion by S.G.Klyashtorny6 that Türkic runic script was adopted in the 5th century from the Sogdians of the Gansu and Gaochan.

After the W.Thomsen decoding, O.Donner7 fairly considered the distinctions between Yenisei and Orkhon characters as a sign of a long development period of the Türkic runic alphabet, but at the same time he asserted without substantiation that the Orkhon-Yenisean script has arisen, at Uigurs, Türks and Kyrgyzes in the 4th century on the basis of the Indo-Bactrian (also called Indo-Scythian, Aryan, Bactrian) "Karoshti" letters, then known from the inscriptions on the rocks and coins (3 century BC - 2 century AD). After investigation it becomes obvious that between Türkic runes and "Karoshti" signs no close resemblance exist8.289

At last, the F.Altheim's9 guess that the Ancient Türkic (and "proto-Bulgarian") runes descend from the Armazian Aramaic script that the Türkic-speaking Huns ostensibly adopted in the Caucasus at the turn of the 3 - 4 centuries is also not supported by any concrete facts10 and observable match of written signs.

In a opposition with the hypothesis of W.Thomsen, a Russian orientalist N.A.Aristov " has anew substantiated the hypothesis of A.Shifner about a local tamga-derived source of the Türkic runes. N.A.Aristov found outward similarity with the Türkic tamgas in 29 out of 38 signs of the Orkhon alphabet. Later this hypothesis found support by N.Mallitsky12 and A.Sokolov13. To the opinion of the origin of the Orkhon-Yenisean script from the "local tamgas and others ideograms" in our time was leaning I.A.Batmanov14.

As a rule, every clan and tribal tamga between the Türkic-speaking peoples had a name corresponding to the graphic form of a sign (frequently connected with specific objects). For example,

tamga of the Kazakh clan Baltal or is called balta "axe",

tamga of a clan Baganaly or is called bashan "rod with split end",

tamga of the tribe Kongrat is called bosaga "threshold",

tamga of the tribe Kangly is called köseu "fire iron", etc. If it would be possible to establish sometime the initial names, verbal epithets of the ancient tamga signs (graphic logograms), the hypothesis of A.Shifner - N.A.Aristov can receive a better plausibility. The random outward comparisons of Türkic runes with the tamgas and other ancient signs are insufficiently convincing.

W.Thomsen15 and E.D.Polivanov16 suggested a possibility of ideographic origin of some of the Türkic runic characters which are not deduced from the Aramaic alphabet. Suggesting Türkic

etymologies for runic characters j, aj (aj "moon, crescent") (here author's "j" has a phonetic

value of "y" in "york"), oq, uq (oq "arrow") and b, üb (eb "dwelling, yurt"), W.Thomsen

simultaneously doubted similar etymologies for the runic characters 1, ä1 (el "palm of a hand"),

r, är (er "man, husband"), n, än (en -"descend, go down", compare en "bottom, descent"),

γ, äγ (аγ "trap, snare, fishing tackle"), t, at (at "horse") and

ş, aş (eşik "door"). So far it is difficult to tell to what degree the Türkic runes in their origin are due to ideograms (or better, to graphic logograms), because their paleography is still investigated insufficiently. Nevertheless, exist sufficient reasons

to suggest that some specific runic characters lt, rt and nt directly go back to a pre-alphabetic script. 290

Türkish scientist A.J, Emre17 embarked to study Türkic runic alphabet as a development of ideographic writing, related to the Sumerian linear writing:

oq, oq "arrow" - Sumer. ARROW,

kü, köz "eye" - Sumer. EYE,

d, adaq "leg" - Sumer. LEG,

j, ja(j) "bow" - Sumer. BOW,

ş, eşik "door" (Turk. eşik "threshold") - Sumer. CORRAL,

lt ~ ld, alt "bottom"-Sumer. LOWER PART of the BODY (man), etc.

The outward similarity of some signs belonging to different ideographic (logographic) scripts is usually explained by a similarity of the respective objects, therefore such comparisons are deemed to be insufficiently convincing.

According to a hypothesis of an English researcher J. Closon18, the Türkic runic alphabet was ostensibly invented in the third

quarter of the 6th century under an order of Istemi-Kagan, and was composed as a some kind of secret code from arbitrarily changed Aramaic (Pehlevi, Sogdian) and Greek (Byzantian, Ephtalite) letters. A citation of a fictitious "inventor" testifies to a non-serious attitude of J. Closon to the unresolved problem. In effect, it is an attempt to avoid studying the historical development and natural genetic links of the Türkic runic alphabet, which itself is non-uniform in its local versions.

The genetic links of the Türkic runes still have not received a scientific illumination. W.Thomsen has given precisely a decoding, not an interpretation of the Türkic runic (Orkhon-Yenisean) alphabet, the true origin of which remained unknown. The science has not yet established neither the real age of the Türkic runic script, nor its direct source.

The hypotheses about the origin of the Orkhon-Yenisean script were not supported with really close correspondences of the compared written signs19.

It only transpired that exist supporters of exogenic origin of the Türkic runic alphabet (W.Thomsen, O.Donner, F.Altheim, J. Closon) and the supporters of endogenic origin of this script (N.A.Aristov, A.J. Emre).291

As an interpreter of the W.Thomsen hypothesis recently rose a known Iranist V.A.Livshits20, in whose opinion the main source ("raw material for working pra-forms") for the Orkhon alphabet was a relatively late version of the Sogdian cursive writing, corresponding to the ancient Uigur alphabet. V.A.Livshits dedices the Türkic (Orkhon) runes from the letters of new Sogdian letters by means of "reconstruction of graphical prototypes in the process

of creation of the runic alphabet" 21. So, a Sogdian letters δ (δ, υ, L) by means of three "transformations"

turns into Türkic runic letters d, l, l'. Arming with this method would make it difficult to avoid subjectivity in resolving the question. Anyway, a version about Sogdian base of the Türkic runic characters requires weightier proofs.

