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Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.1
4 TURBO MACHINERY
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Hydraulic
Turbines
4.3 Efficiencies & Head of
Hydraulic Turbines
4.4 Impulse Turbine (Pelton Wheel)
4.5 Reaction Turbine
4.6 Inward and Outward Flow
Reaction Turbine
4.7 Francis turbine
4.8 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
4.9 Draft Tube Theory
4.10 Specific Speed
4.11 Unit Quantities
4.12 Performance Curves of
Hydraulic Turbines
4.13 Solved Numerical
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.2
4.1 Introduction
Hydraulic Machines
βIt is defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy (i.e. turbines) or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy (i.e.
pumps).β
Turbines
βIt is defined as the hydraulic machines which converts hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy.β
β This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly
coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted into
electric energy.
β The electric power, which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as Hydro-
electric power.
4.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
A. According to the type of energy at inlet or the action of the water on
the blade
I. Impulse turbine
β In an Impulse turbine, all the available energy of the water is converted into
kinetic energy or velocity head by passing it through a convergent nozzle
provided at the end of penstock.
β So at the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available.
β Here the pressure of water flowing over the turbine blades remains constant.
(i.e. atmospheric pressure)
β Examples: Pelton wheel, Turgo-impulse turbine, Girard turbine, Banki
turbine, Jonval turbine, etc.
II. Reaction turbine
β In a reaction turbine, at the entrance to the runner, only a part of the
available energy of water is converted into kinetic energy and a substantial
part remains in the form of pressure energy.
β So at the inlet of the turbine, water possesses kinetic energy as well as
pressure energy.
β As the water flows through the turbine blades, the change from pressure
energy to kinetic energy takes place gradually.
β For this gradual change of pressure, the runner must be completely enclosed
in an air-tight casing and the passage should be full of water.
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.3
β The difference of pressure between the inlet and outlet of the runner is
called reaction pressure, and hence these turbines are known as reaction
turbine.
β Examples: Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine, Thomson
turbine, Fourneyron turbine, etc.
B. According to the direction of flow through runner
I. Tangential flow turbine
β In tangential flow, the water strikes the runner in the direction of tangent to
the path of rotation of runner. OR The water strikes the vane/bucket along
the tangent of the runner.
β Example: Pelton wheel
II. Radial flow turbine
β In radial flow, water flows through the turbine along the direction normal to
the axis of rotation (i.e. radial direction).
β A radial flow turbine is further classified as inward or outward flow
depending upon whether the flow is inward from the periphery to the center
or outward from center to periphery.
β Example: Old Francis turbine
III. Axial flow turbine
β In an axial flow, water flows along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation
of the runner.
β Here water flows parallel to the turbine shaft.
β Examples: Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine
IV. Mixed flow turbine
β In mixed flow, water enters the runner in the radial direction and leaves in
the direction parallel to the axis of rotation (i.e. axial direction).
β Example: Modern Francis turbine.
C. According to the head at the inlet of the turbine
I. High head turbine
β High head turbines which operates under high head (above 250 m) and
requires relatively less quantity of water.
β Example: Pelton wheel turbine
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.4
II. Medium head turbine
β Medium head turbines which operate under medium head (60 m to 250 m)
and require medium flow rate.
β Example: Modern Francis turbine
III. Low head turbine
β Low head turbines which operate under head up to 30 m and require very
large quantity of water.
β Example: Kaplan and Propeller turbine
D. According to the specific speed of the turbine
The specific speed of a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine that
would develop 1 KW power when working under a head of 1 m.
All geometrically similar turbines (irrespective of the sizes) will have the same
specific speeds when operating under the same head.
ππππππππ π ππππ, ππ =πβπ
π»5 4β
Where,
π = Normal working speed
π = Power output of the turbine, and
π» = Net or effective head in meter
Turbines with low specific speeds work under high head and low discharge
conditions, while high specific speed turbines work under low head and high
discharge conditions.
I. Low specific speed turbine
β For Pelton wheel turbine with single jet, ππ = 8.5 π‘π 30
β For Pelton wheel turbine with double jet, ππ = 40
II. Medium specific speed turbine
β For Francis turbine, ππ = 50 π‘π 340
III. High specific speed turbine
β Kaplan and other Propeller turbine, ππ = 255 π‘π 860
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.5
4.3 Efficiencies & Head of Hydraulic Turbines
1. Gross Head (π―π)
β It is the difference between headrace level and tail race level when no water is
flowing.
β It is also known as total head of the turbine.
Fig. 4.1 Layout of hydroelectric power plant using an impulse turbine
2. Effective Head or Net Head (π―)
β Net head or effective head is the actual head available at the inlet of the turbine.
β When water is flowing from head race to the turbine, a loss of head due to friction
between water and penstock occurs.
β Though there are other losses also such as loss due to bend, pipe fittings, loss at
entrance of the penstock, etc. These all having small magnitude as compared to
head loss due to friction.
So,
π» = π»π β βπ β β β β β β β β(4.1)
Where,
π» = Net head or Effective head
π»π = Gross head
βπ = Head loss due to friction between penstock and water and is given by,
βπ =4ππΏπ2
2ππ·β β β β β β β β(4.2)
π = Coefficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of penstock
πΏ = Total length of penstock
π = Mean velocity of water through the penstock
π· = Diameter of penstock and
π = Acceleration due to gravity
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.6
3. Hydraulic Efficiency (πΌπ)
β It is the ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine to the power
supplied by the water at the inlet of a turbine.
β Since the power supplied is hydraulic, and the probable loss is between the striking
jet and vane it is rightly called hydraulic efficiency.
πβ =πππ€ππ πππ£ππππππ ππ¦ π‘βπ ππ’ππππ
πππ€ππ π π’ππππππ ππ¦ π‘βπ π€ππ‘ππ ππ‘ π‘βπ πππππ‘
πβ =π π’ππππ πππ€ππ
πππ‘ππ πππ€ππ=
π . π.
π. π.β β β β β β β β(4.3)
4. Mechanical Efficiency (πΌπ)
β The power delivered by water to the runner of a turbine is transmitted to the shaft
of the turbine.
β It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power
developed by the runner of a turbine.
β This depends on the slips and other mechanical problems that will create a loss of
energy i.e. friction.
ππ =πππ€ππ ππ£πππππππ ππ‘ π‘βπ π βπππ‘ ππ π‘βπ π‘π’πππππ
πππ€ππ πππ£ππππππ ππ¦ π‘βπ ππ’ππππ ππ π π‘π’πππππ
ππ =πβπππ‘ πππ€ππ
π π’ππππ πππ€ππ=
π. π.
π . π.β β β β β β β β(4.4)
5. Overall Efficiency (πΌπ)
β It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power supplied by the water
at the inlet of a turbine.
ππ =πβπππ‘ πππ€ππ
πππ‘ππ πππ€ππ
Runner Power
β’ πΉππ ππππ‘ππ π€βπππ, π . π. = οΏ½ΜοΏ½[ππ€1 Β± ππ€2] Γ π’, Watt
β’ πΉππ π πππππ ππππ€ πππππ‘πππ π‘π’πππππ, π . π. = οΏ½ΜοΏ½[ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2], Watt
Water Power
π. π. =π Γ π»
1000, πΎπ
π. π. =ππππ»
1000, πΎπ
Where,
π = Weight of water striking the vanes per second = οΏ½ΜοΏ½π = πππ
π» = Net available head on the turbine
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.7
ππ =π. π.
π. π.Γ
π . π.
π . π.
ππ =π. π.
π . π.Γ
π . π.
π. π.
ππ = ππ Γ πβ β β β β β β β β(4.5)
6. Volumetric Efficiency (πΌπ)
β The volume of the water striking the runner of a turbine is slightly less than the
volume of the water supplied to the turbine.
β Some of the volume of the water is discharged to the tail race without striking the
runner of the turbine.
β Thus the ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner to the volume
of water supplied to the turbine is defined as volumetric efficiency.
ππ£ =ππππ’ππ ππ π€ππ‘ππ πππ‘π’ππππ¦ π π‘ππππππ π‘βπ ππ’ππππ
ππππ’ππ ππ π€ππ‘ππ π π’ππππππ π‘π π‘βπ π‘π’πππππβ β β β β β β β(4.6)
4.4 Pelton Wheel β A Pelton wheel turbine is:
Tangential Flow Turbine:
Water strikes the bucket/vane tangentially to the direction of the rotation.
