1933

That dread disease, tuberculosis,seems to reward its victim even as it drives him toa premature death and compensates the wastingaway of the body with a spiritual fire which inmany of the world's great has resulted in a genii-isenriching our civilization . Dr . Lewis J . Moorman(right), dean of the medical school, in thesixthof the public lectures series of the university, hasbrilliantly recounted how tuberculosis has fedgenius

Tuberculosis and genius

BY LEWIS J . MOORMAN

IN many individuals sufferingfrom tuberculosis there seems to be astrange psychological flare, a phenomenonnot fully accounted for, not of establishedscientific lineage, vet quite evident to thestudent of clinical tuberculosis . Everyonewho deals with tuberculous individuals ininstitutions for the treatment of this dis-ease knows how patiently they bear theirlengthening burdens ; how courageouslythey are, often in the face of insurmount-able obstacles ; how optimistic they may bewhen life is literally being cut down bythe inevitable sweep of the Great Reaper.What a precious paradox, this, with deathso near and life so abundant . Thus wesee, while tuberculosis may literally de-mand its pound of flesh, the demand ispeculiarly tempered with mercy. This un-usual display of courage and optimism hasbeen termed sees phthisica.

Charles Dickens must have recognizedthe subtle power of this intangible frac-tion of the tubercle bacillus when hewrote as follows :

There is a dread disease which so preparesits victim, as it were, for death ; which so refinesit of its grosser aspect, and throws around famil-iar looks, unearthly indications of the comingchange-a dread disease, in which the strugglebetween soul and body is so gradual, quiet, andsolemn, and the result so sure, that day by day,and grain by grain, the mortal part wastes andwithers away, so that the spirit grows light andsanguine with its lightening load, and, feelingimmortality at hand, deems it but a new termof mortal life-a disease in which death takesthe glow and hue of life, and life the gaunt andgrisly form of death .

In the first chapter of his book on theDevelopment of OurKnowledge of Tuber-culosis, Dr . Lawrence F. Flick says :

In individuals in whom the tubercle bacillusgrows meagerly, in whom it has produced but

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slight toxemia and in whom it has set up noserious changes in the tissues, it not only maygive no discomfort but may stimulate the func-tional activity of those organs of the body whichhave to do with the enjoyment of life . In thisway the tubercle bacillus may make life morepleasant and make the individual more profitableto society than he otherwise would be.John B. Huber, in his work on Con-

sumption and Civilization, makes the fol-lowing statement:

It appears to me that the quality of the geniusof a great man, if he be consumptive, may be, insome cases at least, affected by his disease .The incomparable Aretaeus, Cappado-

cian anatomist and physician, who lived inthe first century A. n., in describing deathfrom the "pouring out of blood" said :

Really, this is not much to be wondered at ;but what is most wonderful is that in a casewhere the blood comes from the lung, in whichthe disease is the most serious of all, patients,even when it is about to come to the end, donot give up hope .We also find the following reference to

chronic lung conditions :Such patients are hoarse ; they are short of

breath ; they speak in a weak voice ; their chestwalls are dilated yet they do not seem to bebroad enough, because a great deal of humor ispent up within them ; the black part of the eyeflashes ; in such cases it is simply wonderful howthe strength of the body holds out ; the strengthof the mind even surpasses that of the body .The beloved physician, Dr . John Brown

of Edinburgh, author of Rab and HisFriends, also observed this mental exuber-ance as he studied the psychology of hispatients . In the latter part of the nine-teenth century he recorded the results ofhis observations in a beautiful tribute tohis young friend and colleague, Dr. Wil-liam Henry Scott, who died at the earlyage of twenty four . The conclusions ofthis careful observer are quite obvious asshown by the following:

