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Tunisia

Labour Market Profile

2014

This Labour Market Profile is a yearly updated report that provides a broad overview of the labour

market's situation and development. The report is based on the latest data available and following

trends. Each section has also accesses to the sources' links that can be used to go more in-depth on

selected themes. This is a revised version.

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Tunisia – Labour Market Profile 2014

Executive Summary

A political crisis paralyzed the country the last five months of 2013. It came to an end just before the end of the year, as political parties agreed on a road map in a prolonged dialogue process that was facilitated by four civil society organizations. This accelerated the stalled political processes, and by end of January 2014 the new Constitution was adopted, the Election Committee was nominated, the new interim government approved and the former government stepped down. A year earlier, in January 2013, the Tunisian Government, General Labour Union (UGTT) and the Union of Industry, Commerce and Artisans (UTICA) signed a Social Contract after seven months of negotiations. During 2014, tripartite subcommittees have started the work towards realising the promises and goals set out in the historic agreement. In recent years, due to the political and social instability, the economic development entered a slowdown. Both agricultural production and the oil and gas sector have declined markedly, while manufacturing stagnated. The growth is expected to rebound again in 2014-2015. The country has a median rating on the Human Development Index and a relatively high medium ranking on the Doing Business Index.

The high unemployment rate in Tunisia is a critical issue. During the 2011 it was estimated that 18% of the active labour force was unemployed; and youth unemployment was much higher at 42%. This high unemployment created frustration and protests that ignited the Arab Spring as a revolutionary wave of demonstrations. Public work programs have been implemented to curb the social tensions. Today, the unemployment rate is decreasing, and has so far reached 15% in the first quarter in 2014. It has also been noteworthy that the long-term trend of youth unemployment in total unemployment has also decreased significantly. However, the programs have also produced an inflated wage bill and swelling budget deficit. The Government signed a Stand-By Arrangement (SBA) in 2013 with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and introduces scale-back public employment expansions and froze public sector wages.

In May 2014 the minimum wage was raised by 11% for about 1.5 million private sector workers for the first time since 2012. In 2012 the monthly minimum wage for nonagricultural workers was increased to 320 dinars per month (US$206). The country has a long history of a strong unified trade union movement in UGTT. The organization played a significant role in the ousting of Ben Ali in 2011, through the mobilisation among the bases of the union and through two general strikes in the days up to Ben Ali’s exit. New trade union centres have been created that challenge UGTT’s long-lasting monopoly. The three new unions still have less bargaining power, though. Overall, Tunisia’s labour market has many positive elements such as many labour inspectors and a well-developed industrial sector. Most workers are waged workers, with a large export sector and good education level. Efforts to end subcontracting have succeeded in banning subcontracting agencies and subcontracted workers in the public sector. It led also to a drop in subcontracting in the private sector, but it has still not benefitted fully from the reform. This change has increased the influx of union members. Cultural entrenched gender roles within the family have a negative effect on women’s labor market participation. Tunisian women take more responsibility in the household and have a greater workload than men regardless of their professional situation. Around 80% of the population has health coverage. Several groups of workers that are still not covered include casual and seasonal agricultural workers, workers on construction sites, household workers, religious officials, and the unemployed. Some of these have alternative means of protection. After the revolution, violent groupings started to appear such as the National League for the Protection of the Revolution (LPR) and Salafist groups. Such groups are assumed to be involved in several violent attacks on civil society and political actors in Tunisia, including attacks on trade unionist and UGTT offices.

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Contents

Trade Unions ......................................................................................................................................... 4

Trade Unions in Tunisia ................................................................................................................................. 5

Employers’ Organisations ....................................................................................................................... 5

Central Tripartite Structures ................................................................................................................... 6

National Labour Legislation .................................................................................................................... 7

ILO Conventions ..................................................................................................................................... 8

Trade Union Rights Violations ................................................................................................................ 9

Working Conditions.............................................................................................................................. 10

Workforce ........................................................................................................................................... 11

Unemployment ............................................................................................................................................ 12

Migration ..................................................................................................................................................... 13

Informal Economy ....................................................................................................................................... 13

Child Labour ................................................................................................................................................. 14

Gender ......................................................................................................................................................... 14

Youth ........................................................................................................................................................... 14

Characteristics of the Working Age Population ..................................................................................... 15

Vocational training ...................................................................................................................................... 16

Social Protection .................................................................................................................................. 17

General Economic Performance ............................................................................................................ 18

Trade ................................................................................................................................................... 19

Trade agreements ....................................................................................................................................... 19

Export Processing Zones (EPZ) ..................................................................................................................... 19

References ........................................................................................................................................... 20

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Trade Unions

Trade unions in Tunisia (2013) Number of trade unions 64

Dues (standard) N/A

Members of trade unions 980,000

Trade union members share of labour force 25 %

Trade union members to waged workers (2012)

39 %

Female member share of trade unions (UGTT) 47 %

Members of affiliated trade unions from the informal economy

N/A

Number of CBAs N/A

Workers covered by CBAs N/A

Share of workers covered by CBA N/A

Labour force (2013) 4,019,000

The Labour Code provides workers with the right to organize, to form and join unions, and protects the right to bargain collectively. The right to strike extended to civil servants, with the exception of workers in ‘essential services’. An official decree that clarifies the list of these ‘essential services’ is not published. On the other hand, unions rarely sought advance approval to strike, e.g. strikes not authorized by union management were common during 2013.

1 In

2013 the number of strikes decreased by 24% compared to 2012 and the number of working days lost to strikes dropped by 7%.

2 So far there has been

an upsurge of strikes in 2014, though. Workers in export processing zones and domestic workers are excluded from the right to bargain collectively.

3

Tunisian General Labour Union (UGTT)

4

UGTT (Union Générelle Tunisienne du Travail) was established in 1946 and participated in the fight for independence from France, a fact which historically has been synonymous with high legitimacy for the union. UGTT is a strong organization in the Tunisian society, being the only civil society body with a significant presence in all the regions of the country. The organization represents workers and retired workers in 24 regional unions, 19 sectoral federations and 21 general unions. UGTT has around 900,000 members, and gained 200,000 new members after the revolution.

5

After the 2011 revolution, the UGTT went through a process of internal reform. During the Congress in December 2011 a new leadership was elected with 10 new members and three from the former leadership; a

list referred to as the “consensus list” elaborated by 17 regions and 15 sectors. UGTT’s relationship with the former interim government was somewhat strained, notably with the former government parties Ennahdha and the Congress for the Republic (CPR). The current interim government, a technocrat government, was inserted after a national dialogue process, in which UGTT was one of the driving forces. The working relationship between this current government and UGTT is better than with the former. Several bipartite and tripartite working bodies have been reactivated since the technocrat government has taken over. Some internal rifts of UGTT are also present as some members of the organization reject holding strikes against the government while others disagree.