A deeper study of the epigraphic finds in the territory of Kazakhstan allows to uncover most ancient monuments of written culture belonging to the remote ancestors of the Türkic-speaking peoples. The existence of alphabetic writing in the culture of early nomadic tribes in the Southern Siberia and Kazakhstan is evidenced, at least, by two runic or rune-like inscriptions from the burials of the 5th - 4th centuries BC22. They are: an inscription on a bone buckle from r. Irtysh valley, and an inscription on a silver cup from r. Ili valley. These inscriptions are apparently made in the Ancient Türkic language, and belong to a fairly early version of the Türkic runes, closely connected to the Mediterranean alphabetic writings of the middle of the 1st millennium BC.

Bone buckle inscriptionr. Irtysh valley kurgan, ca. 400-500 BC

Silver cup inscriptionIssyk kurgan, 500 BC (C14 dating here)

In a valley of r. Ili were found two rock inscriptions in ancient Greek alphabet23. The language attribution of one of them is under doubt, and another is in Türkic. Both inscriptions have been made in the 1st millennium AD (judging by archaic letters, direction from right to left). There is analogy with the Türkic runic alphabet of Talas, Yenisei and Orkhon inscriptions. Paleographically these inscriptions can also be attributed to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, which points to a relative stability of the Türkic runic script. The fascinating historical fate of the ancient Greek alphabet in the Jeti-Su also indirectly testifies to the most ancient tradition of writing in the Türkic-speaking tribes.

Greek rock inscription "ISAG 1080"r. Ili valley ca. 770 AD

Greek-Türkic rock inscription "AG BAPAM"-"MY NOBLE ANSESTOR"Almaty valley, 1st millennium AD

Based on systematic study of the graphics of the Ancient Türkic runic inscriptions, and new results of the Türkic epygraphical studies, now is appearing an opportunity to approach closely to the solution of the problem about the Türkic runes origin (genetic

links). From the correct resolution of this key problem in many respects depend the prospects for the development of Türkology24.

The areas of distribution and chronological frameworks of the Türkic runes basically correspond with the Ancient Türkic statehood of the 6th - 10th centuries, though some inscriptions are occasionally found in the kurgans belonging to the epoch of early nomads (rivers Irtysh, Ili, Yaik). In the Central Asia by now were found about three hundred ancient Türkic runic inscriptions. The dynastic Orkhon epitaphs belong to the 8th century, and the Yenisei and Talas inscriptions, as a rule, have no reliable dating. By tradition it is thought that some Yenisei and Talas inscriptions are much older than the Orkhon inscriptions. S.E.Malov believed that Yenisei inscriptions belong to the 5th - 10th (11th) centuries, and Talas inscriptions belong to the 5th - 8th centuries.25 The Talas inscriptions - epitaphs on the boulders, as showed archeological al excavations, already appeared in the 5th century,26 and in any case, long before the10th century.27

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The viewes of some researchers that the Türkic runic script in Yenisei and Talas appeared late, than in Orkhon, seem to be insufficiently justified28. For example, in the I.V.Kormushin's opinion, without exception all Yenisei monuments are written not earlier than the middle of the 10th - 11th centuries.29 But because the dating graphical features selected by I.V.Kormushin do not correspond to the evolution of the Türkic runic alphabet, and are very vulnerable from purely paleographic side (the monumental script is deduced from the cursive script, even though even in the manuscripts the Türkic runes did not change to the really cursive forms), he had to recognize that these "markers sometimes conflict with each other"30. Some of the Yenisei inscriptions - epitaphs, like the expressions türk qan balbalı "balbal of the Türkic khan" testify (E 3210), ben öltim türgäş el ičintä " I died in Türgesh state" (E 373), etc., are made not later then the middle of the 8th century, before the overthrow of the Türkic and Türgesh dynasties. Incidentally, in these monuments is repeatedly used

the runic character t, which is I.V.Kormushin's main dating marker of the monuments not older than the middle of the 9th century.

The graphics of the Talas, Yenisei and Orkhon inscriptions testifies that the Türkic runic alphabet, non-uniform in its local versions, has a long history of development, and generally reflects the sound system of the ancient Türkic language31.

* * *

Historical perspective

The genesis question of the Türkic runic alphabet, its creation place and time, to be resolved objectively requires a complex analysis of the alphabet paleography, together with history of cultural contacts of the ancient world, together with history of formation of the Türkic ethnic type. S.E.Malov's noted the following: "In questions of chronology we in Türkology still have many established cliches, some of them quite fair for the known time and for the known geographical space. [...] In my classification of the Türkic languages I, as a result of the my studies, set back the emergence of the Türkic languages in the same form as we have them now, two thousand years deeper"32.

In the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, according to archeology, pastoral-agricultural tribes of the Bronze Epoch of the Southern Siberia and Kazakhstan steppes (so-called "Andronov Culture

tribes") passed to a more progressive, nomadic cattle tribal. In the 5th - 4th centuries BC the early Asian nomads almost completed a transition to the use of iron. These nomad tribes belonged to the so-called Andronov anthropological type33, that made a basis for the anthropological type of Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Kirghizes, Altaians, partly Uzbeks, etc. The increase in economical connections and a need to protect their herds and pastures forced a unification of the nomad tribes in military-tribal unions, where developed a process of leveling the tribal distinctions and merging of tribal languages.293

In the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia in the 7th - 4th centuries BC, as testify the ancient Greek historians (Herodotus and others) and Persian cuneiform inscriptions of Darius I, were associations of Scythian- Sakan tribes which had their specific names, territory, ways of life (nomadic, hunting and settled tribes), ethnicity and, probably, languages. "The ethnic problem of Scythians, - posited A.N.Bernshtam, - is not beyond the

hypotheses. The dispute about Türkism or Iranism of the Scythians is as old as the Orientalistics itself. The solution for these problems lies in the archeological al materials"34. The application of the term "Scythians" in relation to the autochthons of the Altai and Jeti-Su is in problematic itself (this is not a region of Herodotus "Scythia"), and does not serve at all as a proof of their Irano-linguality. Sometimes the Türkic ethnogenesis is directly linked with nomadic cattle breeding, the Mongolian ethnogenesis is directly linked with the hunting economy, the Iranian ethnogenesis is directly linked with agricultural economy35. Such a simplistic approach is poorly justified, "All eastern tribes, - wrote K.Marx, - can be traced from the very beginning of history a general relationship between the settled part of population and continued nomadism of another part "36.

