Tropical Sources of Starches

S.N. MoorthyCentral Tuber Crops Research Institute, Sreekariam,Thiruvananthapuram, India

1 IntroductionThe tropical belt which covers around 40% of the total land area encompassing five

continents and many countries harbour a number of starch bearing crops which includecereals, tree, fruit and vegetable crops and most important the root crops [1-8]. Howevercommercial use of these for starch extraction has been limited to a few of these crops.Most important of them are sago starch from sago palm, potato, cassava and sweet potatostarches from the corresponding tubers. Minor quantities of starch are extracted fromother crops such as Palmyra fruits, and the tuber crops like colocasia, amorphophallus,yams, arrowroot, Canna and Curcuma sp. but they have no commercial importance.Among these different starches, only cassava and sweet potato starches have been studiedin detail and this chapter tries to bring out the available information on the tropicalstarches and also possible avenues of utilisation based on their physicochemical andfunctional characteristics. The starches and their properties are dealt with under differentsections

1.1 Tree Crops.

Among the starch bearing tree crops, the most important ones are sago palm, mango,Plantain, jackfruit , breadfruit and Pandanus. The starch is found either in the stem, fruitor seed.

1.1.1. Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu) is a nonbranching palm cultivated in SE Asia. Itgrows to 9-12 metres high and flowers after 10-15 years and then dies. At the time offlowering, the palms are felled, the stems are sliced the pith is rasped, sieved and thestarch granules are allowed to settle. The starch is collected, dried and used to make sagopearls by granulation. Originally all the sago pearls were obtained exclusively from sagostarch, but now the sago pearls are obtained from cassava starch, which is moreabundantly available.

1.1.2 Mango. (Mangifera indica) is widely grown in the tropics for its deliciousfruits. The trees grow upto 40m metres in height. The seeds which form around 20-40%of the fruit contains upto 30% starch. The starch can be extracted by crushing the seeds,filtering and allowing to settle. No work has been carried out on this starch.

1.1.3 Jackfruit (Artocarpus indica) is a large tropical fruit tree with a dense crownand reaching upto 50 metres in height. The large fruits contain a fleshy portion covering

oval shaped seeds. The seeds form around 5% of the fruit and contains nearly 30%starch. Often the seeds are roasted and eaten. Very little study has been carried out on thestarch properties.

1.1.4. Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) a tall tree 30 metres high and branching. Ityields about 600- 700 medium size round fruits per year. They are consumed asvegetable and have a very delicious taste. The fruits contain around 20% starch. Onlyvery little work has been carried out on the starch of breadfruit.

1.1.5 Screw pine (Pandanus lerum) is a tall slender palm, 12-18 metre in heightfound in various tropical countries and Andaman and Nicobar islands of the Indian Oceanwhere it is very common. Its fruit (10-18Kg) is fleshy and contains nearly 20% starch.The local population consume the tubers after cooking and also extract starch, bycrushing the fruits, sieving and drying. The starch has not been studied in detail.

1.2. Cereal starches.

Maize, sorghum and a number of millets are cultivated in the tropics and formimportant crops in many areas. They serve as a cheap source of food. Most of themcontain good quantity of starch, the most important being maize.

1.2.1. Maize (Zea Maize) Maize is grown in large areas of tropical and subtropicalbelt and form a staple food. The yield of the crop is and the starch content as high as 70%in the dry cob . The extraction of starch from maize has been well standardised and iscarried out extensively. The starch is commercially extracted and used in various foodand industries.

1.2.2. Sorghum Sorghum bicolor is grown widely in tropics and is considered as poormans cereal .The starch content is quite high , but very little work has been carried out onthe starch properties.

1.2.3. Tef (Eragostis tef) is a major cereal staple in Ethiopia and its flour is used formaking various products. The starch content in the grains is similar to other cereals andcan be easily extracted using water.

1.3. Herbs/ shrubs.

There are a number of herbs/shrubs which produce starch in their grains, fruits or seeds.But these have not been exploited as starch source. Among them a few important ones areoutlined below.

1.3.1 Amaranthus.

The amaranth plant family include more than 60 species that grow in many tropicalregions. Although most of them produce edible leaves a few species are cultivated fortheir grains. The chief ones are A. hypochondriacus, A. caudatus, and A. edulis. Theyare perennial herbs widely differing in height and appearance. . The grains contain40-50% starch mainly waxy starch. The small size of the granules and low amylose

conetent in the starch make them very valuable as a type of starch with specialfood applications. .

1.3.2 1.3.3.Plantain/banana Banana (Musa sp.) is grown extensively in most partsof the tropic for its fleshy fruits and there are a number of species havingwidly varying tast and texture. It is a straight annual yielding upto t/ha offruits. The unripe fruits contain nearly 35% starch which has been rarelyextracted.

1.3.3 1.3.4. Okenia (Okenai hypogeae ) is a perennial herbaceous crop distributedin central and south America. And the seeds contain nearly 35% starch.

1.3.4 1.3.5 Quinoa. (Chenopodium quinova) the anciednt andes crop is widelygromn in S. America produce grains which serve as important food source.These are perennial herbs producing a grain yield of t/ha which containapproximately % starch. yielding grains

1.4. Pulses The pulses also contain starch to a good extent. (20-30%). However theyare never obtained pure due to presence of lipids and proteins accompanying the starch.Extraction of starches from the pulses are rarely reported except for some isolatedreports on the study of their starches. A few of these are given below.

1.5. Tropical root crops

Tropical root and tuber crops are important food crops serving either as subsidiary orsubsistence food in different parts of the tropical belt. They are rich sources of starch[9-12] besides many vitamins, minerals etc. Although there has been some decline intheir use as food, their industrial application, especially that of cassava, is making rapidadvances. Cassava and to a small extent, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) are usedfor starch extraction in countries like India, Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines andChina. Studies at different laboratories have brought to light the wide diversity in thestarch characteristics of tuber crops and the possibility of using these native starchesinstead of chemically modified starches [12,13]. 1.4.1. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a sturdy perennial crop grown in manyparts of Asia, Africa and South America. The yield of the crop is normally around 20t/haand the starch yield forms nearly one fourth of the total yield. The starch has beenstudied in detail and finds use in a large range of industries. . 1.4.2. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) is a herbaceous perennial vine and is grownextensively over the tropics and also in some parts of the USA for its tubers. The tubershave different sizes, shapes and colour. The yield varies anywhere from 8-30t/ha and ithas been possible to have three crops in a year thus giving a very high annual starchyield. The starch content in the tubers vary from 12-30%.(fresh weight basis) 1.4.3 Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a small herbaceous plant with large leaves found inmost parts of the tropics, but are very important in the pacific regions. The crop isharvested at 8-10 month stage and produces a number of cormels around a corm. Theyield is 5-10t/ha and starch content is 10-18%.

1.4.4. Tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) is a large herbaceous plant grown widely forits cormels which are much larger than taro cormels. The yield is around 10-25t/ha andstarch content in the tubers nearly 20%. 1.4.5. Elephant Foot Yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) grown extensively for itshuge corms. It is a big perennial herb harvested after one year and the corms can weighover 15 Kg. The yield is over 20t/ha and starch content in the tubers nearly 20%. 1.4.4. Yams is a large genus with over 600 species out of which a few are morecommonly cultivated. Most of them are trailers. The tubers are harvested at 8-12 monthsafter planting and the tubers especially those of D. alata are very large. Some of thespecies produce aerial tubers also. The starch yield also varies considerably and D.rotundata tubers have the highest starch content.

In addition, there are a number of other minor tuber and root crops which contain starch,but their utilisation is limited.

1.4.5. African yam bean ( Sphenostylis stenocarpa) belongs to Luguminosae avigorous herbaceous climbing vine reaching 1.5 -2 m in height producing pods aswell as small spindle shaped tubers about 5-8 cm long similar to sweet potato. Thecrop is found mainly in Africa yielding upto 4 t/ha. The tubers are rich in starch( 25% ) but there are no studies on this starch.

1.4.6 Arracacha, Peruvian carrot,( Arracacia xanthorrhiza) . A stout semi-caulescent herb, resembling celery grown in south America and partsof Africa grown mainly at high altitudes. The edible secondary tubers are usually6-10 in number with a yield of 3-18t/ha. The tubers which contain nearly 20%starch are used as a source of edible starch

1.4.7. Chinese water chest nut ( Eleocharis dulcis) a variable annual stout aquaticplant and producing corms found in Asian region. The yield is 20-40t/ha andstarch content around 7%. In China the starch is extracted by rasping andsettling.

1.4.8. East Indian arrowroot (Tacca leontopetaloides) is a perennial herb with1.4.8tuberous rhizome producing large/small sized tubers, found in triopical areas..The tubers are similar to potato and harvested after 8-10 months. They areused in Tahiti to make ‘ poi’ a traditional food. The tubers are rich in starch(20-30 %) and starch extracted and used widely.

1.4.9. Giant taro ( Alocasia macrorrhiza) is a tall succulent herbaceous plant upto4.5 metres in height producing big corms upto 18 Kg. It is grown in Asia andSouth America and harvested 10-12 months after planting. The tubers contain17-25% starch

1.4.10Coleus (Plectranthes rotundifolius) . is a small herbaceous annual 15-30 cmhigh found in Africa and Asia At maturity ( 6 months) they yield round to ovaltubers very priced for delicate flavour. The yield 7-15 t/ha and the starch content isnearly 15%. 1.4.11.Kudzu ( Pueraria lobata) known as arrowroot vine is a small perennialtwining herb or shrub with elongated tuberous roots often weighing upto 40 KgRoot are starchy 30-60 cm long used as source of edible starch used instead of

arrowroot starch or gelatine in many foods. The starch content is over 20% and isextracted in small scale in Japan. 1.4.12. Lotus root (Nelumbo nucifera) is a perennial aquatic herb, rooting in mud

found in S and SE Asia, Africa and Australia The white globulous rhizomeswhich are harvested at 6-9 months measure 60-120 cm in length . The yieldis 5 t/ha and starch content is nearly 18%. In china a fine starch is isolatedfrom the rhizomes..

1.4.13. Oca (Oxalis tuberose) a small compact annual tuberous herb 20-30 cm highOca is a ancient food plant of the Andes and found in many parts of SothAmerica. The rhizomatous tubers are harvested at 8 months maturity andare similar to potato ( 5-8cm in length) The tuber yield is 4-5t/ha while starchcontent is 12 %

1.4.14Queensland arrowroot (Canna sp). A perennial herbaceous monocotyledonfound in many parts of Asia, Africa and S. America. The shape of the rhizomes varyfrom cylindrical to tapering with 5-9 cm in size. The tuber yield is 15-40t/ha and thestarch content varies from 24-30%. 1.4.15. Shoti (Curcuma zeodoaria) known as Indian arrowroot is a robust perennial with

a fleshy branching rhizomes cultivated in Asia . The starchy finger rhizomes aregreyish in colour, grow to 15 cm in length and have a musky odour. The tuberyield is 8-12 t/ha and starch content is 2-15%. The starch is extracted by raspingthe tubers, sieving and settling and serves as a source of easily digested starch

1.4.16Swamp taro (Cyrtosperma chamionensis) is a giant herbaceous perennial 3-4 m inheight with huge leaves. It is cultivated in many parts in Asia , Africa and Pacific islands.The yield of corms is 7-10t/ha and the starch content 28-30 1.4.17. Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) is a leguminous, climbingperennial found in Asia and Africa. Tubers are obtained 5-8 months after palnting with ayield of . Root tubers are 5-12 cm in length and contain nearly 20% starch.

1.5. Other minor sources. In addition there are a few other sources of starch which have not been exploited.

They are

1.5.1. Bamboo. (Guadua flabellate) is a perennial crop grown largely as a source ofwood. However the culm of the crop has nearly 20% starch which can beeasily extracted and can serve as a source of starch.

1.5.2. Black pepper (Piper nigrum), termed king of spices grown in Asia andAfrica is a branching climbing perenneial shrub. The annual yield of drypepper is 100-300 kg/ha and the seeds contain over 40% starch but has notfound any application.

1.5.3. Buffalo Gourd ( Cucurbita foetidissima) produces roots which can be verylarge even upto 75Kg. The roots contain 15% starch and can be used a source ofstarch.

2. Cassava starch characteristics

Among the vast sources of starch outlined above only cassava and maize starcheshave been commercially exploited since long and continue to be major source ofstarch. The extraction of maize starch is slightly complicated due to the need forsteeping the dried cobs and using some whitening agents. On the other hand, cassavastarch is easily extractable since the tubers contain very low quantity of proteins, fatsetc. Hence the extraction process is simple and the starch obtained is pure white incolour if extraction is carried out properly. Since the lipid content in the starch is verylittle (<0.1%), the starch and its derivatives have a non-cereal taste very desirable inmany food products.

Cassava starch granules are mostly round [14-16] with a flat surface on one sidecontaining a conical pit, which extends to a well-defined eccentric hilum. Some granulesappear to be compound . Under polarised light, a well defined cross is observed. Thegranules exhibit wide variation in size ranging from 5-40mu and variation in granular sizedistribution among varieties and during growth period and during different seasons hasbeen reported [17, 18, 19]. Cassava starch has been assigned ‘A’ and ‘C’ XRD patternsby various workers[18]

The starch has very little lipid and phosphorus content. The amylose content in thestarch is in the range of 20-27% similar to most other starches. The amylose contentshows difference among varieties, but age of the crop and envirornmental factors do notaffect the amylose content to any large extent. GPC analysis of debranched starch ofdifferent varieties did not reveal much variation among the varieties [18,20]. Thesoluble amylose content forms approximately 40% of the total amylose .

