Artikel:Relative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns:

Who, Whom, Whose, Which, Where, When, Why. Who: For humans as subject. Meaning in Indonesian is "Yang" Whom: For humans as object. Meaning in Indonesian is "Yang" Which: For non-humans as subject or object. Meaning in Indonesian is "Yang"

Whose: For possesion. Meaning in Indonesian is "Yang .... nya"

Explanations for Who, Whom, Which, and Whose;

Who That is the lady who asked me the way to the station yesterday. (Itu adalah wanita yang bertanya kepadaku jalan ke arah stasiun kemarin). Here, Who=Yang is for human (the lady), and is followed by asked=bertanya. It means Who=Yang is a subject(who-the lady-asked. the lady=suject, asked=predicate.

Whom I know the man whom you met at the hall lastnight. (Saya kenal laki-laki yang kamu jumpai di aula tadi malam). Here, whom=yang is for human(the man), and is followed by you met. from you met, the subject is you. so, whom must be object.

Which That is the computer which father bought yesterday. (Itu adalah komputer yang di beli ayah kemarin).Yang=which is for non human(the computer).

Whose The boy whose bike was stolen last week is still very sad now. (Anak laki-laki yang sepedanya di curi minggu lalu masih sangat sedih sekarang). here, whose= yang...nya, in this sentence whose

bike=yang sepeda nya. it shows possession.

Where, When, and Why:

Where is a relative pronoun used to show place.

This city is where I was born. Here, where is used as a reference for

(Sebagai acuan untuk) this city.

When is a relative pronoun used to show time.

I do not renenber the day when I visited her place. Here, when is used as a reference for the day.

Why is a relative pronoun used to explain a reason

Auxiliary verb

Definition: Auxiliary verbs are used together with a main verb to give grammatical

information and therefore add extra meaning to a sentence, which is not given by the main verb.

Be, Do and Have are auxiliary verbs, they are irregular verbs and can be used as main verbs.

Modal verbs are also auxiliary verbs, but will be treated separately, these are can, could, may,

might, must, shall, should,will, and would.

To be: Be is the most common verb in the English language. It can be used as an auxiliary and a main verb. It is used a lot in its other forms.

Present tense form Past tense form

am/is/are was/were

Uses:

Am/Is/Are:

Question Positive Statement Negative Statement

Singular    

Am I? I am (I'm) I am not (I'm not)

Are you? You are (You're) You are not (You're not/You aren't)

Is he/she/it? He/she/it is (He's/She's/It's)He/she/it is not (He/she/it isn't// He/she/it's not)

Plural    

Are we? We are (We're) We are not (We aren't/We're not)

Are you? You are (You're) You are not (You aren't/You're not)

Are they? They are (They're) They are not (They aren't/They're not)

Examples:

Am/Are Is

Question - ? "Am I disturbing you?" "Is this your coat"

Positive Answer - Yes "Yes you are." "Yes it is"

Negative Answer - No "No you're not." "No it isn't"

Note: The auxiliary verb 'be' can be followed either by the -ed form or by the -ing form.

To do: The verb do is one of the most common verbs in English. It can be used as an auxiliary and a main verb. It is often used in questions.

Uses:

Do / Does

Question Positive Statement (spoken) Negative Statement (spoken)

Singular    

Do I? I do I do not (I don't)

Do you? You do You do not (You don't)

Does he/she/it? He/she/it does He/she/it does not (He/she/it doesn't)

Plural    

Do we? We do We do not (We don't)

Do you? You do You do not (You don't)

Do they? They do They do not (They don't)

Examples:

Note: The auxiliary verb followed by the base form (infinitiv.

To have: Have is one of the most common verbs in the English language. Have is used in a variety of ways.

Uses:

Have/Has

Question Positive Statement (spoken) Negative Statement (spoken)

Singular    

Have I? I have (I've) I have not (I haven't/I've not)

Have you? You have (You've) You have not (You haven't/You've not)

Has he/she/it? He/she/it has (He/she/it 's) He/she/it has not (He/she/it hasn't)

Plural    

Have we? We have (We've) We have not (We haven't/We've not)

Have you? You have (You've) You have not (You haven't/You've not)

Have they? They have (They've) They have not (They haven't/They've not)

Have is often used to indicate possession (I have) or (I have got).