The Chinese historical chronicles tell that in the 3rd - 1st centuries BC in the territories of the Saka's tribal federations formed nomadic tribal unions of Usuns, Kangüys and Uechjis. In the Central Asia from the end of the 3rd century BC till the 1st century AD was an association of 24 nomadic tribes of Huns (Hunnu, Sünnu). The Türkic-speaking Huns displaced the Uechji and Usun tribes from the east to the west. In the 1st century BC Usuns occupied Tian-Shan and Jeti-Su area. Uechjis, whom L.N.Gumilev37 identifies with the carriers Pazyryk Cultures in Altai, established in the 1st century AD along Cheyhun (Amu Darya) a Kushan (Ku-Sün - Türk. White Hun) state . Kangüy tribes, according to the Chinese sources, in the 2nd century BC - 7th century AD lived in the valleys of the Middle and Lower Seyhun (Syr-Darya).

The Türkic-linguality of the dynastic tribe of the Usun (As-Sün - Türk. As' Hun) union was stated by F.Hirt38, K.Siratori39, N.A.Aristov40 and other researchers after analysis of the Chinese transcriptions of the Usun words (kün beg, uluγ, tarqan, etc.). "The presence of Türkic words in the language of ancient Usuns in the 3rd - 1st cc. BC, - noted Yu.A.Zuev, - makes questionable the standard in the Soviet historical literature point of view about so-called "Türkifation" of the local population in Kazakhstan and Central Asia by the Huns (Chinese: Sünnu), beguning in the 1st century BC"41 (Sünnu is a Türkic dialectal name for Huns, used by Chinese in the 3rd c. BC).

archeological al research allowed to establish that between carriers of the local cultures of Southern Siberia and the Near East in 1st millennium BC existed diverse and deep cultural links42. Most evidently it is visible in the applied fine arts of Scythian or Saka tribes.294

* * *

Paleographic analysis

The paleographic analysis leads to a conclusion about very early date of appearance of the Türkic runic alphabet in Southern Siberia and Jeti-Su, not later then the middle of the 1st millennium BC. This alphabet display a close genetic proximity, firstly with early types of the ancient Greek alphabet (especially with Anatolian and Italic), and secondly with Northern Semitic-Phoenician (including with early Aramaic) and S.Semitic alphabets43. In some measure it agrees with the archeological data about deep cultural ties of the Southern Siberia and Jeti-Su early nomads with the Near East population in the 1st millennium BC.

The Aramaic alphabet as a branch of the Phoenician alphabet has also some similarity with the Türkic runic alphabet, though apparently they both are only in an indirect relationship. The graphic affinity of the Gothic (Common German) and Türkic runic characters, in some instances also supported by coincidence of the sound values, can be explained by their link with the writing system of the ancient Greek or even earlier alphabetic writing.

The rich arsenal of graphic characters of the Türkic runes could be produced only during a long period of development. These alphabetical characters, certainly, were not individually assembled from early Mediterranean alphabets. It is hardly possible to view the early Semitic, ancient Greek, Italic, and Anatolian analogies in this alphabet to be direct loans, because apparently existed an older common source of the alphabetical writing. The Türkic runic alphabet as a whole does not ascend to anyone of the early Mediterranean alphabets known to us, despite the genetic links of some letters.

The Türkic runic alphabet presents a very rich and quite independently developed graphic system. It would be totally erroneous to depict it as a product of a personal creation. The close genetic links of the Türkic runic characters with the early Semitic, ancient Greek, Italic (Etruscan, Picenian, Messapian, Venetian, Retian) and Anatolian (Karian, Lician, Lidian, Sidetian) letters exist because the Türkic runic alphabet underwent a very long period of development, and it apparently ascends directly to the most ancient common source of alphabetic writing. Such a source could be an early logographic or alphabetic script of the 3rd - 2nd millennia BC.

It should be noted that a language, being a main social factor and a major ethnic attribute (the language of the autochthonous population), has to be invariably considered in the studies of the ethnic, historical and cultural communities in the Central Asia. A convinced proponent of the autochthony of the Türkic-speaking population in the Central Asia (based on clearly traced continuity of archeological cultures of the Neolith epoch, Bronze and Early Iron epochs in the territory of Southern Siberia and Kazakhstan) was А. Kh. Margulan44. The language contacts in this region are very deep and diverse. The Türks for millennia communicated not only with rest of the Altai language world, but also with the carriers of various Indo-European languages.

It can't be excluded that the problem of the Türkic alphabet in one way or another is linked with the hypothesis about a most ancient genetic commonality of Türkic languages with the Indo-European languages, which is receiving an increasing linguistic evidence45, and has atendency to develop into a general question about the origin of the alphabet.295296

Table 3. Genetic links of Türkic runes.

Note 46.

Abbreviations in Table 3 "Genetic links of Türkic runes":

Aram. - Aramaic

alphabet (branch of Phoenician Semitic), Greek - eastern branch of ancient Greek alphabet,Ven. - Venet alphabet (version of Etruscan),Greek. - ancient Greek alphabet,W.Greek - western branch of the ancient Greek alphabet,Kar. - Karian alphabet,Lid. - Lidian alphabet,Lic. - Lician alphabet,Mes. - Messap alphabet,Pit. - Picen alphabet,Ret. - Retian alphabet (a version of Etruscan), Sid. - Sidian alphabet,Phoen. - Phoenician (N.Semitic) alphabet,Etr. -

Etruscan alphabet,S.Sem. - S.Semitic alphabets.

A comparison of the Ancient Türkic runes with related alphabetical characters of the early Mediterranean alphabetical scripts is shown in Table 3, which can be viewed as a working plan for future studies46. In the table the Türkic runic characters (graphemes) are grouped in accordance with the transpiring paleographical and phonological links, which allows to track down the evolution of the Türkic runic alphabet from original few initial signs to the extremely rich and complete graphic system, which reflects a long developmental history of the Ancient Türkic language phonetic system, and at the same time displaying a genetic (material) affinity with the early Mediterranean alphabets.