Thermal characteristics of cassava starch have been studied in detail usingDifferential Scanning Calorimetry which has become very important in characterisationof starch gelatinisation. DSC analysis of starch extracted from five varieties of cassavapossessing different organoleptic quality showed that varietal differences manifestthemselves in the DSC patterns Fig 1. The characteristic peak shape could be traced tostructural differences among the varieties. The values reported for Tonset and Tend

exhibited wide variation showing that varietal differences, environmental conditions,experimental conditions used for DSC measurement all influence these factors. Asaokaet al. [21] have examined the gelatinisation characteristics of four cultivars harvested atdifferent seasons and their results indicated that both genetic constitution andenvironmental conditions affected the DSC parameters. Starch of one cultivarconsistently displayed highest gelatinisation temperature through all the harvestingseasons (Tab. 2 ). Defloor et al. [19] studied the DSC characteristics of five varietiesharvested during dry and rainy seasons and found that although within each plantingseason for each genotype and for each harvest time, significant differences ingelatinisation temperatures were noticed, no systematic changes as a function of genotypeor harvest time was noticed. Starch samples harvested at six months stage in dry seasonhad higher onset, peak and conclusion temperatures compared to that from rainy season,but the reverse was true for the tubers harvested at 12, 15 and 18 months. Even thetemperature of drying affected the DSC gelatinisation temperatures. The gelatinisationparameters of cassava starch extracted using SO2 incorporated water were enhancedfrom 59.6 to 62.0 for Tonset and 84.7 to 87.2°C for Tend [22].

Gelatinisation enthalpy depends on a number of factors like crystallinity,intermolecular bonding, rate od heating of the starch suspension, presence of otherchemicals etc. For cassava starch, the values reported in the literature range all the wayfrom 4.8 [23] to 16 J g-1 [24], Tab. 1. Genetic and environmental factors also affectthe gelatinisation enthalpy as illustrated by Asaoka et al. [21] and Defloor et al. [19]from studies using different varieties, time of harvest and seasonal variations. SO2

treatment slightly enhanced the gelatinisation enthalpy of cassava starch from 18.1 to19.1 J g-1 [22].

Among different tuber starches, cassava starch possesses the lowest gelatinisationtemperatures. Varietal difference is also evident for the reported data from varioussources. Correlation between granule size and gelatinization temperature was notobtained [19]. The gelatinisation temperatures of cassava starch determinedmicroscopically by various workers ranged from 49-64°C [25] to 62-73°C [15]. In aBrabender Viscographic study involving starch of different varieties, pasting temperatureof H 165 starch was slightly lower than those for most of the other varieties, and M4starch had the highest range of pasting temperature [18]. The values were quite close toDSC values of 66 and 78°C for Tonset and Tpeak respectively. SO2 treatment lowered thepasting temperature of cassava starch from 92 to 89°C. Gelatinization temperature ofstarch was enhanced tremendously in glycerol and ethanediol, while in DMSO andformalin, only slight increase was noticed. The high values observed in the first twosolvents can be attributed to steric factors [26]. Viscosity is an important starch property on which many applications are based.Studies on viscosity of cassava starch have been carried out extensively and almost alltheir studies indicate high viscosity level for cassava starch compared most other tuberstarches and the cereal starches. The viscosity characteristics are influenced by varietaldifferences , environmental factors, rate of heating,, other ingredients present in thesystem etc.]. The Brabender Viscographs of starch of different varieties showed threemain peak patterns viz. single stage gelatinisation with high peak viscosity and highviscosity breakdown , two-stage gelatinization with high peak viscosity and breakdownand broad two-stage gelatinization with medium viscosity and medium breakdown. Thesepatterns seem to be genetically controlled as the patterns were maintained by thesestarches irrespective of the environmental factors, though there was variation in theviscosity values[12. In a comparative study of five cassava varieties having differentcooking quality, it was observed that H-1687 starch had a medium peak viscosity and lowviscosity breakdown but high set-back viscosity. M4 starch had slightly lower peakviscosity and setback viscosity. On the other hand, H-165 starch had a very high peakviscosity and the breakdown was also quite large. The viscographs clearly indicated thatfor H-165 starch, the set-back viscosity was much lower compared to peak viscosity,whereas for H-1687 starch, the reverse was true (Fig. 2). The result indicates a possiblerelationship between cooking quality and starch rheology, as tubers of variety H-1687have reasonably good cooking quality, while H-165 is poor in its culinary quality. Tubersof variety M4 starch, whose starch behaves somewhat similar to H 1687 starch in its

rheology, has excellent organoleptic quality [18]. Olorunda et al. [27] found that mealiercassava varieties had slightly higher peak viscosity for their starches.

Rickard et al. [15] reported wide variation among the viscosity data for cassava starchfrom various sources [28-30] (Tab. 1). However, Rosenthal et al. [31] reported onlyminor variations among a few Brazilian varieties. Asaoka et al. [21] has compared theviscosity data of cassava starch using Brabender Viscograph and Rapid Visco Analyser(RVA) and the results are presented in Table 2. Breakdown of viscosity is anotherimportant factor which has a bearing on starch application in food. When the starchgranules swell and they are subjected to heat and shear, the starch undergoesfragmentation and the resulting reduction in viscosity indicates the breakdown for thestarch. Breakdown is not desirable since it leads to uneven viscosity and also leads to acohesive nature for the starch paste. Cassava starch has a higher breakdown compared tomost other starches, especially the cereal starches and hence is a major drawbackattributed to the starch in some food applications.

Padmanabhan and Lonsane [32] observed a slight reduction in peak viscosity andbreakdown in cassava starch extracted by an enzymatic method. The viscosity ofcassava starch extracted from inoculum provided fermentation was lowered due topresence of fibrous matter [33]. However, the breakdown was also correspondinglyreduced due to the cementing of the granules by fibrous materials and its rheology wassimilar to cassava flour .

Another factor related to viscosity is Setback which is attributed to the retrogradationof starch during cooling. Cassava starch has relatively low set back and this may be dueto lower amylose content and also the structure of the amylopectin.

Swelling power and solubility of starch provide evidence of non-covalent bondingbetween starch molecules. Factors like amylose-amylopectin ratio, chain length andmolecular weight distribution, degree / length of branching and conformation decide theswelling and solubility Cassava starch has medium swelling power compared to potatoand cereal starches - a property in conformity with its observed viscosity. The reportedvalues for the swelling power of cassava starch vary considerably from 42-71 (Tab. 1)[15]. The swelling volume of different varieties of cassava varied from 25.5 to 41. 8 ml g-

1 of starch . It was observed that during the growth period, starch of two varieties H-2304 and M4 maintained their swelling volumes within small ranges, while that for somevarieties such as H-165 expressed wide variations which indicate that these varieties arevery much susceptible to environmental influences [34] and also point to possiblerelationship between cooking quality and swelling volumes, . Soni et al. [35] havereported a two stage swelling for cassava starch and attributed it to the two types offorces, which require different energy input to cause relaxation of the starch molecules.Asaoka et al. [21] have determined the swelling volume of four varieties of cassavaharvested during two seasons and observed that swelling power was higher in samplesharvested in November compared to those harvested in August . Cassava starch has a higher solubility compared to the other tuber crop starchesand the higher solubility can be attributed partly to the high swelling it undergoes duringgelatinisation and the reported values ranged from 25 to 48% (Tab. 1) [15]. The solubilityof starch of different cassava varieties varied from 17.2 to 27.2%. However no directcorrelation between swelling and solubility could be observed . The values for solubility

of starch from different varieties during the growth period also indicated that starch ofvarieties H.2304 and M4 had good stability in their solubility, whereas the others hadmedium or poor stability [34]. Among a few non-aqueous solvents studied for solubilityof starch, maximum solubility was obtained in DMSO and formalin, while in glycerol itwas moderate. Starch was insoluble in anisole and methyl cellosolve . The solubilitydata indicate that starch is more soluble in polar solvents or solvents with affinity towardswater [26].

The high clarity of starch has much relevance in food and textile applications anddepends on the associative bonds between the starch molecules in the granules. Cassavastarch having weaker associative forces compared to cereal starches has better clarity.

Another starch property which has relevance in food applications is sol stabilitywhich is decided by the retrogradation of starch molecules. During cooling and storage,the starch molecules associate leading to settling of the starch gel. This settling is notdesirable in food products especially those canned and subjected to freezing and thawing.In this respect cassava starch has fair sol stability compared to the cereal starches.

The digestibility of cassava starch in native and gelatinised forms are quite highboth in vivo and in vitro studies. It was over 60% in in vivo studies on small animals.

The properties of cassava starch reveal that the starch can find use in various foodproducts. First, the bland taste of the starch is an advantage over the cereal starcheswhich have a cereal flavour due to the lipids present in the starch. Sago pearls of bestquality are obtained using cassava starch in view of its white colour, bland taste and easygelatinisation. The starch has a very low gelatinisation temperature- lower than mostother root starches and the cereal starches and hence cooking is easier In addition the lowgelatinisation temperature can be useful if some of the ingredients added to the product isheat-labile at high temperature. . The high viscosity of the starch paste is also very usefulin many food products which require body. This is exemplified by the preference for thisstarch in puddings and in fact in USA, tapioca pudding is an important food item.Though the stability of the viscosity is poor, some food products do require a cohesivetexture like some gravies used in the orient and here cassava starch finds preference .Another important property which is very desirable in food products is the relatively goodsol stability of the starch paste. This is of utmost importance in starch based productswhich are stored for long periods. The starch contains relatively lower content of amylosecompared to cereal starches and its retrogradation is very low. The clarity of the cassavastarch paste is excellent and hence finds favour in pie fillings where the products appearmore appealing when the fruits are clearly visible. Thus the starch has a lot of desirablequalities which makes it widely used in food products. However, the starch is not used insome products due to the cohesive nature brought about by the breakdown of starch underheat and shear and poor freeze thaw stability. But with a number of modificationtechniques available, the undesirable properties can be rectified while maintaing thedesired ones. [35-37]

3. Other starches 3.1. Sweet Potato starch

Unlike cassava, extraction of starch from sweet potato tubers is not easy. Thepresence of fibrous material and latex prevents easy settling of starch and this leads toextended residence time for the starch in the mother liquor. Since the mother liquorcontains lot of sugars, fermentation sets in leading to deterioration of starch properties.Starch often possesses an off-colour if not processed properly due to the phenolics presentin the tubers. Kallabinski and Balagopalan et al. (38) have used an enzymatic techniqueto extract starch from sweet potato tubers. The use of cellulase and pectinase resulted inincreased yield of starch without affecting the properties of the extracted starch.

Sweet potato starch also is similar to cassava starch in its lipid and phosphoruscontent and hence its properties are quite similar to cassava starch.

Sweet potato starch is polygonal or almost round in shape [18,39] and has a centricdistinct hilum. Polarisation crosses are less distinct compared to cassava starch. Granulesize of sweet potato is in the same range as that of cassava starch. Bowkamp [40]reported negative correlation between particle size and susceptibility to amylase and aciddegradation in sweet potato cultivars. Noda et al. [41] found no effect of fertilisation onstarch granule size. The same authors found that the average granule size increasedduring early stage of development and then remained steady in two varieties . XRDpattern of sweet potato is reported as ‘A’ pattern , ‘C’ or intermediate between ‘A’ and‘C’ [42-44]. Takeda et al. [42] observed ‘A’ pattern for two varieties while it was ‘CA’for another variety. The absolute crystallinity for this starch was 38% .

The molecular properties of sweet potato starch has been examined in detail.Takeda et al. [42] found a trimodal pattern for the sweet potato amylopectin whileHizukuri [45] reported a bimodal distribution. They concluded that sweet potato has ahigher proportion of ‘A’ chains and short ‘B’ chains compared to potato. Seog et al. [46]reported alkali number values between 7.66 and 12.13 for six Korean sweet potatovarieties compared to 5.33 for cassava starch. Noda et al. [41] used HPAEC-PAD onsweet potato starch and found the amylopectin to have peaks at DP=12 and DP=8. Theconcentrations of the peaks at DP=6 and DP=7 were 7.1-7.5% and 6.7-7.0% respectively..

For sweet potato starch also, considerable variation in amylose content has been

reported, Tab. 3. Madamba et al. [47] found only very little variation in amylose content

among six varieties of sweet potato from Philippines. Garcia and Walter [48] obtained

values ranging from 20-25% by potentiometric titration for some Peruvian cultivars and

location did not have any effect. Noda et al. [41] did not observe any effect of

fertilisation or growth period on amylose content. Ishiguro et al [49] studied the

retrogradation tendencies of starch isolated from 10 sweet potato cultivars having

different amylose contents and chain length distribution. Starches having fewer amylose

molecules and amylopectin molecules with higher content of short chains (DP 10)

retrograded slower compared to others

Collado et al. [50] have examined the DSC characteristics of 44 sweet potato

genotypes from Phillipines and obtained considerable variation in all the parameters. The

mean Tonset was 64.6°C and range 61.3-70° C, mean Tpeak 73.9°C (range 70.2-77°C) and

mean Tend 84.6°C, range being 80.7-88.5°C and the mean gelatinisation range was 20.1°

with a range of 16.1 to 23°C. Garcia and Walter [48] have examined two varieties

cultivated at different locations and found the range to be between 58-64°C for Tonset, 63-

74°C for Tpeak and 78-83°C for Tend. While selection index did not affect the values,

location influenced the parameters Noda et al. [41] found varietal difference but no

effect of fertilisation on the DSC characteristics of two sweet potato varieties. It was also

found that during growth period, the Tonset was the lowest at the latest stage of

development . The starch from fresh tubers and freeze dried sweet potato tubers gave

nearly equal values (67 – 73°), but the small granules gelatinised between 75 and 88°C.