Examples:

Have Have got

Question - ? "Do you have a car?" or "Have you a car?" "Have you got a car?"

Positive Answer - Yes "Yes I have a car." "Yes I've got a car."

Negative Answer - No "No I don't have a car." "No I haven't got a car."

Do Does

Question - ?"Do you always take the bus to work?"

"Does she ever do her homework on time?"

Positive Answer - Yes

"Yes I do." "Yes she does."

Negative Answer - No

"No I don't." "No she doesn't."

Have is also used to indicate necessity (I have to) or (I have got to).

Have to Have got to

Question - ? "Do you have to leave early?" "Have you got to leave early?"

Positive Answer - Yes "Yes I have to." or "Yes I do" "Yes I've got to."

Negative Answer - No "No I don't have to." "No I haven't got to."

Have is used to show an action.

Question - ? "Have you washed your face?"

Positive Answer - Yes " Yes I have."

Negative Answer - No " No I haven't."

Note: When showing an action the auxiliary verb 'have' is always followed by the past participle form.

Sentences

Sentence atau kalimat adalah sekumpulan kata yang mempunyai makna yang dapat dipahami maknanya dan memiliki sedikitnya Subjek dan Predikat.

Unsur-unsur Kalimat

a.      Subject

Subjek adalah seseorang atau sesuatu yang menjadi bahan pembicaraan.

Contoh:

Jack has called the police. (Jack = Subject) The novel is on the table. (The novel = Subject)

Yang dapat menjadi subject kalimat adalah:

A. Simple Subject, yang dapat dibentuk oleh:

a)      Nouns (Kata Benda)

Birds are fowl. Indonesia has the largest amount of Moslem in the world.

b)      Pronouns (Kata Ganti)

He cut my hair yesterday. They had discussed the matter before the chairman left.

c)       Adjectives as Nouns (Kata Sifat Yang Berfungsi Sebagai Kata Benda)

The poor needs helping.

The unemployed are hopeless.

d)      Infinitives as Nouns (Infinitif yang berfungsi sebagai kata benda)

To pass the exam is first priority. To say is easy but to do is difficult.

e)      Participles as Nouns (Participle yang berfungsi sebagai kata benda)

Swimming is my hobby. Smoking is really bad for your health.

B. Compound Subject

Compound Subject terdiri dari 2 atau lebih yang menjadi satu kesatuan makna.

The plane leaves at 7. His brother's father-in-law passed away two days ago.

Pada saat suatu kalimat tidak memiliki subjek, maka IT dan THERE berfungsi sebagai subject kalimatnya. Pada saat kita berbicara "panas sekali hari ini", maka kita akan menyatakannya dengan "It is very hot today".

It is Sunday today. There is a good show today.

b.      Predicate

Predicate adalah kata yang menerangkan keadaan subject kalimat. Dalam Bahasa Inggris, jika suatu kalimat tidak memiliki Predicate kata kerja, maka posisi kata kerjanya harus digantikan dengan auxiliary (kata kerja Bantu).

a.      Contoh Kalimat Verbal (Kalimat yang predikatnya adalah kata kerja)

Mr. Henry teaches us English. The dog slept under a tree.

b.      Contoh Kalimat Non-Verbal (kalimat yang predikatnya bukan kata kerja)

Kalimat Non-Verbal ini terdiri dari:

a)      Nominal Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya kata benda)

She is a teacher. My parents are doctors.

b)      Adjectival Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya kata sifat)

The boy is sick. Alex and Ed are diligent.

c)       Adverbial Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya adalah kata keterangan)

The coffee is too hot to drink. She is usually at home on Sundays.

d)      Prepositional Sentence (Kalimat yang predikatnya adalah kata depan)

My mother is at home today. The book is on the table.

c.       ObjectObject (Penderita) adalah kata yang menjadi sasaran apa yang dilakukan oleh subject. Namun, tidak semua kata kerja memiliki objek. Hanya kata kerja transitif saja yang membutuhkan objek. Sedangkan kata kerja intransitif tidak membutuhkan objek, seperti menangis, mendidih, berjalan, dll.

Kadangkala sebuah kalimat memiliki 2 object. Perhatikan contoh kalimat berikut ini:

Andy gives me a book.