The characters for vowels in the Türkic runic alphabet, as is known, were polyphonic. The identical signs designated non-labial broad vowel phonemes a and ä, non-labial narrow vowel phonemes ï and i, firm labial phonemes o and u, soft labial phonemes ö and ü. In the most ancient inscription on the Ili vessel discussed above, the labial vowel phonemes were transmitted by the same character i. Hence, initially the characters for firm and soft labial vowels were not differentiated.

The comparative analysis suggests that Türkic runic characters

for the vowels ascend to the common prototype , which once was designating an initial slotted consonant of the *h type (probably, a variation of a phoneme *k) in front of different vowels. This initial sound (apparently, it ascends to a common Altaic *p-) (Translator assumes that the author is using Latin letter symbology, and not Greek/Cyrillic, thus *p and not *r) was not found in the language of the ancient Türkic runic inscriptions, but its traces are found in some Türkic languages47. A gradual loss of a consonant *h- in the language of tribes that inherited the ancient written tradition, caused emergence and subsequent separation of the sounds for the vowel archephonems A (a, ä), I (ï, i) and U (o, u, ö, ü), possibly under an influence of close

characters for consonants k, j, and b. At the same time,

Türkic runic characters а, ä, ï, i, ö, ü (from ö, ü

comes о, u) reveal a close genetic link with the characters for consonants '(a), j, w in the Semitic alphabets.297

The letter designations for the firm and soft variations of consonant phonemes in the Türkic runic alphabet, as was already noted, frequently underwent neutralization (except for q and k'). Moreover, the letter designations for firm and soft variations of consonant phonemes are usually also connected genetically. For

example, the runic character b developed from b',

runic j developed from j', runic n developed n'. Therefore in a historical perspective makes sense to examine the Türkic runic characters for the consonants as graphic symbols for phonemes, irrespective of their sound implementation in a word.

The Türkic runic characters for consonant phonemes can be broken into three internally connected paleographic groups:1) signs for bilabial plosive consonant phonemes b, p, m;2) signs for alveolar plosive consonant phonemes d, t, z, s, ş. č, n, l, r, and palatal approximant consonant phoneme j;3) signs for velar plosive consonant phonemes g, k, η.

The signs on the first group go back to their prototypes b' (~

*р') and m. The affinity of tracings of these prototypes, apparently, is caused by ancient phonetic conformity b (p)~m.

The prospective primary source - a graphic logogram bel "fish", compare Tuva bel " taymen (fish)", Khakass. pil "taymen (fish)".

It can't be missed that the Phoenician b represents a later

graphic development in comparison with the Yenisei b',

Orkhon b' and Talas b'.

Characters of the second group include prototypes d ' (~

*t ') d(~*t), z(~*s), ş, č (compare

with signs for ş), n', and also rather archaic signs for l',

r', and j'.

Among these characters show up sometimes ancient graphic

logograms täηri ( Sumer. diηir) "Sky; God, deity", compare Kazakh. täηir, täηiri "God" or zeηgir "great, high, highest",

Karakalpak. diη aspanda "very high, up in the sky" (phonetic

transition t~d~z in the beginning of a word); adaq "leg (legs);

azuq "food, provisions, nutrient" (image of pasture, foliage),

as-aş "meal, food " (image of a grain ear), compare Altaic. aş (ash) "food; wheat (in ears) ", Kirgiz. ash "food; fruits (of wild

plants)"; čip, čïbïq "twig, thin flexible branch"; en "bottom,

descent"; el "hand, palm of a hand"; er "drill", compare Khakas. ires "screw".298

The characters of the third group include prototypes g'

(~*k'), γ (~ *q) and q (comp. Phoenician h,

kh), fairly archaic in form characters for k' (with ö, ü), q (with o, u), q (with ï), and also separate signs for velar nasal phoneme η.

Look like initial the graphic logograms *egeg "file, abrader", compare Tuva egee (ägää), Kazakh. egeu "file,

abrader", ege- "to grind with a file"; aγ ""trap, snare,

fishing tackle, net"; eη "face, cheeks".

It is important to note that the phonological differentiation in sonority-aphonity of voiced consonants (b~p, d~t, z~s, g~k) in the Türkic runic alphabet is reflected very unusually. As the comparative analysis shows, almost all runic characters for voiceless consonants (p, t, s, k', q) ultimately are derivatives from the runic characters for corresponding sonorous consonants.

For example, the Türkic runic characters p, p ', t ', t

(compare t in the fifth rock inscription of Hoyto-Tamir), s', k '

and q have developed respectively from signs for b' (~ *p'), d' (~ *t'), d (~ *t), z (~ *s), g' (~ *k') and γ (~ *q). However, the

Orkhon runic characters t appear to be primordial, probably ascending to a graphic logogram taη "dawn".299

Thus, some prototypes of the Ancient Türkic runes appear to be indigenous and, most likely, developed from initial Türkic pictorial

logograms, sympbols for words. The Türkic runic characters for

phonetic combinations lt, rt and nt nç have no direct analogies in any of the ancient alphabets. Their prospective

prototypes are graphic logograms alt "bottom, lower part",

art "upland, mountain; mountain pass", ant~and "swear, oath" (image of skull) or andïγ "rim of a sieve, a strainer". The genetic link of Orkhon sign for ñ (nj) with the Orkhon-Yenisean symbol for nč is confirmed by ancient phonetic correspondence of ñ (nj)~nč.

And finally, the symbols for word separation in Türkic runic inscriptions ( diverse notation for the breaks between words) display greater variety than the corresponding Phoenician, Ancient Greek, Karian and Etruscan scripts.

The paleographic and phonologic links of the Türkic runic characters (graphemes) attest a long evolution of the Türkic runic script in a development process of the Ancient Türkic language, which was generally completed not later than the 4th - 1st millennia BC. Consequently, the Türkic runic alphabet, which history and genetic links are receiving principally new interpretation, can become an extremely important source for historical phonetics of the Türkic languages.