The pasting temperature of sweet potato starch (Tab. 3) varied between 66.0 and 86.3°C

by viscography while microscopic determination gave values between 57-70 to 70-90°C.

. Sweet potato starch behaves almost similar to cassava starch in its viscosity

characters, viz., peak viscosity, viscosity breakdown and setback viscosity. The

viscosity properties of sweet potato starch measured by various methods have been

reviewed by Tian et al. [39] Tab. 3. Collado et al [50] studied 44 different sweet

potato genotypes at 7 and 11% concentrations using Rapid Visco Analyser and have

worked out the correlations among the RVA parameters. They observed wide

variation not only in the Peak Viscosity but also the broadness of the peaks. A

significant negative correlation between Peak Viscosity and amylose content was

noticed. The rheological properties of sweet potato starch extracted using an

enzymatic process did not vary among the different concentrations of enzyme upto

0.1% [51]. Guraya et al. [52] reported the apparent viscosity of a large number of

sweet potato varieties to vary considerably from 71-442 cPs and storage led to

reduction in viscosity. The rheological properties of sweet potato starch have been

examined using a Bohlin rheometer [48]. Storage modulus, G’, Loss modulus, G” and

tan d summed over different starch samples were determined. During heating, the G’

and G” increased while phase angle decreased indicating change from sol to gel. The

initial increase has been attributed to progressive swelling of starch granules leading

to close packing. When the starch granules became very soft, deformable and

compressible, decrease in G’ and G” were observed. Elastic nature prevailed over the

viscous nature of the paste

Data on the swelling power has been compared by Tian et al. [39] and the values varyconsiderably not only among varieties, but also at different temperatures (Tab. 3).Delpeuch and Favier [53] have reported a two stage swelling while Rasper [54] andMadamba et al. [47] found a single stage swelling for the same starch. The comparativelylower swelling volume of sweet potato starch has been attributed to a higher degree ofintermolecular association compared to cassava or potato starch. Collado et al. [50] haveexamined the swelling volume of starch of a number of Phillipino accessions and foundthe range to be between 24.5 to 32.7 ml g-1 with a mean value of 29 9 ml g-1 showingweaker associative forces compared to legume starches. There was no significantcorrelation between amylose content and swelling volumes

The solubility of starch extracted from seven sweet potato collections from Peruindicated that solubility increased with temperature and reached nearly 10%, while forcommercial starch, it was 28% [48]. The authors found that Selection Index did not havenoticeable effect, but location had significant influence at temperatures above 60°C.Collado et al. [50] found the solubility to be in the range 12 to 24% (average 16.9%).It was presumed that the bonding forces might be tenuous but comparatively extensive,immobilising the starch within the granules even at high levels of swelling

In vitro and in vivo digestibility study of the native and gelatinised starchindicated that the starch possesses very good digestibility even in its native state.However sweet potato has been associated with flatulence and the starch has beenimplicated in contributing to flatulence, but the digestibility studies do not prove the roleof starch in contributing to flatulence. 3.3. Yam and Aroid Starches.

The extraction of starch from yams and aroids is difficult due to presence ofmucilage in the tubers. This is epecially true for Colocasia which contains large quantityof mucilage. However use of dilute ammonia was found to facilitate extraction of starchfrom these tubers. The yield was enhanced and the quality of the resultant starch wasequal or superior to the starch extracted using water [55].

These starches also have low lipid content. However the yam starches havehigher phosphorus contents which contribute to their viscosity and gel properties. Yamstarches have a large variability in shape viz., round, triangular, oval and elliptical. Infact, the species exhibit dramatic variability in granular size ranging from very tinygranules of D. esculenta (1-5um) to the very large ones observed for D. alata (16-110um). . Farhat et al. [56] have examined the distribution in size of different yamspecies. D. rotundata and D. cayensis starches showed similar patterns with a singlesymmetrical distribution centred at 32 and 35 m respectively while D. alata starchexhibited a non symmetrical wider particle distribution around 31m and D.dumetorum starch had uneven distribution. Use polarised light microscopy confirmedthe findings and corroborated the results of Rasper and Coursey [57] on granule sizes.Variation in granule size could not be observed among the three yam species viz D.rotundata, D. alata and D. esculenta. The edible Dioscorea starches (viz. D. alata,D.esculenta and D. rotundata), D. abysinica and D. cayensis starch possesssed ‘B’ XRD

patterns. However ‘A’ and ‘C’ patterns has been reported for D. dumetorum starch . Itwas found that the XRD pattern of extracted starch is the same throughout the growthperiod of D. rotundata (Fig. 3). The macromolecular characteristics of 10 yam specieshave been studied in detail using HSEC-MAILS-DRI and it was found that thephysicochemical and functional properties could be related to the macromolecularcharacteristics [58]

Amylose content in yam starches also varied considerably according to various

reports. Farhat et al. [56] have obtained the following values for amylose content instarches of different Dioscorea species – D. alata – 25%, D. rotundata and D. cayensis –23.8% and D. dumetorum -12.6%. A value of 29.7% was reported for the amylose contentof D. abyssinica starch from Ethiopia , while Soni et al. [15] obtained 24.1% for D.ballophylla starch. Only very little variation in the amylose content was observed withage of the crop for D. esculenta, D. alata and D. rotundata starches Yam starchesgelatinised over a temperature range of around 20°C and gelatinisation continued evenafter 95°C showing strong intermolecular linkages. The RVA results on pasting ofdifferent yam species indicate the values to range between 75 and 83°C, the highestbeing for D dumetorum and lowest for D. cayensis starch [56]. D. abyssinica starch hada gelatinisation temperature of 73°C . Nkala et al. [59] examined the starch of D.dumetorum from dry and wet seasons and found the values to be similar, ie. 83°C. Thelarge range for yam starches may be attributed to the presence of phosphate linkages inthese starches (similar to potato starch).

All the yam starches showed a characteristic pattern of slow rise in viscosity andeven after 95°C, an increase in viscosity was noticed. This implies that all the granulesdo not gelatinise at 95°C and some of them gelatinise only during the holding period. Inthis respect the yam starches resemble potato starch. The viscosities of starch of fourvarieties of D. esculenta extracted using water and ammonia solution showed onlyminor difference between the varieties (800-950 BU), but the viscosities of starchextracted using ammonia solution were much higher than those obtained by waterextraction. For D.alata starch, there were no clear peak viscosity values. As observed forthe D. esculenta starch, there was no noticeable breakdown in viscosity on heating andstirring For most yam starches, the viscosity breakdown was quite low in spite of thehigh viscosity levels. The yam starches contain three to four times more phosphorus thanthat in cassava and aroid starches. It has been reported that the phosphate linkages inpotato starch are responsible for its high viscosity and such effects may also be importantin the yam starches.. Gebre-Mariam and Schmidt [60] have obtained 781, 756, 1282 BUfor peak viscosity, hot paste viscosity and cold viscosity respectively for D. cayensisstarch showing low breakdown, but high setback for this starch. Farhat et al. [56] haveexamined the viscosity properties of four yam species (Fig. 4). The peak viscositiesranged from 2028 mPas for D dumetorum to 3893 mPas for D. cayensis compared to8900 mPas for potato and 3134 mPas for cassava starches. The breakdown in viscositywas much lower compared to cassava and potato starches and in conformity with theresults obtained with the Brabender Viscograph. The final viscosity was slightly higherthan peak viscosity indicating a tendency to retrograde. Among these species, D.dumetorum had all the viscometric parameters lower than the other three and in supportof earlier results [60]. Nkala et al. [59] did not observe much difference in the viscosityparameters of D. dumetorum starch during the dry and wet seasons. The RVA profiles

of starch of some varieties of D. alata, D. esculenta and D. rotundata harvested atdifferent maturity have revealed that maturity did not affect the rheological properties toany major extent

Swelling volume values of starch of six clonal selections of D. rotundata showedonly slight differences among them. The swelling volume of D. abyssinica starchincreased from 10 to 23ml g-1 as temperature was increased from 65 to 85°C. Therelatively lower swelling of Dioscorea starch compared to potato starch has beenattributed to the higher lipid content in the starch and also higher inter-associative forcescompared to potato starchThe solubility of D. abyssinica starch was found to be enhanced with temperature andthe values resembled those of maize starch [60]. The solubility of starch of yamspretreated with various chemicals was affected to different extent by the chemicals usedand also the concentration. The values were between 18-32%.

Dioscorea starches have almost equal clarity as cassava starch, indicating thattheir associative forces are similar. Variation was not observed among different varietiesof Dioscorea alata, D. esculenta and D. rotundata starches.

The Dioscorea starches have relatively poor digestibility in the native state (20%)similar to potato starch. However gelatinisation leads to much higher digestibility.

Colocasia granules are among the smallest of starches observed in the plantkingdom making them useful in various applications eg. as a filler in biodegradableplastics, in toilet formulations, aerosol etc [61]. Strauss and Griffin [62] have examineda large number of taro cultivars and found maximum granules having size of 5.10 m andleast in the size 1.79 m with a mean value of 3.34 m. Unlike other tuber crop starches,which do not exhibit any significant variability in size with varietal differences,Colocasia starch was found to exhibit varietal difference. Studies on 10 varieties revealeda significant difference in average granule size (Fig 5)[63]. The average granule size andthe distribution of the granule sizes showed only minor difference between the corms andcormels of four cultivars of Colocasia . Although variation existed among the cultivars,no significant variability was noticed within a cultivar during the growth period.

Colocasia starch has an ‘A’XRD pattern similar to cassava and sweet potato starches.

Colocasia esculenta starch showed a wide range in the amylose content and noticeable

relationship between the amylose content and granule size was observed. The variety C-9

having the largest granule size possessed the highest amylose content among 10 varieties

examined [63]. Strauss and Griffin [62] found that the maximum value for amylose

content was 43% and minimum 3% and a mean value of 24.04%. They could not obtain

correlation between amylose content and granule size. DSC studies indicated that

Colocasia starch has Tonset values over 80°C and Tend values above 85.0°C , these being

the highest among the starches [18]. Strauss and Griffin [87] found the gelatinisation

temperature of different varieties of Colocasia starch to range from 69 to 74°C. Pasting

temperatures by Brabender viscography of different cultivars of Colocasia esculenta

showed only very slight difference between the varieties, but were distinctly higher than

those of cassava and sweet potato starches. Considerable difference in peak viscosity

values among the accessions was observed. It was also interesting to observe that starch

from the C9 variety having the highest granule size and amylose content had the highest

peak viscosity. There was only nominal breakdown in viscosity even at the highest

concentrations pointing to the possibility of using this starch in various applications,

which require paste stability.

Considerable variation in swelling volume of different varieties of Colocasia has also

been reported. The values ranged from 26.5 to 60 ml g-1 – which indicates a high degree

of variability. ]. Inverse relationship was noticed between the granule size and swelling

volume of ten accessions of taro. The clarity of colocasia starch is, as expected, poor and

the values are closer to that of cereal starches. In vivo digestibility of colocasia starch

was found to be good both in native and gelatinisd forms

Xanthosoma starch possessed granular size ranging from 10-50um (Tab.4) and

the starch granules are round . The starch possesses an ‘A’ RXD pattern and the amylose

content is in the range 15-25%, similar to most other tuber starches. The gelatinisation

temperature of the starch ranged from 68-95 C by RVA and 79-92C by DSC.

Valetudie et al [65] found that starch of fresh and freeze dried tubers had similar

gelatinisation temperatures. The Tonset and Tend for the starch were between 68-90C

obtained by various workers. The gelatinisation enthalpy ranged from 9-15 J/g [18].

The Brabender viscosity values showed the starch to have medium viscosity (600 BU for

a 5% paste) with low breakdown. Varietal difference was not evident. The starch has

a swelling volume of 20ml/g . In vivo digestibility of the starch was found to be quite

good both in native and gelatinised form being over 60%.

Amorphophallus starch granules are round or polygonal with a granular size of 3-

30um. The starch has an ‘A’ XRD pattern and there was very little variation in the

amylose content among different varieties [66] Variability in the viscosity properties of

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius starch extracted from ten accessions was quite minor .

The viscosity breakdown for the starch samples was very low, similar to other aroid

starches and in the same range as the cereal starches. Soni et al. [35] observed a value of

440 BU at 5% concentration and a breakdown of 40 BU, while Wankhede and Sajjan

[67] reported peak viscosity of 1570 BU at 10% concentration with a breakdown of

270BU.

Other minor root starches.

Arrowroot.