Impulse Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available. (Pressure will
remain constant at the inlet and outlet, i.e. Atmospheric pressure)
β Pelton wheel is generally used at a very high head and low discharge.
β Pelton wheel is named after an American engineer L. A. Pelton.
Components of Pelton Wheel
β The main components of Pelton wheel are:
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)
2. Runner and Buckets
3. Casing and
4. Breaking Jet
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.8
Fig. 4.2 Components of a Pelton wheel
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)
β Depending on load fluctuations, the speed of the turbine is to be kept constant by
controlling the quantity of water flowing through the nozzle.
β The amount of water striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by providing a
spear in the nozzle as shown in Fig. 4.3.
β The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel or
automatically by governor in an axial direction depending upon the size of the unit.
β Spear reciprocates in nozzle and hence changes the annular area through which
water can pass.
Fig. 4.3 Flow regulating Arrangement
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.9
β When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle, the amount of water striking the
runner is reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back, the amount of
water striking the runner increases.
2. Runner and Buckets
β It consists of a circular disc, on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly
spaced are fixed.
β The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is
divided into two symmetrical parts by a dividing wall which is known as splitter.
β The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two equal
parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket.
β The buckets are shaped in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 160Β° or
170Β°. Maximum work is obtained if the jet is deflected through 180Β° i.e. the bucket is
semicircular.
β If semicircular bucket is used, an outgoing jet may strikes to the next incoming
bucket and hence opposes the motion of the rotor. Hence the angle of jet deflection
is generally kept 160Β° to 170Β°.
β Material of buckets: Cast iron, Cast steel, Bronze or S.S., depending upon the head
at inlet.
β The inner surface of the bucket is highly polished to minimize the frictional losses.
β As the splitter has to bear total impact of jet, it must be made very strong. Therefore
it is not practical to have a sharp edge with a zero inlet angle at the center of the
bucket.
β Usually this angle is made 3 to 6 degrees even though, for practical purpose the inlet
vane angle is assumed to be zero.
3. Casing
β The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge
water to the tailrace.
β It also acts as a safe-guard against accidents.
β Material: Cast iron or fabricated steel plates.
β The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
Fig. 4.4 Bucket of Pelton Wheel
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.10
4. Breaking Jet
β When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction,
the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero.
β But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time.
β To stop the runner in a shorter time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet
of water on the back of the vanes as shown in Fig. 4.2. This jet of water is called
breaking jet.
Working of Pelton Wheel
β Pelton wheel works on Impulse-Momentum principle. (i.e. πΉ. ππ‘ = π. ππ)
β The water from the reservoir (or head race) is conveyed to turbine house through a
penstock, at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted.
β When water flows through a penstock and comes out of nozzle, all pressure energy
and potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
β Hence at the outlet of the nozzle, the water out in the form of jet (at atmospheric
pressure) and strikes the buckets/vanes of the runner.
β The impact of water on the bucket makes runner to rotate.
β Runner is mounted on the shaft and hence mechanical energy is available at the
shaft which is coupled with generator, which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy and produce electricity.
β After performing work on the buckets water is discharged into the tail race.
Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Pelton Wheel
β The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter, which splits up the
jet into two parts.
β These parts of the jet, glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge
of the bucket.
β The splitter is the inlet tip and outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the
bucket.
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.11
Fig. 4.5 Velocity diagram of Pelton wheel
Let,
π1 = Absolute velocity of water at the inlet, and is given by,
π1 = πΆπ£β2ππ»
Where,
π» = Net head acting on the Pelton wheel = π»π β βπ
π»π = Gross head
βπ = Head loss due to friction and is given by,
βπ =4ππΏπ2
2ππ·β
π·β = Diameter of penstock
π = Velocity of water in the penstock
π = Co-efficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of
penstock
πΏ = Total length of penstock
π2 = Absolute velocity of water at the outlet
ππ1 = Relative velocity of jet and vane at inlet
ππ2 = Relative velocity of jet and vane at outlet
π’ = Peripheral velocity of a runner which has same value at inlet and outlet of the
runner at mean pitch (π’ = π’1 = π’2)
π’ =ππ·π
60
π· = Diameter of runner
π = Speed of the runner in RPM
ππ€1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet
ππ€2 = Velocity of whirl at outlet
πΌ = Guide blade angle (πΉππ ππππ‘ππ π€βπππ, πΌ = 0)
π = Vane angle at the inlet (πΉππ ππππ‘ππ π€βπππ, π = 0)
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.12
π = Vane angle at the outlet
β From inlet velocity triangle,
πΌ = 0 πππ π = 0 (π€ππ‘ππ πππ‘πππ π‘ππππππ‘πππππ¦)
So,
π1 = ππ€1 πππ
ππ1 = π1 β π’1
β From outlet velocity triangle,
ππ1 = ππ2 (πΉππππ‘πππππ πππ π ππ πππ πππππππ‘ππ ππ π£πππ ππ π£πππ¦ π ππππ‘β)
ππ€2 = ππ2 cos π β π’2
β Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by,
πΉπ₯ = πππ1[ππ€1 + ππ€2]
(π1 is taken instead of ππ1 because of series of vanes)
Also for Pelton wheel π½ is an acute angle i.e. π½ < 90Β° βππππ + π£π sign should be
taken.
β Work done by the jet on runner per sec,
= πΉπ₯ Γ π’
ππππ ππππ = πππ1[ππ€1 + ππ€2] Γ π’,ππ
π ππβ β β β β β β β(4.7)
β Hydraulic efficiency,
πβ =ππππ ππππ πππ π πππππ
πΎππππ‘ππ ππππππ¦ ππ πππ‘ πππ π πππππ
πβ =πππ1[ππ€1 + ππ€2] Γ π’
1
2(πππ1)π1
2
πβ =2π’[ππ€1 + ππ€2]
π12
Now substituting values of ππ€1 & ππ€2 in above equation, we get,
πβ =2π’[π1 + {ππ1 cos π β π’2}]
π12
But,
ππ1 = ππ2 = π1 β π’ (β΅ π’ = π’1 = π’2)
So,
πβ =2π’[π1 + (π1 β π’) cos π β π’]
π12
πβ =2π’ (π1 β π’)[1 + cos π]
π12
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.13
Condition for Maximum efficiency,
π(πβ)
ππ’= 0
π
ππ’[2π’ (π1 β π’)[1 + cos π]
π12 ] = 0
[1 + cos π]
π12 [
π
ππ’(2π’π1 β 2π’2)] = 0
2π1 β 4π’ = 0
2π1 = 4π’
π =π½π
πβ β β β β β β β(4.8)
β Hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be maximum when the velocity of wheel is
half the velocity of the jet of water at inlet.
β Maximum efficiency,
πβπππ₯=
2 Γπ1
2Γ (π1 β
π1
2) [1 + cos π]
π12
πβπππ₯=
[1 + cos π]
2β β β β β β β β(4.9)
Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel For design aspect following points should be considered:
1. The velocity of jet (π½π) at inlet of the turbine,
π1 = πΆπ£β2ππ» β β β β β β β β(4.10)
Where, πΆπ£ = πΆππππππππππ‘ ππ π£ππππππ‘π¦ β 0.98 π‘π 0.99
2. The velocity of wheel (π),
π’ = πβ2ππ» β β β β β β β β(4.11)
Where, π = π ππππ πππ‘ππ β 0.43 π‘π 0.48
3. The angle of deflection of the jet through bucket is taken at 165Β° (average of 160Β° to
170Β°), if no angle of deflection is given.
4. The mean diameter or pitch diameter (π«) of the Pelton wheel is given by,
π’ =ππ·π
60
β΄ π· =60 Γ π’
ππ
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.14
5. Jet ratio (π): It is the ratio of pitch diameter (D) to diameter of jet (d).
π =π·
π (β 12 ππ πππ π‘ ππ π‘βπ πππ ππ ) β β β β β β β β(4.12)
6. No. of buckets (π) on a runner is given by,
π = 15 +π·
2π
β΄ π = 15 + 0.5π β β β β β β β β(4.13)
7. No. of jets: It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine (π) by
the rate of flow of water through a single jet (q).
ππ. ππ πππ‘π =π
πβ β β β β β β β(4.14)
8. Working proportions for buckets:
1. Width of the bucket = 3π π‘π 5π β 5π
2. Depth of the bucket = 0.8π π‘π 1.2π β 1.2π
β Size of bucket means width and depth of the buckets.
Design of Pelton Wheel meansβ¦β¦β¦.