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The new interim government pressed charges against the LPR and in May the Court ordered the dissolution of the league were and all its branches. The dissolution of the LPR has long been a demand from several political parties, civil society organizations and from UGTT who regard the LPR as a pro-Islamist militia that functions as the hard stick of some political parties. The Norwegian Nobel Committee accepted the nomination of the UGTT for its peace award that was presented by the presidents of four major Tunisian universities a few days after the adoption of the Tunisian new Constitution in January 2014. UGTT was nominated for its role of gathering the different political parties and facilitating the process of reaching a consensus solution to the political crisis in 2013, a process also referred to as the National Dialogue. Tunisian General Confederation of Labour (CGTT) & Tunisian Workers’ Union (UTT) According to the Bertelsmann Stiftung, two new trade union centres have been established after the 2011 revolution: CGTT (Confédération générale tunisienne du travail) and the UTT (Union des travailleurs tunisiens). At the beginning of 2013, CGTT and UTT had around 10,000 members, but the organisations are growing and represented between 30,000 and 50,000 members, respectively, in the end of 2013. Both organizations advocate trade union pluralism, and their general secretaries are both former leaders of the UGTT. CGTT had been awaiting registration since 2006 and both CGTT and UTT began operating in 2011. According to ITUC, CGTT experienced internal

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division.7 It has also been noted that the two unions

still have less bargaining power.8 In addition to these

two newly established trade union centers, a third was established in August 2013: the OTT (Organisation tunisienne du travail).

Tunisian Labour Organisation (OTT) On August 26, 2013, a fourth trade union center was established, the pro-Islamist Tunisian Labour Organization (OTT). Part of the new trade union center was a UGTT-dissident group, and the new center partially justified its establishment as a counterpoint to UGTT, which it criticized for not serving the country’s interests and for lack of transparency.

Trade Unions in Tunisia

Members, Dues, Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBA) and Occupational Safety and Health committees

Trade Union Centre National

affiliation

Total Members

(2014)

Female Members

Dues

Number of CBAs

Workers covered by CBAs

Number of OSH com-mittees at

workplaces

UGTT Union Générale Tunisienne du Travail

900,000 47% - - - -

CGTT Confédération Générale Tunisienne du Travail

30,000 - - - - -

UTT Union des travailleurs tunisiens

50,000 - - - - -

OTT Organisation tunisienne du travail

- - - - - -

Employers’ Organisations

Union of Industry, Commerce and Artisans (UTICA)

The main representative of the private sector and employers’ organisation in Tunisia, UTICA (Union Tunésienne de l’Industrie du Commerce et de l’Artisanat), had close ties with the Ben Ali regime. Based on somewhat outdated data, UTICA has a membership of 6,000-7,000 mainly large companies;

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and a structured in 17 federations, 24 regional unions, 216 local unions, 370 national union chambers and 1700 regional union chambers.

10

After the revolution, the working relations between UGTT and UTICA have ameliorated profoundly. There are many examples of a constructive working relationship between the two organisations, but also examples of the contrary.

After the 2011 revolution, UTICA has been through – and is still going through - an internal reform process. At the congress in January 2013, the new president was elected, Mrs. Wided Bouchamaoui. With the emergence of “labour union pluralism” during the last years, employers complained that negotiating bargaining agreements had become more complicated.

Confederation of Tunisian Citizen Enterprises (CONECT) In September 2011, UTICA saw a competing employers’ association emerge with the formation of the CONECT (Confédération des Entreprises Citoyennes de Tunisie), which was said to be closer to the first interim government.

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Central Tripartite Structures

Mediation and Arbitration12

Individual labour disputes are handled by industrial tribunals. Collective labour disputes are first handled by a Consultative Commission. If that fails it is attempted to be conciliated. Depending on the geographical extend of the dispute, a regional or central tripartite Arbitration board will then decide on the case if the disputes is agreed to be arbitrated.

Tripartite bodies established by the Labour Code13

The Labour Code requires several tripartite bodies to be established. These fulfil functions such as regulate and give advice on labour policy, minimum wages, occupational safety and health and social dialogue:

Conseil de la formation professionnelle (Council for vocational training)

Comité supérieur de l'emploi (High committee for employment)

Comité du travail (Labour Committee)

Comité de santé et de sécurité au travail (Occupational Safety and Health Committee)

Commission nationale du dialogue social (National commission on social dialogue)

Commission régionale ou à la commission centrale de contrôle du licenciement (Regional or central commission for control of dismissals)

Commission consultative des conventions collectives (Consultative commission on collective bargaining agreements)

Commission centrale des salaires et des commissions locales de salaires (Central or local Commission for salaries)

A number of bi- and tripartite commissions have been established, regrouping representatives from the government and from UGTT, regrouping representatives from UGTT and from UTICA, or regrouping representatives from the three parties, for discussions on a number of areas, such as pressing socioeconomic issues, concluded social agreements, and wage negotiations. In addition, five tripartite commissions / sub-commissions have been created to concretize the ambitions of the Social Contract.

National Council for Social Dialogue (Conseil National du Dialogue Social) The Social Contract asserts the intention of establishing a National Council for Social Dialogue. A law draft of the statutes of this council has been developed by the tripartite commission charged with the overall lines of the social contract, and the draft has been submitted to the presidency of the government for examination.

Other bi/tripartite organs

Board of the Tunisian National Social Security Fund (Caisse Nationale de Sécurité Sociale, CNSS)

Board of the National Health Insurance Fund (Caisse Nationale d’Assurance Maladie, CNAM)

Board of the National Pension and Social Providence Fund (Caisse nationale de retraite et de prévoyance sociale, CNRPS).

The deficit of social funds for these three schemes continues to increase and constitute a tremendous problem to the future of these funds. These are some of the challenges that the tripartite commissions under the framework of the social contract seek to deal with.

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National Labour Legislation

Constitution

After the fall of the ex-president Ben Ali in January 2011, the drafting of a new constitution was one of the milestones in Tunisia’s democratic transition. A National Constitution Assembly (ANC) was elected in November 2011, with Ennahda being the largest party. After two years of debate between Islamists and secularists, the parliament adopted a new Constitution in January 2014. The new Constitution protects, amongst other things: the right to organize and to strike, equality of women, and freedom of expression. International bodies and heads of state have praised the completion of the new constitution. Among these, the International Trade Union Confederation's (ITUC) General Secretary has called the adoption of the new Constitution as a "historic moment for the country and the region as a whole."

14 In the Tunisian context, the

new constitution is applauded by many but the final result has also many critics. Some are disappointed that the Islamic-oriented majority of the ANC did not secure a more Islamic-oriented constitution, while others criticize the constitution for being too Islamic-oriented and for including ambiguous and contradictious paragraphs, leaving too much leeway for the interpretation. Code du Travail

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The Labour Code from 1966 with several amending regulates working hours, overtime, leave, salary, occupational safety and health, foreign employees, vocational training, apprenticeships and protection of female workers. It also prohibits child labour, and subterranean and night work for workers under 18 years and for women. It establishes an employment agency, the labour inspectorate and industrial tribunals. It also regulates strikes, lock-outs, trade unions, individual and collective labour disputes. Strikes must be approved by the central trade union, i.e. UGTT.