The starch granules are round or polygonal in shape and possess ‘A’ XRD pattern. The

amylose content ranges from 16-27%. The starch has a pasting temperature of 75-92C

and the DSC values are Tonset :68.5C, Tend :85C. Gelatinisation enthalpy is 4.4J/g [23]

which appears to be too low. The reported swelling volume for the starch is 23ml/g.

Pacchyrrhizus.

The granules are round, cupoliform or polyhedral with size range of 6-35um. The starch

has ‘A’ diffraction pattern , amylose content of 17-25% [18] , gelatinisation temperature

of 63-76°C by DSC and H of 13.65J/g [18]. It gives a viscosity of 600 BU for 5% paste

and breakdown is less than 100BU and has low set back viscosity.

Arracacha Arracacha, Peruvian carrot, Arracacia xanthorrhiza. The starchgranules are similar to cassava starch granules, and spherical or ovoid in shape,with size range of 5-27mu. The starch contains very little amylose and hence is asource of high amylopectin starch. The starch is easily digestible and hence findsimportance in food applications [69,70].

3. Chinese water chestnut . Starch grains round or irregular have a size upto 27umThe starch finds use in canned foods because of good digestibility. .

4. East Indian arrowrootThe starch extracted is pure white similar to cassava and arrowroot. Grains arepolyhedrons or hemisphere and 8-40 um in size.

5. Giant taro, The starch grains are small, irregular with 1-5 um in size. Theamylose content is approximately 21%

6. Coleus The starch granules are round or oval with a size range of 4-46um. Theamylose content is higher compared to other tuber starches viz. 33%. It has aswelling volume of 33ml/g.

7. Lotus root The starch grains are long and elongated and are rather big in size 65-100um.

8. Queensland arrowroot The starch is characterised by its high phosphorus

content and hence possesses high viscosity. The granules are oval or polyhedral inshape and have size range of 5-44um. It gives ‘B’ XRD pattern. The amylosecontent is quite high (28%). The pasting temperature ranges from 65-95°C and

DSC values for Tonset and Tend are 65 and 85°C respectively. The starch has veryhigh viscosity and can be attributed to the high P content in the starch. The starchforms a strong gel even at 3% concentration and has excellent application asfood grade starch. [70]

9. Shoti This starch is similar to Coleus starch in view of its high P content. Thegranules are elliptical in shape 14-42um in size. It gives ‘B’ XRD pattern, has anamylose content of 25-28%. The swelling volume is 19-30 ml/g and solubility of11-23%. The DSC values are 74-79°C for T onset and 82-97°C for Tend . H is 16-17J/g. The starch possesses very high viscosity and gel strength and hence veryuseful in food applications. [71]

10. Swamp taro Starch granules are round or angular and 4-18um in size

The starch properties of non-tuber sources have also been studied, and the available datais presented below.

1. Breadfruit.

Tumalii and Wootton [72] have studied the starch properties of seven varieties ofBreadfruit. The dry pulp contains nearly 77% starch and easily extractable. The granuleshad a size range of 0.5-36 um ( average 3-5um ) in an image analyser. The starchpossesses a ‘B’ XRD pattern. The starch has a two stage swelling and the swelling powervaried from 13-31 g/g at 90C. The solubility varied from 8-22% among the varieties. The8% Brabender viscosity value was 2400 (Peak) with around 300 BU breakdown and lowsetback. Amylose content was 16-22%. Adewusi [73] has reported lipid content of0.17% and similar amylase content but much lower swelling and solubility. Sago Sim et al [74] have examined starch properties of sago starch. The granules areellipsoidal in shape with pits at one or both ends. The amylose content is 31% - highercompared to many other starches. The unit chain length (20-23) was similar to cerealand potato starches . The starch exhibited two stage swelling and at 95°C , the swellingwas nearly 90 while solubility was 40-60 % at the same temperature. The 5% starch pastehad a PV of 590 BU but showed only low breakdown or setback. Mango Starch yield from the seeds is around 21% and the starch has a fat content of0.36% The average granular size is 17um and round in shape. The unit chain length is19. The starch has a swelling of 212% at 95°C C with a solubility of 32% at the sametemperature. The viscosity was found to be 192cP, slightly lower than cassava starch.The gelatinisation temperature was similar to cassava and sweet potato starches.[75]

Amaranthus Many reports are available on this starch. The starch content is over 60% in the dry seeds

The reported fat content varied from 0.05% to a quite high value of 1.8%. Thegranules are very small almost ten times as small as maize starch with angularpolygonal in shape. Most of the species have very low amylose content and hencecan serve as source of waxy starch. The starch possesses ‘A’ XRD pattern withstrong peaks showing high crystallinity. Conflicting reports are available onswelling and solubility. Whereas Stone and Lorenz [76] found only 10 %swelling, Paredez-Lopez [77] found much higher values for swelling. Thesolubility vales reported range from 33 to 80% at 95°C. The DSC data on thestarch show Tonset of 68-71° C , T peak of 78°C and Tend of 87°C and a H of 12-14J/g. The starch has a pasting temperature of 67°C , PV of 400-540 BU at 8%concentration, with around 40 % breakdown and a small setback. Clarity of thestarch paste is not very good [78]. The in vitro digestibility of the starch is quitehigh > 65% [79,80]. The synerisis of the starch is lower than that of corn duringstorage in the cold and hence can be used in many food items. Hoover et al [79]also found that environmental and varietal effects play a part in deciding starchproperties. Stone and Lorenz [76] found that bread and cake quality were not goodon using this starch. Singhal and Kulkarni [78] suggest that high paste viscosity,freeze thaw stability and stability under pressure cooking indicate its use in frozenand canned foods. Similarly, the starch will be useful in salad dressing wherefinely divided oil-in-water emulsion is formed . On the other hand, low pasteclarity and poor stability under acidic conditions limit their food applications.

Tacca starch granules are tiny compared to many other starches, the average size being3.5um and possess polyhedral edges. No hilum is visble. The amylose content is similarto most other starches viz., 22.5%. The pasting temperature is 72-75°C The swellingpower is quite high similar to other tuber starches. The solubility is high compared topotato starch and may be due to weak associate forces. Clarity is lower compared topotato or maize starches. This starch may have good applicability in tablet production inview of smaller grains.

Plantain Unripe plantain contains around 88.6% starch in its flour and the flour is usedin baby foods as a source of energy. The granules have irregular shape sheroid orelongated with a size of 10-50um. Lii et al [81] studied the granule size during thegrowth period , but most granules were in the range 20-60 um. The fat content is 0.09 to0.33% and phosphorus content is very low, The starch possseses a B XRD pattern. DSCresults showed a wide variation among the varieties but most of the starches had T onset

around 65°C , Tend 78°C and H of 10-13J/g [82]. It has very high gel strength(182Kg/cm compared to maize 13Kg/cm. The starch has restricted swelling power andsolubilities showed similar trend. The gelatinisation temperature was 75-81°C. The peakviscosity is double that of corn at similar concentration and the breakdown is almost nil .The set back is low. Mota etal [82] found variability in RVA values for the differentvarieties. In view of low breakdown and high gel strength, it can serve as good sourceof starch for food applications. Okenia

Sanchez_Hernandez et al [83] obtained 36% starch yield from the seeds,. The granulesare round with a diameter of 1-3um, showing it be another small granule source andhence useful in many special applications. The fat content in starch is 0.18% much lowerthan maize starch. The swelling and solubility are in the range of 20g/g and 19%respectively at 100°C . The starch does not have good freeze thaw stability indicating itmay not be good for frozen foods. Clarity is similar to maize starch paste. Quinoa The starch granules are polygonal and extremely small 0.4-2um The fat content in thestarch is 0.11% and amylose content is very low 9-11 [84]. The gelatinisationtemperatures is 61 -68° C. The swelling power is 20 at 95° C while solubility is only 4%showing it to be very strong in associative forces. The Brabender Viscosity value for 5%paste showed high values: 980 BU for peak, and 1900 BU for cold paste indicating highsetback. Lorenz [85] found that the thickening power of the starch was better than manyother starches as indicated by the result that the filling prepared from the this starch hadhighest viscosity after 5 days. However cakes and bread made from this starch were poorin quality. Cereals 1. Enset starch contains relatively high quantity of lipid viz. 0.25 %. The granules areangular and elliptical with an average granular size of 44um . Gebre-Mariam and Schmidt[86] have also observed granular distribution of this starch to be similar to potatostarch. The starch possesses B XRD pattern . The amylose content is 29%, the swellingpower is 80 at 85° C while solubility at the same temperature is 37%. The starch has anTonset of 61.8°C Tpeak of 65.2°C and Tend71.7°C. The H is 21.6 J/g which appears quitehigh compared to other starches. The Brabender Viscosity values (6%) of this starch arePV-884, VH 6090, Vc 1045BU. The breakdown and setback being higher than maize butlower than potato pr cassava starches. The low breakdown of the starch paste indicates itcan be used as a food starch in products requiring low cohesiveness.Sorghum The starch contains quite large quantity of lipids as can be expected for cerealstarches. Wankhede [87] obtained a value of 1.2% for one Indian variety The granulesare round or polygonal in shape with the size ranging 8-20um thus being quite small.Stark et al [88] did not observe any difference in gelatinisation pattern between smallerand larger granules. The reported amylose content varies from 21-30% . The starch has aswelling power of 15 at 90° C while solubility is nearly 20% at this temperature. Thegelatinisation temperature ranges from 68-78°C and pasting temperauture is 75.5° C. The8% starch paste has a PV of 800, VH 420 and Vc of 1228 BU respectively indicating highbreakdown and very high setback similar to cereal starches. Native and gelatinised starchhad amylase digestibility of 55-60% and 70% respectively . The good digestibility andsmall granular size is helpful in its use.in food.

Tef. Bultosa et al [89] have studied starch properties of five varieties. The starch granules arepolygonal in shape and have a size range of 2-6 um similar to most cereal starches. SEMrevealed the granules to be smooth. . The amylose content was 27-28% for the varietiesby iodimetry and Concavlin precipitation methods. The gelatinisation temperature was67-80°C. by microscopy, thus being similar to rice starch. .RVA analyses showed a valueof around 74 °C for pasting temperature, 250-190 RVU for Peak Viscosity, 170-200 for

Hot paste viscosity and 280-300 for cold viscosity . The results show very low breakdownand setback. The values are lower than those for maize starches. The starch can be usefulin foods requiring long duration of storage . Other starchesBamboo The starch extracted from the culm of bamboo from Mexico had a fat contentof 0.31% and amylose content of 24%. The granules are polygonal ranging in size from 1-12um, thus being comparatively small. The starch has a gelatinisation temperature of63- 67°C similar to cassava starch. The starch has a low viscosity and even at 12% thepeak viscosity is only around 400BU. The starch has low level of breakdown and verylittle set back. The swelling power and solubility are very low (< 5) below 80°C. .However the solubility increases at high temperatures [90]Black pepper contains 28-49% starch and Malabar varieties have maximum starchcontent. Bhat and Tharanathan [91] have examined the starch properties. The starchgranules are extremely small (2-2.5um) much smaller than rice or corn starches. SEMrevealed hexagonal and polygonal shapes and smooth surfaces. The amylose content islow : 17-18% . The gelatinisation temperatures determined microscopically was 70-75°C.The 10% starch paste has a peak viscosity of 530 BU reducing to 455BU at holding andreaching 550BU on cooling indicating low viscosity, breakdown and setback for thestarch. Swelling power was quite low (<15) while solubility increases at temperaturesabove 70C. The starch had low amylase digestibility (< 30%). Bhat and Tharanathan [91]suggest that the strength of granules under mechanical shear and low breakdown andsetback can make this starch very useful in food applications, .

Buffao gourd Starch from three varieties of the starch revealed that the starch containsupto 1.14% crude lipids [92]. The granules range in size from 2-24um, average being9um. XRD pattern is ‘ B’ for the starch. The amylose content is similar to most otherstarches viz. 21-23%. Gelatinisation temperatures are in the range 59-69C. The swellingpower varied from 14-26% while the solubility was 8-15%. The brookfield viscosity of4% starch paste was as follows: initial pasting temperature 66-81, maximum viscosity of12-15 Poises and very little breakdown or setback. The low swelling power solubility andviscosity indicate strong associative forces in the molecules.

Pulses

Chick Pea, Cow Pea and Horse gram. The starches from these have been studied byEl Faki et al, [93]. The starch granules had varying sizes, 8-54um for chick pea, 4-39umfor cow pea and 15-85um for horsegram starches. The shape varies from large oval shapeto small spherical and with smooth surfaces. Chick pea and horsegram starches had BXRD pattern while it was A for cow pea. The amylose content for the starches were in therange 32-34%. The gelatinisation temperature ranged from 60-75°C for chick andcowpea while it was 71-80°C for horse gram. The cow pea and horsegram starches hadmuch higher viscosity compared to chick pea, the vales being around 1500 BU for horsegram and cowpea compared to 600 for chick pea at 10% level

Winged bean. Umadevi and Wankhede [94] have studied the starch properties ofwinged bean starch. The starch granules are of two types : oval (25-36um) and round (10-12um). Under polarised light, they show strong centric crosses. The lipid content is

0.95% . The amylose content obtained by fractionation is 36% similar to other legumestarches . The gelatinisation temperature ranged from 61-70°C . The swelling powerincreases with temperature reaching 18.5 at 100°C, the solubility being 15% at thistemperature. The digestibility of the native starch by alpha amylase was very low (15%),but increased to 40% on gelatinisation. However glucoamylsase completely hydrolysedgelatinised starch.