To determine,
a. Diameter of jet (π)
b. Diameter of wheel (π·)
c. Size of the bucket (Width and Depth)
d. No. of buckets on the wheel (π)
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.15
Fig. 4.6 A close-up view of a Pelton wheel showing the detailed design of the buckets; the electrical generator is on the right.
Fig. 4.7 A view from the bottom of an operating Pelton wheel illustrating the splitting and turning of the water jet in the bucket.
Fig. 4.8 The runner
of a Modern Francis
turbine. There are
17 runner blades of
outer diameter 20.3
ft. The turbine
rotates at 100 rpm
and produces 194
MW of power at a
volume flow rate of
375 m3/s from a
net head of 54.9 m.
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.16
4.5 Reaction Turbine β In reaction turbine, water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as well
as pressure energy.
β As water flows through runner, a part of pressure energy goes on changing into
kinetic energy.
β Thus the water through runner is under pressure and the runner is completely
enclosed in an air-tight casing.
β Casing and the runner is always full of water.
β Different types of reaction turbine are:
A. Inward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from outward to inward)
B. Outward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from inward to outward)
C. Mixed flow or Francis turbine (Water enters radially but leaves axially)
D. Axial flow turbine (Water enters and leaves axially)
I. Kaplan turbine:- Runner blades are adjustable
II. Propeller turbine:- Runner blades are fixed
Main Components of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
β There are many components used in radial flow reaction turbine but the main
components of radial flow reaction turbine are:
1. Casing
2. Guide Mechanism
3. Runner and
4. Draft tube
Fig. 4.9 Main components of radial flow reaction turbine
β Main parts of radial flow reaction turbine are shown in Fig. 4.9 and are discussed
below:
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.17
1. Casing
β In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water.
β The cross-section area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference to
keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along its path towards the guide vane.
β This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes.
β Material: Concrete, Cast steel or Plate steel
2. Guide Mechanism or Guide Blades
β It is a stationary circular wheel. Guide vanes are fixed on guide mechanism between
two rings in form of wheel.
β The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without
shock at inlet.
β Material: Cast iron
β The quantity of water passing through the guide blades depends on the position of
the guide vanes.
3. Runner
β It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed.
β Surface of the vanes are made very smooth.
β The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner
without shock.
β Material: Cast steel, Cast iron or Stainless steel.
β Runner is keyed to the shaft.
4. Draft Tube
β The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than
atmospheric pressure.
β Hence water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race.
β A tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit
of the turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
4.6 Inward and Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
Inward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
Water enters at the outer periphery, flows
inward and towards the center of the turbine
and discharges at the inner periphery.
Water enters at the inner periphery, flows
outward and discharges at the outer
periphery.
The outer diameter of the runner is inlet and The inner diameter of the runner is inlet
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.18
the inner diameter is the outlet.
β΄ π·1 > π·2
And hence,
π’1 > π’2
and the outer diameter is the outlet.
β΄ π·1 < π·2
And hence,
π’1 < π’2
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.19
(Work done and hydraulic efficiency are same for both inward and outward flow reaction
turbines)
Work done per sec,
ππ· π ππβ = πππ1[ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2] β β β β β β β β(4.15)
Work done per unit weight,
ππ· π ππβ πππ π’πππ‘ π€πππβπ‘ =1
π[ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2] β β β β β β β β(4.16)
Hydraulic efficiency,
πβ =π π’ππππ πππ€ππ
πππ‘ππ πππ€ππ
πβ =οΏ½ΜοΏ½ (ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2)
ππππ»=
ππ (ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2)
ππππ»
πβ =(ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2)
ππ»β β β β β β β β(4.17)
4.7 Francis turbine
β A Francis turbine is:
a. Mixed Flow Turbine:
Water enters radially and leaves axially to the direction of rotation of shaft.
b. Reaction Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine both kinetic as well as pressure energy is available.
β It is generally operated under medium head and medium flow rate.
β It is designed by an American engineer J. B. Francis in 1849.
Components of Francis Turbine
β Different components of Francis turbine are:
A. Penstock
B. Spiral Casing
C. Guide Blades
D. Governing Mechanism
E. Runner
F. Draft Tube
A. Penstock
β Penstock is a large diameter conduit, which carries water from a dam or a reservoir
to the turbine house.
β Since Francis turbine requires large volume of water than Pelton wheel, size of the
penstock is bigger in the case of Francis turbine.
β Material: Generally steel is used.
B. Spiral Casing
β Water from the penstock enters into the spiral casing which completely surrounds
the runner.
β This casing is also known as scroll casing or volute.
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β The cross-section area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference to
keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along its path towards the guide vane.
β This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes.
β Material:
βͺ For low head: Concrete
casing with steel plate
lining
βͺ For medium head:
Welded rolled steel
plate casing
βͺ For high head: Cast
steel
C. Guide Blades
β A series of airfoil shaped vanes
called the guide vanes or
wicket gates, are mounted on
the casing.
β Guide vanes are fixed between
the two rings in form of a
wheel; however they can
swing about their own axis.
β The basic purpose of the guide
vanes is to convert a part of
pressure energy at its entrance
in to the kinetic energy and to
direct the water or fluid on to
the runner blades at an angle
appropriate to the design.
β The quantity of water passing through the guide vanes depends on the position of
the guide vanes, which can be controlled either by means of a hand wheel or
automatically by a governor.
β Material: Cast steel
D. Governing Mechanism
β Turbine must rotate at constant speed irrespective of the load variation on
generator.
β Governing mechanism keeps the speed of the turbine constant by controlling the
quantity of water to the turbine.
β Guide blades can move on its pivot centers and hence can change the area of flow.
Fig. 4.11 Components of Francis turbine
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β Depending on load fluctuations, governing mechanism changes the position of guide
blades and hence the area of flow so that the turbine rotates with constant speed.
E. Runner
β It is the most important component of the Francis turbine.
β The runner of a Francis turbine consists of a series of curved vanes evenly arranged
around the circumference in the annular space between two plates.
β The runner vanes are so shaped that water enters the runner radially at the outer
periphery and leaves it axially at the inner periphery.
β Most of the portion of pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy as water
flows through the runner.
β The driving force on the runner is both due to impulse (deviation in the direction of
flow) and reaction (change in kinetic and pressure energy) effects.
β The number of runner blades are usually varies between 16 to 24.
β The runner is keyed to the shaft which is usually of forged steel.
β Material:
βͺ Cast iron or Cast steel
βͺ Sometimes Stainless steel or Bronze is used to avoid corrosion.
F. Draft Tube
β It is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area towards its outlet
end. It connects the runner exit to the tail race.
β As the pressure of reaction turbine decreases continuously as water passes through
the guide vanes and the runner, it does below atmospheric pressure at the outlet of
the runner.
β Draft tube is used to discharge the water to the tail race by increasing pressure
above atmospheric.
β Draft tube must be submerged below the level of water in the tail race.
β Material: Steel plate
Working of a Francis Turbine
β Water through the penstock under pressure enters the spiral casing which
completely surrounds the runner.
β From casing water passes through a series of guide vanes, which directs the water to
the runner at a proper angle.
β The pressure energy of water reduces continuously as it passes over the guide vanes
and moving vanes.
β The difference in pressure at stationary guide vanes and moving runner is
responsible for the motion of the runner vanes.
β Finally water is discharged to the tail race through a draft tube.
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Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Francis Turbine
Fig. 4.12 Velocity Triangles for Francis turbine
β The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of the Francis turbine are drawn as shown in
Fig. 4.12(a).
β General expression for work done by runner will be derived in the same manner as
in the case of series of radial curved vanes
ππ· π ππβ = οΏ½ΜοΏ½(ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2)
ππ· π ππβ = πππ1(ππ€1π’1 Β± ππ€2π’2) β β β β β β β β(4.18)
ππ π½ < 90Β° β +π£π π πππ π‘ππππ
ππ π½ > 90Β° β βπ£π π πππ π‘ππππ
β For maximum output, runner of the Francis turbine is so designed that there occurs
a radial discharge at the outlet tip of the blades.
β For radial discharge at the outlet, π½ = 90Β° and ππ€2 = 0, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (b).
