Tundra The tundra is a very cold and harsh environment located at the top and bottom

of the Earth. It is often very windy in the tundra. The average rainfall for the tundra is fewer than 10 inches per year. Snow covers the ground for most of the year during the winter season. The winter season is longer than it is in other places and it lasts from  September  to  May.    For  several  weeks  during  winter,  the  sun  doesn’t  come  up  at  all. It is dark for twenty-four hours a day! The tundra is often considered a lonely place. Permafrost is a unique feature of the tundra. Permafrost is the layer of ground that is always frozen solid!

Summer in the tundra lasts from June and goes through August. Just like there are times during the winter of twenty-four hours of darkness, there are times during the summer of twenty-four hours of daylight! The temperatures can get above fifty degrees Fahrenheit during the summer. During the summer, the land just above the permafrost, the active layer, melts. The active layer is where plants are able to grow. This thin active layer means that only plants with shallow root systems can grow. Because the growing season is so short and the active layer is so thin, there are very few trees grow in the tundra.

The tundra also has lots of surface water during the summer months. When the active layer thaws, the water naturally flows downhill. This creates marshes, ponds and puddles. Because water travels to the lowest locations, the hills and upper elevations are very dry.

Surprisingly, some animals have adapted to live in the extremely harsh environments.    Thy  live  and  thrive  in  places  that  you  wouldn’t  expect!    These  animals  have had to adapt to their environment. Animals in the tundra need to keep in as much heat as possible. Several tundra animals have fur that changes color according to what season it is. When the snow begins to melt, their white fur coats change to brown. They become brown fur coats that look like the summery plants. When the weather starts to change back to winter, their brown coats will turn to white again. This adaptation helps them to blend into their surroundings.

The artic fox is a tundra animal. Many tundra animals, like the artic fox, has very thick fur to keep in as much heat as possible. The artic fox also has tiny ears that do not allow too much heat to escape. The artic fox is also very close to the ground. This helps to protect it from the wind.

Polar bears also live along the edges of the tundra. They spend most of their time near the water so that they can catch their food. Polar bears have a thick layer of blubber (fat) for insulation and storing energy. Their thick white fur coat serves as another layer of insulation and as a way to camouflage themselves in their environment. Polar bears are also great swimmers. They have been tracked for swimming 62 miles without stopping!

The tundra biome is definitely an interesting place!

© Lora Miller

Temperate Deciduous Forest

The temperate deciduous forest biome is unique in the fact that it has four

distinct seasons: spring, summer, fall and winter. Plants and animals living in the

deciduous forest biome must adapt to warm to hot summers and cold to freezing

winters. There are often large amounts of rainfall in the temperate deciduous

forest. This biome also has very fertile soil so plant growth is often abundant.

The temperate deciduous forest covers much of the eastern half of the

US beginning near the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean westward to the eastern

edge of Texas. Temperate describes a climate that has a range of temperatures

within moderate limits. Though some days during the summer are extremely hot

and some days in the winter are extremely cold, on average, the weather stays

within a moderate range in all seasons.

Trees in this biome have thick bark to protect them in the cold winters.

Most of the trees have very wide leaves to capture the sunlight. Trees in this

area include maple, oak, hickory, beech and black cherry. Plants and trees become

dormant in order to get ready for winter. Here, the trees lose their leaves before

winter which lets them store water/moisture and survive the cold winter. Before

the leaves fall, they turn yellow, red and shades of orange. This is good for the

forest environment because they decayed leaves fertilize the soil and make it rich

for growing other plants and threes. In the fall, trees will cut off supplies of

moisture to the leaves which causes the leaves to fall off. When the leaves have

dropped, the trees and plants seal the open area to hold in moisture.

Migration and hibernation are two adaptations that help many of the

animals that live in the deciduous forest. Animals that hibernate will eat heavily

right before the winter and their fur coats will grow thicker to keep them warm

through the winter hibernation period. Most of the birds migrate south to

warmer temperatures during the winter months. They return during the warm

spring and summers in the deciduous forest.

Food storage is another adaptation that some of the animals have.

Chipmunks and squirrels gather nuts in the summer to store for winter. The cold

temperatures help to preserve the nuts and seeds. Animals like the deer have

sharp hooves to be able to dig for food and so they can run quickly to escape

their predators. Animals use the forest plants and trees for both food, water

and shelter. Animals in this area include groundhogs, black bears, beavers,

opossums, gray squirrels, raccoons and deer.

© Lora Miller

Tropical Rainforest

Tropical rainforests are among the most mysterious of all biomes in the world. They are called rainforest because they are among the wettest area on earth, receiving anywhere from 80 to 100 inches of rain a year. In most rainforest, the temperature ranges from 70 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit all year long. Because of the large amount of rain and warm temperatures, it is always humid in the tropical rainforest.