Baby Lima Bean The starch granules are oval in shape and size ranging from 10-52um,average being 18um. The starch has a fat content of 0.54% while amylose content is32.7% similar to other bean starches. The gelatinisation temperature using DSC was 75-87°C which can be considered high. The gel strength of the starch paste is quite high .The swelling power increased above 70°C and reached 19.9g/g at 90°C . while thesolubility was 12% at 90C . The Brabender viscosity values were as follows: PeakViscosity 668, VH 612, VC 850 indicating only low breakdown and setback. The starchshowed high synerisis explained on basis of high amylose content in the starch. Thestarch properties show that it can be incorporated into baked and canned foods due tohigher gelatinisation temperature and water absorption capacity, but use as thickeningand gelling agent in frozen or refrigerated foods is limited due to high synerisis.[95]

Velvet bean.

The starch granules are oval having size range of 15-30um. The fat content is 0.4% whileamylose content is quite high at 39%. Gelatinisation temperature is 70-80°Cmicroscopically. DSC data indicate the Tpeak at 75°C . The gel strength is good. Theselling power is 17g/g at 90C while solubility is 15%. The Brabender viscosity did notshow any maximum and viscosity values are lower compared to lima bean. Bentancur etal [96] conclude that the starch is good for products that require cooking at hightemperatures during manufacture since it maintains good consistency during processing.

4. Modification of starches. It is obvious that different starches have different physicochemical and functionalcharacteristics. Some of these may be desirable whereas others make them unsuitable forspecific applications. So attempts have been made to modify the starches so that theundesirable properties are eliminated while the desirable ones are retained. Themodifications can be achieved by different techniques which include physical andchemical treatments and biotechnological techniques. Among the physical treatmentsthermal treatments are most common, but radiation has also been tried. In view of theavailability of a large number of hydroxyl groups in the starch molecules, it is possible toprepare a large number of derivatives. The most common chemical derivatisation includeesterification, etherification and crosslinking. These alter the starch propertiessignificantly depending on the level of modification and the nature of the derivative. Useof microorganisms to alter the properties is a simple method, but with advent of genetechnology it has been possible to completely alter the starch structure

Cassava starch. The physical methods tried to modify the starch include heat-moisture treatment, steam pressure treatment and gamma radiation. Heat-moisturetreatment under low levels of moisture improved the product quality as observed by Raja[97]. When the flour was sieved and heat moisture treated, the stickiness associated withuntreated flour during production of various food items could be drastically broughtdown. Treatment with dilute phosphoric acid improved the textural quality of cassavaflour and suitable for food products. [98] Steam pressure treatment of starch wasattempted at various pressures and period of treatment. It was found that the viscositycame down considerably depending on the severity of treatment [99]. Along withreduction of viscosity, the breakdown was lowered. Reduction in breakdown is verydesirable since it will be useful in reducing the cohesiveness of the starch paste. Heat-moisture and steam pressure treatments bring about reduction on viscosity andbreakdown by strengthening the associate bonds among the starch molecules in thegranules. This leads to lower swelling of the granules and less breakdown under heat andshear. The food products prepared from heat-moisture or steam pressure treated starcheswere actually found to be superior in texture and acceptability. Another important effectof heat-moisture treatment has been to impart fat-like characteristic to the starch andhence can find use as fat-substitute in dietary foods. Radiation modifies viscosityproperties by bringing about partial breakdown of starch and leading to easy handling ofstarch-based food product.

Chemical treatments can be either simple complexation with a chemical or chemicalreaction. It is well documented that lipids and surfactants can form strong complexeswith starch. Originally it was thought that only amylose complexexs with the reagents,but the role of amylopectin has also been established. These chemicals can modify thestarch properties considerably. The interaction of different starches with lipids andsurfactants has been widely studied. Hoover and Hadziev [100] used Glyceryl MonoStearate to reduce the stickiness of mashed potato and attributed the effect to thecomplexation of soluble amylose portion of the starch with GMS and preventing itsleaching out. DSC studies using native lipids on tuber starches have shown that thoughthe tuber starches do not have inherent lipids associated them, there is no hindrance forthe starches to complex with lipids. So lipids at very low levels can be used to modifystarch properties for possible food applications. The effect of various type of surfactantson the rheological properties of cassava starch has been examined and it was found thatdifferent types of surfactants affected the viscosity properties differently. Sodium stearateand sodium laurate stabilised the viscosity of the starch even at 0.3M concentrations. Sothese surfactants can be useful in improving the texture of the cassava paste in foodapplications. It was also observed that when cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide as used ,the surfactant complexed with the soluble amylose portion of cassava starch and thus thissurfactant can be used to suppress the cohesive nature of the starch paste [101] .

Chemical Derivatisation. Various ester and ether derivatives have been prepared fromcassava starch. Among the esters, the most common one is starch acteate prepared byreaction of starch with acetic anhydride in dilute alkali or pyridine. Whereas use ofpyridine results in high DS, alkali gives only low levels of DS. However, use of pyridineis not desirable in production of derivatives for food application. Starch acetate has alower gelatinisation compared to native starch and this has advantage in food products inwhich heat-labile components are to be incorporated. Another advantage of the starchesters is the slowing down of retrogradation. Esterification tends to weaken theassociative forces by reducing the available hydroxyl groups [102]. The bulky estergroups prevent parallel association of the starch molecules thus reducing the tendency ofthe starch to settle. This phenomenon helps in improving the freeze thaw stability of thestarch paste, useful in canned and stored food products. When derivatives of cassavastarch were compared, acetylated and propylated derivatives had better clarity, thoughonly to a small extent. The clarity was best when pyridine-acetic anhydride was used foracetylation, probably due to the high D.S. achieved. Similarly starch propionate andstarch succinate derivatives have been prepared which also have applications in foodproducts. Cassava starch phosphate prepared by dry heating of starch-phosphate mixturehas very high viscosity and finds use in instant puddings and similar products.

Crosslinking is a very useful modification technique to improve starch properties.Cassava starch paste tends to undergo breakdown when subjected to heat and shear. Byuse of crosslinking the starch molecules are strengthened preventing easy disintegrationof starch. Some of the common crosslinking reagents used include phosphorusoxychloride, sodium tri polyphosphate and epichlorohydrin. Knight[103] has found thatcrosslinking improved the viscosity stability of cassava starch and can be incorporatedinto bread products, The freeze thaw stability could be improved by esterification of thecrosslinked starch. Starches with multiple modifications are available for specificapplications. These products have improved viscosity stability and better freeze thawstability. Heat moisture treatment of starch derivatives can also yield products useful asfat substitutes.

Use of microorganisms to modify cassava starch has been practised since long .Sour starch obtained by natural fermentation has been used for preparation of bread inBrazil and Colombia and the fermented starch has better raising properties compared topnative starch. Attempts have been made to reduce the fermentation time by using betterand more efficient cultures [104]. Use of inoculum provided fermentation also improvedthe baking potential of cassava starch [33]

Modification of other starches.

Unlike cassava starch , derivatives of other starches have not been commonlyreported. Acetylated, succoynilated and hydroxypropylated amaranthus starch haveimproved freeze thaw stability [105,106] . Steam pressure treatment of the D. alata andD. rotundata starch reduced the viscosity depending on the pressure and time of treatmentThe peak viscosity came down to nil value at 15 psi for 60 minutes for both the starches[107] and hence steam pressure treatment can be attempted for the modification of yamstarch. Cold water solubility has been incorporated into banana starch by alcohol-alkali

treatment [109]. There is scope for modification of the lesser known starches whichpossess some inherent properties like high gel strength, viscosity and digestibility so thatthey can replace the chemically modified starches for specific applications.

5. New Trends

Though there is a wide range of starch available with different properties, the demand fortailor made starches for specific applications is always rising. In spite of the fact thatchemical methods are available for modification of starches is available, these are facingopposition from the health-conscious consumer in view of the hazards of using chemicalsespecially in food uses. So attempts are being made to modify starch at molecular levelby using modern biotechnological tools. In addition to conventional methods byhybridisation of varieties, use of modern biotechnological tools can bring about starchmodifications. Production of high amylose or high amylopectin starch by genemodification has been achieved in many crops, but very little progress has been made inthe case of tropical tuber crops. Though commercial production of high-amylose or highamylopectin cassava varieties have not started, Visser and his group have madeconsiderable progress in developing high amylose and high amylopectin cassava starch. Itis hoped that this will be extended to other crops and soon they will also be available forexploitation.

It is also feasible to bring about other types of modification such as highphytoglycogen starches, changing the granule sizes, altering chain lengths and branchingpatterns and introduction of -linkages in starch. These modifications are possible withthe emerging new knowledge on the genes responsible for deciding these factors and newtechniques available for gene modification. By applying these techniques it may bepossible to produce starch with all desirable characteristics in the near future.

REVIEWREFERENCES

1. M.Flach and F. Rumawas Plants yielding non-cereal Carbohydrates, Vol. 9.Wageningen PROSEA 1996.

2. Verheij, E. W.M. and Coronel. R.E. Edible fruits and Nuts, Vol. 2. , WageningenPROSEA, 1992. 3. Norman, M.J.T., Pearson, C.J. and Searle, The ecology of tropical food crops,,Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, , 1984.

4. CSIR,Wealth of India, New Delhi.

5. Kipps, M.S, Production of field crops,., Bombay Tata-McGraw Hill Publishing Co., ,1970..

6. Tudge, C Food crops for the future,., Oxford Basil Blackwell Ltd., , 1988,

7. Advances in Horticulture, New Delhi, Malhotra Publishers,.

8. Onwueme, I.C, Tropical Tuber Crops,., , New York, John Wliey & sons, 1978,

9. Kay D.E Crop and Product Digest No.2, London TDRI, 1987.

10. Balagopalan, C.. Padmaja, G, .Nanda S.K and. Moorthy S.N , Cassava in Food,Feed and Industry,: Florida, CRC Press Inc. ,. 1987

11..Ghosh, S.P.Jos J.S, T.Ramanujam, T, .Moorthy , S.N and. Nair R.G, Root Crops: ,New Delhi, Oxford-IBH, 1988 .

12. Hoover, R., (2001),’ Composition, molecular structure and physicochemicalproperties of tuber and root starches- a review’ , Carbohyd. Polymers, 2001, 45,253-267.

13.. Whistler, R.L.BeMiller J.N, and.Paschall E.F Starch Chemistry andTechnology 2nd Ed., , New York , Acad Press, 1984

14. . Moorthy, S.N., Tuber Crop Starches, ,Tech. Bull., Trivandrum CTCRI, 2001.

15.. Rickard, J.E. Asaoka M and.Blanshard: J.M.V , 1991, The physicochemical

properties of cassava starch, Trop. Sci. ,1991, . 31 189-207.

16. Swinkels: J.J.M. .Composition and properties of commercial native starches,

Starch/Stärke, 1985,37, 1-5.

17. Moorthy S.N and Maini: S.B Varietal differences on the properties of cassava starch,

Proc. Seminar on Post Harvest technology of cassava, Trivandrum AFST (I), 1982,

71-74

18, Moorthy, S.N., Physicochemical and functional properties of tropical tuber starches-a

review, Starch/Stärke, 2002,, 54, 559-592.

19. Defloor, I. Dehing . I and.Delcour: J.A Physicochemical properties of cassava starch,

Starch/Stärke 1998 50 58-64.

20.. Moorthy, S.N,.Wenham J.E and.Blanshard J.M.V Effect of solvent extraction on the

gelatinization properties of starch and flour of five cassava varieties. J. Sci. Food

Agric1996. 72 329-336.

21. Asaoka M.,.Blanshard J.M.V and. Rickard J.E: Effect of cultivar and growth seasonon the gelatinisation properties of cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch, J. Sci. FoodAgric., 1992 59 53-58

22. Sriroth, . K. Wanlapatit S,.Piyachomkwan K and.Oates C.G: Improved cassava starchgranule stability in the presence of sulphurdioxide, Starch/Stärke 1998 50 466-473.

23. Perez E.E,.Breene W.M and .Bahnassey Y.A: Variation in the gelatinization profilesof cassava, sagu and arrowroot native starches as measured with different thermaland mechanical methods. Starch/Stärke. 1998 50 70-72.

24.. Stevens D.J and. Elton G.A.H: Thermal properties of Starch/Water systems,

Starch/Staerke, 1971 23 8-11.

25. E.M.Snyder: Industrial microscopy of starches, In Starch Chemistry and Technology

2nd Ed., R.L. Whistler, J.N.BeMiller, and E.F.Paschall, New York Acad Press,

1984.

26.. Moorthy: S.N Behaviour of cassava starch in various solvents Starch/ Stärke 1982

37 372-374.

27..Olorunda A.O,.Aworh O.C and.Numfor F.A: Technical note: predicting quality of

cassava products with the aid of chemical and rheological properties, J. Food

Technol., 1981 16 447-450

28.. Srivatsava , H.C., Harshe, S.N., Gharia, M.M. and Mudia, G.P., Physicochemical

studies on some starches, Starch/Starke, 1970 22 162-166.