R31 Y OF OKL

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He died of consumption and had that vividlife and brightness-as his eyes showed-whichso often attend that sad malady, in which thebody and soul, as if knowing their time herewas short-burn as if in oxygen gas-and have"Hope the Charmer" with them to the last-putting into these twenty years the energy, theenjoyment, the mental capital and raptures of along life.Of the same "marvelous boy, whose sun

went down in the sweet hour of prime,Mr George Sim said : "It is difficult toimagine how it was possible in so short alife to acquire so varied an amount ofknowledge as Doctor Scott possessed, es-pecially when we consider his delicate con-stitution and toilsome course of educa-tion ." Nevinson said of Schiller, "it ispossible that the disease served in someway to increase his eager activity, and fanhis intellect into keener flame." It wouldbe easy to place on record here many testi-monials to the unusual manifestations ofgenius in those who have suffered fromactive tuberculosis . In many cases the men-tal activity and creative powers seem tovary directly with the progress of the dis-ease . As striking examples of this wemight mention Voltaire, Robert LouisStevenson, Marie Bashkirtsev, Keats,Shelley and Sidney Lanier .As Dickens has suggested, even after

the body becomes a mere mummied cru-cible, the fires of genius may be observedto burn with an effulgence not often seenin the nontuberculous . On this point itwould be interesting to let some of thesufferers speak for themselves . RobertLouis Stevenson, while suffering from anexacerbation of his disease says :

There is nothing more difficult to communi-cate on paper than this baseless ardour, thisstimulation of the brain, this sterile joyousness ofspirits . Yet, it is noticeable that you are hard to

root out of your bed; that you start forth singing,indeed, on your walk, yet are usually ready toreturn home again ; that the best of you is vola-tile ; and that although the restlessness remainstill night, the strength is early at an end.To continue, we find the following ref-

erences to this same puzzling exuberance .After enumerating all that Heaven andEarth can do to accentuate the beauties ofan enchanted landscape, Stevenson ex-claims : "And yet you have gone no nearerto explain or even to qualify the delicateexhilaration that you may feel-delicateyou may say and yet excessive, greaterthan can be said in prose, almost greaterthan an invalid can bear . Is it a return toyouth, or is it a congestion of the brain?"

Sidney Lanier, lyric poet and psychiccounterpart of Poe, furnishes a strikingexample. His creative powers were not inevidence until after his disease was wellunder-way and his capacity for mentalwork increased as the disease advanced .He well expressed the peculiar psychologyof the tuberculous when, in 1873, hewrote as follows :

Were it not for some circumstances whichmake such a proposition seem absurd in thehighest degree, I would think that I am shortlyto die, and that my spirit hath been singing itsswan-song before dissolution . All day my soulhath been cutting swiftly into the great spacesof the subtle, unspeakable deep, driven by windafter wind of heavenly melody. The very innerspirit and essence of all wind-songs, sex-songs,soul-songs and body-songs hath blown upon mein quick gusts like the breath of passion andsailed me into a sea of vast dreams, whereof eachwave is at once a vision and a melody .These lines were addressed to his wife

when she and her children were in wantof food and clothing . Under such circum-stances, one can be charitable toward thewriter only when the pathological excita-tion of the mind is taken into considera-tion . Again he writes :

Know, then, that disappointments are inevit-able, and will still come until I have fought thebattle which every great artist has had to fightsince time began. This-dimly felt while I wasdoubtful of my own vocation and powers-isclear as the sun to me now that I know, throughthe fiercest tests of life, that I am in soul, andshall be in life and utterance, a great poet .Marie Bashkirtsev, whose frail young

body was constantly overtaxed by the sheerexhilaration of her exceptional mind, whenonly twenty four, exclaimed that art alonewas the sustaining factor in her life .Though her most promising career in artwas cut short by the ravages of her dis-ease, her remarkable Journal was pro-nounced by Gladstone as "unparalleled inliterature ."Llewelyn Powys, whose capacity for

work has coincided with the progress ofhis tuberculous condition, claims that he,"by a slight excess in the malignity of na-ture toward him, has attained an intensersense than most men of the conditions,which nevertheless, confront and encom-pass us all . We-the rest of us-dancebefore a pictured curtain masking a bot-tomless abyss. For him, the veil has beenrent-that is all ; he dances with a wilder

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elation because he sees where the lastfigure ends ."Ralph Waldo Emerson, who suffered

from a less acute form of tuberculosis,seemed to be quite aware of his dual per-sonality . In his own words, the one "toiled,compared, contrived, added, argued" ; theother "never reasoned, never proved ; itsimply perceived; it was vision ; it was thehighest faculty." He adds, "in writing mythoughts, I seek no order, or harmony, orresults."

