tsunamis in and near greece and their relation to

8/3/2019 Tsunamis in and Near Greece and Their Relation To

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Natural Hazards 4: 161-170, 1991. 161 1991 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

T s u n a m i s I n a n d N e a r G r e e c e a n d T h e i r R e l a t i o n t ot h e E a r t h q u a k e F o c a l M e c h a n i s m sB. C . PAPAZACHOS and P. P. DIMITRIUGeophysical Laboratory, University of Thessaloniki, P.O . Bo x, 352-I , G R 54006, Thessaloniki, Greece(Received: 8 December 1989; revised: 3 May 1990)Abstract. The major earthquake-induced tsunamis reliable known to have occurred in and near Greecesince antiquity are considered in the light of the recently obtained reliable data on the mechanisms andfocal depths of the earthquakes occurring here. (The earthquake data concern the major shocks of theperiod 1962-1986.) First, concise information is given on the most devastating tsunamis. Then therelation between the (estimated) maximum tsunami intensity and the earthquake parameters (mechanismand focal depth) is examined. It is revealed that the most devastating tsunamis took place in areas (suchas the western part of the Corinthiakos Gulf, the Maliakos Gulf, and the southern Aegean Sea) whereearthquakes are due to shallow normal faulting. Other major tsunamis were nucleated along the convexside of the Hellenic arc, characterized by shallow thrust earthquakes. It is probably somewhere there(most likely south of Crete) that the region's largest known tsunami occurred in AD 365, claiming manylives and causing extensive devastation in the entire eastern Mediterranean. Such big tsunamis seem tohave a return period of well over I000 years and can be generated by large shallow earthquakesassociated with thrust faulting beneath the Hellenic trench, where the African plate subduces under theEuroasian plate. Lesser tsunamis are known in the northernmost part of the Aegean Sea and in the Seaof Marmara, where strike-slip faulting is observed. Finally, an attempt is made to combine the tsunamiand earthquake data into a map of the region's main tsunamigenic zones (areas of the sea bed believedresponsible for past tsunamis and expected to nucleate tsunamis in the future).K ey words. Tsunami, tsunami earthquake, earthquake mechanism, tsunamigenic zone, Greece, easternMediterranean.

1 . I n t r o d u c t i o nAb out 70 majo r tsunamis, some of them disastrous, are know n to have occurred inand nea r Greece since 479 BC, the year wh en a big sea wave (the oldest reliablyknown tsunami) reportedly destroyed the Persian f leet at Potidaea, northern Greece(e.g., see Antonopoulos, 1973). The most devastat ing of al l known tsunamis in theregion, the sea wave of AD 365, caused the loss of thousands of lives and extensivedamage in the whole eastern Mediterranean and is probably one of the world 'slargest. Therefore, tsunamis are a real and major hazard to the lives and well-beingof the pop ulat ion l iving along the coasts of the eastern Medite rranea n. Hence, theneed to assess and mitigate tsunami hazard in this region. As all but a few of thetsunamis here have been generated by earthquakes (one or two major tsunamisresulted from eruptions of Santorini volcano), neither of the above goals can beful ly achieved wi thout unders tanding the mec hanism of t sunami nuclea t ion byearthquakes.


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162 B. C. PAPAZACHOSAND P. P. DIMITRIUThe research so far has shown that earthquake parameters as mechanism,

moment, and focal depth play a crucial part in tsunami nucleation, but the detailedmechanism of tsunami generation by earthquakes has yet to be understood. Thereare two main reasons for this. First, only a few large tsunamis have occurred sincethe birth of instrumental seismology. And, second, only very recently have seismicdata become reliable in many tsunami-prone regions.

For the area under investigation, only seismic data since 1962 (the year when thenetwork of standardized long-period stations began to operate) can be consideredreliable. In this study, we use the most reliable earthquake data (fault-planesolutions and focal depths), as obtained by Papazachos and his coworkers (seePapazachos, 1988, for a review, and Karacostas, 1988), to shed new light on historictsunamis and to better assess tsunami hazard in and near Greece.