29..Leach H.W and.Schoch T.J: Action of various amylases on granular starches. II

Structure of starch granule, Cereal Chem., 1961 38 34-46.

30. T.Nagahama, S. Fujimoto and S. Saganuma: Starches from yam, taro and cassava,

Mem. Kagoshima Univ. Res. Centre, South Pacific, 1985 6 1-10

31. ..Rosenthal F.R.T,.Nakamura, T. Espindola A.M.C and Jochimek M.R.: Structure of

starch granules, Starch/Stärke 1974 26 50-55.

32.. Padmanabhan S and. Lonsane B.K Comparative physicochemical and functional

properties of cassava starch obtained by conventional and enzyme integrated

conventional techniques, Starch / Stärke, 1992 44 328-331.

33. Moorthy S.N, Mathew George and. Padmaja G: Functional properties of the starchy

flour extracted from cassava on fermentation with a mixed culture inoculum, J. Sci.

Food Agric. 1993 61 443-447.

34.. Moorthy S.N and. Ramanujam T: Variation in properties of starch in cassava

varieties in relation to age of the crop, Starch / Stärke , 1986 38 58-61

35.. Soni P.L, .Sharma H.W, .Dobhal N.P. Bisen, , S.S. Srivastava H.C and. Gharia

M.M. The starches of Dioscorea ballophylla and Amorphaphalus campanulatus.

Comparison with tapioca starch. Starch/Stärke. 1985 37 6-9

36. Wurzburg, O.B., Modified starches: Properties and uses, Florida, CRC Press, 1986.

37. Eliassom, A.C, Carbohydrates in Food New York, Marcell and Decker, 1996.

38. . Kallabinski J and.Balagopalan C: Enzymatic starch extraction from tropical root

and tuber crops, In: Proc. Ninth Symp. Internat. Soc. Trop. Root Crops, Ed. F. Ofori

and S.K.Hahn 1991 .

39..Tian, S.J, .Rickard J.E and.Blanshard: J.M.V Physicochemical properties of sweet

potato starch, J. Sci. Food Agric. 1991 57 459-491.

40..Bouwkamp J.C: Sweet potato products: A natural Resource for the tropics, Florida

CRC Press, 1985.

41.. Noda T, Takahata Y.,. Sato T,. Ikoma H and Mochida H.: Physicochemical

properties of starch from purple and orange fleshed sweet potato roots at two levels

of fertiliser. Starch / Stärke, 1996 48 395-399.

42..Takeda Y,. Tokunaga N,.Takeda C and. Hizukuri S: Physicochemical properties of

sweet potato starches, Starch/Stärke 1986 38 345-350.

43. .Woolfe: J.A Sweet Potato: an untapped food resource, Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge , 1992 .

44..Gallant D.J,. Bewa H,. Buy Q.H,. Bouchet B,. Szylit O and. Sealy L: On ultra

structural and nutritional aspects of some tropical tuber crops, Starch/Stärke, 1982

34 255-262.

45.. Hizukuri S: Effect of environment temperauture of plants on the physicochemical

properties of their starches, J. Jap. Soc. Starch Sci., 1969 17 73-88.

46. Seog, H.M. Park Y.K., Nam, D. Y.J..Shin H and .Kim J.P: Physicochemical

properties of several sweet potato starches, Hanguk Nanghwa Hakhoechi 1987 30

179-185.

47. Madamaba L.S.P.,. Bustrillos A.R, and. San Pedro E.L: Sweet potato starch;

Physicochemical properties of whole starch. Philipp. Agric. 1975 58 338-350.

48. Garcia, A.M and Walter, W.M. Physicochemical characterisation of starch from

Peruvian sweet potato starches, Starch/Starke 1998 50 331-337.

49 . Ishiguro K,. Noda T,. Kitahara K and . Yamakuwa O: Retrogradation of sweet

potato starch, Starch / Stärke, 2000 52 13-17.

50. Collado L.S.,,. Mabesa R.C, and. Corke H.: Genetic variation in the physical

properties of sweet potato starch. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999 47 4195-4201.

51. .Moorthy S.N and. Balagopalan C :Physicochemical properties of enzymatically

separated starch from sweet potato, Trop. Sci., 1999 39 23-27

52. Guraya, H.S.Toledo R.T and .Kays S.J: Effect of cultivar and root storage on

pasting characteristics of sweet potato starch, Trop. Sci., 1998 38 57-61.

53. . Delpeuch F and Favier J.C.: Characteristics of starches from tropical food plants; -

amylase hydrolysis, swelling and solubility patterns, Ann. Technol. Agric 1980. 29

53-67.

54.. Rasper V: Investigations on starches from major starch crops grown in Ghana, II

Swelling and solubility patterns: amyloclastic susceptibility. J. Sci. Food Agric.

1969 20 642-646.

55. Moorthy S.N: Extraction of starches from tuber crops using ammonia. Carbohydrate

Polymers. 1991 16 391-398.

56. Farhat, I.A. Oguntona T and Neale R.J.: Characterization of starches from West

African Yams. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1999 79 2105-2112.

57. Rasper,V and Coursey, D.G., Properties of starch from some west African yams, J.

Sci. Food Agric., 1967, 18 240-244

58. Rolland Sabate, A., Amani, N.G., Dufour, D., Guilois, S. and Colonna, P. .

Macromolecular characteristics of ten yam (Dioscorea SPP) starches. J. Sci Food

Agric 2003 83 927-936.

59.. Nkala D. Sibanda, S ,. Tomasik P and. Palasinski M: Isolation and properties of

starch from wild yam from Zimbabwe, Starch/Stärke 1994 46 85-88

60. Gebre-Mariam T and. Schmidt P.C Some physicochemical properties of Dioscorea

starch from Ethiopia, Starch/Stärke. 1998 50 241-246.

61..Wang J.K, Taro, Honolulu , University of Hawai Press 1983.

62. . Strauss M. S and.Griffin G.J.L: Variability in taro, (Colocasia esculenta) starches-

size, gelatinisation and amylose content In: Proc. Symp. International Soc. Trop.

Root Crops, 1994 .

63. Moorthy S.N,. Thankamma Pillai P.K and. Unnikrishnan M: Variability in starch

extracted from taro, Carbohyd. Polymers, 1993 20 169-173.

64.. Moorthy S.N and. Thankamma Pillai P.K: Properties of starch of some accessions of

taro, Proc. Internatl.Symp. Trop. Tuber Crops. . 1993.

65.., Valetudie J.C,. Colonna P,. Bouchet B and. Gallant D.J: Gelatinisation of Sweet

potato, tannia and yam starches, Starch/Stärke, 1995 47 298-306.

66. Moorthy S.N.,. Unnikrishnan M and. Lakshmi K.R Physico-chemical properties of

some accessions of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Trop. Sci., 1994 34 371-376

67..Wankhede D.B and.Sajjan S.U: Isolation and physicochemical properties of starch

extracted from yam, elephant (Amorphophallus compalunatus). Starch/ Stärke1981,

33 , 153-157.

68.. Melo E.de A,. Krieger N and. Stamford T.L.M: Physicochemical properties of

Jacatupe (Pacchyrrhizus erosus L. Urban) starch. Starch/Stärke 1994 46 245-247.

69. Santacruz, S., Koch, K., Svensson, E., Ruales, J. and Eliasson, A.-C. Three under-utilised sources of starch from the Andean region in Ecuador Part I. Physico-chemical characterisation. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 2003.49, 63-70.

70..Moorthy S.N, Vimala B .and Archana Mukherjee Physicochemical and functional

properties of Canna edulis starch Trop . Sci., 2002 42 75-77.

71. . Jyothi A.N,. Moorthy S.N and Vimala B.: Physicochemical and functional

properties of starch extracted from two species of Curcuma, Int. J. Food Properties,

72. . Tumaalii, F. and Wootton, M. Properties of starches isolated from Western Samoanbreadfruit using a traditional method. Starch/Starke . 1988 40 7-10.

73. Adewusi, S. R . A. Udio, A.J. and Osuntogun, Studies on the carbohydrate contentof bread fruit ( Artocarpus communis Forst) from South-Western Nigeria ,Starch/Starke . 1995, 47 289-294.

74. Sim, S.L., Oates, C.G. and Wong, H.A. . Studies on sago starch. Part I:Characterization and comparison of sago starches obtained from Metroxylon saguprocessed at different times. Starch/Starke 1991 43 459-466.

75. El Saadany, R.M.A. Foda, Y H. and El Saadany, F.M, Studies onstarch extractedfrom mango seeds (Mangifira indica ) as a new source of starch, Starch/Starke 198032 113-116.

76. Stone, L.A and Lorenz, K. . The starch of Amaranthus – Physico-chemicalproperties and functional characteristics. Starch/Starke 1984, 36 . 232-237

77. Paredes-Lopez, O, Schevenin, M.L., Hernandez-Lopez,D. and Carabez-Trejo,Amaranthus starch-isolation and partial charcterisation Starch/Starke 1989 41.205-207.

78. Singhal R.S and Kulkarni, P.R. . Some properties of Amaranthus paniculatas(Rajgeera) starch pastes. Starch/Starke 1990 42 5-7.

79. Hoover, R., Sinnott, A.W. and Perera, C. . Physicochemical characterization ofstarches from Amaranthus cruentus grains. Starch/Starke 1998 50 . 456-463.

80. Wankhede, D.B., Gunjal, B.B., Sawate, R.A., Patil, H.B., Bhosale, M.B., Gahilod,A.T. and Walde, S.G. . Studies on isolation and characterization of starch fromRajgeera grains (Amaranthus paniculatus Lin.). Starch/Starke 1989 41 167-171.

81. Lii, C.Y., Chang, S.M. and Young, Y.L. . Investigation of the physical and chemicalproperties of banana starches. J. Food Sci 1982 47 1493-1497

82. Mota, R. V , Lajolo, F.M., Ciacco, C and Cordenunsi, B.R. Composition andfunctional properties of banana flour from different varieties. Starch/Starke 2000. 5263-68.

83. Sanchez-Hernandez, L. .,Solorza- Feria, J. ., Mendez-Montealvo, G. ., Paredez-Lopez,O. . and Bello-Perez, L.A. . Isolation and partial characterization of okenia (Okeniahypogaea) starch. Starch/Starke 2002. 54. 193-197.

84. Qian, J.Y., and Kuhn, M, Characterisation of Amaranthus cruentus and Chenopodiumquinoa starch, Starch/Starke . 1999 51, 116-120.

85. Lorenz, K., . . Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) starch – physico-chemical propertiesand functional characteristics. Starch/Starke 1990 42 81-86

86. Gebre- Mariam, T. and Schmidt, P.C. Isolation and physico-chemical properties ofenset starch. Starch/Starke . 1996 48 208-214.

87. Wankhede, D.B. Deshpande, H.W., Gunjal, B.B., Bhosale, M.B., Patil, H.B., Gahilod,A.T., Sawate, R.A., and Walde, S.G. . Studies on physicochemical, pastingcharacteristics and amylolytic susceptibility of starch from sorghum (Sorghumbicolour L Moench) grains. Starch/Starke 1989 41 123-127.

88. Stark, J.R and Aisien, A.O. . Studies on starches from Nigerian sorghum.Starch/Starke 1983 36 73-76.

89. Bultosa, G., Hall, A.N. and Taylor, J.R.N. Physico-chemical characterization of graintef (Eragrostis tef (zucc.) Trotter) starch. . Starch/Starke 2002. 54. 461-468.

90. Toledo, M.C.F., Azzini, A. and Reyes, F.G.R. . Isolation and characterization ofstarch from bamboo culm (Guadua flabellate). Starch/Starke 1987 39 . 158-160.

91. Bhat, U R and Tharanathan, R.N. Physico-chemical properties of black pepperstarch. Starch/Starke . 1983 35 189-192.

92. Dreher, M.L and Berry, J.W. . Buffalo gourd root starch. Starch/Starke 1983 35 ,76-81.

93. El Faki, H.A, Desikachar, H.S.R, Paramahans, S.V and Tharanathan, R.N. . Physico-chemical characteristics of starches from Chick Pea, Cow Pea and Horse Gram.Starch/Starke 1983 35 118-122.

94. Umadevi, S. and Wankhede, D.B. . Isolation and physicochemical properties ofstarch from Winged bean (Psophocarphus tetragonolobus). Starch/Starke 198133 .23-2695. Ancona, D.A.B., Guerrero, L.A.C, Matos, R.I.C. and Ortiz, G.D.Physicochemical and functional characterization of baby lima bean (Phaseoluslunatus) starch. Starch/Starke 2001. 53. 219-226.

96. Ancona, D.A.B., Guerrero, L.A.C, Perez, L.A.B., Ortiz, G.D. Isolation of velvet bean(Mucuna pruriens) starch: Physicochemical and functional properties. Starch/Starke2002. 54. 303-309.

97. Raja, K.C.M, Studies on physicochemical and textural qualities of cassava (Manihotesculenta Crantz0 Ph.D. thesis, Mysore, University of Mysore, 1990.

98. Moorthy, S.N., Effect of different treatments on cassava flour quality, J. Food Sci.Techn., 1981,

99.. Hoover R and Hadziyev D.: The effect of monoglycerides on amylose complexing

during a potato granule process, Starch/Stärke, 1981 33 346-355.