Before leaving this phase of our discus-sion we again turn to Robert Louis Steven-son and permit him to speak for scores offellow-sufferers, who, though bed-ridden,were driven by this strange psychologicalurge . In 1893, just one year before hisdeath, he wrote to his friend GeorgeMeredith as follows:

For fourteen years I have not had a clay's realhealth ; I have wakened sick and gone to bedweary ; and I have done my work unflinchingly .I have written in bed, and written out of it,written in hemorrhage, written in sickness, writ-ten torn by cough, written when my head swamfor weakness ; and for so long, it seems to me Ihave won my wager and recovered my glove .I am better now, have been rightly speaking,since first I came to the Pacific ; and still, feware the days when I am not in some physicaldistress . And the battle goes on-ill or well, itis a trifle ; so as it goes . I was made for a con-test, and the Powers have so willed that mybattlefield should be this dingy, inglorious oneof the bed and the physic bottle .Think what a sacrifice this, for one

whose forebears were builders of light-houses, toiling in "the surfy haunts ofseals and cormorants ." Certainly the spiritof the sea was in his soul and, in all prob-ability, it was this hereditary urge thatunfurled psychological sails which wereultimately to carry him across the limitlessstretches of southern seas to his belovedSamoan Islands, placing the breadth oftwo seas and a continent between him andhis native land . He once said he wouldbe willing to give up fame and all itsemoluments "for a seventy ton schoonerand the coin to keep her on." He proudlysaid of his father, "he loved a ship as aman loves Burgundy or daybreak" ; also,"it was that old gentleman's blood thatbrought me to Samoa."We revere the soul so tried by disease,

so fired by Celtic emotions, so driven byan impetuous genius, yet kept in its courseby an abiding sense of equity . In his ownwords: "It is to keep a man awake, tokeep him alive to his own soul and itsfixed design of righteousness, that thebetter part of moral and religious educa-tion is directed ; not only that of wordsand doctors, but the sharp ferule of calam-ity under which we are God's scholarstill we die."

If we accept the teaching that there isa dual personality in every individual, thetwo personal entities being designated asprimary and secondary, and the primarypersonality as that part which conformsto the usual conventions of life, constantlybeing restricted by established habits andcustoms, and the secondary personality as

April

that part which under ordinary conditionsis kept in leash, but occasionally releasedthrough the influence of some subtle forceto over-ride all conventions and restraints,we can readily see how the world may becursed or blessed by the unconventionalsway of this secondary personality . In thoseof superior intellect this release of the sec-ondary personality may paralyze restrain-ing inhibitions and cause a flare of geniuswith power to open the doors leading tothe magic fields of creative achievement,doors otherwise closed by the imperiousprohibitions of intellectual, moral and so-cial locksmiths .On the other hand, in those of inferior

mental qualities the primary personalitymay be submerged by the reign of thesecondary personality with the danger ofirrational behavior . It is in this low men-tality group that we usually find the so-called medium, claiming supernaturalcommunications . There is also a tendencytoward vagabondage, while those of ex-ceptional mentality rise on the wings ofgenius . How unhappy many of the piousprohibiting souls might be if they reallyknew through what questionable avenuesthe most beautiful and significant crea-tions of genius have traveled . Fortunatelyour archives contain no recorded fingerprints for the detection of psychic dere-licts . How surprised these same prohibit-ing individuals might be if they knewwhat a frightful price has been paid formany of the literary, artistic and scientifictreasures in which we are permitted torevel without peril and without thoughtof their laborious birth. Only a literaryalienist or pathologist could approach anunderstanding of this problem . Certainlywe must admit the intimate relationshipof many of these treasures with disease,drugs and alcohol. As contributing fac-tors, we should also consider poverty, per-secution, imprisonment, and often the con-sciousness of approaching death, and forthe scientist, not infrequently, the volun-tary or conscious risk of life .As mentioned above, among the factors

and forces which seem to destroy inhibi-tion and temporarily set free the secondarypersonality, are alcohol, opium and thetoxines of tuberculosis . While scientificproofs may be wanting, it is easy to buildup the clinical evidence by the enumera-tion of many cases which have been in-fluenced by these agencies . We are nowconcerned with the cases apparently in-fluenced by the toxines of the tubercle ba-cillus . After allowing for the increasedmental activity, which is apt to follow en-forced physical rest, there seems to be inmany cases of tuberculosis a decided excit-ation of the mind with increased capacityfor creative accomplishments .To mention even briefly the work of all

the creative minds influenced by tubercu-losis would mean the accumulation ofsufficient data to fill a series of thick vol-umes . The following list of names, chosenfrom the field of literature alone, will