Rainforests are found near the equator. The equator is the area of the Earth that receives the most direct sunlight. The abundance of sun and rain makes this an optimal location for plants to grow and for animals to thrive. Because such a large amount of plant life grows here, the tropical rainforest is one of  the  Earth’s  biggest  providers  of  oxygen.

Rainforest have four distinct layers of plant and animal life. The first is the emergent layer which has giant trees growing from 100 to 240 feet tall. The emergent layer got its name from the fact that they are the trees that emerge into the sunlight. These trees have umbrella shaped crowns that grow high above the rest of the forest. The next layer is the canopy. These trees grow up to 130 feet tall and make a canopy, or covering, over the forest. This allows very little sunlight to come down. Roughly 90% of all rainforest animals live way up high in the canopy. The third layer is the understory. The understory is very shady. Only about 15% of the sunlight makes it through to the understory. Trees and leafy plants  that  don’t  require a lot of sun live here. Trees are only about 60 feet tall. The final layer is called the forest floor. It is surprisingly dark here because less than  2%  of  the  light  from  the  sun  reaches  the  forest  floor.  Because  the  sun’s  rays  don’t  shine  on  the  ground,  there  is very little plant life on the forest floor. Most of the forest floor is covered in dead flowers, fallen leaves, seeds, and fruits and branches that decompose quickly.

Animal life in the tropical rainforest is very diverse., Birds, tree frogs and monkeys populate the top two layers while, small climbing animals, insects and predators, such as jaguars, populate the lower two layers.

Rainforests  contain  some  of  Earth’s  greatest  treasures.    Some  medicines  are made from plants found there. Scientist are working to find plants to make medicines for treating cancer! Food sources are rich in the rainforest too. Over 3,000 fruits alone come from the rainforest. You can find corn, potatoes, rice there as well as ginger, cinnamon, chocolate, coffee and a variety of nuts.

The rainforest are invaluable to our planet Earth!

© Lora Miller

Taiga

Taiga The taiga biome is the largest terrestrial biome on planet Earth. It covers

much of the North American continent (most of inland Canada and Alaska) as well as a large amount of Northern Europe and Northern Asia. The taiga is also known as the boreal forest. Did you know that Boreal was the Greek goddess of the North Wind?

The weather is very cold in the taiga biome. The main seasons that the taiga experiences are summer and winter. The winter last for 9 months per year. It gets icy and cold during this time. Winter storms are severe and the cold winds are brutal. Summers never get very warm and are extremely short. The average temperature during the summers in the taiga is 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Because of the high latitude of the taiga, they have periods of 20 hours of daylight (summer) and periods of 20 hours of darkness (winter). Precipitation is minimal in the taiga. When they do receive precipitation, it usually comes in the form of dry, powdery snow.

Organisms that live in the taiga are very special and have adapted to withstand the harsh conditions. Some common animals you could find in the area are moose, wolves and dear as well as many species of fish. Ironically, there are many varieties of insects that live in the taiga. Many of them play an important role as decomposers. Large predators, such as bear, eat heartily during the summer months so they can hibernate through the most extreme winter months. Many birds fly south for the winter, only to return for the short summer months. Reptiles and amphibians have a hard time surviving in this environment .Each animal population has to adapt to the severe conditions.

Short, stubby grass and bushes grow in taiga regions. The soil is typically very poor and contains minimal nutrients. This is due to the long, cold seasons which hinders decomposers breaking down dead plant matter into nutrient rich soil. Fire is not uncommon in the taiga during the summer. Fires may seem destructive, but they actually help this biome by removing dead or old trees, making room for new trees.

The taiga is also known for their coniferous forest (cone bearing trees). Conifer trees are also known as evergreens. Pines, firs and spruce trees are common. Evergreen trees are typically cone shaped, which makes it easier for the snow  and  ice  to  slide  off  during  the  winter  season.    The  thin,  waxy  ‘leaves’  of  evergreen trees are called needles. They have adapted so that they can hold in water all year round. They are also very special because the evergreen needles don’t  freeze  easily.      All  green  plants  are  an  important  source  of  oxygen  for  our  planet. They use the carbon dioxide that humans and animals breathe out and release oxygen back into the air. The growing season in the taiga last between 100 and 140 days.

© Lora Miller

Grasslands Roughly one-fifth of the Earth's land area is grasslands. They can be found on

every continent except Antarctica. Grasslands are typically found in the interior of continents. No other biome is as agriculturally useful to humans as grasslands. Soils tend to be deep and fertile if farmers choose to grow crops there. Grasslands are characterized by their tall grasses. There are very few trees that are able to grow in the grasslands because the precipitation is not great enough to support larger plants. Grasslands have lots of fast-running animals. There are few trees and hiding places for animals to live so they must be able to run quickly to get away.