-          Me = Objek tak langsung (Indirect Object)

-          A book = Objek langsung (Direct Object)

Untuk menandai yang mana objek langsung maupun tidak langsung cukuplah mudah. Kita harus tahu object dari predicate kalimat itu apa? Maka itulah objek langsungnya.

Andy memberikan apa? Sebuah Buku

Maka, a book adalah direct object. Kalimat tersebut dapat juga dibentuk dengan:

Andy gives a book to me.

Untuk lebih jelasnya, marilah perhatikan pembahasan mengenai Direct dan Indirect object berikut ini:

A.      Direct Object

Direct Object adalah penderita langsung dari suatu tindakan di dalam satu kalimat. Contohnya, He hits the ball. Namun kita harus berhati-hati untuk membedakan antara Direct Object dengan Object Complement.

Perhatikan contoh berikut ini:

They named their daughter Elizabeth.

Dalam kalimat ini, "daughter" adalah Direct Object dan "Elizabeth" adalah Object Complement, yang menggambarkan atau memberikan penjelasan dari direct object-nya.

B.      Indirect Object

Indirect Object mengindentifikasikan untuk siapa tindakan tersebut dilakukan. Direct dan Indirect Object dapat berupa orang, tempat, atau sesuatu yang berbeda.

Perhatikan kembali contoh berikut ini untuk membedakan antara direct dan indirect object. Yang bercetak tebal adalah Direct Object dan yang bercetak miring adalah Indirect Object.

The teacher gives his students A's. Grandfather left Melissa all his money.

Indirect Object dapat digunakan dalam beberapa cara seperti berikut ini:

Lend me some money (Lend some money to me) Make me a cup of coffee (Make a cup of coffee for me)

Pola-pola Untuk Menempatkan Direct dan Indirect Object.

Pola A

I give him an apple

Pola B

I give an apple to him.

Pola C

I bought a car for her. (= I bought her a car)

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola A dan B adalah:Write, read, show, teach, tell, sell, send, leng, bring, take, pass, give

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola A dan C adalah:Buy, get, make, find, do, bake, cash, save

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola A saja adalah:Ask, cost, charge, wish.

Kata Kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola B saja adalah:Explain, announce, describe, introduce, mention, prove, repeat, say, speak, report

Kata kerja yang digunakan untuk Pola C saja adalah:Open, answer, close, change, pronounce, prescribe

(Ketika dipakai dengan for, berarti artinya sama dengan "untuk kepentingan")

Kata Kerja Untuk Semua Pola

SingKata kerja yang tidak dapat digunakan untuk semua pola (Kata Kerja Intransitive)Eat, sleep, boil, etc.

d.      Complement

Complement (pelengkap) adalah kata yang melengkapi maksud dari kata kerja (predikat) dalam suatu kalimat.

Dalam Bahasa Inggris, complement dibagi menjadi 2 bagian, yaitu:

Subjective Complement, yaitu kata yang melengkapi subjek dari sebuah kalimat.

Objective Complement, yaitu kata yang melengkapi objek dari sebuah kalimat.

Kata-kata umum yang dapat dinyatakan sebagai Complement adalah:

Adjectives Nouns Prepositions with Object Adverbs

Complement sangat diperlukan oleh:

a. Transitive Verbs (Kata Kerja yang membutuhkan objek) read, write, make, invite, dll.

The news makes me upset. (upset = Objective Complement) The King appointed Pak Belalang his Royal Astrologer. (his Royal

Astrologer = Objective Complement) They voted me chairman. (chairman = Objective Complement)

b. Intransitive Verbs (Kata Kerja yang tidak membutuhkan objek) seperti boil, walk, sleep, dll.

He grew happier gradually (happier = Subjective Complement) They came here yesterday. (here = Subjective Complement) You look beautiful. (beautiful = Subjective Complement)

c.Linking Verbs

She is a nurse (a nurse = Subjective Complement) The game is now over (now = Subjective Complement) The coffee is too hot to drink. (too = Subjective Complement)

e.     Adjunct

Adjunct adalah kata yang menerangkan tentang object atau subject kalimat. Adjuct ini biasanya terdiri dari keterangan tambahan seperti keterangan waktu, tempat, dll.

I usually drink a cup of coffee in the morning. She came here yesterday. I go to school by bus.