1933

immediately bring to you a realization ofthe close relationship of this disease withcreative effort and accomplishment :

Milton, Pope, Shelley, Hood, Keats,Elizabeth Barrett Browning, FrancisThompson, Goethe, S c h i l l e r, Molicre,Channing, Merimce, Thoreau, Descartes,Locke, Kant, Spinoza, Mozart, Beaumont :Samuel Johnson, S t e r n e, DeQuincey,Scott, Jane Austen, Charlotte, Emily andAnn Bronte, Stevenson, Balzac, Voltaire,Rousseau, Washington Irving, Haw-thorne, Gibbon, Kingsley, Ruskin, Em-erson, Cardinal Manning, Lanier, MarieBashkirtsev, Robert Southey, Westcott,Georges de Guerin, David Gray, Amiel,John R. Green, Robert Pollok, HannahMore, James Ryder Randall, N. P. Willis,John Addington Symonds, StephenCrane, Katherine Mansfield, Paul Law-rence Dunbar, Eugene O'Neill.

Cicero, Demosthenes and Marcus Aure-lius might be added to the above list . Itwould be possible to add a large numberof artists, sculptors, actors, statesmen,scientists and representatives from theprofessions who have suffered from tuber-culosis and manifested unusual mentalqualities.

Just how far back we are justified incarrying our speculations is difficult tosay, however your attention is called tothe fact that when the search for theGolden Fleece was barely launched, Peleusheld up the good ship Argo and climbedMount Pelion, not alone in order that hemight have the blessing of his MasterChiron, but we find him soon makingthis request of the Master : "And now letme see my son for it is not often I shallsee him upon earth ; famous he will be,but short-lived, and die in the flower ofyouth."From the above description of the son

it is reasonable to assume that he wassuffering from tuberculosis, and that Pe-leus, while presumably stopping becauseof his love of the dear old hill and hisdesire for Chiron's blessing, was in realityseeking another glimpse, perhaps hefeared the last, of this favorite son whomThetis, "the silver footed lady of thesea," had borne him, and upon whom theGods had imposed physical frailty .Though this may be justly considered

mere speculation, we at least know thattuberculosis had its origin as a diseasebefore the time of recorded history . Hip-pocrates, in the fifth century B . c. said :"The most dangerous disease, and the onethat proved fatal to the greatest number,was consumption." This being the case,may we not be excused for wonderingwhether or not the toxines of the tuberclebacillus had anything to do with the greatawakening of Greek genius in that mar-velous period initiated on AEgean shoresin the fifth century B . e.

It would place no serious strain uponthe imagination to go beyond the periodof the Dark Ages for an example of thissubtle power of disease over mind, how-

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ever we have chosen to present medievalevidence in the person of St . Francis ofAssisi .' We might easily come nearer ourown times and offer a more typical exam-ple by recounting the creative accomplish-rnents of any one of the following : Keats,Shelley, Schiller, Sidney Lanier, RobertLouis Stevenson or Francis Thompson .However it seems fitting to portray thelife of one who stands between darknessand light, who has been called "the morn-ing star of the Renaissance" and "thesoul of medieval civilization ."

St . Francis was born of Italian parentswithin the walls of Assisi, in the year1182 . This child, according to quaint med-ieval stories, was dedicated to the life ofthe spirit and the service of mankind. Athis baptism his mother gave him the nameof John, perhaps thinking of the gentlesaint who lived so near his Master, orthat less saintly and less sensitive John theBaptist . However, his father, returningfrom the gay land of France, was delight-ed with the lively boy and would haveno John the Baptist dressed in camel's

hair," but would make of him a French-man in character and name, so he calledhim Francis. No doubt these divergentdesires had little to do with the spontan-eous flow of his indomitable spirit . Whileattempting to bring children up in theway they should go, parents should neverlose sight of that "divinity that shapes ourends, rough-hew them as we may." Manyfond parental hopes fade before the sweepof this invisible Captain who sits at thehelm and directs the course of human life .The child Francis was not robust, and