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References for Chapter 10

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1. Tychsen O.N. Schreiben an Pallas 19 Febr. 1786 über alte unbekannte Steinschrift in Sibirien, " Neue nordliche Beitrage ", vol. V, SPb., 1793, pp. 237-245;Spassky G.I. Notes about Siberian antiquities. Ancient Siberian inscriptions, "Siberian bulletin ", SPb., 1818, p. 13-14;Vostokov A. About similarity of the tracings found in Siberia on stones, to those found in Germany. " The Siberian bulletin ", SPb., 1824, ch. I, p. 1-8 (translation and comment of the review by G.Rommel from " Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen ", № 204, 1823 - " De antiquis quisbusdam sculpturis et inscriptionibus in Sibiria repertis ", Petropoli, 1822);Klaproth J. Memoires relatifs a V Asie. (Sur quelques antiquites de la Siberie). Paris, 1824, p. 159;Priests N. About runic letters in Minusinsk territory. " News of Siberian department of Russian geographical society ", vol. 5, № 2, Irkutsk, 1874, p. 53-55; Donner О. Inscriptions en caracteres de Flenissei. Systeme d'ecriture. Langue. - " Inscriptions de Orkhon recueillies par fexpedition Finnoise, 1890 et publiees par la Societe Finno-Ougrienne ", Helsingfors, 1892, pp. XL-XLIV (XXXIX-XLIX).

2. Yadrintsev H.M. Report of expedition to Orkhon in 1889 on behalf of the Eastern - Siberian Department of the Imperial Geographical society (a geographical diary). - Collection of works of Orkhon expedition, I, SPB., 1892, p. 106.

3 Thomsen W. Deciphering of Orkhon and Yenisei inscriptions. "Notes of Eastern branch of Russian Archeological Society " (ZVO Russian Archeological Society), vol. VIII, issue III - IV, SPb., 1894, p. 332 (V.R.Rozen translation from French, Thomsen W. Dechiffrement des inscriptions de Orkhon et de Yenissei. Notice preliminaire, Extrai du "Bulletin de Akademie R. des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark, 1893, N 3, Copenhague, 1894).

4 Schifner A. Über verschiedene sibirische Eigentums-Zeichen, "Melanges russe ", vol.. IV, 1858, p. 2.

5 Thomsen W. Deciphering of Orkhon and Yenisei inscriptions, p. 337; "To talk definitely about the origin of our alphabet would be premature. I shall allow myself to only address the similarity of some letters with the letters signs of the (Semito-) Pehlevi alphabet"; Tomsen W. Inscriptions de Orkhon dechiffrees. " Memoires de la Societe Finno-Ougrienne " (MSFOu), V, Helsingfors, 1894-1896, pp. 49-50; Tomsen W. V alphabet runiforme Turc. Samlede Afhandlinger, III Bind, Kobenhavn, 1922, pp. 73-77.300

6 Klyashtorny S.G. Ancient Türkic runic monuments as a source on a history of Central Asia. М., 1964, p. 49.

7 Donner O. Sur Toriğine de Palphabet turc du nord de G Asie, "Journal de la Societe Finno-Ougrienne" (JSFOu), XIV, 1, Helsingfors, 1896, pp. 17, 21, 70.

8 Jensen H. Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart, 2. neubearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, Berlin 1958, pp. 343-344, Abb. 343.

9 Altheim F. Geschichte der Hunnen, Bd. 1, Kapitel 11 (" Hunnische und alttürkische Runen "), Berlin, 1959, pp. 284-286, 437.

10 Here we agree with S.G.Kljashtorny, compare Klyashtorny S.G. Ancient Türkic runic monuments as a source on a history of Central Asia, p. 46.

11 Aristov N. Ethnic structure of Kirghiz - cossacks of the Big Horde and Karakirgizes from genealogical legends and existing clan divisions and clan tamgas, and also history and beginning of anthropological research. "Live olde", issue III - IV, SPB., 1894, p. 419-420; Aristov N. Notes about ethnic structure of Türkic tribes and nations, and their number. "Live olde", issue III - IV, SPb., 1896, p. 418, 420.

12 Mallitsky N. Link of Türkic tamgas with Orkhon letters. " Records of Türkestani circle of archeology fans ", year III, Tashkent, 1897-1898, p. 43-47.

13 Sokolov A. From stone to press. "Culture and writing of the East", Baku, 1928, II, p. 116, 118.

14 Batmanov I.A. and Kunaa A.Ch. Monuments of Ancient Türkic writing in Tuva, issue I. Kyzyl, 1963, p. 8.

15 Tomsen W. L'alphabet runiforme Turc, pp. 78 - 79.

16 Polivanov E.D. Ideographic motive in formation of the Orkhon alphabet. A reprint from "Bulletin of the Central Asian state university" (Tashkent), № 9, 1925, p. 177-179. "Alphabetical

etymologies ( oq, aj) demonstrate that these letters were created only in the Turkish society, relying upon the Turkish language of the script... ", - wrote in the same place E.D.Polivanov.

17 Emre A. С. Eski türk yazisinin menşegi. Istanbul, 1938, s. 19, 48, 50-52.

18 Clauson G. The origin of the Türkish "runic" alphabet. " Acta örientalia " (Havniae), XXXII, 1970, pp. 55, 59-60.

19 Critical analysis of these hypotheses see: Amanjolov A.S. Materials and research for history of the Ancient Türkic writing. Author's abstract of the Doctor Dissertation. Alma-Ata, 1975, p. 54-57.301

20 Livshits V.A. Origin of Ancient Türkic runic writing. SPb. "Ethnic, historical and cultural links of Türkic peoples of the USSR. Theses of reports and messages. All-Union Türkological conference, 27 - 29 September, 1976 ", Alma-Ata, 1976, p. 64.

21 Ibid, p. 68-69 (table).

22 Amanjolov A.S. Once more about Irtysh runic inscription, "Bulletin of Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences", 1967, 9 (269), p. 66-70;Amanjolov A.S. Runic-like inscription from Saka burial near Alma-Ata, "Bulletin of Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences", 1971, 12 (320), p. 64-66;Amanjolov A.S. Türkic runic graphics, Ch. III (exponents - Irtysh, Ili and Syr-Darya inscriptions). Alma-Ata, 1985, p. 5-16, 31-39.

23 Amanjolov A.S. An "Ancient Greek " inscription from Alma-Ata region, "Oriental Archive" (Praha), 1967, 35/1, pp. 89-94;Amanzhо1оv A. S. Forefather goat or ancient Türkic inscription in early Greek alphabet, "Oriental Archive" (Praha), 1974, 42/1, pp. 33-36.