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2.      Klasifikasi Kalimat

A.      Berdasarkan penggunaannya, kalimat terbagi atas:

A.1    Declarative Sentence, yaitu kalimat berita/pernyataan, positif maupunnegatif, benar maupun bohong.

We are happy. She is not at home today

A.2    Interrogative Sentence, yaitu Kalimat Tanya.

Kalimat Tanya terbagi lagi atas:

A.2.1 Yes/No Question, yaitu pertanyaan yang jawabannya ya atau tidak.

Is John a doctor? Can you swim well? Has she called the police?

A.2.2 Wh-Question mengajak pembicara untuk mengetahui lebih jauh tentang sebuah topic pembicaraan.

What is your name? Where do you live? Which one is your book?

Perhatikan contoh sederhana berikut ini:

Susie invites Alex to her party tonight.

Who invites Alex to her party tonight? What does Susie do to Alex to her party tonight? Whom does Susie invite to her party tonight? Where does Susie invite Alex tonight? When does Susie invite Alex to her party?

Perhatikan kelima contoh kalimat diatas!. Bahwa kita tidak menggunakan do, does, atau did setelah who. Sedangkan do, does, did dipakai untuk selainnya.

A.2.3 Embedded Question adalah pertanyaan yang ada di dalam suatu pernyataan lain. Contoh pertanyaan seperti dalam Bahasa Indonesia adalah "saya tidak tahu apakah dia mau pergi atau tidak."

Ada 2 cara untuk membentuk Embedded Question, yaitu:

Jika di dalam suatu pernyataan terdapat kalimat Tanya (8W 1 H), maka gunakan langsung kata Tanya tersebut.

Jika tidak terdapat kata Tanya, maka gunakan "whether" untukmenggantikan kata "apakah".

Catatan:

Susunan kalimat setelah kata Tanya "whether" dalam Embedded Question harus kembali ke dalam susunan normal ( S + V + dll) dan tidak ada tanda tanya di akhir kalimat.

Contoh:

"Saya tidak tahu dimana Alex tinggal"

I do not know where Alex lives.         (benar) I do not know where does Alex live. (salah) I do not know where Alex lives ?       (salah) I do not know where does Alex live? (salah)

"Ibu saya ingin tahu apakah kalian akan pergi besok."

My mother wonders whether you will go tomorrow. (benar) My mother wonders will you go tomorrow.                (salah)

A.3    Imperative Sentence, yaitu Kalimat perintah yang mencakup kalimat permohonan, do'a dan sebagainya.

Bentuk kalimat ini subjek kalimatnya adalah "you", namun dalam penulisan dan pengucapan selalu tidak disebutkan. Kemudian kata "please" biasanyaditambahkan di awal atau akhir kalimat. Namun kalau "please" diletakkan di akhir kalimat, maka didahului oleh "koma". Selain itu, di akhir kalimat selaluditambahkan "tanda seru" jika "please" ada di awal kalimat dan "tanda Tanya"jika "please" ada di akhir kalimat.

1.      Positive Imperative

a)      Diawali dengan kata kerja

Open the door, please? Please pass me the sugar!

Perbedaan antara "please" di awal kalimat dengan di akhir kalimat adalah sebagai berikut:

"Please" di awal kalimat berarti perintah, dan "Please" di akhir kalimat berarti sebuah permintaan.

b)      Diawali dengan selain kata kerja

Be careful, please? Please be patient!

2.      Negative Imperative (Larangan)

a)      Diawali dengan kata kerja

Please don't spit on the floor! Don't smoke here, please?

b)      Diawali dengan selain kata kerja

Don't be lazy! Don't be late!

A.4    Exclamatory Sentence, yaitu Kalimat yang menyatakan seruan, terkejut, marah dll yang bersifat spontan.

Setidaknya ada 3 pola untuk membentuk kalimat seru ini, yaitu:

What + Noun (phrase) + Subject + Verb (untuk Nouns jamak dan tidak dapat dihitung)

What a + Noun (phrase) (untuk Nouns tunggal dan dapat dihitung) How + Adjectives/Adverbs (phrase) + Subject + verb

Contoh:

What beautiful cars you have! What a lovely girl she is How beautiful you are!