β΄ πΎπ« πππβ = οΏ½ΜοΏ½ (π½ππππ), π΅π πππβ β β β β β β β β(4.19)
Hydraulic Efficiency
πβ =π π’ππππ πππ€ππ
πππ‘ππ πππ€ππ
πβ =οΏ½ΜοΏ½ (ππ€1π’1)
ππππ»=
ππ (ππ€1π’1)
ππππ»
(b)
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πΌπ =(π½ππππ)
ππ―β β β β β β β β(4.20)
Working Proportions for Francis Turbine
1. Flow Ratio (π²π)
β Ratio of flow velocity at the inlet (ππ1) to theoretical velocity (β2ππ») is called flow
ratio. Its value lies between 0.15 to 0.30.
πΎπ =ππ1
β2ππ»β β β β β β β β(4.21)
2. Speed Ratio (π²π)
β Ratio of the peripheral velocity at the inlet (π’1) to theoretical velocity (β2ππ») is
called speed ratio. Its value lies between 0.6 to 0.9.
πΎπ’ =π’1
β2ππ»β β β β β β β β(4.22)
3. Breadth Ratio (π)
β Ratio of width of the runner (π΅) to outside diameter of the runner (π·) is called
breadth ratio. Its value ranges from 0.1 to 0.4.
π =π΅
π·β β β β β β β β(4.23)
Total Discharge through Francis Turbine
Let,
π·1 = Diameter of runner at inlet
π·2 = Diameter of runner at outlet
π΅1 = Width of runner at inlet
π΅2 = Width of runner at outlet
ππ1 = Velocity of flow at inlet
ππ2 = Velocity of flow at outlet
π = Number of vanes on runner
π‘ = Thickness of each vane
πβππ, total discharge through the Francis turbine is given by,
π = π΄πππ ππ‘ πππππ‘ Γ πππππππ‘π¦ ππ ππππ€ ππ‘ πππππ‘
= π΄πππ ππ‘ ππ’π‘πππ‘ Γ πππππππ‘π¦ ππ ππππ€ ππ‘ ππ’π‘πππ‘
β΄ π = ππ·1π΅1 Γ ππ1 = ππ·2π΅2 Γ ππ2 β β β β β β β β(4.24)
β If the thickness of the vanes are taken into consideration, then the area through
which flow takes place is given by, (ππ·1 β ππ‘)π΅1
Hence,
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π = (ππ·1 β ππ‘)π΅1 Γ ππ1 = (ππ·2 β ππ‘)π΅2 Γ ππ2 β β β β β β β β(4.25)
4.8 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
β In an axial flow reaction turbine, the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation
of the shaft.
β It is used under low head and high discharge conditions.
β For the axial flow reaction turbine the shaft of the turbine is vertical.
β The lower end of the shaft is made larger which is known as βHubβ or βBossβ.
β The vanes are fixed on the hub and hence hub acts as a runner for axial flow reaction
turbine.
Types of Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
1. Kaplan Turbine and
2. Propeller Turbine
β When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is
known as Propeller turbine.
β If the vanes on the hub are adjustable the turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine.
β The runner blades are adjusted automatically by servo-mechanism so that at all
loads the flow enters them without shock. This gives better part load efficiency for
Kaplan turbine.
β Components of Kaplan turbine and Propeller turbine are similar to that of the
Francis turbine, only the runner is different.
β Main parts of the Kaplan & Propeller turbine are:
A. Scroll casing
B. Guide vane mechanism
C. Hub with vanes or runner and
D. Draft tube
Key Point for Reaction Turbine
β πΈπππππ¦ πππ π’πππ‘ π€ππππ‘β ππ ππππ€π ππ π―πππ .
β π―πππ πππππππ:
π»πππ π’π‘ππππ§ππ = π»πππ ππ£πππππππ ππ‘ π‘βπ πππππ‘ β π»πππ ππ‘ π‘βπ ππ’π‘πππ‘
π
π[π½ππππ Β± π½ππππ] = π― β
π½ππ
ππβ β β β β β β β(4.26)
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Fig. 4.13 Components of Kaplan turbine
β The water from penstock enters the casing and then moves to the guide vanes. From
the guide vanes, the water turns through 90Β° and flows axially through the runner as
shown in Fig. 4.13.
Work done, Efficiency and Power Developed
β Expressions for work done, efficiency and power developed by Kaplan & Propeller
turbine are similar to that of Francis turbine.
Discharge through Runner of Kaplan & Propeller Turbine
β The discharge through the runner is obtained by,
π =π
4(π·π
2 β π·π2) Γ ππ1 β β β β β β β β(4.27)
Where,
π·π = Outer diameter of the runner
π·π = Diameter of the hub
ππ1 = Velocity of flow at inlet
Working Proportions of Kaplan and Propeller Turbine
1. The peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal,
β΄ π’1 = π’2 =ππ·0π
60β β β β β β β β(4.28)
2. Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
β΄ ππ1 = ππ2 = πΎπβ2ππ» β β β β β β β β(4.29)
3. Area of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
β΄ π΄1 = π΄2 =π
4(π·π
2 β π·π2)
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4.9 Draft Tube Theory
β Draft tube is an integral part of reaction turbine. It is an air tight diverging conduit
with cross-sectional area increasing along its length. One end of this diverging tube is
connected to runner exit and the other is located below the level of tail race.
β The function of the draft tube are:
β’ When water flows through the turbine itβs kinetic and pressure energy is
utilized to generate shaft power. Even though when water leaves the turbine
it possesses high kinetic energy and negative pressure head. If water is
discharged through a draft tube having gradually increasing cross sectional
area, the velocity is largely reduced at the outlet of the draft tube, and thus
resulting in a gain in kinetic head and also increases the negative pressure
head at the turbine exit so that net working head on the turbine increases. So
output of turbine and efficiency also increases.
β’ By providing a draft tube, a turbine can be installed above the tail race
without loss of any head. This helps to make inspection and maintenance of a
turbine easy.
β Different types of draft tubes used in reaction turbine are:
a) Straight divergent tube or Conical draft tube
b) Simple elbow tube
c) Moody spreading tube
d) Elbow tube with circular cross-section at inlet and rectangular at outlet
β Fig. 4.14 shows different types of draft tubes.
Fig. 4.14 Types of draft tubes
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β Let,
π»π = Vertical height of draft
tube above the tail race
π¦ = Distance of bottom of
draft tube from tail race
β Applying Bernoulliβs equation
to the inlet (section 2-2) and
outlet (section 3-3) of the draft
tube as shown in Fig. 4.15.
β Assuming section 3-3 as a datum line, we get,
π2
ππ+
π22
2π+ (π»π + π¦) =
π3
ππ+
π32
2π+ 0 + βπ β β β β β β β β(4.30)
Where,
βπ = Loss of energy between section 2-2 and 3-3.
But,
π3
ππ= π΄π‘πππ πβππππ ππππ π π’ππ βπππ + π¦
β΄π3
ππ=
ππ
ππ+ π¦
ππ,
β΄π2
ππ+
π22
2π+ (π»π + π¦) =
ππ
ππ+ π¦ +
π32
2π+ βπ
β΄π2
ππ+
π22
2π+ π»π =
ππ
ππ+
π32
2π+ βπ
β΄π·π
ππ=
π·π
ππβ π―π β (
π½ππ
ππβ
π½ππ
ππβ ππ) β β β β β β β β(4.31)
β In Equation 4.31, π2
ππ is less than atmospheric pressure.
Efficiency of Draft Tube (πΌπ )
β It is defined as the ratio of actual conversion of kinetic head into pressure head in
the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube.
ππ =(
π22
2πβ
π32
2π) β βπ
π22
2π
β β β β β β β β(4.32)
Fig. 4.15 Draft tube theory
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4.10 Specific Speed (π΅π)
β It is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical
dimensions, blade angles, gate openings, etc. with the actual turbine but of such a
size that it will develop unit power when working under a unit head.
β The specific speed is used in comparing the different types of turbines as every type
of turbine has different specific speed.