There are two main divisions of grasslands: tropical grasslands (savannas) and temperate grassland.

Savannas cover almost half of Africa and large areas of Australia. Savannas are always found in warm or hot climates where the rainfall is between 20-50 inches per year. Savannas experience wet seasons and times of drought. During droughts, savannas experience wildfires. The plants have deep roots that are spread out which gives them strength and moisture during times of drought. The grasses grow close to the ground. Most plants have narrow leaves that hold in water during dry seasons. They have strong roots  which  means  they  won’t  be  destroyed  when  animals  walk  on  them or eat them. For some animals living in savannahs, the dry season is the ultimate nightmare. In order to survive, many animals must travel for long distances to find food and water. Grasslands are open areas without many places to hide. A lot of animals feel safer in large groups rather than being alone. Zebras always travel in herds for this reason. They take turns being on the lookout for hungry predators. Both cheetahs and ostriches, known for their swiftness, thrive in the grasslands. Other animals living in grasslands include zebras, giraffes, white rhinoceros, warthogs, grasshoppers, and vultures

Temperate grasslands can be found in parts of Hungary, South America and the central part of North America. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. There are only two distinct seasons here. The amount of rainfall is less in the temperate grasslands than in the savannas. They have between 20-35 inches of rain per year. North American temperate grasslands are also known as prairies. Temperate grasslands experience rainy seasons and dry seasons as well, however, the effects  aren’t  as  dramatic  as  the  savannas.    Plants  and  root  systems  are  very  similar  to those in the savannas. Farmers take advantage of the fertile soil in the North American prairies. Animals in the temperate grasslands have adapted to the dry, windy conditions. For animals living in temperate grasslands, winter is the most unbearable season because plants are either dead or buried under snow. There are deer, mice, jack rabbits, snakes and coyotes. This was the home of bison before most of them were killed by humans. Though the population of American Bison have not become extinct, they are definitely endangered.

Both savannas and temperate grasslands are truly a wonderful and exciting place!

© Lora Miller

Desert When  someone  says  the  word  ‘desert,’  most  people  think  of  a  place  that  

is dry and full of cacti. Though that is often true, the desert biome is much more! Did you know that there are both hot and cold deserts?

The word desert means to abandon or leave. Animals and plants alike have had to adapt to be able to survive in the desert. The desert gets minimal amount of rain which is why it is so dry. Most deserts get less than 10 inches of rain per year. Evaporation rates can be faster than rainfall rates which is why  the  desert  is  so  dry.  In  some  deserts  rain  doesn’t  fall  for  years!  

One fifth of the earth is a desert biome. Survival in the desert is difficult due to the extreme temperatures and dryness. Deserts are found along coastlines and within continents. Hot deserts are found in North America, South America, North Africa and Central Australia. Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic, Greenland and Central Asia. Cold deserts, although still dry get more rainfall (which is in the form of snow or fog) than hot deserts.

In hot deserts, daytime temperatures can be over 100 degrees Fahrenheit and below 25 degrees Fahrenheit in the evenings and nights. Temperatures in cold deserts are usually between 4 and 39 degrees Fahrenheit. In the hot deserts, the seasons are warm throughout the year and very hot in the summer. Cold deserts have long cold winters and short warmer summers. The cold deserts are cold most of the time.

Animals that live in the desert tend to get their water from the food they eat. Many desert animals have a thin outer coat and larger ears. This allows them to stay as cool as possible. They have also learned to burrow through the day. Most desert animals have adapted to the harsh environment by being nocturnal. Nocturnal desert animals rest and stay cool during the day and come out the find food at night. Examples of animals in the desert are rattlesnakes, jack rabbits, lizards, kit foxes, scorpions and grasshoppers.

The soil is very coarse and rocky. Plants typically have few leaves and thick roots to help them retain moisture in the dry climate. The desert has cacti, smaller bushes and grasses. Cacti have thick, fleshy skin that allows them to retain and store water. The cacti spines serve two purposes: they help protect the cacti from herbivores and they help prevent water loss by reducing the air flow close to the cactus They have shallow root systems which makes it easy for them to absorb water when it rains.

© Lora Miller

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All Mountains Are Not the SameBy Cindy Grigg

Mountains are made bynature. They are one typeof landform. Mountainsare tall and rocky. Theyhave high elevation.Mountains rise high abovethe land around them. Amountain's height ismeasured by its relation tosea level. Sea level haszero elevation. Amountain's elevationmeans the distance above or below sea level. The tallest part of amountain is called the peak. Mountains often have pointed tops.They often have steep sides. Mountains are taller than hills.Mountains don't all look the same. They are different because theyformed in different ways.