24 Main provisions of this principally new development of the subject were published, see:Amanjolov A.S. History of the Türkic runic alphabet. Coll. "Kazaktsh men edebiet" ["Kazakh language and literature"], issue 5, Alma-Ata, 1974, p. 98-100;Amanjolov A.S. Problem of origin of the Türkic runic alphabet. Coll. " The cossack tsh men эдебиет1 " ["Kazakh language and literature "], issue 8, Alma-Ata, 1976, p. 59-71;Amanjolov A.S. Genesis of Türkic runes. "Questions of linguistics", 1978, № 2, p. 76 - 87.

25 Malov S.E. Monuments of Ancient Türkic writing in Mongolia and Kirghizia. M. - L., 1959, p. 63, 74-75.

26 Neike1 H. J. Altertumer aus dem Tale des Talaş in Türkestan. "Travaux ethnographiques de la Societe Finno-Ougrienne", VII, Helsinki, 1918, II: 1 and II: 14.

27 Vinnik D.N., Kojemyako P. N. Monuments of Ancient Türkic writing of Ayrtam-Oy valley. Coll. "New epigraphic finds in Kirghizia (1961)", Frunze, 1962, p. 9-10.

28 Convincing critics of such statements which contradict obvious facts, see: Batmanov I.A. Dating of Yenisei monuments of the Ancient Türkic writing, "Scientific notes of Tuva NIIYALI ", X, Kyzyl, 1963, p. 294.

29 Кормушин I.V. Basic concepts of Türkic runic paleography, "Soviet Türkology", 1975, 2, p. 38, 45, 47.

30 Ibid, p. 45.

31 This subject is covered with more detail in Chapter I of this monograph, partly in former publications, see: Amanjolov A.S. Graphics of Talass, Yenisei and Orkhon inscriptions, Coll. "Kazak tili men aedebieti", 3, Alma-Ata, 1973, p. 16-26;Amanjolov A.S. Interpretation of some runic characters, "Scientific notes of Tuva NIIYALI", XVI, Kyzyl, 1973, p. 163-168;Amanjolov A.S. Türkic runic graphics (methodical development). Alma-Ata, 1980 [P. I].302

32 Mалов С. E. Monuments of the Ancient Türkic writing of Mongolia and Kirgizia. M. - L., 1959, p. 74.

33 Ginzburg V.V. Anthropological characteristic of the Kazakhstan population during Bronze Epoch. Works IIAE Academy of Sciences KazSSR, vol. I, Alma-Ata, 1956, p. 159, 170-171;Ginzburg V.V. Anthropology materials of ancient population of southeast Kazakhstan. - Works IIAE Academy of Sciences KazSSR, vol. 7, Alma-Ata, 1959, p. 269;Ismagulov O. Anthropological characteristics of Jeti-Su Usuns. - Works IIAE Academy of Sciences KazSSR, vol. 16, Alma-Ata, 1962, p. 176, 187, 190-192;Ismagulov O. Kazakhstan population from an Bronze Epoch to modernity (paleoanthropological research). Alma-Ata, 1970, p. 4, 10, 19, 37-38.

34 Bernshtam A.N. Most ancient Türkic elements in ethnogenesis of Central Asia. "Soviet Ethnography" (collection of articles), VI - VII, M. - L., 1947, p. 148.

35 Ibid, p. 148-149, etc.

36 Marx К. and Engels F. Selected letters. M., I947, p. 73.

37 Gumilev L.N. Hunnu. Middle Asia during ancient times. M, 1960, p. 39-40.

38 Hirth F. Nachworte zur Inschrift des Tonjukuk. In: Radloff W. Diealttiirkischen Inschriften der Mongolei. Zweite Folge. SPb., 1899, S. 49.

39 Shiratori К. Über die Wu-sun Stamm in Zentralasien. " Keleti Szemle " (Budapest), 1902, 2-3, pp. 103-140.

40 Aristov N.A. Notes about ethnic structure of Türkic tribes and nations and their number, p. 17.

41 Zuev Ü. I. Question of language of ancient Usuns. "Bulletin of Academy of Sciences KazSSR ", No 5 (146), 1957, p. 73.

42 Gryaznov M.P. Connections of Southern Siberia nomads with Central Asia and Near East in 1st millennium BC "Materials of Second meeting of archeologists and ethnographers of Central Asia". M. - L., 1959, p. 142;Rudenko S.I. Art of Altai and Near East (Middle of the 1st millennium BC). М., 1961, p. 64; Mannay-ool M. X. New materials of Scythian time in Tuva (Materials of archeological research TNIIYALI), issue IX, Kyzyl, 1964, p. 278-284.

43 Comparison material, besides Türkological material, was from the following studies of general and specific nature:Shampolion J.-F. Egyptian hieroglyphic alphabet. Translation, edition and comments by I.G.Livshits. Publ. USSR Academy of Sciences, 1950;Wiedemann F. Begining of historical Greek writing. Research in the field of most ancient Greek alphabet. Leipzig, 1908 (1910);Thompson E. M. An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography. Oxford, 1912;Driver G. R. Semitic Writing from Pictograph to Alphabet. London, 1948;Gelb L. J. Study of Writing. Foundation of Grammatology. London, 1952;Diringer D. Alphabet. Key to the History of Mankind. London, 1953;Diringer D. Writing. London, 1962;Moorhouse A. С. The Triumph of the Alphabet. A History of Writing. New York, 1953;Friedrich J. Entzifferung verschollener Schriften und Sprachen, Berlin, 1954;Jensen Н. Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart, 2. neubearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, Berlin, 1958;Cohen M. La grande invention de reeriture et son evolution. Paris, 1958;Shifman I.S. Phoenician language. М., 1963;Istrin V.A. Emergence and development of writing. М., 1965 (2nd revised edition);Shevoroshkin V.V. Research in decoding of Karian inscriptions. М., 1965;Makaev E.A. Language of the most ancient runic inscriptions. The linguistic and historical philological analysis. М., 1965;Friedrich J. Geschichte der Schrift. Unter besonderer Berücksichtung ilırer geistigen Entwickltmg. Heidelberg, 1966;Földes-Papp К. Vom Felsbild zurn Alphabet. Die geschichte der Schrift von ihren frühesten