Exclamatory sentence dapat juga berupa ungkapan-ungkapan kata seru(interjection, yang akan dijelaskan di belakang)

Contoh:

God heaven! May god bless you! Thank God!

B.      Berdasarkan Struktur kalimatnya, kalimat terbagi atas:

a)      Simple Sentence (Kalimat Sederhana)

Yaitu kalimat yang memiliki 1 gagasan atau ide bicara saja. Artinya kalimat yang hanya terdiri dari 1 kata kerja utama saja.

Contoh:

A teacher teaches in front of the class. The students listen their teacher carefully. We can't make him come early.

b)      Compound Sentence (Kalimat Majemuk)

Yaitu kalimat yang terdiri dari 2 ide pembicaraan yang disatukan oleh kata sambung (Conjunctions). Kalimat ini terdiri dari induk kalimat dan anak kalimat. Anak kalimat dimulai dengan kata sambung seperti and, but, because, when, while, for, since, dll.

Contoh:

Anne is diligent but her sister isn't. I will buy a car if my mother gives me the money today. She can pass the exam because she studies hard.

Kalimat yang bercetak miring di atas adalah anak kalimat. Anak kalimat adalah apabila kalimat tersebut berdiri sendiri (tanpa induk kalimatnya), kalimat tersebut tidak dapat dimengerti maksudnya. (but her sister isn't = tetapi kakaknya tidak). Pada kalimat tersebut, kita tidak mengerti begitu saja maksudnya tanpa induk kalimatnya.

c)       Complex Sentence (Kalimat Sempurna)

Yaitu kalimat yang hampir sama dengan kalimat majemuk, namun bisa terdiri dari lebih dari 1 anak kalimat dan dihubungkan dengan kata penghubung (Relative Pronouns) seperti who, whom, whose, that, dan which.

Contoh:

The man who cuts my hair is my uncle. I am waiting for the boy whom you are talking about. The house of which door is brown is mine.

d)      Compound-complex Sentence (Kalimat majemuk sempurna)

Yaitu kalimat yang merupakan gabungan dan kombinasi dari kedua kalimat di atas, yaitu kalimat yang terdiri dari 1 atau lebih induk kalimat dan 1 atau lebih anak kalimat.

Contoh:

I have just phoned Ted who had told you that he would come to your house tomorrow and asked him to bring his wife along.

Jack whose mother teaches you English wants to come to my house today although I have told him that I will not be at home today because I have had an appointment with anybody.

Even though I have studied hard every day, but I can't pass the exam which is given to me.

English Grammar

Countable / Uncountable Nouns

A noun can be countable or uncountable. Countable nouns can be "counted", they have a singular and plural form .

For example:

A book, two books, three books ..... An apple, two apples, three apples ....

Uncountable nouns (also called mass nouns or noncount nouns) cannot be counted, they are not seperate objects. This means you cannot make them plural by adding -s, because they only have a singular form. It also means that they do not take a/an or a number in front of them.

For example:

Water Work Information Coffee Sand

Countable(use a/an or a number in front of countable nouns)

Uncountable(there is no a/an or number with uncountable nouns)

An Apple / 1 Apple Rice

I eat an apple every day.I eat rice every day. (not I eat a rice every day.)

Add (s) to make a countable noun plural

There is no plural form for an uncountable noun

Apples rice

I eat an apple every day. Apples are good for you.

I eat rice every day. Rice is good for you.

A computer= Computers are fun.

To make uncountable nouns countable add a counting word, such as a unit of measurement, or the general word piece. We use the form "a ....... of ......."

An elephant=Elephants are large. Rice=a grain of rice

  Water=a glass of water

  Rain=a drop of rain

  Music=a piece of music

You can use some and any with countable nouns.Some dogs can be dangerous.I don't use any computers at work.

You can use some and any with uncountable nouns.I usually drink some wine with my meal.I don't usually drink any water with my wine.

You only use many and few with plural countable nouns. So many elephants have been hunted that they are an endangered species.There are few elephants in England.

You only use much and little with uncountable nouns.I don't usually drink much coffee.Little wine is undrinkable though.

You can use a lot of and no with plural countable nouns. No computers were bought last week.A lot of computers were reported broken the week before.

You can use a lot of and no with uncountable nouns.A lot of wine is drunk in France.No wine is drunk in Iran.