The International Labour Office’s (ILO) Committee of Experts has pointed out that the minimum age for joining a trade union should be the same as the age for admission to employment as determined in the Labour Code and that there should be no requirement for authorization by parents or guardians. Thus, the Government was requested to amend section 242 of the Labour Code to that effect.

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The Labour Code is the most important labour legislation. Several other legislations exists which regulates and sets standards and restrictions for the labour market.

17 Social Contract

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After seven months of negotiations, the Government, UGTT and UTICA signed a Social Contract on 14 January 2013 on the second anniversary of Ben Ali’s resignation. The Social Contract includes statements of intent to improve the situation within four areas: i) Economic Growth and Regional Development; ii) Employment Policies and Vocational Training; iii) Professional Relations and Decent Work; and iv) Social Protection. The fifth part concerns the Institutionalisation of Social Dialogue via the establishment of a National Council for Social Dialogue. Tripartite sub-committees have since been established in each of these four areas, while the fifth area is dealt with by the tripartite commission that crafted the Social Contract. Among the ends defined in the social contract are: the review of the fiscal policy, reform of the education system in order to better adapt it to the needs of the economy in terms of skills and qualifications, implementation of a national strategy for employment, improvement of the the labor legislation, the creation of a system of insurance for loss of employment and the revision of social security systems-The social contract also guarantees the right to strike and lockout. The work of the committees was officially launched in April 2014 with in a tripartite conference. The implementation of the social contract had been at a very slow pace since it’s signing in January 2013. Since April, several of the committees are progressing. A a law draft of the statutes of the National Council for Social Dialogue has been negotiated and submitted for examination in the presidency of the government. ILO Conventions In February 2014 the Government of Tunisia deposited with the ILO the instruments of ratification of three international labour conventions, i.e. the Tripartite Consultation (No. 144), the Labour Relations (No. 151), and the Collective Bargaining Convention (No. 154).

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(See also the table below on 'ILO Conventions').

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ILO Conventions

Ratified ILO Conventions20

Subject and/or right Convention Ratification

date

Fundamental Conventions

Freedom of association and collective bargaining

C087 - Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise, 1948 1957

C098 - Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 1957

Elimination of all forms of forced labour

C029 - Forced Labour Convention, 1930 1962

C105 - Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 1959

Effective abolition of child labour

C138 - Minimum Age Convention, 1973 1995

C182 - Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 2000

Elimination of discrimination in employment

C100 - Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 1968

C111 - Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 1959

Governance Conventions

Labour inspection C081 - Labour Inspection Convention, 1947 1957

C129 - Labour Inspection (Agriculture) Convention, 1969 Not ratified

Employment policy C122 - Employment Policy Convention, 1964 1966

Tripartism C144 - Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention, 1976

enter into force Feb 2015

Up-to-date Conventions

Protection of children and young persons

C077 - Medical Examination of Young Persons (Industry) Convention, 1946 1970

C124 - Medical Examination of Young Persons (Underground Work) Convention, 1965

1967

Wages C095 - Protection of Wages Convention, 1949 1958

Working time C106 - Weekly Rest (Commerce and Offices) Convention, 1957 1958

Social Security C118 - Equality of Treatment (Social Security) Convention, 1962 1965

OSH C120 - Hygiene (Commerce and Offices) Convention, 1964 1970

Industrial Relations

C135 - Workers' Representatives Convention, 1971 2007

C151 - Labour Relations (Public Service) Convention, 1978 enter into force

Feb 2015

C154 - Collective Bargaining Convention, 1981 enter into force

Feb 2015

Vocational Training C142 - Human Resources Development Convention, 1975 1989

Labour Administration C150 - Labour Administration Convention, 1978 1988

Employment policy and promotion

C159 - Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment (Disabled Persons) Convention, 1983

1989

Fundamental Conventions are the eight most important ILO conventions that cover four fundamental principles and rights at work. Equivalent to basic human rights at work.

Governance Conventions are four conventions that the ILO has designated as important to building national institutions and capacities that serve to promote employment. In other words, conventions that promotes a well-regulated and well-functioning labour market.

In addition, there are 71 conventions, which ILO considers “up-to-date" and actively promotes.

Out of 61 Conventions ratified by Tunisia, 53 conventions are in force, 6 conventions have been denounced; and 3 have been ratified in the past 12 months.

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Trade Union Rights Violations

The ITUC registered the following cases in 2013: 21

In September, the Secretary General of the UGTT was subject of death threats. The union has suspected that Salafists groups are behind the threats since they are constantly accusing the UGTT of hampering economic development. In the same month, there was prohibition of demonstrations due to the Ministry of the Interior’s regularly prohibits demonstrations on Avenue Bourguiba in Tunis. On 25 July 2013, the Tunisian opposition leader, Mohamed Brahmi, general coordinator of the People’s Movement and member of the National Constituent Assembly and a leading figure in the Popular Front coalition, was killed. He had expressed his full support for the general strike called for 26 July by the UGTT.

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In order to strike unions must give ten days' advance notice to the UGTT, which should give its authorization. However, the ILO’s Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR) has repeatedly pointed out that subjecting the right to strike to approval by the main trade union confederation was restricting the right of grass roots unions to organize their activities and freely defend their members' interests. The government has never given a satisfactory answer to that criticism.

According to the U.S. Annual Human Rights Report,23

the UGTT alleged antiunion practices among private sector employers, including firing union activists and using temporary workers to deter unionization. In

certain industries, such as textiles, hotels, and construction, temporary workers continued to account for a significant majority of the workforce. The report also noted that the UTICA, along with the government, continued to maintain an exclusive relationship with the UGTT in reaching collective bargaining agreements. Government-organized collective social negotiations were held only with the UGTT. Representatives from the CGTT and UTT throughout the year their labor organizations had been ignored and shut out of tripartite negotiations. But, they acknowledged their organizations had conducted strikes to gain recognition as a bargaining partner in tripartite negotiations. Although the labour code covers temporary workers, enforcement efforts were weaker than for permanent workers.

ILO has two active cases in the Committee of Freedom of Association. The cases are confidential and were filed in June 2012 by the trade union CGTT and in June 2014 by the trade union OTT, respectively.