his mother watched over him with anxi-ety. One of his biographers has given usthis suggestive picture: "He was a slenderboy, delicate of limb and feature, with thestraight nose, smooth low brow, and thintapering fingers of the idealist ."No doubt the toxines of the tubercle

bacillus were shaping his body at this earlydate and exerting their so-called selectiveaction on the sensitive nervous system, in-flaming the young mind with dreams ofromantic adventure and chivalric deeds,thus unfitting him for the drab businessof cloth merchant . He was the ringleaderof his crowd, living a joyous buoyant life,going bravely and blithely into battleagainst Assisi's rival city, Perugia, to becaptured and imprisoned . In the dank,dark dungeon his disease progressed withdissipation of flesh and strength, but therewas no dampening of the spirit. The dun-geon rang with his merry songs, his mirth-ful chatter and his ready wit, until hisgloomy companions were forced to joinin the fun.

After a year had elapsed the prisondoors were opened and Francis came forthwith wasted form, having lost the out-ward habiliments of the troubadour . How-

1 . From Moorman's "Tuberculosis and Geniusas Manifested in St . Francis of Assisi," Annalsof Medical History, New Series Vol . 2, No . 5,Published by Paul B . Hoeber, Inc ., New York .

203

ever, neither the body nor the soul of thischivalrous young poet could long resistthe alluring charm of the Umbrian plainsand Italian skies .Long before his body was ready for the

fray, his dreams of horse and arms anddeeds of chivalry carried him clatteringthrough the gates of Assisi with the hopeof a triumphant return to be received likea great Prince . While still on the road tothe battlefield of his dreams, the old warbetween body and disease was raging,with disease in the ascendancy . When,prostrated with fever and weakness, heknew his impetuous spirit had carriedhim too far. Under the cloud of defeatand humiliation, another dream ultimatelycarried him back to his beloved Assisi .While groping in the valley of disappoint-ment where all things beautiful were con-cealed by the veil of uncertainty, he methis leper ; his spiritual genius was releasedand he fell on the leper's neck . He haddissipated all fear ; he had proven himselfmaster on the "field of valor." The min-istry of love was launched and the valleyof disappointment was gradually trans-formed into a place of beauty with cer-tainty of purpose, flanked by mountainsof opportunity .Soon after this, in answer to a voice

from heaven, came the rebuilding of theChurch of St . Damion . The mysteriousdriving force behind his sensitive naturecarried Francis precipitately into everyundertaking . On this occasion he commit-ted a sin, in the eyes of the world, byoverriding convention and making hisfather an unconscious participant in thebuilding process . After first selling hisown horse, he took goods from his father'sshop in order to secure funds with whichto rebuild the church . These goods, how-ever, were not employed for this purposeuntil after he had made the sign of thecross over them . His father, being thusforewarned of what he considered inevit-able disaster, decided to disinherit him .Being apprised of this, Francis threw hisclothes at his father's feet with this re-tort, "I can now say `Our Father whichart in Heaven,' " and he went away withonly a hair shirt on his body and a songon his lips .He apparently courted poverty and was

content to go about in rags begging forfood . It is said that he exchanged clotheswith a beggar, discarding the girdle fora piece of rope which chanced to be near ."Ten years later that make-shift costumewas the uniform of five thousand men;and a hundred years later, in that, for apontifical panoply, they laid great Dantein his grave."Through his debasement of self, his

devotion to spiritual things, and his un-stinted service to his fellow men, he suc-ceeded in founding the Franciscan Orderand became the immortal St . Francis.With the same urge which carried him

furiously into battle, making it impossibleTURN TO PAGE 215, PLEASE

1933

vania ; George W. Russler, '26, researchpetroleum engineer for the Mellon In-stitute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; H. B.Prewitt, jr., '27, sales engineer for theAmerican Blower Corporation, Flint,Michigan ; L. L. Gray, '28, district en-gineer, Gypsy Oil Company, Hobbs,New Mexico ; R. L. Mallory, '28, salesengineer for the Foxboro Company, Tul-sa ; W. K. Ritter, '29, research engineerfor the United States government, Lang-ley Field, Virginia ; and C. W. Arm-strong, '32, engineering accountant forGeneral Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minne-sota .

In many universities, in practicallyevery industry employing engineers,Sooner engineers are found, contributingto the building of the nation with theirtechnical foundation laid in Norman .