2 . T su n a m i s I n a n d N e a r G r e e c eGreece and surrounding areas are known for their high seismic activity. This partof the Mediterranean has also experienced several devastating tsunamis. The firstcomplete catalogues of tsunamis in the eastern Mediterranean were compiled byGalanopoulos (1960) and Ambraseys (1962). Antonopoulos (1980) updated thesecatalogues and enriched them with information from Greek, Byzantine, Arabic, andLatin texts. Papazachos e t a l . (1986a) published a catalogue containing only thereliably known major tsunamis along with the names and epicentral distances of thesites that experienced an estimated tsunami intensity III or larger on the Sieberg-Ambraseys six-degree scale (see Ambraseys, 1962).

We shall now briefly describe the more important, in our opinion, of the tsunamisthat have occurred in and near Greece since antiquity.

The oldest historically documented (mentioned in a reliable ancient source) seawave in Greece is the one that reportedly destroyed the Persian fleet at Potidaea,western Chalkidiki, in 479 BC. According to Bolt (1978), this is the world's oldesthistorically documented tsunami.The biggest tsunami observed in and near Greece was due to a presumably verylarge (M~ > 8.0) earthquake in AD 365. We believe the Hellenic trench south ofCrete to be the most likely site of the earthquake and of the devastating tsunami itproduced. (We shall later present our reasons for reconsidering the site o f this eventas given in Figure 6 of Papazachos e t a l . , 1986a.) This tsunami claimed thousandsof lives and caused widespread devastation in various parts of the eastern Mediter-ranean (from Crete to Peloponnesus to Alexandria and to Sicily; see Antonopoulos,1973).

Also disastrous were the earthquake-induced tsunamis in Maliakos Gulf in426 BC, in the western part of Corinthiakos Gulf in 373 BC and AD 1402 and thetsunami following a submarine eruption of volcano Santorini in 1650.

The largest of the recent tsunamis is the Amorgos tsunami, due to a Ms = 7.5earthquake that hit the southern Aegean area on 9 July 1956 and had its epicenter


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TSUNAMIS IN AND NEAR GREECE 163between Amorgos and Astypalea islands. This tsunami has been thoroughly inves-tigated (e.g., Galanopoulos, 1957; Papazachos e t a l . , 1985). The sea-wave heightreached 25 m at the southern coast of Amorgos island, 20 m at the northern coastof Astypalea island, and 2.6m at the eastern coast of Crete. The damagewas considerable on several islands in the southern Aegean Sea, particularly onKalimnos, where 3 persons were reported drowned.

3 . T h e M e c h a n i s m s o f t h e T s u n a m i E a r t h q u a k e sToday, there is little doubt that earthquake mechanism, along with other factorssuch as earthquake moment and focal depth, plays a critical part in tsunamigeneration. Therefore, knowledge of the mechanism of a seismic source is crucial inestimating its tsunamigenic potential.

Figure 1 shows the most reliable of the available mechanisms (fault-planesolutions) of the earthquakes with Ms i> 6.0 that occurred in and near Greece from1962 (the year when the network of standardized long-period stations began tooperate) to 1986. The black quadrants in the familiar 'bubble' symbols denotepressure and the white ones tension. Thus, symbols with black quadrants in thecenter indicate thrust faulting caused by horizontal compression, whereas symbolswith white quadrants in the center indicate normal faulting produced by horizontaltension. Cases where all four quadrants meet close to the center of the symbolindicate strike-slip faulting.

Tsunamis were produced by the 9 July 1956 Amorgos (Ms = 7.5), 6 July 1965Corinthiakos Gulf (Ms = 6.9), 19 February 1968 Hag. Eustratios (Ms = 7.1), 15April 1979 Montenegro (3//, = 7.1), 24 February 1981 Alkionidon Gulf (Ms = 6.7),and 6 August 1983 Lemnos (Ms = 7.0) events, with mechanisms of normal (thefirst, second and fifth events), thrust (the fourth event) and strike-slip (the third andsixth events) faulting. The respective maximum tsunami intensities were V, II +, III,IV, II and II+ on the Sieberg-Ambraseys six-degree scale (see Ambraseys, 1962).

Apparent in Figure 1 is the grouping of the earthquakes (tsunami and ordinary)according to their mechanisms, which is linked to - and reveals - the main tectonicfeatures of the region (see Papazachos, 1988). Thus, thrust faulting is observedalong the outer (convex) side of the Hellenic arc (in agreement with the view thatthe eastern Mediterranean lithosphere subduces under the Aegean lithosphere)except in its northernmost part (Cefalonia, Leukada), where strike-slip faulting withthrust component is observed and attributed to a dextral transform fault (Scordilise t a l . , 1985).