ILO Complaints Procedure24

Freedom of Association cases (2014)

Active 2

Follow-up 0

Closed 5

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Working Conditions

Wages and earnings Monthly average, median and legal minimum wages

Source

Current Dinar

Current US$

Minimum wage Non- agriculture (2012)

U.S. report on human rights25

320 206

Minimum wage Private sector (2014)

Al Huffington Post26

319 197

Minimum wage for a 19-year old worker or an apprentice (2014) Doing

Business27

187 119

Ratio of minimum wage to value added per worker (2014)

0.24

Wage Share Unadjusted (2009)

Global Wage Database28

36 %

Growth of real average wage (2000-2011)

80 %

Growth of real minimum wage (2000-2011)

-0.03 %

Ratio of minimum wage to value added per worker denotes the minimum wage share of labour productivity. Reported as ratio of minimum wage to value added per worker in the Doing Business Report.27 The Wage Share is the share of GDP that goes to wages and other forms of labour compensation. It is not adjusted for the self-employed, and can therefore underestimate the amount of GDP that goes to workers, if there are many self-employed in the economy.

In May 2014 the minimum wage was raised by 11% for about 1.5 million private sector workers for the first time since 2012. The wage was fixed at 319 dinar (US$197). In 2012 the monthly minimum wage for nonagricultural workers was increased to 320 dinars per month (US$206), while the daily minimum wage for agricultural sector workers was increased to 11.6 dinars ($7.50). The government has not adequately enforced the minimum wage law, particularly in nonunionized sectors of the economy.

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The real average wage has grown rather fast the last decade, whereas the real minimum wage has not changed. At 36%, the share of GDP going to wages is at a medium for the world, as well as the Middle Eastern and North African region. Research has shown a remarkable difference in earnings between men and women in the private sector, particularly as salaries increase.

30

The Ministry of Social Affairs is responsible for enforcing health and safety standards in the

workplace. Under the law all workers, including those in the informal economy, are afforded the same occupational safety and health protections. Enforcement of these measures was inadequate. In addition to enforcing occupational safety and health regulations, regional labor inspectors enforced standards related to hourly wage regulations.

31 It has

been registered that the country has 380 inspectors who inspected most firms approximately once every two years. The prohibition against excessive compulsory overtime is not always enforced. With reference to the 380 labour inspectors it equals 1 per 10,000 workers in the labour force. The ILO recommends 1 inspector per 10,000 workers in industrial market economies and 1 per 20,000 workers in transition economies.

32

The U.S. Annual Human Rights Report also assessed that working conditions and standards generally are better in export-oriented firms, which are mostly foreign-owned, than in those firms producing exclusively for the domestic market. According to the report, more than 500,000 persons, the majority of whom are women, working in the informal sector, where labor violations are reportedly more prevalent. There were not registered any major industrial accidents during 2013. Also credible data on workplace accidents, injuries, and fatalities was not available. Temporary contract laborers complained throughout 2013 they were not accorded the same protections as permanent employees. However, the efforts to end subcontracting concluded with high success in terms of banning subcontracting agencies and subcontracted workers in the public sector. Around 60,000 workers were able to move into standard employment. Many of the subcontracted workers were females and the UGTT’s National Women’s Committee played an important role in the organization that makes strides to equalize pay. Through the campaigns against subcontracting have also led to a drop in subcontracting in the private sector, but it is still not benefitted fully from the modifications. The campaign has increased the number of union members and pushed forward the negotiations on improving the Labor Code.

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Workforce

The total population in Tunisia is 10.9 million persons out of which 4 million are employed workers. At 41%, Tunisia has a very low employment rate. It is on average for Middle East and North Africa, though. This low rate in Tunisia is mainly because few women are employed or participate in the labour market as well as many young people are in education. The latest data on working poverty is from 2005, and much fewer working Tunisians lived for US$1.25 and US$2 a day than the North African average. The regional trend has been on a decrease. Tunisia had a larger middle class, especially upper middle class than the regional average, as 27% lived for US$2-4 a day and 61% for US$4-20 a day,

compared to Middle East and North Africa where 39% lived for US$2-4 a day and 45% for US$4-20 a day.

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Working Poor36

Age 15+

Share of workers

in total employment

1.25 USD

a day 2 USD a day

Tunisia (2005) 0.8 % 6.6 %

North Africa (2005) 7.1 % 23 %

North Africa (2012) 6.4 % 20 %

Working poor measures employed people living for less than US$1.25 and US$2 a day, as proportion of total employment in that group

Employment rates34

(2012), Age and Sex distribution

Sex Age Employment

rate

Male & female

Total 15+ 41 %

Youth 15-24 23 %

Adult 25+ 47 %

Male Total 15+ 61 %

Youth 15-24 30 %

Adult 25+ 71 %

Female Total 15+ 22 %

Youth 15-24 16 %

Adult 25+ 24 %

61%

30%

71%

22%

16%

24%

41%

23%

47%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

15+

15-24

25+

Male and female Female Male

12

Unemployment

Unemployment (2011)38

Gender, youth and education level

Total Male Female

Total 18 % 15 % 27 %

Youth unemployment 42 % - -

No Schooling 8 % 5.3 % 14 %

Primary 12 % 11 % 19 %

Secondary Education 21 % 20 % 24 %

Tertiary education 29 % 19 % 42 %

Unemployment was a major cause for ‘Arab Spring’ wave in 2011, protesters were often young and highly educated, but without any realistic job prospects. At 18% in 2011, Tunisia had a very high unemployment rate; youth unemployment is even higher at 42%. On this level demonstrates how difficult it is to find jobs for the young. Like other North African Arab countries, where unemployment also played a major role in the Arab Spring protests, unemployment increase for better educated groups. There are also large regional differences in unemployment with the lowest being in the Central East (11%) and the highest in the Midwest (29%). About 39% of the unemployed have also been unemployed for more than a year.

37 In some central

areas, bordering Libya the unemployment rate is reported to be almost 50%. The unemployment and youth unemployment rate is similar to southern European countries such as Spain, Portugal and Greece, which have been hit hard by the great financial recession and the Euro zone sovereign debt crisis. Unlike these countries, Tunisia’s unemployment was already high and at similar levels before the crisis, averaging 14% from 2000 to 2007. Unemployment did also shoot up from 13% in 2010 to 18% in 2011, likely because of the revolution and political instability’s effect on jobs and the influx of Tunisians returning from Libya.38 Job creation has been insufficient for years. From 2004 to 2007 (before the global financial recession), 77,000 net jobs, mainly unskilled, were created, which was far less than the growth in the labour force at 190,000

during the same period.39

Public work programmes, known as the ‘chantier’ system, is one of the previous government’s responses to the demand for jobs. Introduced under Ben Ali, the chantier system was expanded after the revolution. It provides unskilled jobs for those accepted into the programme. About 8% of the employed labour force are in both ‘Construction and Chantier’ employment.

38 However

the high demand for these positions has bred corruption.

40

Despite that the economic growth has been below its potential, the most recent data show that the unemployment rate is falling and reached 15% in the first quarter in 2014. The expansion of the public recruitment programs can explain the drop of the unemployment rate, but it has also produced an inflated wage bill and swelling budget deficit. To implement the policies and control the pressing macro-economic unbalance, Tunisia borrowed US$16 billion, including a Stand-By Arrangement (SBA) of US$1.75 billion that was signed with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2013. Based on the SBA there have been introduced scale-back public employment expansions and froze public sector wages.