In MKS system,
Unit power β 1 Horse power
Unit head β 1 meter
In SI system,
Unit power β 1 KW
Unit head β 1 meter
Derivation of Specific Speed for Hydraulic Turbine
β The overall efficiency of any turbine is given by,
ππ =πβπππ‘ πππ€ππ
πππ‘ππ πππ€ππ=
πππππ»
1000
β΄ π = ππ Γππππ»
1000
β΄ π β ππ» (ππ π πππ ππ πππ ππππ π‘πππ‘) β β β β β β β β(4.33)
β Let,
π· = Diameter of actual turbine runner
π΅ = Width of the actual turbine blade
π = Speed of actual turbine
π’ = Tangential velocity of the turbine wheel
ππ = Specific speed of the turbine
π = Absolute velocity of the jet of water
π’ β π πππ π β βπ»
β΄ π’ β βπ» β β β β β β β β(4.34)
But,
π’ =ππ·π
60
β΄ π’ β π·π β β β β β β β β(4.35)
From Equation 4.34 and 4.35 we have,
βπ» β π·π
β΄ π· ββπ»
πβ β β β β β β β(4.36)
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β The discharge through the turbine is given by,
π = ππππ Γ π£ππππππ‘π¦
But,
π΄πππ β π΅π· β π·2 (β΅ π΅ β π·)
And
πππππππ‘π¦ β βπ»
β΄ π β π·2βπ»
β΄ π β (βπ»
π)
2
Γ βπ» (πΉπππ πΈππ’ππ‘πππ 4.36)
β΄ π βπ»
π2Γ βπ»
β΄ π βπ»3 2β
π2β β β β β β β β(4.37)
β Substituting the value of Q in Equation 4.33 we get,
π βπ»3 2β
π2Γ π»
β΄ π βπ»5 2β
π2
β΄ π = πΎ Γπ»5 2β
π2β β β β β β β β(4.38)
Where, πΎ = Constant of proportionality
β If,
π = 1πΎπ and π» = 1π, Then, π = ππ
β Substituting these values in Equation (4.38) we get,
1 = πΎ Γ15 2β
ππ 2
β΄ πΎ = ππ 2
β So,
π = ππ 2 Γ
π»5 2β
π2
β΄ ππ 2 =
ππ2
π»5 2β
β΄ ππ = βππ2
π»5 2β
β΄ π΅π =π΅βπ·
π―π πββ β β β β β β β(4.39)
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Significance of Specific Speed
β Specific speed plays an important role for selecting the type of the turbine. Also the
performance of a turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the
turbine.
β The type of turbine for different specific speed are given in following table:
Sr. No. Specific Speed, π΅π
Type of Turbine In MKS unit In SI unit
1 10 to 60 10 to 50 Pelton Wheel
2 60 to 300 51 to 225 Francis Turbine
3 300 to 1000 255 to 860 Kaplan turbine
4.11 Unit Quantities and Model Relationship β A turbine operates most efficiently at its design point, i.e., at a particular
combination of head, discharge, speed and power output. But in actual practice
hardly any turbine operates at its designed parameters.
β In order to predict the behavior of turbine operating at varying conditions of head,
discharge, speed and power output, the results expressed in terms of quantities
which may be obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity (1m).
β The conditions of the turbine under unit head are such that the overall efficiency of
the turbine remains constant.
β Turbine can be compared with the help of the following common characteristics:
A. Unit Speed (π΅π)
It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head (1 m).
π’ β π πππ π β βπ»
β΄ π’ β βπ»
But,
π’ =ππ·π
60
β΄ π’ β π·π
For a given turbine, the diameter (π·) is constant.
β΄ π β π’
β΄ π β βπ»
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β΄ π = πΎ1βπ»
From definition of unit speed, if π» = 1π, π = ππ’
β΄ ππ’ = πΎ1
Hence,
π΅π =π΅
βπ―
B. Unit Discharge (πΈπ)
It is defined as a discharge passing through a turbine, which is working under a unit
head (1m).
Total discharge, Q = Area of flow x Velocity of flow
But for a given turbine, area of flow is constant and,
π β ππ β βπ»
β΄ π = πΎ2βπ»
From definition of unit discharge, if π» = 1π, π = ππ’
β΄ ππ’ = πΎ2
Hence,
πΈπ =πΈ
βπ―
C. Unit Power (π·π)
It is defined as the power developed by a turbine, which is working under a unit head
(1m).
The overall efficiency,
ππ =πβπππ‘ πππ€ππ
πππ‘ππ πππ€ππ=
πππππ»
1000
β΄ π = ππ Γππππ»
1000
β΄ π β ππ» (ππ π πππ ππ πππ ππππ π‘πππ‘)
But,
π β ππ β βπ»
β΄ π β βπ» Γ π»
β΄ π β π»3 2β
β΄ π = πΎ3π»3 2β
From definition of unit power, if π» = 1π, π = ππ’
β΄ ππ’ = πΎ3
Hence,
π·π =π·
π―π πβ
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β’ Use of Unit Quantities (π΅π, πΈπ, π·π)
β If a turbine is working under different heads, the behavior of the turbine can be
easily known from the values of the unit quantities.
β Let,
π»1, π»2 = Different heads under which a turbine works,
π1, π2 = Corresponding speeds,
π1, π2 = Corresponding discharge, and
π1, π2 = Corresponding power developed by the turbine
From the definition of unit quantities, we get
ππ’ =π1
βπ»1
=π2
βπ»2
ππ’ =π1
βπ»1
=π2
βπ»2
ππ’ =π1
π»13 2β
=π2
π»23 2β
β Hence, if the speed, discharge and power developed by a turbine under a head are
known, then by using above relations the speed, discharge and power developed by
the same turbine under a different head can be obtained easily.
4.12 Performance (Characteristic) Curves of Hydraulic Turbines
β The turbines are generally designed to work at particular designed conditions. But
often the turbines are required to work at different conditions. Therefore it is
essential to determine the exact behavior of the turbines under the varying
conditions.
β βCharacteristic curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which
the exact behavior and performance of the turbine under different working
conditions can be known.β
β These curves are plotted from the results of the test performed on the actual turbine
or its model under different working conditions.
β The important parameters which are varied during a test on a turbine are:
(1) Speed (N), (2) Head (H), (3) Discharge (Q), (4) Power (P), (5) overall efficiency (Ξ·o)
and (6) Gate opening (i.e. the percentage of the inlet passages provided for water to
enter the turbine)
β Out of these six parameters speed, head and discharge are independent parameters.
Different characteristic curves are obtained by keeping one independent parameter
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constant and variation of any parameter with respect to remaining two independent
parameters.
β The following are the important characteristic curves for a hydraulic turbine:
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves
2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves
3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves
β Main characteristic curves are obtained by maintaining a constant head and a
constant gate opening on the turbine.
β The speed of the turbine is varied by admitting different rates of flow by adjusting
the percentage of gate opening. The power (P) developed is measured mechanically.
From each test the unit power Pu, the unit speed Nu, the unit discharge Qu and the
overall efficiency Ξ·o are determined. The characteristic curves drawn are:
a) Unit discharge vs unit speed
b) Unit power vs unit speed
c) Overall efficiency vs unit speed
Fig. 4.16 (a) Main Characteristic curves for a Pelton wheel
β For Pelton wheel since Qu depends only on the gate opening and independent of Nu,
Qu vs Nu plots are horizontal straight lines.
β However for low specific speed Francis turbines Qu vs Nu are drooping curves,
thereby indicating that as the speed increases the discharge through the turbine
decreases. This is so because in these turbines a centrifugal head is developed which
retards the flow. On the other hand for high specific speed Francis turbine as well as
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Kaplan turbine, since the flow is axial there is no such centrifugal head developed
which may cause the retardation of flow.
Fig. 4.16 (b) Main Characteristic curves for a Reaction turbine
2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves
β Operating characteristic curves are plotted when the speed on the turbine is
constant. In case of turbines the head is generally constant. Hence the variation of
power and efficiency w.r.t. discharge Q is plotted.
β The power curve for turbines shall not pass through the origin because certain
amount of discharge is needed to produce power to overcome initial friction. Fig.
4.17 shows the variation of power and efficiency with respect to discharge.
Fig. 4.17 Operating characteristic curves
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3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves
β These curves are obtained from the speed vs. efficiency and speed vs. discharge
curves (main characteristic curves) for different gate openings.
β For a given efficiency there are two values of speeds and two values of discharge for
a given gate opening, these can be plotted as shown in Fig. 4.18.
β The procedure is repeated for different gate openings and the curves Q vs. N are
plotted. The curves having the same efficiencies are joined. The curves having same
efficiency are called iso-efficiency curves. These curves are helpful in determining the
zone of constant efficiency and for predicting the performance of the turbine at
various efficiencies.
Fig. 4.18 Constant efficiency curve
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3. A Francis Turbine is proposed to be installed at an available head of 60m and a
discharge of 40 m3/s. Determine the number of turbines and power available if the
specific speed is 210 and these are to run at 540 rpm with an overall efficiency of 85%.
Solution: Given Data:
Head, H1 = 60 m
Discharge, Q1 = 40 m3/sec
Specific Turbine = 210
Speed = N= 540 r.p.m.