The thrust faulting continues further to the north, along the coasts of centralmainland Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia, but this time without evidence ofsubduction (no Benioff zone), suggesting collision between two continental litho-spheric plates (Eurasian-Apulian).

Normal faulting is observed in the whole inner part of the Aegean area, fromCrete in the south to central Bulgaria in the north and from eastern Albania and


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1 6 4 B . C . P A P A Z A C H O S A N D P . P . D I M I T R I U

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Fi g . 1 . T h e m o s t r e l i ab l e o f th e av a i l ab l e f au l t -p l an e s o l u ti o n s fo r ea r t h q u a k es w i t h M s > i 6 . 0 t h a to c c u r r e d i n a n d n e a r G r e e c e f r o m 1 96 2 t o 1 98 6. T h e 9 / 7/ 1 9 56 A m o r g o s t s u n a m i e a r t h q u a k e i s i n c l u d e dw i t h t h e m e c h a n i s m p r o p o s e d b y S h i r o k o v a ( 19 72 ). T h e d a t e s o f t h e t s u n a m i e a r t h q u a k e s a r eu n d e r l i n e d . ( R e p r o d u c e d f r o m P a p a z a c h o s e t a l . , 1986b.)

c e n t r a l G r e e c e in t he w e s t t o t he w ho le w e s t e r n T u r ke y in t he e a s t , e xc e p t i n t hen o r t h w e s t e rn p a r t o f T u r k e y a n d t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t p a r t o f t h e A e g e a n S e a , w h e r es t r i ke - s l i p de x t r a l f a u l t i ng w i th e i t he r t h r u s t o r no r ma l c ompone n t oc c u r s .

A s m e n t ione d e a rl ie r , f oc a l de p th i s a no the r c r uc ia l f a c to r in t suna m i p r od uc t ion .I nde e d , obse r va t iona l e v ide nc e , suppo r t e d by the o r e t i c a l s t ud i e s , sugge s t s t ha t on lysha l low subma r ine e a r thqua ke s c a n p r oduc e t suna mis . T o he lp de f ine t he ma int suna mige n ic z one s o f G r e e c e a nd su r r ound in g a r e a s a nd a s se s s t he ir t suna mige n icpo te n t i a l, w e p r e se n t he r e a ma p ( F igu r e 2 ) o f t he ep i c e n ter s o f t he sha llow ( f oc a ldep th up to 60 km ) shock s w i th M= >~ 6 .0 tha t occu r red in the r eg ion be tw een600 BC a n d 1986 . F igu r e 2 show s tha t , a pa r t f r om the i n t e r me d ia t e - de p th shoc ks ,de f in ing a n a m ph i the a t r ic a l ly - sha pe d Be n io f f z one be ne a th t he sou the r n A e ge a nSea , the r eg ion ' s se i smic i ty i s cha rac te r ized by sha l low events ( the grea t ma jor i ty ofthem wi th foc i wi th in the c ru s t ' s top 20 km ; see Ka racos tas , 1988).


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T S U N A M I S I N A N D N E A R G R E E C E 165R O M A N I A ~ - - ~ ' ' " - ' , , ' ~ '

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F i g . 2 . E p i c e n t e r s o f h i s t o r i c ( e m p t y c i r c l e s ) a n d p r e s e n t - c e n t u r y ( f i ll e d c i r c le s ) s h a l l o w s h o c k s i n a n dn e a r G r e e c e a n d t h e i n f e r r e d s e i s m i c f r a c t u r e z o n e s . S u r f a c e - w a v e m a g n i t u d e s a r e u s e d i n t h e l e g e n d .( R e p r o d u c e d f r o m P a p a z a c h o s e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 b . )