100 Moorthy S.N: Effect of different types of surfactants on cassava starch properties. J.Agric. Food Chem. 1985 35 1227-1232

101. . Moorthy S.N: Acetylation of cassava starch using perchloric acid catalysis,

Starch/ Stärke 1985 37 307-308.

102. Knight, J.W. Speciality Food starches, In: Cassava Processing and Storage, Ed.

Araullo., E.V., Nestle, B. and Campbell. M, Ottawa, IDRC, 1974.

103. In; Proc. International meeting on cassava starch and flour , Cali, CIAT, 1994.

104. Bhandari, P.N. and Singhal, R.S. . Effect of succinylation on the corn and amaranthstarch pastes. Carbohydrate Polymers 2002 48, 233-240.

105. Pal, J., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. Physicochemical properties ofhydroxypropyl derivative from corn and amaranth starch. Carbohydrate Polymers. 200248 49-53.

106. Moorthy S.N: Effect of steam pressure treatment on the physicochemical propertiesof Dioscorea starches, J. Agric. Food Chem., 1999 47 1695-1699

107. Bello- Perez, L.A. .Romero- Manilla, R. ., and Paredez-Lopez, O. Preparationand properties of physically modified banana starch prepared by alcoholic-alkalinetreatment. Starch/Starke 2000. 52 154-159

Rekha, S., Singhal and Kulkarni, P.R. 1990. Utilization of Amaranthus paniculatas(Rajgeera) starch in dressing. Starch/starke 42 Nr. 2, S. 52-53.

.

Abraham, T.E. and Mathew, A.G. 1985. Isolation and physico- chemicalcharacterization of coleus tuber starch. Starch/starke 37 Nr. 7, S. 217-220.

.

Perez, L.A.B., Manilla, R.R., Acapulco and Lopez, O.P. 2000. Preparation andproperties of physically modified banana starch prepared by alcoholic-alkaline treatment.Starch/starke 52 Nr. 5, s. 154-159.

.

Oluwatooyin, F., Osundahunsi, Fagbemi, T.N., Kesselman, E. and Shimoni, E. 2003.Comparison of the physicochemical properties and pasting characteristics of flour andstarch from red and white sweet potato cultivars. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51, 2232-2236.

Perez-Sira, E. 1997. Characterization of starch isolated from plantain (Musa paradisiacalnormalis). Starch/starke 49 Nr. 2, S. 45-49.

Perez-Sira, E. and Parada, Z.G. 1997. Functional properties of cassava (Manihotesculenta crantz) starch modified by physical methods. Starch/starke 49 Nr. 2, S. 49-53.

Glennie, C.W. 1987. Physico-chemical properties of sorghum starch thermally treatedby different methods. Starch/starke 39 Nr. 8, S. 273-276.

Katayama, K., Komae, K., Kohyma, K., Kato, T., Tamiya, S. and Komaki, K. 2002.New sweet potato line having low gelatinisation temperature and altered starch structure.Starch/starke 54, 51-57.

Stute, R., Heibronn, Klingler, R.W., Boguslawski, S., Eshtiaghi, M.N. and Knorr, D.1996. Effects of high pressures treatment on starches. Starch/Starke 48 Nr. 11/12. S.399-408.

Kayisu, K., Hood, L.F. and Vansoest, P.J. 1981. Characterization of starch and fiber ofbanana fruit. Volume 46 – Journal of Food Science – 1885.

****Perez, L.A.B., Acevedo, E.A., Hernandez, L.S. and Lopez, O.P. Isolation andpartial characterization of banana starches.

Qian, J.Y. and Kuhn, M. 1999. Characterization of Amaranthus cruentus andchenoposium quinoa starch. Starch/Starke 51 Nr. 4, s. 116-120.

Atichokudomchai, N., Shobsngob, S., Chinachoti, P. and Varavinit, S. 2001. A study ofsome physicochemical properties of high-crystalline tapioca starch. Starch/Starke 53.577-581.

Zhu, Z. 2003. Starch mono-phosphorylation for enhancing the stability of starch/PVAblend pastes for warp sizing. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 54, Issue 1, Pages 115-118.

Atchokudomchai, N. and Varavinit, S. 2003. Characterization and utilization of acid-modified cross-linked Tapioca starch in pharmaceutical tablets. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 53, Issue 3, Pages 263-270.

Thitipraphunkul, K., Uttapap, D., Piyachomkwan, K. and Takeda, Y. 2003. Acomparative study of edible canna (canna edulis) starch from different cultivars. Part I.Chemical composition and physicochemical properties. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume53, Issue 3, Pages 317-324.

Tavares, M.I.B., Bathista, A.L.B.S., Silva, E.O., Filho, N.P. and Nogueira, J.S. 2003. Amolecular dynamic study of the starch obtained from the Mangifera indica Cv. Bourbonand Espada seeds by 13C solid state NMR. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 53, Issue 2,Pages 213-216.

Tari, T.A., Annapure, U.S., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 2003. Starch-basedspherical aggregates: screening of small granule sized starches for entrapment of a modelflavouring compound, vanillin. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 53, Issue 1, Pages 45-51.

Carvalho, A.J.F., Job, A.E., Alves, N., Curvelo, A.A.S. and Gandini, A. 2003.Thermoplastic starch/natural rubber blends. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 53, Issue 1,Pages 95-99.

Wang, Y.J. and Wang, L. 2003. Physicochemical properties of common and waxy cornstarches oxidised by different levels of sodium hypochlorite. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 52, Issue 3, Pages 207-217.

Waliszewski, K.N., Aparicio, M.A., Bello, A.L. and Monroy, J.A. 2003. Changes ofbanana starch by chemical and physical modification. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume52, Issue 3, Pages 237-242.

Reyes, E.G., Montealvo, G.M., Feria, J.S., Vazquez, J.F.T. and Perez, L.A.B. 2003.Rheological and thermal characterization of Okenia hypogaea (Schlech. & Cham.) starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 3, Pages 297-310.

Zhai, M., Yoshii, F. and Kume, T. 2003. Radiation modification of starch-based plasticsheets. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 3, Pages 311-317.

Shogren, R.L. 2003. Rapid preparation of starch esters by high temperature/pressurereaction. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 3, Pages 319-326.

Wilhelm, H.-M., Sierakowski, M.-R., Souza, G.P. and Wypych, F. 2003. Starch filmsreinforced with mineral clay. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 2, Pages 101-110.

Szymonska, J., Krok, F., Czepirska, E.K. and Rebilas, K. 2003. Modification ofgranulator potato starch by multiple deep freezing and thawing. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 52, Issue 1, Pages 1-10.

da Silva, B.P. and Parente, J.P. 2003. Bioactve polysaccharides from Costus spicatus.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 51, Issue 3, Pages 239-242.

Santayanon, R. and Wootthikanokkhan, J. 2003. Modification of cassava starch by usingpropionic anhydride and properties of the starch-blended polyester polyurethance.xxxxxx

Santacruz, S., Ruales, J. and Eliasson, A.-C. 2003. Three under-utilised sources of starchfrom the Andean region in Ecuador. Part II. Rheological characterisation. CarbohydratePolymers Volume 51, Issue 1, Pages 85-92.

Mali, S. Grossmann, .M.V.E., Garcia, M.A., Martino, M.N. and Zaritzky, N.E. 2003.Microstructural characterization of yam starch films. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 50,Issue 4, Pages 379-386.

Tari, T.A. and Singhal, R.S. 2003. Starch-based spherical aggregates: stability of amodel flavouring compound, vanillin entrapped therein. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume54, Issue 1, Pages 417-421.

Ridout, M.J., Gunning, A.P., Parker, M.L., Wilson, R.H. and Morris, V.J. 2003. usingAFM to image the internal structure of starch granules. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume50, Issue 2, Pages 123-132.

Ongen, G., Yilmaz, G., Jongboom, R.O.J. and Feil, H. 2003. Encapsulation of α-amylase in a starch matrix. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 50, Issue 1, Pages 1-5.

Gunaratne, A. and Hoover, R. 2003. Effect of heat-moisture treatment on the structureand physicochemical properties of tuber and root starches. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 49, Issue 4, Pages 425-437.

Noda, T., kimura, T., Otani, M., Ideta, O., Shimada, T., Saito, A. and suda, I. 2003.Physicochemical properties of amylose-free starch from transgenic sweet potato.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 3, Pages 253-260.

Perry, P.A. and Donald, A.M. 2003. The effect of sugars on the gelatinisation of starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 2, Pages 155-165.

Santacruz, S., Koch, K., Svensson, E., Ruales, J. and Eliasson, A.-C. 2003. Three under-utilised sources of starch from the Andean region in Ecuador Part I. Physico-chemicalcharacterisation. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 1, Pages 63-70.

Delville, J., Joly, C., Dole, P. and Bliard, C. 2003. Solid state photocrosslinked starchbased films: a new family of homogeneous modified starches. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 49, Issue 1, Pages 71-81.

Dupuy, N. and laureyns, J. 2003. Recognition of starches by Raman spectroscopy.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 1, Pages 83-90.

Tako, M. and Hizukuri, S. 2003. Gelatinization mechanism of potato starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 48, Issue 4, Pages 397-401.

Bhandari, P.N. and Singhal, R.S. 2002. Effect of succinylation on the corn and amaranthstarch pastes. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 48, Issue 3, Pages 233-240.

Pal, J., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 2002. Physicochemical properties ofhydroxypropyl derivative from corn and amaranth starch. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 48, Issue 1, Pages 49-53.

Sun, R. and Sun, X.F. 2002. Succinoylation of sago starch in the N,N-dimethylacetamide/lithium chloride system. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 47, Issue 4,Pages 323-330.

Bhandari, P.N. and Singhal, R.S. 2002. Studies on the optimisation of preparation ofsuccinate derivatives from corn and amaranth starches. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume47, Issue 3, Pages 277-283.

Nabeshima, E.H. and Grossmann, M.V.E. 2001. Functional properties of pregelatinizedand cross-linked cassava starch obtained by extrusion with sodium trimetaphosphate.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 45, Issue 4, Pages 347-353.

Fiedorowicz, M., Tomasik, P. and Lii, C.Y. 2001. Degradation of starch by polarisedlight. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 45, Issue 1, Pages 79-87.

Bertolini, A.C., Mestres, C., Colonna, P. and Raffi, J. 2001. Free radical formation inUV- and gamma-irradiated cassava starch. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 44, Issue 3,Pages 269-271.

Pal, J., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 2000. A comparative account of conditions ofsynthesis of hydroxypropyl from corn and amaranth starch. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 43, Issue 2, Pages 155-162.

Demiate, I.M., Dupuy, N., Huvenne, J.P., Cereda, M.P. and Wosiacki, G. 2000.Relationship between baking behaviour of modified cassava starches and starch chemicalstructure determined by FTIR spectroscopy. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 42, Issue 2,Pages 149-158.

Muhammad, K., Hussin, F., Man, Y.C., Chazali, H.M. and Kennedy, J.F. 2000. Effect ofpH on phosphorylation of sago starch. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 42, Issue 1, Pages85-90.

McPherson, A.E. and Jane, J. 1999. Comparison of waxy potato with other root andtuber starches. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 40, Issue 1, Pages 57-70.

John, J.K. and Raja, K.C.M. 1999. Properties of cassava starch-dicarboxylic acidcomplexes. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 39, Issue 2, Pages 181-180.

Ahmad, F.B., Williams, P.A., Doublier, J.L., Durand, S. and Buleon, A. 1999. Physico-chemical characterisation of sago starch. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 38, Issue 4,Pages 361-370.

Sriburi, P., Hill, S.E. and Barclay, F. 1999. Depolymerisation of cassava starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 38, Issue 3, Pages 211-218.

Sarangbin, s. and Watanapokasin, Y. 1999. Yam bean starch: a novel substrate for citricacid production by the protease-negative mutant strain of Aspergillus niger .Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 38, Issue 3, Pages 219-224.

Iwuoha, C.I. and Nwakanma, M.I. 1998. Density and viscosity of cold flour pastes ofcassava (Manihot esculenta Grantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. Lam) and yam(Dioscorea rotundata Poir) tubers as affected by concentration and particle size.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 37, Issue 1, Pages 97-101.

Chattopadhyay, S., Singhal, r.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 1997. Optimisation of conditions ofsynthesis of oxidised starch from corn and amaranth for use in film-forming applications.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 34, Issue 4, Pages 203-212.

Lewandowicz, G., Fornal, J. and Walkowski, A. 1997. Effect of microwave radiation onphysico-chemical properties and structure of potato and tapioca starches. CarbohydratePolymers Volume 34, Issue 4, Pages 213-220.

[3] J.H.Cock: Cassava- Potential for a neglected crop, Westview Press, London, (1985),

p191.

[4] K.L.Chadha and G.G.Nair: Advances in Horticulture, Vol.8, Malhotra Publications,

New Delhi, (1994).

[5] S.N. Moorthy, Tuber Crop Starches, Tech. Bull. No 18, CTCRI, Trivandrum,(1994) p32.

[6] M.P.Cereda, O. Vipoux and R.P.Schmidt: The search for new natural starches for

food industries, In: International Symposium on Tropical Root and Tuber Crops,

Trivandrum, India, 19-22 January, 2000.