TUBERCULOSIS AND GENIUS(CONTINUED FROM PAGE 203)

for him to recognize his physical defici-encies, he now flung himself into the pursuit of divine love, accepting poverty,fasting and suffering as stepping-stones tohigher plains of living, ever marching for-ward with songs of praise in his heartuntil in his death agony he wished to liebare on the bare ground to show that hehad nothing and was nothing. Withoutattempting to catalogue his thoughts anddeeds, it is easy to see that the life ofSt . Francis was consistently inconsistent,conventionally unconventional . Evidentlyhis secondary personality was in the fore-ground and his genius was at large.

St. Francis was only forty-six when hedied, but he was prematurely old. Betweendisease, fasting and fighting, his energywas spent, but his spirit still gave offsparks when exposed to the hammer .Though his life was now saddened byphysical debility and his failure to "endthe crusades by the conversion of Islam,"imagine his disappointment when he wastold that he was going blind and only thecautery could give him some promise ofrelief . Think what this must have meantto this brother of all living creatures andall things beautiful in the world! But hisseeming inconsistency was constant . Whenthe moment for cauterization arrived andthe iron was taken from the furnace, hesaid : "Brother Fire, God made you beau-tiful and strong and useful ; I pray yoube courteous with me."

After a period of fasting on Mount Al-verno it is said that he was no longerable to walk and it was apparent that hisstrength was spent and that life could notlast much longer . Evidently tuberculosishad done its work and no doubt at thatvery moment "his eyes glowed with thefire that fretted him night and day." Likemany other fellow-sufferers, as death ap-proached, he was carried from place toplace; even Cortona, by the Lake of Peru-gia, did not satisfy him, and finally hewas stung by the pathetic sense of hishomelessness, even though homelessness

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had been a part of his gospel, and heturned his face toward Assisi ; and, if hedid not see, with his seared eyes, the Por-tiuncula, his soul rejoiced when its pillarsfirst appeared to those who were with himand he must have experienced all the gloryof homecoming when they placed hisdying body in the little room just outsidethe Portiuncula . With the strange psychicenergy which often accompanies the tuber-culous into the depths of the valley ofdeath, he emphasized this final sense ofplace and possession by saying to thoseabout him, "Never give up this place. Ifyou would go anywhere or make any pil-grimage, return always to your home ; forthis is the holy house of God ." After hav-ing the brethren sing canticles and psalmsin which he joined, he requested that hisbody be laid on the bare ground in orderthat his soul might mount unhamperedto its source . With the silencing of songand the lowering of the frail body from itscouch, there must have been a penetratingstillness punctuated by every footstep onthe porches of the Portiuncula, as thebrown figures suddenly saddened, movedcautiously and aimlessly about.

It was the third of October, 1226, when.tuberculosis won the final victory andforced the separation of spirit and body .Just what the toxines of tuberculosis hadto do with the creative energy of thisimpetuous mind and to what extent itwas influenced by the restraining effectsof disease upon his physical activities, wecan never know, but it is certain thattuberculosis played a part in this unprece-dented expression of genius .

St . Francis was chief pathologist at thedeath of the Dark Ages . With the accu-racy which could come only through afine dissection, he discovered the maladieswhich had dragged humanity down, andset about to free society from their rav-ages-as a consequence, he has beencalled "the morning star of the Rennais-sance." In the words of Gilbert K. Ches-terton :

From him came a whole awakening of theworld and a (lawn in which all shapes and colorscould be seen anew . The mighty men of geniuswho made the Christian civilization that weknow, appear in history almost as his servantsand imitators . Before Dante was, he had givenpoetry to Italy ; before St . Louis ruled, he hadrisen as a tribune of the poor ; and before Giottohad painted the pictures, he had enacted thescenes . . . . He was the spiritual essence andsubstance that walked the world before anyonehad seen these things in visible forms derivedfrom it : a wandering fire as if from nowhere,at which men, more material, could light bothtorches and tapers . He was the soul of medievalcivilization before it even found a body.

His charity was as spontaneous, as farreaching, as godlike as the blue heavenvaulting the plains of Umbria-as refresh-ing as a perpetual fountain in an ancientmarket place. A spiritual genius walkingin the shadow of the Dark Ages, yetdelicately attuned to all the needs of mod-ern mankind. We bow our heads in hum-ble recognition of his influence in theworld today.

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