4 . D i s c u s s i o n a n d C o n c l u s i o nT h e e x i s t i n g t s u n a m i c a t a l o g u e s ( e . g . , s e e P a p a z a c h o s e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 a ) i m p l y t h a t o n l ye a r t h q u a k e s w i t h M ~ >~ 6 . 5 c a n i n d u c e m a j o r t s u n a m i s i n t h e b r o a d A e g e a n a re a.T h e m o s t d e v a s t a t in g w e r e t h e t su n a m i s n u c le a t e d i n M a l i a k o s G u l f ( 4 2 6 B C ) , i nt h e w e s t er n C o r i n t h i a k o s G u l f ( 3 7 3 B C a n d A D 1 4 0 2) , s o u t h o f C r e te ( A D 3 6 5 )a n d a t S a n t o r i n i ( 1 6 5 0 ) a n d A m o r g o s ( 1 9 5 6 ) i s l a n d s . A s w e s h a l l s e e , t h e a v a i l a b l et s u n a m i d a t a a g r e e w e l l w i t h t h e n e w r e l i a b l e e a r t h q u a k e d a t a , a n d b o t h s e t s o fd a t a h a r m o n i z e w i t h t h e s e i s m o t e c t o n i c m o d e l o f t h e r e g i o n p r o p o s e d b y P a p a z a -c h o s a n d C o m n i n a k i s ( 1 9 7 1 ) ( s e e F i g u r e 3 a n d P a p a z a c h o s , 1 9 8 8 ) .


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166 B. C. PAPAZACHOS AND P. P. DIMITRIU

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19 2 0 21 24 250 26 27 2 8 oF ig . 3. The ma in m orpho log ic f ea tu res o f t ec ton ic o r ig in in the b road A egean a rea . (Re p roduced f romPapazachos , 1988.)

According to this model, the Aegean Sea is a typical marginal sea, surrounded bya volcanic arc (Methana-Santorini-Nissiros) and, at a mean distance of some120 km, by a sedimentary arc consisting of Palaeozoic to Tertiary rocks andconstituting a link between the Dinaric Alps and the Turkish Taurides. Thevolcanic and the sedimentary arcs, collectively known as the Hellenic arc, areparalleled by the Hellenic trench, a series of depressions with water depth to about5 km. It is along the southern part of the Hellenic trench that the front part of theAfrican plate subduces under the front part of the Eurasian plate. Other prominentmorphological features of tectonic origin are the Mediterranean ridge (a submarinecrustal swell embracing the Hellenic trench and extending from the Ionian Sea toCyprus) and the northern Aegean and Cretan troughs, with water depths to about1.5 and 2 km, respectively.


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TSUNAMIS IN AND NEAR GREECE 167The above model and the new earthquake data suggest that the largest reliably

known tsunami to hit the region, the tsunami of AD 365, had its source somewherealong the axis of the Hellenic trench (presumably south of Crete), rather than northof Crete, as thought earlier (see Papazachos e t a l . , 1986a). Indeed, the seismotectonicconditions in the collision zone between the African and Euroasian plates seemparticularly favourable for tsunami generation: large thrust earthquakes with shallowfoci occur here. On the other hand, the large earthquakes occurring north of Creteseem incapable, despite having an appropriate mechanism (normal faulting, see Figure2), of nucleating major tsunamis because of their deep (70 km and deeper) foci. (Forexample, the M s = 8.2 earthquake of 12 October 1856 produced no sea wave.)

One may then assume thrust faulting as the mechanism of the AD 365 earth-quake, which is assigned a magnitude as large as 8.2 because of the severity andgeographic extent of the damage it caused (it destroyed at least 10 cities on Creteand possibly many others on the continent and was felt as far as Dalmatia, Sicily,Lebanon, and a part of Egypt and Palestine). As for the tsunami, the scarcity of theavailable information makes it difficult for one to judge whether the abovemagnitude is large enough to explain its size. Therefore, one cannot rule out othergenetic mechanisms, such as large submarine slumps or the mechanism proposed byKanamori (1972) to explain the 1896 Sanriku and the 1946 Aleutian tsunamis,initiated by shocks beneath the inner margins of the Japan and Aleutian trenches,respectively. In fact, the similar tectonic conditions of the three regions (Japan, theAleutian islands, and the eastern Mediterranean) suggest similar genetic mecha-nisms of the three great tsunamis, but at present we lack evidence (such as theoccurrence of large normal-fault shocks along the outer margin of the Hellenictrench) to support this hypothesis.