Overall Efficiency = 85%
Find :(1) Power = P=?
(2)Number of Turbine =?
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Overall Efficiency,π
=P
ΖX gXQXH
1000
(π) π»ππππ π·ππππ, ππ‘ = ππ£πππππ πΈπππππππππ¦ (Ζπ) π Ζπ πππππ»
1000
= 0.85 π 1000π9.81π40π 60
1000
= 20.0124 ππ
πππ€ππ πππ£ππππ ππ¦ πππβ π‘π’πππππ π’πππ‘π ,
ππππππππ πππππ, ππ = πβπ
π»5/4
210 = 540π βπ
(60)5/4
βπ = 64.9403
π = 4.217 ππ
(π) π΅πππππ ππ π»ππππππ = 20.0124
4.217
= 4.74
= 5 ππ’ππππππ
4. A Francis turbine of 1 metre runner diameter working under a head of 4.5 metres at a
speed of 200 rpm develops 90 Kw when the rate of flow of water is 1.8 m3 /s. If the
head on the turbine is increased to 13.5 metres determine the new speed, discharge
and power.
Solution:
Given Data:
Head, H1= 4.5 m, Head, H2= 13.5 m
Discharge, Q1 = 1.8 m3/sec, Discharge, Q2 =?
Speed, N1= 200 r.p.m., Speed, N2=?
Power, P1= 90 Kw, Power, P2=?
πΊππππ :
π΅π
βπ―π
= π΅π
βπ―π
π2 = 200 π β13.5
β4.5
π2 = 346.41 π. π. π.
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π·ππππ:
π·π
π―π
π
π
= π·π
π―π
π
π
π2 = 90 π (13.5)
3
2
(4.5)3
2
π2 = 467.65 ππ
π«ππππππππ:
πΈπ
βπ―π
= πΈ
π
βπ―π
π2 = 1.8 π β13.5
β4.5
π2 = 3.117 π3/π ππ
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CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Course Contents
4.14 Introduction
4.15 Components and Working of a
Centrifugal Pump
4.16 Velocity Diagram and Work
Done of a Centrifugal Pump
4.17 Definitions of Heads &
Efficiencies of Pumps
4.18 Specific Speed
4.19 Minimum Starting Speed
4.20 Maximum Suction Lift
4.21 Net Positive Suction Head
4.22 Priming of Centrifugal Pump
4.23 Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump
4.24 Characteristic Curves of
Hydraulic Pumps
4.25 Cavitation of Pump & Turbine
4.26 Solved Numerical
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4.14 Introduction
β βThe hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
are called pumps.β
β It increases pressure energy or kinetic energy or both by using mechanical energy.
The energy level of the fluid can be increased by either rotodynamic action or by
positive displacement of the fluid.
β βIf the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy or kinetic energy by
means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called
Centrifugal pump.β
β They work on the same principle of a reaction turbine. The basic difference between
pump and a turbine is that in a turbine, flow takes place from the high pressure side
to low pressure side while in a pump flow takes place from low pressure side to high
pressure side.
Classification of Pumps on the Basis of Transfer of Mechanical Energy:
Applications of Hydraulic Pumps:
β’ Agriculture and irrigation work
β’ Municipal water works and drainage system
β’ Condensate, boiler feed, sump drain and such other services in a steam
power plant
β’ Hydraulic control system
β’ Oil pumping
Pumps
Rotodynamic
Centrifugal
Propeller
Turbine
Positive Displacement
Reciprocating
Piston
Plunger
Diaphram
Rotory
Gear
Vane
Lobe
Screw
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β’ Transfer of material in industry.
4.15 Components and Working of a Centrifugal Pump
Components:
β Main parts of a centrifugal pump (refer Fig. 4.19) are:
1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe
4. Delivery pipe
Fig. 4.19 Main parts of a centrifugal pump
1. Impeller
β It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curves vanes or
blades. It is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an external source of energy
(electric motor), which imparts required energy to the impeller.
β It gets mechanical energy and converts it to kinetic and pressure energy of the fluid.
β Liquid enters the impeller through an eye of the impeller, high energy liquid than
enters the pump casing.
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2. Casing
β It is an air tight passage surrounding the impeller, designed in such a way that kinetic
energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted into
pressure energy before the water leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe.
β Material of the casing is generally cast iron or cast steel.
β The efficiency of the pump depends on the type of casing used. The following three
types of casings are commonly used:
A. Volute Casing
B. Vortex Casing and
C. Casing with Guide Blades
A. Volute Casing
β It is of spiral type in which area of flow increases gradually. [π΄(β) β π(β) β
π(β)]
β It is observed that in case of volute casing, large amount of kinetic energy is lost
due to eddy formation and hence lower overall efficiency.
β These pumps hence give comparatively low head.
B. Vortex Casing
β In this type of casing, a circular chamber is provided in between the casing and
the impeller, which is known as vortex or whirlpool chamber (refer Fig. 4.20 (a)).
β By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of energy due to the formation of
eddies is reduced to a considerable extent.
β Thus the efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency when only volute
casing is provided.
Fig. 4.20 Types of casing
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C. Casing with Guide Blades
β Most efficient casing.
β In this impeller is surrounded by a series of guide blades mounted on a ring
which is known as diffuser (refer Fig. 4.20 (b)).
β The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water from the impeller
enters the guide vanes without shock which avoids hydraulic losses.
β Also the area of guide vanes increases, thus reducing velocity of flow and
consequently increases the pressure of water.
β Used for developing high heads and hence mostly used as vertical pumps and
very suitable for installations in deep wells, mines, etc.
β Casing is in most of the cases concentric with the impeller.
3. Suction Pipe
β It carries liquid from the sump to the pump.
β Its lower end is dipped into the sump and upper end is connected with the eye of the
pump (i.e. inlet of the pump).
β A strainer and foot-valve are connected with the lower end.
β Strainer keeps the debris away from entering into suction pipe and hence only clear
water enters the impeller.
β Foot-valve is a kind of non-return valve which does not allow the liquid to go back
into sump.
β Cavitation may be caused due to negative pressure at the suction of the pump and
hence losses in the inlet pipe must be minimized.
β To keep low velocity in suction pipe, normally diameter of the suction pipe is kept
more than that of the delivery pipe.
4. Delivery Pipe
β A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and other end delivers
the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.
β The velocity of liquid in delivery pipe is kept slightly higher than that in suction pipe.
β A valve is provided just near the pump outlet to regulate the flow of liquid in the
delivery pipe.
Working:
β βA centrifugal pump works on a principle that when the liquid is rotated by an
external prime mover, it is thrown away from the axis of rotation and a centrifugal
head is imparted which makes it possible to raise to the higher elevation.β
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β Before starting a centrifugal pump, liquid is filled in the suction pipe, impeller, casing
and a delivery pipe up to a delivery valve. This is known as priming. During priming
delivery valve is kept close.
β After priming, prime mover (electric motor) is started; delivery valve is still kept
closed.
β Energy given to the impeller by external source (i.e. prime mover) is transferred to
working fluid which increases the kinetic energy and pressure energy of the fluid.
β The rotation of the impeller causes strong suction at the eye of the pump.
β After the impeller attains its normal speed, the delivery valve is opened and liquid is
allowed to flow through the impeller vanes and it attains higher velocity at the outer
periphery.
β Liquid enters into casing, due to special design of casing the velocity of liquid
decreases and pressure energy hence increases.
β With high pressure energy and negligible kinetic energy liquid enters into delivery
pipe and is lifted to the required height.
β At that instant partial vacuum is created at the eye of pump due to centrifugal action
of impeller on liquid.
β This helps liquid to rush through the suction pipe towards the impeller eye, to take
place of liquid which has left the impeller vanes.
β When the pump is to be stopped the delivery valve should be first closed to stop the
back flow of liquid.
4.16 Velocity Diagram and Work Done of a Centrifugal Pump
β In case of the centrifugal pump,
work is done by the impeller on the
water. The expression for the work
done by the impeller on the liquid is
obtained by drawing velocity
triangles at the inlet and outlet of
the impeller in the same way as for
a turbine.
β Fig. 4.21 shows the vane of impeller
and velocity triangles at the inlet
and outlet of the impeller.
Fig. 4.21 Velocity triangles of
centrifugal Pump
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β The water enters the impeller radially at inlet for the best efficiency of the pump,
which means the absolute velocity of water at inlet makes an angle of 90Β° with the
direction of motion of the impeller at inlet. Hence πΌ = 90Β° πππ ππ€1 = 0.