The Earth's surface or crust is made of huge pieces called plates.They fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The heat inside the Earthcauses the plates to move. The Appalachian Mountains are foldedmountains. They were formed when two plates pushed directlyagainst each other.

Imagine a soft rug lying on the floor. One side is against a wall.What would happen if you pushed against the other side of the rug?The rug would be squeezed between the wall and your foot. Itwould fold, forming a series of ripples. The Appalachian Mountainswere formed in much the same way. Instead of your foot and thewall, the rock layers of the land were squeezed by forces inside theEarth. The land between the two opposite forces was squeezed intofolds like the rug.

The Appalachians are the oldest mountains in North America.They formed between 250 million and 300 million years ago. Thatwas before the first dinosaurs ever lived! Once these mountainswere taller than the Rocky Mountains. Weathering and erosion have

worn them down to less than half as tall as they once were.

The Himalaya Mountains are also folded mountains. Theyformed when India, once an island, smashed into the continent ofAsia. The Himalayas are the tallest mountains in the world. Theyare still growing as the two plates continue to push against eachother.

The Grand Teton Mountains are found in Wyoming. They wereformed when a fault or crack broke apart huge blocks of rocks in theEarth's crust. Movement in the Earth's crust pushed up one of theblocks. The Grand Tetons are called fault-block mountains. Theyhave sharp, jagged peaks.

Some mountains form from hot melted rock called magma risingup in the Earth's crust. If magma breaks through the crust, it forms avolcanic mountain. Magma, now called lava since it broke throughEarth's surface, piles up. A cone-shaped mountain is formed. Thestate of Hawaii is a group of islands that are the tops of volcanicmountains that stick out of the ocean. Mt. Saint Helens in the stateof Washington is a famous volcanic mountain.

Another type of mountain is formed by magma, too. If themagma cannot break through Earth's crust, it often forms a domemountain. Pressure from magma pushes the rocky surface upward.The magma cools and hardens into rock. A dome mountain lookslike an upside-down bowl. It is circular and gently rounded. Domemountains are usually not as high as folded mountains. Half Dome inCalifornia is a dome mountain.

The Earth's surface is always changing. Parts of it are pushedupwards, forming mountains. Mountains are formed in differentways. Mountains are worn down by wind and water erosion.

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SwampsBy Kathleen W. Redman

In America, there are allkinds of land. There aregrasslands, beaches,mountains, and deserts.Each type has its ownspecial features. Differentpeople like differentfeatures. Some people likeliving on the beach. Somepeople like living in themountains. Some peopleeven like living in thedesert. There are even people who like living in swamps!

A swamp is a piece of land usually covered with water that lies near ariver, lake, or ocean. Most of its plant life consists of trees. The waterin a swamp is very slow moving, if it moves at all. The land aroundthe water is very wet and muddy. Swamps are so wet and muddy thatmost of them are uninhabited except for the many animals that callthem home.

For many years, swamps were seen as bad things. Many people wereafraid of the kinds of animals -like snakes and alligators - that live inswamps. Many ghost stories and tales of strange monsters were toldabout the swamps.

People who owned swamplands often drained them to make room formore farmland or more buildings. People now know that swamps arean important part of the environment. They are homes to plants andanimals that are hard to find outside of swamps.

One of the largest swamps in the United States is in Louisiana. It iscalled the Atchafalaya Swamp. It's located in a basin in south centralLouisiana along the Atchafalaya River near the Gulf of Mexico. Likemany swamps in the southeastern United States, the AtchafalayaSwamp is home to many marshes. Marshes are low lands covered ingrass that are very prone to flooding. The Atchafalaya Swamp is also

home to many cypress trees. Cypress trees grow up to one hundredthirty feet tall in very wet places sometimes growing right up out ofthe water.

As leaves fall off of trees in swamps, they often collect in the water atthe bottom of the tree. The dead leaves can pile up because swampwater barely moves. Sometimes they pile up so much, they can createa small island around a tree or trees. These little islands are calledswamp hammocks.

There are many other swamps in the United States, including theEverglades in Florida and the Okefenokee Swamp on theFlorida-Georgia border. There are also swamps in many othercountries all over the world. One of the world's largest swamps is inRussia. The Vasyugan Swamp there is the size of Switzerland!

Today many swamps are protected places. People are learning aboutthe importance of swamps and the plants and animals that live inthem. Many people and groups work hard to protect swamplands.

Swamps

Questions

1. What is the main idea of paragraph 6?A. Swamps are important.B. Dead leaves fall off trees.C. Dead leaves pile up in swamps and create hammocks.D. Dead leaves are quickly swept away by the current.

2. The writer's main reason for writing this article was to______.

A. entertain the reader with ghost storiesB. tell tall tales about swampsC. inform the reader about swampsD. make the reader afraid of swamps