Among the remaining large tsunamis in the broad Aegean area, all but one (thetsunami due to an eruption of Santorini volcano in 1650) were produced in theback-arc Aegean area (two in Corinthiakos Gulf, one in Maliakos Gulf and onenear Amorgos island). This is not surprising, as shallow normal-fault seismicactivity is typical of this region (see Figures 1 and 2).On the other hand, it was recently revealed that the seismic activity in the IonianSea (along Cefalonia and Leukada) and in the northern Aegean Sea is mainly dueto strike-slip faulting (see Papazachos, 1988 and Figure 1), explaining why nomajor tsunamis are known to have occurred there despite the occurrence of largeearthquakes.

In conclusion, we found that the tsunami data generally agree with the recentlyobtained reliable earthquake data (focal mechanisms and depths), and both sets ofdata harmonize with the region's seismotectonic model proposed by Papazachosand Comninakis (1971). We can now proceed with the definition of the maintsunamigenic zones in and around Greece - a first step in the assessment of thetsunami hazard in this region (for details, see Papazachos e t a l . , 1986a).

We call an area of the sea bed presumably responsible for a past tsunami (ortsunamis) and likely to nucleate tsunamis in the future, a t s u n a m i g e n i c z o n e (or


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168 B. C. PAPAZACHOS AND P. P. DIMITRIUsource); its shape is assumed elliptic, the size is proportional to the (estimated)maximum tsunami intensity, and the orientation is taken along the correspondingseismic fracture zone (see Figure 2). Because of the lack of information on pasttsunamis and their genetic earthquakes, the relation between the size of the tsunamisource and the maximum tsunami intensity is found on the basis of the observationthat the sea-bed area responsible for a tsunami is approximately equal to theaftershock area of the genetic earthquake (see Iida, 1958; Hatori, 1969 and 1981).Thus, the length of the major axis of a tsunamigenic zone is evaluated from the

t r 1 ~ 2 0 ' 2 ' f 2 2 ' 2 3 ' 2 4 ' 2 5 " 2 6 " 2 "T ' 2 ~ ' 2 9 ' 3 3 1 '

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i t I I . . . . . . .Fig. 4. Known and inferred tsunamigenic zones (sources) in and near Greece. The zones representareas of the sea bed believed responsible for past tsunamis and expected to nucleate tsunamis in thefuture. Their shape is assumed elliptic, with the size proportional to the (estimated) maximum tsunamiintensity, and the orientation of each zone is taken along the corresponding seismic fracture zone(inferred from the distr ibution of shallow-shock epicenters; see Figure 2). K0 in the legend is themaximum tsunami intensity on the 6-degree Sieberg-Ambraseys scale (see Ambraseys, 1962). The circlesrepresent tsunamigenic eruptions of volcano Santorini.


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TSUNAMIS IN AND NEAR GREECE 169correlational relation between the length, L, of the aftershock area and themagnitude, Ms, of the mainshock for seismic sequences in and near Greece(Karakaisis, 1984),

log L = -2 .22 + 0.57 M s,after replacing Ms by the maximum tsunami intensity, K0, from the correlationalrelation linking the two quantities (Papazachos e t a l . , 1986a)

K0 = (15.92 + 4.08) + (2.83 + 0.73) Ms.The equation relating the length of the major axis of the tsunamigenic zone to the(estimated) maximum tsunami intensity has then the form:

log L = 0.99 + 0.20 K0.(The minor axis of the tsunamigenic zones is taken equal to L / 3 . )

The map of the tsunamigenic zones (sources) of Greece and surrounding areas,Figure 4, summarizes the results of our study. Thus, as particularly tsunami-proneshould be regarded the regions of the Corinthiakos and Maliakos Gulfs and thesouthern Aegean area. But the greatest threat comes, we believe, from the tsunami-genic zone that produced the great tsunami of AD 365, which devastated the coastsof the eastern Mediterranean, taking thousands of lives. We locate the source ofthis tsunami south of Crete, beneath the Hellenic trench, where the African platesubduces under the Euroasian plate, and estimate its repeat time to be of the orderof 1000 years.

AcknowledgementsThis work is our first contribution to the project 'Assessment and Mitigation ofTsunami Hazard in the Afro-European Tsunamigenic Belt', financed by WorldLaboratory, and was presented at the International Tsunami Symposium held inNovosibirsk from 31 July to 3 August 1989. We thank Stefano Tinti, the head ofthe project, and World Laboratory for the financial support that enabled the secondauthor to attend the symposium in Novosibirsk. We also thank the anonymousreviewers for their comments and suggestions.

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tsunamis in and near greece and their relation to

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