Vorstufen bis zur modernen lateinischen Schreibshrift. Stuttgart, 1966;Bauer Г. M. Language of S.Arabian writing. М., 1966;Shevoroshkin V.V. Lidian language. М., 1967;Shevoroshkin V. V. Zur Entstehımg und Entwicklung der kleinasiatischen Buchstabenschriften. "Kadmos" (Berlin), Bd. VII, 2, 1968, pp. 150-173.303

44 Margulan A.H. Begazy-Dandyb Culture of Central Kazakhstan. Alma-Ata, 1979, p. 21.

45 Ramstedt С. J. The relation of the Altaic languages to other language groups. Extrait du " Journal de la Societe Finno-Ougrienne ", LIII, Helsinki, 1947, p. 23: "In my view equally good reasons could be found for attempting to link together the Altaic and Indo-European languages";Emre A. C. Le probleme de la parente des langues turques et indo-europeennes. Ankara, 1960; (A.J. Emre addressed up to 40 cases of most ancient Indoeuropean-Türkic lexical concordances);Dulzon A.P. Hypothesis about remote relationship of the Uralo-Altai languages with Indo-European. Coll. "Origin of Siberia natives and their languages" (Materials of interuniversity conference 11 - 13 May, 1969), Tomsk, 1969, p. 108 - 110;Petrov K.I. Genetical relationship of the Altai and Indo-European languages.Ibid, p. 110 - 112.

46 Abbreviations in Table 3 "Genetical links of Türkic runes": see Table 3304

47 Ryasyanen M. Materials for historical phonetics of Türkic languages, М., 1955, p. 24 - 25;Baskakov N.A. Türkic languages (General and typological characteristics), "Languages of the USSR peoples", II - Türkic languages, М., 1966, p. 17;Doerfer G. Bemerkungen zur Methodik der turkischen Lautlehre, " Orientalistische Literaturzeitung ", (Berlin), LXVI, 7/8,1971, p. 335.

Existence of proto-Türkic initial consonant of type *h (*k) is definitely confirmed by the Khalage material, see: Derfer, Research status of Khalage group of languages. Questions of linguistics, 1972, № 1, and other works.

Also compare:ancient-Türkic ara "interval, middle" and Chuvash. khusha "gap between objects",ancient-Türkic egri "1) curved, uneven, bent; 2) indirect: false, lying, wrong; 3) curvature", and Chuvash. kuker " 1) curved, bent, crooked; 2) dishonest, dishonestly; 3) curvature, bend, corner, turn, bow",ancient-Türkic inč "1) rest; quiet; 2) quietly ", and Chuvash. kanač "rest, calmness, breather, convenience" (formed from verb kan- "to rest, resting"),ancient-Türkic ačïγ "1) sour, bitter; 2) indirect. bitter, insulting; 3) noun, indirect bitterness, bitter", and Chuvash. kacha "term for anything very spicy, bitter",ancient-Türkic aşuq "ankle joint, anklebone" and Khakass. khazykh "knucklebone, anklebone",ancient-Türkic üηür " 1) emptiness, empty space; 2) hollow".305

GENESIS OF TURKIC RUNIC ALPHABET

Conclusion and Bibliography

A.S. AMANJOLOV

HISTORY of ANCIENT TURKIC SCRIPT

Almaty, "Mektep", 2003

Introduction

The original bibliography of the A. Amanjolov monograph includes a large quantity of

references transcribed in quasi-Cyrillic alphabet cooked individually by Russians for each

Turkic administrative subdivision, after their sequential state prohibition and expulsion

from the Turkic culture, of first the Arabic, and then the Latin alphabet. All the efforts were

made in the translation to re-transcribe them back to a common Turkic alphabet, but

because the same grapheme may be used differently in various Turkic Soviet and post-

Soviet alphabets, the accuracy of each word transcription is unknown, though for a Turkic-

fluent person the meaning should be clear in all cases. My apologies for any inconvenience.

The translation retained a Cyrillic alphabetical sequence of the original, a little different

from the customary Latin, to ease the cross-reference with the Russian-lingual original. The

Latin-based part of the Bibliography retained as in the original.

The Conclusion of the book summarizes the main theses in so few and clear sentences

which could be composed only by a great master with an intricate knowledge and a cl ear

perception of the subject.

CONCLUSION

1. The Ancient Türkic runic script (Türkic runes) is closely connected with the history of

ancient Türkic-speaking tribes social and cultural development in Tian-Shan, Sayan-Altai

and Khangay mountains. The distribution area and chronological frameworks of Türkic

runes correlate with the Ancient Türkic statehood of the 6th-10th centuries. At the same

time, the sources of this process go much deeper. The linguistic particularities of Ancient

Türkic runic monuments reflect a period of development of all live Türkic languages. The

language of the Türkic runes, being a written literary language, developed on the basis of

close dialects of the ancient tribes now composing the ethnic mix of many Türkic peoples.

The Türkic runes furnish valuable material about ideology of the ancient hunter-animal

husbandry tribes of the Central Asia. The early beliefs of the Türkic-speaking tribes found

reflection in closely bound cults of nature and patron ancestors, zoolatry and totemism. In

second half of the 1st millennium AD the ancient Türks experienced strong influence of

Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Christianity of Nestorian variety (i.e. Tengrianism, called

Nestorianism by Christian clergy), which frequently resulted in change of re ligious views

and, as a rule, change of writing. Finally, in the Western and Eastern Turkestan at the turn

of the 1st - 2nd millennia AD diffused Islam ideology and Arabic alphabet.

2. The graphics of Talas, Yenisei and Orkhon inscriptions shows that the Türkic runic

alphabet was well adapted to the sound system of Ancient Türkic language. The vowel

phonemes а and ä, ï and i, o and u, ö and ü were symbolized by four polyphonic letters, the

use of which was frequently facultative (depending on a position of a vowel phoneme in a

word). The consonant phonemes b, p, d, t, z, s, ş, č, m, n, l, r, j, g, k, η (and partly their

variations) were symbolized by thirty one letter.