Assumptions:
β’ No energy losses due to friction and eddy formation
β’ No loss due to shock at entry
β’ Liquid enters the impeller eye in radial direction
β’ Uniform velocity distribution in the passage between two adjacent vanes.
β Let,
π = Speed of the impeller in rpm.
π·1 = Diameter of impeller at the inlet
π·2 = Diameter of impeller at the outlet
π’1 = Tangential velocity of impeller at the inlet =ππ·1π
60
π’2 = Tangential velocity of impeller at the outlet =ππ·2π
60
π1 = Absolute velocity of water at the inlet
ππ1 = Relative velocity of water at the inlet
πΌ = Angle made by absolute velocity at inlet with the direction of motion of vane
π = Angle made by relative velocity at inlet with the direction of motion of vane and
π2, ππ2, π½ πππ π are corresponding values at outlet.
β A centrifugal pump is the reverse of a radially inward flow reaction turbine. But in
case of a radially inward flow reaction turbine, the work done by the water on the
runner per sec per unit weight is given by,
=1
π(ππ€1π’1 β ππ€2π’2)
β Therefore, work done by the impeller on the water per sec per unit weight,
= β[ππππ ππππ ππ πππ π ππ π‘π’πππππ]
= β1
π(ππ€1π’1 β ππ€2π’2)
=1
π(ππ€2π’2 β ππ€1π’1)
=1
π(ππ€2π’2) β β β β β β β β(4.40) (β΅ ππ€1 = 0)
β Work done by the impeller on water per sec,
= οΏ½ΜοΏ½(ππ€2π’2)
= ππ(ππ€2π’2) β β β β β β β β(4.41)
β Discharge,
π = π΄πππ ππ ππππ€ Γ πππππππ‘π¦ ππ ππππ€
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β΄ π = ππ·1π΅1 Γ ππ1 = ππ·2π΅2 Γ ππ2 β β β β β β β β(4.42)
Where,
π΅1 πππ π΅2 are the width of the impeller at the inlet and outlet respectively.
β Equation (4.40) gives the head imparted to the water by the impeller or energy given
by impeller to water per sec per unit weight.
4.17 Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump
Heads:
1. Suction Head or Suction Lift (ππ)
β It is the vertical height of the center line of the pump shaft above the liquid surface
in the sump from which the liquid is being lifted. (refer Fig. 4.19)
2. Delivery Head (ππ )
β The vertical distance between the center line of the pump shaft and the liquid
surface in the tank to which liquid is delivered. (refer Fig. 4.19)
3. Static Head or Static Lift (π―π)
β As shown in Fig. 4.19 the static head is the vertical distance between the liquid
surface in the sump and the tank to which the liquid is delivered by the pump.
β Thus the static head may be expressed as,
π»π = βπ + βπ β β β β β β β β(4.43)
β Thus static head is the net total vertical height through which the liquid is lifted by
the pump.
4. Manometric Head (π―π)
β It is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.
Or
It is the total head that must be produced by the pump to satisfy the external
requirements.
β It is given by the following expressions:
a) If there are no losses in the impeller and casing of the pump, then the
manometric head will be equals to the energy given to the liquid by the
impeller.
β΄ π»π =1
π(ππ€2π’2) β πππ π ππ βπππ ππ ππππππππ & πππ πππ β β β β β β β β(4.44)
β΄ π»π =1
π(ππ€2π’2) (ππ πππ π ππ πππ πππππππ‘ππ)
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b) Manometric head is the difference of total head at the outlet and total head
at the inlet of the pump.
β΄ π»π = (ππ
ππ+
ππ2
2π+ ππ) β (
ππ
ππ+
ππ2
2π+ ππ) β β β β β β β β(4.45)
c) Whole of the manometric head is not used to lift the liquid against the static
lift; a part of it is used to overcome the losses in the pipes and fittings and to
provide the kinetic energy at delivery outlet.
β΄ Manometric head = static head + head losses in suction and delivery pipes +
velocity head in delivery pipe
β΄ π»π = (βπ + βπ) + (βππ + βππ) +ππ
2
2πβ β β β β β β β(4.46)
Efficiencies:
β In case of a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted from the shaft of the electric
motor to the shaft of the pump and then to the impeller. From the impeller, the
power is given to the water.
β The followings are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:
1. Manometric Efficiency
2. Mechanical Efficiency and
3. Overall Efficiency
1. Manometric Efficiency (πΌπππ)
β It is defined as the ratio of the manometric head developed by the pump to the head
imparted by the impeller to the liquid.
β΄ ππππ =πππππππ‘πππ βπππ
π»πππ ππππππ‘ππ ππ¦ ππππππππ π‘π ππππ’ππ
β΄ ππππ =π»π
(ππ€2π’2
π)
=ππ»π
ππ€2π’2β β β β β β β β(4.47)
β The power at the impeller of the pump is more than that the power given to the
liquid at outlet of the pump.
π·ππππ πππππ ππ πππππ ππ ππππππ ππ πππ ππππ =πΎπ―π
ππππ=
πππΈπ―π
ππππ ππΎ
π·ππππ ππ πππ ππππππππ =πΎπ« ππ πππ ππππππππ πππ πππ
ππππ=
ππΈ(π½ππππ)
ππππ ππΎ
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2. Mechanical Efficiency (πΌπ)
β It is defined as the ratio of the power actually delivered by the impeller to the power
at the shaft of the centrifugal pump.
β΄ ππ =πππ€ππ ππ‘ π‘βπ ππππππππ
πππ€ππ ππ‘ π‘βπ π βπππ‘
β΄ ππ =οΏ½ΜοΏ½(ππ€2π’2) 1000β
π. π. ππ ππβ β β β β β β β(4.48)
3. Overall Efficiency (πΌπ)
β It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the
pump.
πππ€ππ ππ’π‘ππ’π‘ ππ π‘βπ ππ’ππ =ππππβπ‘ ππ π€ππ‘ππ ππππ‘ππ Γ π»π
1000=
ππ»π
1000 ππ
πππ€ππ ππππ’π‘ π‘π π‘βπ ππ’ππ = πππ€ππ π π’ππππππ ππ¦ π‘βπ πππππ‘πππ πππ‘ππ
= πβπππ‘ πππ€ππ ππ π‘βπ ππ’ππ
β΄ ππ =(
ππ»π
1000)
π. π.β β β β β β β β(4.49)
β΄ ππ = ππππ Γ ππ
4.18 Specific Speed
β βThe specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed of a geometrically
similar pump which delivers unit quantity against a unit head.β
β It is used to compare the performance of different pumps.
β For a centrifugal pump,
π·ππ πβππππ, π = π΄πππ Γ πππππππ‘π¦ ππ ππππ€
β΄ π = ππ·π΅ Γ ππ
β΄ π β π·π΅ππ β β β β β β β β(4.50)
Where,
π· = Diameter of the impeller of the pump
π΅ = Width of the impeller
We know that,
π΅ β π·
β΄ π β π·2ππ β β β β β β β β(4.51)
β Tangential velocity is given by,
π’ =ππ·π
60β π·π β β β β β β β β(4.52)
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β Now tangential velocity (π’) and velocity of flow (ππ) are related to the manometric
head (π»π) as,
π’ β ππ β βπ»π β β β β β β β β(4.53)
β Substituting value of π’ in equation (4.52), we get,
βπ»π β π·π
β΄ π· ββπ»π
π
β Substituting value of D in equation (4.51), we get,
π βπ»π
π2ππ
β΄ π βπ»π
π2 βπ»π
β΄ π βπ»π
3/2
π2
β΄ π = πΎπ»π
3/2
π2β β β β β β β β(4.54)
Where, K = Constant of proportionality.
β By definition, if π» = 1π and π = 1 π3 π ππβ , π becomes ππ
Substituting these values in equation (4.54), we get,
1 = πΎ Γ1
ππ 2
β΄ πΎ = ππ 2
β Substituting value of πΎ in equation (4.54), we get,
π = ππ 2
π»π3/2
π2
β΄ ππ 2 =
ππ2
π»π3/2
β΄ π΅π =π΅βπΈ
π―ππ/π
β β β β β β β β(π. ππ)
4.19 Priming of Centrifugal Pump β Before starting a centrifugal pump, the suction pipe, casing and portion of the
delivery pipe up to delivery valve is completely filled with water by external source
of water to remove the air from the suction pipe and casing. This is known as priming
of a pump.
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β The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per sec is known as the head
developed by an impeller.