41

Interpretation of the open unemployment and employment rates as indicators of a well-functioning labour market is problematic in developing countries. When unemployment is not an option where a person can survive, work of some sort has to be found, often casual and informal work. Unemployment should therefore be understood in relation to the strength of social safety nets, the prevalence of informal employment and how much of informal employment is underemployment due to few formal employment possibilities.

42

Tunisia is an industrialized economy, where only 18% work in agriculture, around 70% of workers are waged employed and an unemployment benefits scheme exists. The open unemployment rate is therefore a good indicator of labour market dysfunctions. Data on hidden unemployment or underemployment could reveal how good an indicator the open unemployment rate is, but such does not exist.

13

Sectoral Employment

Most are employed in the service sector (49%), thereafter industry (33%), and fewest in agriculture (18%). Tunisia is therefore a well industrialised economy where agriculture only plays a minor role.

43

There exists only very outdated sectoral employment data from 1989. Considering the contribution to GDP, Tunisia’s service sector has slightly increased, while the industry has been stable and agriculture vaguely decreased during the last decade.

Sectors Share (% of GDP)44

Migration

Migration45

Net migration (2008-2012)

Tunisia - 32,941

Net migration to average population per year (2008-2012)

Tunisia - 1 : 1,602

inhabitants

MENA (developing only)

- 1 : 1,005 Inhabitants

Personal transfers i.e. remittances received, % of GDP (2012)

Tunisia 5.0 %

MENA (developing only)

2.8 %

With a net migration rate of one per every 1,602 inhabitant, fewer emigrated from Tunisia in 2008-2012 than the average for developing countries in the Middle Eastern and North African region. The rate was much higher in the decades before. Remittances play an important role in the economy, though, and almost double as high on average than for the region.

In 2010 Tunisians mainly migrated to European countries. The top three destinations were France, Italy, and Libya.

46 After the Libyan civil war in 2011,

Tunisia has had a large influx of an estimated 600,000 and 1 million refugees, a third being returning Tunisians.

47 This has only exacerbated the

unemployment problem in Tunisia. Unemployment and the deficit of decent work have been strong push factors for Tunisian emigration, and the Tunisian revolution in 2011 also increased emigration. Tunisia is also an important transit country for mostly irregular migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa to Europe.

48 In June 2014 the Italian Labour Union

(UIL) and UGTT signed a cooperation protocol, which includes collaboration to promote legal migration and to assist migrant workers.

Informal Economy

Few reliable estimates of the informal economy exist. According to a U.S. Annual Human Rights Report, about half a million workers were informally employed (15% of the employed), and the vast majority were women.

49

Of own-account workers, 24% are in the agricultural sector and 52% are in the service and trade sector; the latter largely meaning street vendors. Of contributing family workers, 60% are in the agricultural sector and 26% are in the service and trade sector.

50

A survey from 2013 of the informal workers demonstrated that only 5.2% of informal employees have a different vocational activity in addition to those currently exercised. Moreover, almost all of the

informal employees lack an employment contract (98%); 80% are not informed about social security, while around 12% are aware of the procedures and steps to join the social security program. In this respect, only 7% of informal workers have a national health care card ('white' card) and those who have an insurance through the CNAM (with a yellow/private card) represent 10%.

51

Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have an informal employment at about 85%-95%. For a developing country in Africa, the informal employment in Tunisia is therefore very low, i.e. the labour market is more formal, and labour market dysfunctionalty and decent work deficits are better reflected in the unemployment rate, which is very high.

30 30 30 28 28 29 29 31 34

31 32 31 31 29

58 59 61 61 61 61 61 59 58 60 60 60 60 62

11 11 9 10 11 10 10 9 8 9 8 9 9 9

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Industry Services Agriculture

14

Child Labour

Just 2.6% of children under 15 years old are working, but this figure does not include children who work in the informal sector. Children tend to work in rural areas or as vendor in urban areas, mainly during the school vacation. Child labour is in the informal sector often as handicraft, mechanics or street vendors. Girls tend to work as domestic servants. On occasion, labor inspectors coordinated spot checks with the UGTT and the Ministry of Education.

52

However, the country lacks a list of hazardous work

forbidden to children, and child labor law enforcement is on a decline.

53

ILO’s Committee of Experts have taken note that a survey indicates that 18% of domestic servant are children, a group that is particular vulnerable to the worst forms of child labour.

54 The committee also

notes that dropout rates from school are high, and such children are more likely to be engaged in child labour.

55 No policies are available that have been

developed to address child labor.

Gender

As noted elsewhere in this report: Women have a very low employment rate (22%) compared to men (61%), and high unemployment rate (27%) compared to men (15%). As in other North African countries, fewer women than men are active on the labour market, but in Tunisia more are unemployed than employed, which is a rare and grave situation. Both men and women have higher unemployment rates among the better educated, but women are particularly hard hit, as 42% of women with tertiary or university education are unemployed. Women also have lower levels of education, but enrolment rates into secondary and tertiary schools are higher for women than men. Tertiary or university enrolment have increased drastically for women over the last decade, and vastly outpaced men’s.

Women in employment are concentrated in certain sectors, particularly in agriculture, but are often not considered being economically active since they falls under domestic work. Deeply entrenched gender roles within the family also have a negative effect on women’s labor market participation. Tunisian women take more responsibility in the household and have a greater workload than men regardless of their professional situation. There is also a lack in social services, making women strongly attached to their traditional domestic roles.

56 Other groups, such as

unemployed youth or women in the countryside, remain poorly organized.

Youth

A National Youth Policy is not present in the country, but it is under formulation, according to the current government. As previously mentioned, the regional disparities, an educational system that requires reform and a restricted labor market are all contributing factors to the problems faced by young people in Tunisia. The trend of the youth unemployment rate has showed that it has been higher than the North Africa's average. It is also noteworthy that the share of Tunisian youth unemployment in total unemployment is decreasing significantly from 52% in 1992 to 35% in 2012, which shows that more youth are getting jobs.

Although a significant milestone for Tunisia's history when the first transparent elections were held in October 2011, only 17% of youth (18 to 25-year olds) were registered to vote.

57 According to a Youth

Perception Study from 2013, youth expressed that the leadership is not listening to the youth aspirations.

58

Tunisia's youth unemployment trend (%)

59

The Government funds and administers a program to provide wage earning trade apprenticeships for youth ages 15 to 20, which offer an alternative to exploitative child labor.

60

31 29

32 35

32 32 30

27 27 29 29

52 51 49 48 47 46 44 42

39 37 35

23 26 25 24

26 25 25 22 20 20

24

00

10

20

30

40

50

60

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Youth unemployment rate

Share of youth unemployed in total unemployed

Youth unemployment rate - North Africa

15

Characteristics of the Working Age Population

Tunisia has a medium level of education for a country in the Middle East and North Africa region. Over 40% have some kind of secondary education and many also have university education.