Under influence of vowel harmony of syllable and word, the Türkic runic script developed a

graphical opposition of hard and soft variations of consonant phonemes b, d, t, s, ş, n, l, r,

j, g (γ~g'), k (q~k'). Nevertheless, the "paired" consonants quite often were subjected to

neutralization, i.e. were partially interchangeable. An exception was a "paired" letters for

sound versions of the consonant phoneme k (q~k'), which sometimes had additional

graphical differentiation for labial syllable-forming vowel (the consonant q with non-labial

narrow vowel also could receive a special designation). The consonant phonemes p, z, č, m,

η were symbolized by "unary" consonants, i.e. irrespective of positional voiced variations.

Thus, in the Türkic runic (Orkhon-YEnisean) alphabet were 35 letters, represented by

different graphical variations. In addition, special signs were for combinations of

consonants lt, rt, nt, nč. Some Türkic runic characters brought new interpretations.

306

3. The graphics of Talas, Yenisei and Orkhon runic inscriptions was mostly studied by us

from originals (and the Orkhon inscriptions partly from pictures), which allowed to verify

tracings, transcription, and translation of some of them. The monograph includes verified

epigraphic materials, and partly studies of the Talas, Yenisei and Orkhon runes. For

example, are reviewed in detail three Yenisei inscriptions published by the author (on a

Chinese bronze coin of 759, on a heart-shaped pebble, and on a stele found by A.N.Lipsky),

offered a decoding of a runic inscription on a Talas stick, corrected the reading of some

Talas (and Chu's) runic inscriptions, given new reading for three large Orkhon inscriptions

(monument in honor of Kül-Tegin, Ongin monument, Tonükuk monument).

4. New epigraphic finds in the territory of Kazakhstan (Irtysh, Ili, Syr-Darya, Yaik) allow to

reveal most ancient monuments of written culture of the Türkic-speaking peoples' remote

ancestors. On a bone circle with an image of a flying deer from a kurgan of the 5th - 4th

centuries BC in the r. Irtysh valley was found and read a most ancient Türkic (proto -Türkic)

runic inscription "White Deer". Apparently, this sacral inscription was devoted to a

zoomorphic solar deity of the ancient "Scythians" in the Central Asia. This inscription is one

of two earliest documentarily confirmed inscriptions in the history of the Türkic runic

alphabet. The second proto-Türkic inscription is runic-like inscription on a silver cup from

Issyk kurgan of the 5th - 4th centuries BC in the valley of the r. Ili. In time they are

probably close to the runic inscriptions on the rocks in the r. Ili valley, an inscription on a

clay seal from Seyhun (Syr-Darya), an inscription on a Bronze mirror from the r. Yaik,

some Talas inscriptions (especially a runic inscription on a wooden stick) and some Yenisei

inscriptions on the so-called deer stones.

Most of the Türkic runic inscriptions from Yenisei, Irtysh, Ili, Seyhun (Syr-Darya) and

Talas, and the inscriptions from Mongolia, are made in the second half of the 1st

millennium AD.

5. As the epigraphic finds show, in the valley of r. Ili, in the 1st millennium AD the ancient

Türkic tribes in Tian-Shan used not only the Türkic runic, but also the ancient Greek

alphabet (direction of writing from right to left). Apparently, the ancient Greek alphabet

was inherited by the ancient Türks from Sakas and Tochars-Buddhists. The presence among

the ancient Türks of the typical for the middle of the 1st millennium BC ancient Greek

alphabet, along with the Türkic runic alphabet, which apparently arose not later than the

middle of the 1st millennium BC, unequivocally points to an amazing concurrence of the

historical fates of these closely related alphabets in the r. Ili valley, and testifies to the

most ancient written tradition of Türkic-speaking tribes.

6. For the history of writing, in our opinion, important role play pictograms, ideograms and

other early written signs of Kazakhstan and Southern Siberia, which belong to the Neolith,

Bronze and Early Iron (4th - 1st millennia BC) epochs. The early types of writing

(pictography, ideography), attested in the territory of Kazakhstan, reflect stages of t he

proto-Türkic civilization development under indispensable organizing role of language and

writing.

The most ancient Kazakhstan rock symbols in the Late Bronze and Early Iron epochs,

engraved with dot techniques, in some instances border on the initial graphics of some

Ancient Türkic runes.

Exposed through a prism of most ancient language contracts, the mysterious "Sumer"-

Türkic lexical congruencies and graphical logograms find a convincing confirmation from the

positions of historical phonetics of Türk ic languages.

7. The paleographic analysis of the Ancient Türkic runes, in turn, leads to a conclusion

about very early forming date for the Türkic runic alphabet in Southern Siberia and Jeti -Su,

not later than the middle of the 1st millennium BC. This alphabet reveals a close genetic

linkage, first, with the early types of the ancient Greek alphabet (especially with Anatolian

and Italic), and secondly, with the Northern Semitic-Phoenician (including the early

Aramean) and S.Semitic alphabets.

At the same time, the Türkic runic alphabet represents a very rich and expressly developed

independently graphic system. The close genetic linkage of the Türkic runic characters with

the early Semitic, ancient Greek, Italic and Anatolian letters demonstrate that the Türkic

runic alphabet underwent a long path of development, and apparently it ascends to the

most ancient common source of alphabetic writing. A conjectured primary source was an

original logographic (ideographic) or alphabetic script of the 3rd - 2nd millennia BC.

It is very probable that some prototypes of Ancient Türkic runes descend from primeval

Türkic graphic logograms, the signs for the words. For a solution of the problem of the

Türkic runic alphabet origin, a great importance acquires the hypothes is about a most

ancient genetic unity of Türkic languages with the Indo-European languages.

The paleographical and phonological relations of the Türkic runic characters (graphemes)

attest to extended evolution of the Türkic runic alphabet, which reflected the original

process of becoming a sound system for the ancient Türkic language. Consequently, the

problem of the origin (genesis) of the Türkic runic alphabet is closely bound not only with

the questions of Ancient Türkic ethnogenesis and the history of culture of Ancient Türkic

tribes, but also with the problems of historical phonetics of the Türkic languages.

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The scientific edition Altai Sarsenovich Amanjolov

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Makataeva, 41.

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