β Head developed by the impeller is given by π’2ππ€2
π meter. Since this equation is
independent of the density of the liquid, the head developed will be in terms of
meters of air when pump is running in the air.
β If the pump is primed with water, the head generated is same meter of water. But as
the density of air is very low, the generated head of air is negligible compared to
meter of water head. Hence the water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid
this difficulty, priming is necessary.
4.20 Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump
β If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called a multi-
stage centrifugal pump.
β The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or different shaft.
β A multi-stage pump is having the two important functions:
I. To produce a high head and
II. To discharge a large quantity of water.
β When the pumps are connected in series discharge of the first pump enters the
second pump where the pressure is further increased. If two pumps are connected
final head would be
π» = π»1 + π»2
Fig. 4.22 (a) Pump in series
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β For high head, impellers are connected in series (on same shaft) as shown in Fig.4.22
(b).
Fig. 4.22 (b) Pump in series
β When a large quantity (high discharge) of liquid is required to be pumped against a
relatively small head, then it may not be possible for a single pump to deliver the
required discharge.
β In such cases two or more pumps are used which are so arranged that each of these
pumps working separately lifts the liquid from a common collecting pipe through
which it is carried to the required height. Since in this Case each of the pump delivers
the liquid against the same head, the arrangement is known as pumps in parallel.
π = ππ’ππππ ππ πππππππππ
π = π·ππ πβππππ = πΆπππ π‘πππ‘
πππ‘ππ π»πππ = π Γ π»π
Fig. 4.23 (a) Pump in parallel
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β For high discharge, the impellers are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 4.23 (b).
Fig. 4.23 (b) Pumps in parallel
4.21 Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Pumps
β Characteristic curves of centrifugal pumps are defined those curves which are
plotted from the results of a number of tests on the centrifugal pump. These curves
are necessary to predict the behavior and performance of the pump when the pump
is working under different flow rate, head and speed.
β The followings are the important characteristic curves for pumps:
1. Main Characteristic Curves,
2. Operating Characteristic Curves and
3. Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves.
1. Main Characteristic Curves
β The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump consists of variation of head
(π»π), power and discharge with respect to speed.
β For plotting curves of manometric head versus speed, discharge is kept constant. For
plotting curves of discharge versus speed, manometric head is kept constant and for
plotting curves of power versus speed, the manometric head and discharge are kept
constant.
β Fig. 4.24 shows main characteristic curves of a pump.
π = ππ. ππ ππ’πππ ππ ππππππππ
π»πππ = πΆπππ π‘πππ‘ πππ πππ ππ’πππ
πππ‘ππ π·ππ πβππππ = π Γ π
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Fig. 4.24 Main characteristic curves of a pump
2. Operating Characteristic Curves
β If the speed is kept constant, the variation of manometric head, power and efficiency
with respect to discharge gives the operating characteristics of the pump. Fig. 4.25
shows the operating characteristic curves of a pump.
Fig. 4.25 Operating characteristic curves of a pump
β The input power curve for pumps shall not pass through the origin. It will be slightly
away from the origin on the y-axis, as even at zero discharge some power is needed
to overcome mechanical losses.
β The head curve will have maximum value of head when discharge is zero.
β The output power curve will start from origin as at π = 0, output power (ππππ»)
will be zero.
β The efficiency curve will start from origin as at π = 0, π = 0.
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3. Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves
β For obtaining constant efficiency curves (iso-efficiency curves) for a pump, the head
versus discharge curves and efficiency versus discharge curves for different speeds
are used.
β Fig. 4.26 (a) shows the head versus discharge curves for different speeds. The
efficiency versus discharge curves for the different speeds are as shown in Fig. 4.9(b).
β By combining these curves(π»~π ππ’ππ£ππ πππ π~π ππ’ππ£ππ ), constant efficiency
curves are obtained as shown in Fig. 4.26 (a).
β For obtaining constant efficiency curves, horizontal lines representing constant
efficiencies are drawn on the π~π curves.
β The points at which these lines cut the efficiency curves at various speeds, are
transferred to the corresponding π»~π curves.
β The points having the same efficiency are then joined by smooth curves. These
smooth curves represents the iso-efficiency or constant efficiency curves.
Fig. 4.26 Constant efficiency curves of a pump
4.22 Cavitation of Pump & Turbine
β Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a flowing
liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure and
the sudden collapsing of these vapor bubbles in a region of higher pressure.
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.57
β When the vapor bubble collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic
surfaces, above which these vapor bubbles collapse, is subjected to these high
pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the
metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are produced.
β Cavitation includes formation of vapor bubbles of the flowing liquid and collapsing of
the vapor bubbles.
Precaution against Cavitation: The following precautions should be taken against
Cavitation:
1) The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should
not be allowed to fall below its vapor pressure.
2) The special materials or coatings such as aluminum-bronze and stainless
steel, which are cavitation resistant materials, should be used.
Effects of Cavitation: The following are the effects of cavitation:
1) The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
2) Due to sudden collapse of vapor bubble, considerable noise and vibrations
are produced.
3) The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting action,
the surface of the turbine blades becomes rough and the force exerted by
water on the turbine blade decreases. Hence the work done by water or
output horse power becomes less and thus efficiency decreases.
Cavitation in Turbines:
β In turbines, only reaction turbines are subjected to cavitation.
β In reaction turbines, the cavitation may occur at the outlet of the runner or at the
inlet of the draft tube, where the pressure is considerably reduced (i.e. , which may
be below the vapor pressure of the liquid flowing through the turbine).
β Due to cavitation, the metal of the runner vanes and draft tube is gradually eaten
away, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine.
β Hence the cavitation in a reaction turbine can be noted by a sudden drop in
efficiency.
β In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of a reaction
turbine, the critical value of Thomaβs cavitation factor (π) is calculated (Equation
4.56).
π =π»π β π»π
π»πππ‘=
(π»ππ‘π β π»π£) β π»π
π»πππ‘β β β β β β β β(4.56)
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.58
Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:
β In centrifugal pumps the cavitation may occur at the inlet of the impeller of the
pump, or at the suction side of the pumps, where the pressure is considerably
reduced.
β Hence if the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the vapor
pressure of the liquid then the cavitation may occur.
β The cavitation in a pump can be noted bay a sudden drop in efficiency and head.
β In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the suction side
of the pump, the critical value of Thomaβs cavitation factor (π) is calculated
(Equation 4.57).
π =π»π β π»π β βππ
π»πππ‘=
(π»ππ‘π β π»π£) β π»π β βππ
π»πππ‘β β β β β β β β(4.57)
β If the value of Thomaβs cavitation factor (π) is greater than critical cavitation factor
(ππ), the cavitation will not occur in that turbine or pump. The critical cavitation
factor (ππ) may be obtained from tables or empirical relationships.
4.23 Ventilation System
β Ventilation is meant for supply of fresh air, and to replace the old hot Used up
(exhausted) air. The ventilation ensures the removal of bad effects of occupancy of
an enclosed space:
1) By providing necessary oxygen to remove oxygen deficit caused by
respiration;
2) By removing and diluting C02 in the air;
3) By lowering down the temperature by removing hot used up air and
replacing it by colder fresh air;
4) By reducing humidity
5) By reducing body odours.
Requirements of ventilation system
β A good ventilation system should generally fulfill the following requirements:
1) It should admit sufficient quantity of fresh air, and remove the requisite used
up or vitiated air.
2) Admitted air should be properly controlled with respect to its quantity as well
as velocity of movement.
3) The system should be capable of changing the old air thoroughly, without
leaving any stagnant pockets in the room.
Applied Fluid Mechanics (2160602) 4. Turbo Machinery
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jigar J. Vaghela Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 4.59
4) Should avoid draughts, for which maximum permissible velocity of admitted
air should not exceed 15 m/min. i.e. 0.25 m/sec.
5) The system should admit clean and humid air.
6) The system should also be capable of controlling the temperature of
admitted air.
The ventilation system can be broadly divided in to two categories;
1) Natural ventilation:
β Natural ventilation is based upon providing suitable openings in a room, at lower
levels for admitting free atmospheric air, and also at upper levels for removing the
warmer and lighter used-up air. Doors and windows near the floor level, thus admit
fresh air and ventilators near the ceiling, take out the vitiated air from a room.
2) Artificial or mechanical ventilation:
β The artificial ventilation system can be broadly divided in to:
1) The extraction or vacuum system
2) The propulsion or plenum system
3) The air conditioning system