Making uncountable nouns countable

You can make most uncountable noun countable by putting a countable expression in front of the noun.

For example:-

A piece of information. 2 glasses of water. 10 litres of coffee. Three grains of sand. A pane of glass.

Sources of confusion with countable and uncountable nouns

The notion of countable and uncountable can be confusing.

Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on their meaning. Usually a noun is uncountable when used in a general, abstract meaning (when you don't think of it as a separate object) and countable when used in a particular meaning (when you can think of it as a separate object).

For example:-

glass - A glass of water. (Countable) | A window made of glass. (Uncountable)

Some supposedly uncountable nouns can behave like countable nouns if we think of them as being in containers, or one of several types.

This is because 'containers' and 'types' can be counted.

Believe it or not each of these sentences is correct:-

Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two coffees a day.

(Here coffees refers to the number of cups of coffee)

You could write; "Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two cups of coffee a day."

The coffees I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian.

(Here coffees refers to different types of coffee)

You could write; "The types of coffee I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian."

What Is An Adjective?

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.

Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.

The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.

The coal mines are dark and dank.

Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.

A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence

My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.

for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."

Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act asadjectives. In the sentence

Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.

for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.

Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.

Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.

What is your phone number.

Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.

The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.

In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase "favourite type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of bread" is the direct object of the verb "sold."

After many years, she returned to her homeland.

Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the noun phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition "to." Note also that the form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

We have lost our way in this wood.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb "have lost". Note that the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.

Here the possessive adjective "their" modifies "parents" and the noun phrase "their parents" is the object of the preposition "by." Note that the possessive pronoun form "theirs" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "its" modifies "ball" and the noun phrase "its ball" is the object of the verb "chased." Note that "its" is the possessive adjective and "it's" is a contraction for "it is."

Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:

When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.

In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over."

This apartment needs to be fumigated.

Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the subject of the sentence.

Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.

In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase "those plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent clause, "these" is the direct object of the verb "bought."

Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):

Which plants should be watered twice a week?

Like other adjectives, "which" can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, "which" modifies "plants" and the noun phrase "which plants" is the subject of the compound verb "should be watered":

What book are you reading?

In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the direct object of the compound verb "are reading."

Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase "many people" is the subject of the sentence.

I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.

The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."

They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.

In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "found":

The title of Kelly's favourite game is "All dogs go to heaven."

Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" and the full title is a subject complement.

Verbs

Verbs (kata kerja) adalah kata yang menunjukkan nama perbuatan yang dilakukan oleh subyek, namun mungkin juga untuk menunjukkan keadaan. Verbs biasanya menjadi Predikat dari suatu kalimat.

Contoh:

Henry comes from London. My brother studies in America. She is very beautiful. They are diligent.

Macam-macam Kata Kerja

1. Finite Verb (Kata Kerja Biasa)

Ciri-ciri Kata Kerja Jenis ini adalah sebagai berikut:

Bila dipakai dalam kalimat tanya dan negative perlu memakai kata kerja bantu do, does atau did.

Bentuknya dapat berubah-ubah oleh tense. Biasanya mempunyai bentuk-bentuk: Infinitive Present Participle Gerund Past Tense Present Tense Past Participle

Contoh:

Ms. Anne reads a novel. (Infinitive) Ms. Anne is reading a novel. (Present Participle) Does Ms. Anne read a novel? Ms. Anne read a novel. (Past Tense) Ms. Anne has read a novel. (Past Participle)

2. Auxiliary Verbs (Kata Kerja Bantu)

Yaitu kata kerja yang digunakan bersama-sama dengan kata kerja lain untuk menyatakan tindakan atau keadaan, atau berfungsi untuk melengkapi fungsi gramatikal.

Kata Kerja Auxiliary adalah:

Is, am, are Was, were Do, does, did Has, have, had Can, could May, might Will, would Shall, should Must Ought to Had better Need, Dare (Dapat juga berfungsi sebagai Kata Kerja Biasa)

2. Linking Verbs (Kata Kerja Penghubung)

Yaitu kata kerja yang berfungsi menghubungkan antara subject dengan complement-nya. Kata yang dihubungkan dengan subject tersebut dinamakan subject complement. Jika kata Kerja Penghubung tersebut kita gantikan dengan be (am, is, are, was, dll.), maka maknanya tidak berubah.