Women have lower levels of educations in all types of education, with especially more having no schooling.

The graph above shows the educational attainment of all Tunisians above 25 years, therefore gives a glance of the human capital of the labour force.

Enrolment in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools (2000-2011)63

Total and Female, Tunisia and Middle East and North Africa

Net enrolment is the ratio of children of official school age, who are enrolled in school to the population of the corresponding official school age. Gross enrolment is the ratio of total enrolment, regardless of age, to the population of the corresponding official school age. Gross primary enrolment is therefore sometimes higher than 100%.

Enrolment rates into schools are higher in Tunisia, than the average for the Middle East and North Africa region. Notably more women than men enrol in secondary and tertiary schools, and women’s enrolment into universities have increased much more than men’s over the last decade.

High youth unemployment was one the main causes for the revolution in 2011. Mohamed Bouazizi, who set himself on fire in December 2010, the event that sparked the consistent protests leading to the fall of the regime, had struggled to find employment, and many protesters were university educated youth with few job prospect.

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

100%

200

0

200

1

200

2

200

3

200

4

200

5

200

6

200

7

200

8

200

9

201

0

Net primary school enrolment

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

20

11

Gross secondary school enrolment

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

200

0

200

1

200

2

200

3

200

4

200

52

006

200

7

200

8

200

9

201

0

201

1Gross tertiary school enrolment

Tunisia ,Totalenrolment

Tunisia ,Femaleenrolment

MENA ,Totalenrolment

MENA ,Femaleenrolment

Highest level attained and years of schooling in the population61

(2010), Population 25+, Total and Female

Highest Level Attained Total Female

No Schooling 27.4 % 38.1 %

Primary Begun 13.8 % 12.3 %

Completed 18.1 % 16.2 %

Secondary Begun 16.0 % 12.2 %

Completed 15.1 % 13.2 %

Tertiary Begun 3.4 % 3.0 %

Completed 6.2 % 5.1 %

Average year of total schooling 6.5 years 5.5 years

Educational Gini Coefficient 0.45 0.54

Primary, secondary and tertiary is the internationally defined distinction of education. In Denmark these corresponds to grundskole, gymnasium & university.

The educational Gini Coefficient is similar to the Gini Coefficient, but instead of measuring the distribution of income in a population, it measures the distribution of education measured as years of schooling among the population.62

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Total

Female

No Schooling Primary - Begun Primary - CompletedSecondary - Begun Secondary - Completed Tertiary - BegunTertiary - Completed

16

Vocational training

Vocational Training64

Pupils in vocational training (2011)

Tunisia 160,841

Ratio of pupils in vocational student to all pupils in secondary education (Average 2009-2011)

Tunisia

12.6 %

MENA 9.9 %

Ratio of pupils in vocational training out of 15-24 year olds (Average 2009-2011)

Tunisia 7.4 %

Northern Africa

9.7 %

The Tunisian youth is relatively well educated, but youth unemployment is higher among the better educated than the low, which is a common problem for the youth in the Middle East and North Africa region. Employers have asserted that the right skills are lacking and it is a major barrier to expanding the business, and therefore hire new workers.

65 This

implies too little vocational training. Though average for the region, 13% of Tunisia’s secondary students are in vocational training 2009-2011. Along with the high enrolments for secondary and tertiary schools, it reflects a preference for academic education. The vocational educational system in Tunisia includes three levels: i) Certificat d’aptitude professionelle (CAP), ii) Brevet de technicien professional (BTP), and iii) Brevet de technicien supérieur (BTS); and there are

135 Vocational Education & Training (VET) centers. The vocational training system is controlled by centralized government agencies that manage the system without the involvement of social partners. While the funding of VET centers predominantly occurs via public budget allocations, student fees are usually limited and only cover administrative costs.

66

The Social Contract from 2013 covers employment and vocational training policy. At 7.4% Tunisia has a lower rate of students in vocational training to 15-24 year olds than in the Northern Africa region.

Before the Arab Spring in 2011, Tunisia was infamous of not being willing to evaluate public policies. It has now been improved. A recent impact study of Tunisian vocational training programs on employment and wages estimated that vocational training in Tunisia has a positive treatment effect on the probability of employment and on wage. Results showed that assignment to the programs depended on both observable and unobservable characteristics of the individual, e.g. due to individual and family obstacles, the individual perseveres to get a job and works hard to improve wage.

67

17

Social Protection

Public spending on social protection schemes68 (2011)

Public social protection expenditure, excl. health

Tunesien Dinar 5.8 billion

US$ 4.1 billion

% of GDP 8.9 %

per capita 388 US$

% of government expenditure

50 %

Public health care % of GDP 1.5 %

Health social protection coverage (2006)

% of population 80 %

Trends in government expenditure in health

% changes per year (2007-2011)

4.5 %

Benefits, coverage and contributions to pension schemes

69 (2006-2010)

Social benefits for the active age % of GDP 3.5 %

Pensionable (60+) age receiving an old age pension

Proportion of total

69 %

Old age effective coverage as proportion of programs

Proportion of contributory

69 %

Active contributors to a pension scheme

15-64 years 24 %

The government runs most social security systems in Tunisia. The two main contributory social security schemes are: i) the National Social Security Fund (Caisse Nationale de Sécurité Sociale, CNSS) for the private sector, and ii) the National Pension and Social Contingency Fund (Caisse Nationale de Retraite et de Prévoyance Sociale, CNRPS) for the public sector.

70 The

two schemes provide family allowances, family supplements and nursery school subsidy, pensions for old age, disability and survivors, as well as benefits for sickness and maternity leave. In addition, the National Medical Insurance Fund (Caisse Nationale d’Sssurance Maladie, CNAM) provides medical insurance. An unemployment law was established in 1997, and covers non-agricultural salaried employees. The benefits are at a maximum of the national minimum wage, paid for up to a year. There is also a temporary scheme, where recent graduates can receive unemployment benefits. Employers and employees pay different contributions depending on the benefit type. Self-employed are not covered by the CNSS. According to ILO’s Social Protection section,

71 a vast

majority of the working population in employment are

covered by the CNSS. Around 80% of the population had health coverage in 2006, which is particular high for a middle income country. Several groups of workers are not covered, though. These include casual and seasonal agricultural workers, workers on construction sites, household workers, religious officials and the unemployed. Some of these have alternative means of protection. As previously underlined, Tunisia has a low employment rate at 41% and many are therefore still not covered by the social protection schemes tied to employment. This is reflected in the ILO Social Security Inquiry where coverage rates are between 19%-35%. Funding for CNSS comes from the employed. Due to the high unemployment rates, the costs are not covered and potentially undermine the social security system.