Linking Verbs yang umum adalah:

be (am, is, are, was, dll.) look stay appear become         remain taste feel     seem   smell grow   sound

Contoh:

The actress is beautiful. Alex looks serious. (= Alex is serious). The cakes smell delicious (=the cakes are delicious).

4. Transitive Verbs (Kata Kerja Yang Membutuhkan Objek)

Yaitu kata kerja yang memerlukan object untuk menyempurnakan arti kalimat atau melengkapi makna kalimat.Kata kerja Transitive diantaranya adalah: Drink, watch, read, fill, open, close, dll

Contoh:

He watches the film. (Kalimat ini tidak akan lengkap, jika "the film" kita hilangkan. Orang lain akan bertanya-tanya - menonton apa?, maka watch (menonton) membutuhkan object agar makna kalimat tersebut dapat dipahami).

The man cuts the tree.

5. Intransitive Verbs (Kata Kerja Yang Tidak Membutuhkan Objek)

Yaitu adalah kata kerja yang tidak memerlukan obyek, karena sudah dapat dipahami dengan sempurna makna kalimat tersebut.

Kata-kata kerja yang termasuk Intransitive verbs diantaranya adalah: Shine, come, sit, boil, sleep, fall, cry, dll.Contoh:

The baby cries. My mother is sleeping. The water boils.

Catatan:

Ada juga beberapa kata kerja yang dapat berfungsi sebagai transitive maupun intransitive verbs.

Contoh:

He drops his bottles. (transitif) The rain drops from the sky. (intransitif) The contestants still misunderstood then. (transitif) The contestants still misunderstood. (intransitif) They grow the rubber trees. (transitif)

Rice grows in the fertile soil. (intransitif)

Ada beberapa verb intransitive yang memakai Objective Noun yang mempunyai satu kesatuan makna dengan kata kerjanya. Objeknya disebut Cognate Object.

Contoh:

He played the fool.                  (Dia bermain gila-gilaan). He laughs a hard laugh.            (Dia tertawa lebar). He slept a sound sleep.            (Dia tidur nyenyak). He died a miserable death.        (Dia mati melarat).

Ada beberapa verb transitive dan intransitive walaupun sudah mempunyai object tetapi artinya belum sempuma sebelum ditambah kata-kata lain.

Kata Kerja jenis ini diantaranya adalah: make, name, call, find, declare, suppose, consider, bring, give, appoint, seen, hear, dll.

Contoh:

I will make you happy. I appoint him to be my assistant.

Ada juga kata kerja yang mempunyai pola sebagai berikut:

Kata Kerja + Preposition + Object Kata Kerja + Preposition + Kata Kerja-ing

Contoh:

We talked about the problem. She felt sorry for coming late.

Kata-kata kerja untuk pola kedua diantaranya adalah: succeed in, think about/of, dream of, dream about, approve of, look forward to, insist on, decide against, angry with, sorry for, thanks for, dll.

Ada juga Kata Kerja tertentu yang mempunyai pola sebagai berikut:

Kata Kerja + Object + Preposition + Kata Kerja-ing

Contoh:

They accused me of telling lies. Do you suspect the man of being a spy? I congratulated Bob on passing the exam. What prevented him from coming to the party? I thanked her for being so helpful.

6. Regular & Irregular Verbs

Regular Verb adalah kata kerja yang dapat berubah-ubah sesuai dengan bentuk tense; dan perubahan bentuk kata kerja itu secara teratur.

Contoh perubahan Kata Kerja jenis ini adalah:

Call - called - called Admit - admitted - admitted Submit - submitted - submitted Invite - invited - invited

Irregular Verb adalah kata kerja yang mempunyai fungsi sama dengan regular verb, tetapi perubahan bentuk kata kerja ini secara tidak teratur.

Contoh perubahan kata kerja jenis ini adalah:

Read - Read - Read Come - came - come Begin - began - begun Sleep - slept - slept

Adverbs

Definition

Adverbs are words that modify

a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?) an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?) another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she

move?)

As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:

That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:

When this class is over , we're going to the movies.

When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):

He went to the movies. She works on holidays. They lived in Canada during the war.

And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):

She hurried to the mainland to see her brother. The senator ran to catch the bus.