72

The ILO convention 183 on maternity leave protection has not been ratified. Following the Labour Code, maternity leave is at 30 days for private employees and two months for female civil servants. The CNSS covers the benefits. Civil servants are entitled to their full salary, private sector workers 67% and agricultural workers 50% of the minimum wage.

73

Within the framework of the social contract, the signatories, UGTT, UTICA and the government, have committed themselves to work together to develop solutions to and improvements of various challenges within the area of social protection. Objectives include the revision of the different social security schemes and of their financing, and of the management systems of the different social funds, The Ministry of Social Affairs has been discussing with the World Bank to undertake a comprehensive study to review the financial and fiscal sustainability of the social security system, including the pension system, the health insurance and a possible employment loss insurance scheme to be introduced. This analytical work and policy options will be closely examined in the tripartite framework of the Social Contract, i.e. all being involved in the study. The Government will also pursue the pilot implementation of new Active Labor Market Programs (ALMPs) and continue a database consolidation process to establish a unified social protection information and verification system in order improve the targeting of transfers to poor beneficiaries.

74

18

General Economic Performance

Key Facts75

(2013 est.)

GDP GDP

per capita (PPP)

GDP real growth

HDI (2012)76

Gini Index (2005)

48 billion US$

9,900 US$

2.8 % 0.712 40.0

119 of 228 countries

94 of 187 countries

59 of 141 countries

The Human Development Index (HDI) measures the average of a long and healthy life, access to knowledge, and a decent standard of living. Gini Index of 0 represents perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality. In terms of the ranking, the first country has the highest inequality, while the number 141 has the highest equality.

Doing Business

201577

Control of corruption

Government effectiveness

Rule of Law

60 of 189 countries

-0.11 (2007) 0.47 (2007) 0.17 (2007)

-0.18 (2012) -0.02 (2012) -0.14 (2012)

A high ranking on the Ease of Doing Business Index means the regulatory environment is more conducive to the start-up and operation of a local firm.78 The selected Governance Indicators cover the years 2007 and 2012, and ranking from ‐2.5 to 2.5; i.e. negative tendencies below the zero mean and unit standard deviation, score negative measurements.79

The political crisis that paralyzed the country the last five months of 2013 came to an end just before the end of the year. The political parties agreed on a road map in a prolonged dialogue process that was facilitated by UGTT, UTICA, the Tunisian Human Rights League and the bar association. This accelerated the stalled political processes, and in January the new Constitution was adopted, the Election Committee was nominated, the new interim government approved and the former government stepped down. The political uncertainties affected the country during a large part of 2013 and this weighed heavily on the business climate. The government faces several challenges, such as reassuring businesses and investors, bringing budget and current account deficits under control, and reducing economic disparities between the disadvantaged regions and the more developed coastal regions.

80

Tunisia’s economy is based in large part on European tourism and exports. The Arab Spring has had a negative impact on the economy and so has the European economic recession. This can explain the continued decrease on the capital formation, which is in line with the MENA average.

On this background, the economic growth entered a slowdown in 2013. It reached an estimated 2.8%. Especially both agricultural production and the oil and gas sector have declined markedly, while manufacturing stagnated.

81 The growth is expected to

rebound again in 2014-2015. The inflation rate has been controlled below 5%. It is projected that the GDP growth per capita in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) will fall slightly behind the MENA region’s average. The Doing Business indicator ranks Tunisia scores medium high at 60 out of 189 countries. On the three governance indicators, Control of Corruption, Government Effectiveness and Rule of Law, Tunisia has a medium score, at similar levels to other development indicators for the countries. It is observed that there are some slight decreases on the governance and the ruling of law indicators, respectively.

GDP per Capita (PPP), trend and forecast82

Inflation, trend and forecast83

Gross fixed capital formation (% of GDP)84

5000

7000

9000

11000

13000

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Cu

rren

t U

SD

Tunisia Middle East and North Africa

0%

5%

10%

15%

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Tunisia Middle East and North Africa

25 25 25 23 22

21 23 23 24 24 25

22 21

19 20 21 21 21 21

22

24 24 26

25

22 22

15

20

25

30

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Tunisia Middle East & North Africa

19

Trade

Trade and Foreign Direct Investment (2013 est.)

Exports Imports FDI flow

(average 2008-12) FDI Stock

18 billion US$

25 billion US$

1.5 billion US$

35 billion USD

36 % of GDP 52 % of GDP 3.1 % of GDP 72 % of GDP

Trade plays an important role in Tunisia’s economy. Both export share of GDP, Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) inflow and stock are some of the highest among North African countries. With imports a bit higher than export, the balance of trade is slightly offset. Tunisia’s export sector is relatively well diversified into different products, making it less vulnerable to global changes in demand. The export productions also have a good composition of skill requirements that make it more possible for skilled labour to be used in new sectors. FDI declined in 2013 due to the persistent political uncertainty, and foreign exchange reserves have gradually declined until end 2013. Net FDI flows are therefore estimated to have declined to US$1 billion in 2013, compared to the US$1.6 billion reached in 2012.

Tunisia’s main products share of exports (2012)85

Tunisia's main export markets (2013)86

Trade agreements

Tunisia is part of the Greater Arab Free Trade Area, which entered into force in 1998. It includes 16 other member states of the Arab League. The country has bilateral trade agreements with Morocco, Jordan, Senegal, Egypt, Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Turkey, EFTA, and the European Union (EU). The majority of Tunisia’s exports and imports are with the EU, in particular France and Spain. The country participates in EUROMED, i.e. the southern part of the European Neighbourhood Policy. It is a long term policy of tying these countries closer to the EU. This includes support for business developments and civil society organizations. These are coupled with financial support, with projects coordinated through the European Neighbourhood Partnership Instrument,

87 as

well as trade benefits, with the goal of establishing a free trade area.

88 The cooperation is being expanded

with an action plan for 2013-2017.89

Tunisia’s integration into global value chains is being stimulated by free-trade agreements with the EU, but it is challenged by various obstacles such as trade and investment policies, the business climate, logistics, transport, regional imbalances, and technology transfers.

90

Tunisia benefits from the United States’ Generalised System of Preferences (GSP). These are unilateral trade benefits from the U.S. government, allowing duty and quota free access for some product. A country can be removed if it is violating or do not take steps to uphold the ILO Core Labour Standards. Each country is reviewed annually, by the U.S. government.

91

Export Processing Zones (EPZ)

According to an ILO survey from 2007,92

Tunisia has two EPZ, employing around 260,000 workers and export comprising 52% of total exports. The EPZ programs are frequently cited as examples of robust, job-creating programs that have remained enclaves with few linkages to their host economies. The EPZ share of manufactured exports has more than doubled since 1990.