But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:

He calls his mother as often as possible.

Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we would say that "the students showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran real fast."

Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.

Walk faster if you want to keep up with me. The student who reads fastest will finish first.

We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:

With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients. The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen. She worked less confidently after her accident. That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.

The as — as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister."

A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms have different meanings:

He arrived late. Lately , he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.

In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual situations:

She certainly drives slow in that old Buick of hers. He did wrong by her.

.

He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.

Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or downtone. Here are some examples:

Emphasizers:o I really don't believe him. o He literally wrecked his mother's car. o She simply ignored me. o They're going to be late, for sure.

Amplifiers:o The teacher completely rejected her proposal. o I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings. o They heartily endorsed the new restaurant. o I so wanted to go with them. o We know this city well.

Downtoners:o I kind of like this college. o Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister. o His mother mildly disapproved his actions. o We can improve on this to some extent. o The boss almost quit after that. o The school was all but ruined by the storm.

Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:

She runs very fast. We're going to run out of material all the faster

KINDS OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF TIME

Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how often.

Examples:

When: today, yesterday, later, now, last year For how long: all day, not long, for a while, since last year How often: sometimes, frequently, never, often, yearly

"When" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday.

I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow.

This is a "neutral" position, but some "when" adverbs can be put in other positions to give a different emphasis

Compare:

Later Goldilocks ate some porridge. (the time is more important) Goldilocks later ate some porridge. (this is more formal, like a policeman's

report) Goldilocks ate some porridge later. (this is neutral, no particular emphasis)

"For how long" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

She stayed in the Bears' house all day. My mother lived in France for a year.

Notice: 'for' is always followed by an expression of duration:

for three days, for a week, for several years, for two centuries.

'since' is always followed by an expression of a point in time:

since Monday, since 1997, since the last war.

"How often" adverbs expressing the frequency of an action are usually placed before the main verb but after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, must):

I often eat vegetarian food. (before the main verb) He never drinks milk. (before the main verb) You must always fasten your seat belt. (after the auxiliary must) She is never sea-sick.(after the auxiliary is) I have never forgotten my first kiss. (after the auxiliary have and before

the main verb forgotten)

Some other "how often" adverbs express the exact number of times an action happens and are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

This magazine is published monthly. He visits his mother once a week.

When a frequency adverb is placed at the end of a sentence it is much stronger.

Compare:

She regularly visits France. She visits France regularly.

Adverbs that can be used in these two positions:

frequently, generally, normally, occasionally, often, regularly, sometimes, usually

'Yet' and 'still'

Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences, and is placed at the end of the sentence or after not.

Have you finished your work yet? (= a simple request for information) No, not yet. (= simple negative answer)

They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement) Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing slight surprise)

Still expresses continuity; it is used in positive sentences and questions, and is placed before the main verb and after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, might, will)

I am still hungry. She is still waiting for you Are you still here? Do you still work for the BBC?

ORDER OF ADVERBS OF TIME

If you need to use more than one adverb of time at the end of a sentence, use them in this order:

1: 'how long'

2: 'how often'

3: 'when' (think of 'low')

Example:

1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day 2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year. 1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year. 1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3)

last year.

Active / Passive Verb Forms

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and "passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to successfully speak English.

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

Examples:

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

Examples:

Active / Passive Overview

  Active Passive

Simple Present

Once a week, Tom cleans the house.

Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.

Present Continuous

Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.

Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.

Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.

Past Continuous

The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.

The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.

Present Perfect

Many tourists have visited that castle.

That castle has been visited by many tourists.

Present Perfect Continuous

Recently, John has been doing the work.

Recently, the work has been being done by John.

Past PerfectGeorge had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.

Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.

Past Perfect Continuous

Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.

The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.

Simple Futurewill

Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.

The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.

Simple Futurebe going to

Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.

Future Continuouswill

At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.

Future Continuousbe going to

At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.

Future Perfectwill

They will have completed the project before the deadline.

The project will have been completed before the deadline.

Future Perfectbe going to

They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.

The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.

Future Perfect Continuouswill

The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Future Perfect Continuousbe going to

The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.

The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by

Jerry.

Would Always

My mother would always make the pies.

The pies would always be made by my mother.

Future in the PastWould

I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.

I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.

Future in the PastWas Going to

I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.