93

Crude Petroleum;

10% Insulated Wire; 10%

Non-Knit Men's Suits;

5.8%

Non-Knit Women's

Suits; 4.9%

Refined Petroleum;

3.2%

Video Displays;

3.0%

Others; 58%

EU; 65% Libya; 8%

Algeria; 3%

US; 4%

Others; 20%

20

References

1 U.S. Department of State, Annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2013, Tunisia 2 AlMonitor, Tunisian labor union faces internal rifts, March 31, 2014 3 ITUC, Survey of violations of trade union rights, Tunisia 4 LO/FTF Council 5 UGTT 6 AlMonitor, Tunisian labor union faces internal rifts, March 31, 2014 7 ITUC, Survey of violations of trade union rights, Tunisia 8 Bertelsmann Stiftung, Tunisia Country Report, BTI 2014 9 ILO, ILSS, Studies on growth with equity – Tunisia: A new social contract for fair and equitable growth, 2011 10

UTICA, Organisation 11 Bertelsmann Stiftung, Tunisia Country Report, BTI 2014 12 ILO, NATLEX, Code du Travail 13 ILO, NATLEX, Code du Travail 14 ITUC, Tunisia: ITUC welcomes new constitution, a “crucial milestone” on the road to democracy, 29 January, 2014 15 ILO, NATLEX, Code du Travail 16

ITUC, Survey of violations of trade union rights, Tunisia 17 ILO, NATLEX, Country Profile Tunisia, Basic Laws 18 ITUC, ITUC welcomes social pact in Tunisia, 14 January 2013 19 ILO, Tunisia ratifies three international labour Conventions, including the Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention, 1976 (No. 144), February 11, 2014 20 ILO, NORMLEX, Country Profiles 21 ITUC, Survey of violations of trade union rights, Tunisia 22 ITUC, Tunisia: ITUC condemns killing of Mohamed Brahmi, July 29, 2013 23 U.S. Department of State, Annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2013, Tunisia 24 ILO, NORMLEX, International Labour Standards country profile, Tunisia 25

U.S. Department of State, Annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2013, Tunisia 26

Al Huffington Post, Tunisie: Augmentation du SMIG de 11% pour les employés du secteur privé, June 1, 2014 27 IFC & World Bank, Doing Business 2014, Tunisia 28

ILO, Global Wage Database 29

U.S. Department of State, Annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2013, Tunisia 30 European Parliament, Briefing Note, Gender equality policy in Tunisia, 2012 31 U.S. Department of State, Annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2013, Tunisia 32 ILO, Press Release, ILO calls for strengthening labour inspection worldwide, 16 November 2006 33 Solidarity Center, Trade Unions Organizing Workers “Informalized “From Above:” Case Studies from Cambodia, Colombia, South Africa, and Tunisia, 2013 34 ILO, Key Indicators of the Labour Market Database 35 World Bank, PovcalNet database 36 ILO, Key Indicators of the Labour Market Database 37 ILO, NORMLEX, Direct Request (CEACR) - adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session (2013), Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) 38 Institut National de la Statistique – Tunisie, Enquête nationale sur l’emploi, 2010 & 2011 39 ILO, ILSS, Studies on growth with equity – Tunisia: A new social contract for fair and equitable growth, 2011 40 The Guardian, Tunisian racketeers grow rich on state jobs scheme, 9 February 2012 41 Tunisia-Alive.net, Addressing Youth Unemployment in Tunisia, March 24, 2014 42 Kucera D. & Roncolato L. (2008), Informal Employment: Two contested policy issues, International Labour Review, Vol. 147 (2008). No. 4 43 ILO, Key Indicators of the Labour Market Database 44

World Bank, World Development Indicators 45 World Bank, World Development Indicators 46 World Bank, Migration and Remittances Factbook 2011

21

47

Leaders, Les Libyens de Tunisie Combien sont-ils, comment vivent-ils ?, July 13, 2014 & Wikipedia, Refugees of the 2011 Libyan Civil War 48 IOM, Where We Work, Morocco 49 U.S. Department of State, Annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2011, Tunisia 50 Institut National de la Statistique – Tunisie, Enquête nationale sur l’emploi, 2010 & 2011 51 Global Fairness, ISTIS & TAMSS, Study Report, Survey of informal workers in Tunisia, June 2013 52 U.S. Department of State, Annual Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2013, Tunisia 53 U.S. Department of Labor, 2012 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, Tunisia 54 ILO, NORMLEX, Direct Request (CEACR) - adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session (2013), Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) 55 ILO, NORMLEX, Direct Request (CEACR) - adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session (2013), Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) 56 European Parliament, Briefing Note, Gender equality policy in Tunisia, 2012 57

Tunisia Live, Tunisian Youth: Between Political Exclusion and Civic Engagement, June 14, 2013 58 EUROMED, Youth Work in Tunisia after the revolution, June 2013 59 ILO, Key Indicators of the Labour Market Database 60

U.S. Department of Labor, 2012 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, Tunisia 61

Barro, Robert and Jong-Wha Lee, April 2010, "A New Data Set of Educational Attainment in the World, 1950-2010." NBER

Working Paper No. 15902 62 Calculation from based on Thomas, Wang & Fan (2001), with data sets fromBarro-Lee (2010) and Psacharopoulos and Arriagada (1986). 63

World Bank, World Development Indicators 64 World Bank, World Development Indicators 65 ILO, Employment for Stability and Socio-Economic Progress in North Africa, Strategy for North Africa, 2011-2015 66 IZA, A Roadmap to Vocational Education and Training Systems Around the World, DP Nr. 7110, December 2012 67 Rihab Bellakha & Mohammed-Badrane Mahjoub, The impact of Tunisian vocational training programs on employment and wage, February 2013 68 ILO, Social Protection, Statistics and indicators 69 ILO, Social Protection, Statistics and indicators 70 ISSA, Country profiles 71 ILO, GESS, Country Profiles 72 ITUC, Equal Times, The Post-Revolution Challanges for Tunisian Workers, 19 April 2013 73 ILO, TRAVAIL, Legal Database & ILO, Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world, 2014 74 World Bank, Second Governance, Opportunities and Jobs Development Policy Loan, April 1, 2014 75 CIA, The World Factbook, India 76 UNDP, Human Development Index trends 77 IFC & World Bank, Ease of Doing Business 2015, Tunisia 78 World Bank & IFC, Doing Business, Methodology 79 World Bank, Worldwide Governance Indicators 80 World Bank, Tunisia Overview 81 World Bank, Tunisia Overview 82 IMF, World Economic Outlook Databases 83

IMF, World Economic Outlook Databases 84

World Bank, World Development Indicators 85 MIT, The Observatory of Economic complexity, What does Tunisia export 86 European Commission, DG TRADE, Bilateral Relations, Statistics 87 http://www.enpi-info.eu/ 88 http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/index_en.htm 89 Magharebia, Citizens seek role in Tunisia-EU 'advanced partnership', 18/04/2013 90 Africaeconomicoutlook.org, Tunisia 2014 91 Office of the United States Trade Representative, Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) 92 ILO database on export processing zones (revised), 2007 93 FIAS, Special Economic Zones Performance, Lessons learned, and implications for zone development, April 2008