[7]

[8] J.K John: Studies on physico-chemical and functional properties of Dioscorea (sp)

starches. Ph.D.Thesis, Department of Chemistry, Kerala University, Trivandrum,

Kerala, India

[9] V.Sunitha Rani, Jancy K. John, S.N. Moorthy and K.C.M Raja: Effect of pre-

treatment of fresh Amorphophallus paeoniifolius tubers on the physicochemical

properties of starch, Starch / Stärke , 50 (1998) 72-77.

[10] C. Balagopalan, R. C. Ray and J. T. Sheriff: Enzymatic separation of food grade

industrial starch from sweet potato (Ipomoea batatus (L.) Lam) In: Tropical Tuber

Crops, Eds G.T.Kurup, M.S.Palaniswamy, V.P.Potty, G.Padmaja, S.Kabeerathumma

and S.V. Pillai, Oxford-IBH, New Delhi (1996) 471-474

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14] Mathew George, G. Padmaja and S.N. Moorthy: Enhancement in starch

extractability from cassava tubers through fermentation with a mixed culture

inoculum, J. Root Crops, 17 (1991) 1-9.

[15] Mathew George, S.N. Moorthy and G. Padmaja: Biochemical changes in cassava

tuber during fermentation and its effect on extracted starch and residue. J. Sci. Food

Agric. 69 (1995) 367-371.

[16] S.N. Moorthy and Mathew George: Starch properties of tuber crops, In: Advances in

Horticulture, Vol.8, Ed. K.L.Chadha and G.G.Nair, Malhotra Publications, New

Delhi, (1994) 607-702

[17]

[18] ISI: Specifications for tapioca starch for use in cotton textile industries, IS 1605-

1960, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi, (1970)

[19] J.A Radley: Starch production technology. Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London

(1976) pp.189-229

[20] J.A.Radley: Examination and analysis of starch and its derivatives, Applied Science

Publishers Ltd, London (1976)

[21] V. Rasper: Investigations on some starches from some West African root crops, In:

Proc. International Symposium of Tropical Root Crops, Vol 2(6), (1967) 48-61.

[22] D.E Kay: TDRI Crop and Product Digest No.2, TDRI, London (1987) 166-173

[23] [24]

C-Y. Lii and S-M. Chang: Studies on the starches in Taiwan, 1. Sweet potato,

cassava, yam and arrowroot starches. Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc. Republic of China 2

(1978) 416-423.

[25] [26]

A.M Garcia, and W.M. Walter: Physico-chemical characterization of starch from

Peruvian sweet potato selections. Starch/Stärke, 50 (1998) 331-337.

[27] [28] [29]

P.L. Soni, H. Sharma, H.C.Srivatsava and M.M.Gharia: Physicochemical properties

of canna edulis starch- comparison with maize starch, Starch/Stärke, 42 (1990) 460-

464.

[30] T.E.Abraham and A.G.Mathew: Isolation and physicochemical characterisation of

coleus tuber starch, Starch / Stärke, 37 (1985) 217-219.

[31] [32]

E.J. Rodriguez-Sosa, O. Parsi-Ros and M.A.Gonzalez: Effect of pH on pasting

properties of Habanero yam starch, J. Agric. Univ. Puerto Rico 65 (1981) 154-159.

[33] J.E. Rickard, M. Asaoka and J.M.V.Blanshard: The physicochemical properties of

cassava starch, Trop. Sci. 31 (1991) 189-207.

[34] K. Leelavathi, D. Indrani and J.S.Sidhu: Amylograph pasting behaviour of cereal

and tuber starches, Starch/Stärke 39 (1987) 378-381

[35] .

[36] M. Asaoka, J.M.V.Blanshard and J.E. Rickard: Seasonal effects on the

physicochemical properties of starches from four cultivars of cassava. Starch /

Stärke.43 (1991) 455-459.

[37] .

[38] F.E.P. Pacheco and M.R.M.Medina: Starch extraction from Xanthosoma

saggittifolium, Trop. Sci. 32 (1992) 203-206.

[39] [40]

S.N. Moorthy, J.E. Rickard and J.M.V. Blanshard: Influence of gelatinisation

characteristics of cassava starch and flour on the textural properties of some food

products, Internatl. Meeting on cassava starch and flour, Cali, Colombia, Jan. 1994.

[ 41]

[42] S.N. Moorthy: Properties of Coleus starch, Starch/Stärke, 38 (1986) 77-78

[43] A.C Eliasson and M. Gudmundsson: Starch: Physico-chemical and functional

aspects In: Carbohydrates in Food. Ed. A.C. Eliasson. Marcel Decker Inc. New York

(1996) pp. 431-503

[44] R.Hoover: Starch-lipid Interactions In: Polysaccharide association in foods, Ed

R,H Walter,. Marcel and Decker Inc. New York, (1998) 227-256.

[45]

[46] [47] N.Krog: Influence of food emulsifiers on the pasting temperature and viscosity

of various starches, Starch/Stärke 25 (1973) 22-27.

[48] L. Slade and H.Levine: Recent advances in starch retrogradation :In Industrial

polysaccharides Ed. S.S.Stilva, V. Crescenzi and I.C.M.Dea, Gordon and Breach

Science, New York. (1987)

[49] I.D.Evans: An investigation of starch/surfactant interactions using viscosimetry and

differential scanning calorimetry, Starch/Stärke 38 (1986) 227-235.

[50] M. Gudmundsson and A.C. Eliasson: Comparison of thermal and viscoelastic

properties of four waxy starches and the effect of added surfactants , Starch/Stärke

44 (1992) 379-385.

[51] H. Fredriksson, J Silverio, R. Andersson, A.C. Eliasson and P. Aman: The

influence of amylose and amylopectin characteristics on gelatinisation and

retrogradation properties of different starches, Carbohyd. Polymers,35 (1998) 119-

134.

[52] R. Hoover and D. Hadziyev: The effect of monoglycerides on amylose complexing

during a potato granule process, Starch/Stärke, 33 (1981) 346-355.

[53] C.G. Biliaderis and J.R. Tonogai: Influence of lipids on the thermal and mechanical

properties of concentrated starch gels, J Agric. Food Chem., 39 (1991) 833-840.

[54] C.G. Biliaderis, J.R. Tonogai, C.M. Perez and B.O. Juliano: Thermophysical

properties of milled rice starch as influenced by variety and parboiling method,

Cereal Chem., 70 (1993) 512-516.

[55] S.N Moorthy: Effect of different types of surfactants on cassava starch properties. J.

Agric. Food Chem. 35 (1985) 1227-1232.

[56] S.N. Moorthy, Y. Meizes and A.C. Eliasson: Effect of lipids on gelatinisation of

starch, Proc. International symposium on tropical root and tuber crops, 19-22,

January, 2000, Trivandrum, India.

[57] S.N. Moorthy and A.C. Eliasson: Starch-lipid interactions of tuber starches, Proc.

XIV Carbohydrate Conference, Madras, India (1999)

[58] M. Kugimiya and J. W. Donovan: Calorimetric determination of the amylose content

of starches based on formation and melting of the amylose-lysolecithin complex, J.

Food Sci. , 46 (1981) 765-770,777.

[59] D. Sievert and J. Holm: Determination of amylose by Differential Scanning

Calorimetry,, Starch/Stärke, 45 (1993) 333-338.

[60] C. Mestres, F. Matencio, B. Pons, M. Yajid and G. Fliedel: A Rapid method for the

determination of amylose content by using Differential Scanning Calorimetry ,

Starch/Stärke, 48 (1996) 2-6.

[61] S.N. Moorthy, L. Anderson, A.C. Eliasson, S. Santa Cruz and J. Ruales:

Determination of amylose content in different starches using Modulated DSC, (under

publication)

[62] .

[63]

[64]

[65] S.N Moorthy and S.G Nair: Studies on Dioscorea rotundata starch properties,

Starch / Stärke , 41 (1989) 81-83

[66] (in press)

[68] G.T.Kurup and S,K,Nanda: Storage and drying systems In: Advances in

Horticulture, Vol.8 ,Ed. K.L.Chadha and G.G.Nair, Malhotra Publications,New

Delhi,(1994) 589-607.

[69] M.S. Sajeev: Studies on settling and concentration of cassava starch suspensions,

Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India (1999)

[70] H.C.Srivatsava, S.N.Harshe, M.M.Gharia and G.P.Mudia : Physicochemical studies

on some starches, Starch/Stärke 22(1970) 162-166.

[71] C.F. Ciacco and B.L. D’Appolonia: Characterisation of starches from various

tubers and their uses in breadmaking, Cereal Chem., 54 (1977) 1096-1107.

[72] F.Meuser, H.D.Smolnik, C. Rajni and H.G.Girsemann: Comparison of starch

extraction from tapioca chips, pellets and roots, Starch/Stärke 30 (1978) 299-306.

[73] W. Banks and C.T.Greenwood: Starch and its components, Edinburg University

Press, (1975).

[74] J.C.Shannon and D.L.Garwood: Genetics and physiology of starch development In:

Starch Chemistry and Technol. 2nd Ed. R.L. Whistler, J.N.BeMiller, and

E.F.Paschall, Acad Press, New York (1984)

[75]

[76] M. Shin and S.Y.Ahn: Physicochemical properties of several sweet potao starches,

J. Korean Agric. Chem. Soc., 26 (1983) 137-142.

[77]

[78] [79] T. Suganuma and K. Kitahara: Sweet Potato starch-its properties and

utilisation in Japan, In: Proc. Intrl. Workshop on Sweet Potato production systems

towards 21st century, Kyushu National Agricultural exoerimental Station, Miyazaki,

Japan (1997) 285-294.

[80]

[81]

[82] F.W.Martin and S.N.Deshpande: Sugars and starches in a non-sweet potato

compared to those of conventional cultivars, J. Agric. Univ. Puerto Rico 69 (1985)

401-406.

[83] O. Szylit, M.Durand, L.P.Borgida, H. Atinkpahoun, F. Prieto and J. Devort-Lavel:

Raw and steam-pelleted cassava, sweet potato and yam cayensis as starch sources for

ruminant and chicken diets, Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 3 (1978) 73-87

[84] T. Noda, Y. Takahata and T. Nagata: Developmental changes in properties of sweet

potato starch, Starch / Stärke, 44 (1992) 405-409.

[85] G.T.L.Griffin: Non-food applications of starch, especially potential uses of taro, In:

Small scale processing and utilisation of tropical root crops, Westview Press,

Colorado, (1979)

[86]

[88] [89]

[90]

[91] .

[92] Santha N., Sudha,K.G., Vijayakumari, K.P., Nayar, V.U. and S.N. Moorthy: Raman

and Infrared spectra of starch samples of sweet potato and cassava. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. (Chem. Sci.) 102 (1990) 705-712.

[93] M.L.Dreher and J.W.Berry: Buffalo gourd starch Part I: Properties and Structure.

Starch/Stärke , 35(1983) 76-81.

[94] H. F. Zoebel: Molecules to granules- A comprehensive starch review, Starch/Stärke

40 (1988) 44-50.

[95] A. Kawabata, S. Sawayama, N. Nagashima, R.del Rosaria and M.Nakamura: Some

physicochemical properties of starches from cassava, arrowroot and sago, J. Jap. Soc.

of Starch Sci., 31 (1984) 224-232.

[96] C.M.L.Franco, C.F.Ciacco and D.Q.Tavares: Studies on the susceptibility of granular

cassava and corn starches to enzymatic attack, Part 2. Studies on the granular

structure of starch, Starch / Stärke 40 (1988) 29-32.

[97] [98] P.Sriburi and S.E.Hill: Extrusion of cassava with either variation in ascorbic

acid concentration or pH, Int. J.Food Sci. Technol. 35 (2000) 141-154.

[99] F. Delpeuch, J.C.Favier and R. Chabonniere: Characteristics of starches of tropical

food plants, Ann. Technol. Agric., 27 (1978) 809-826.

[100] W.C.Chiang and K.L.Chen: Comparison of physicochemical properties of starch

and amylolytic enzyme activity of various sweet potato varieties, Shih Pin Ko Hsueh

(Tapei) 15 (1988) 1-11.

[101] [102] Z. Nikuni, S. Hizukuri, S. Fujii, K. Doi, H. Hasegawa, T. Moriwaki, S. Nara

and I. Maeda: Effect of cultivating soil temperature on the properties of sweet potato

starch, Agric. Chem. Soc. (Japan), 37 (1963) 673-676.

[103] A.E. McPherson and J. Jane: Characteristics of selected tuber and root starches.

Cereal Foods World, 42 (1997) 668.

[104] J.K John, V. Sunitha Rani, K.C.M Raja and S.N Moorthy: Physicochemical and

enzyme susceptibility characteristics of starch extracted from chemically pretreated

Xanthosoma sagittifolium roots, Starch/Stärke , 51 (1999) 86-89.

[105] L. Sair, Heat-moisture treatment of starch, Cereal Chem., 44 (1967) 8-26.

[106] S.N Moorthy: Effect of steam pressure treatment on the physicochemical properties

of Dioscorea starches, J. Agric. Food Chem., 47 (1999) 1695-1699.

[107] K. Lorenz and K. Kulp: Cereal and Root starch modification by heat-moisture

treatment, Starch/Stärke, 34 (1982) 50-54.

[108] M. Ceh, C. Stropnick and L.Leksovar: Potentiometric determination of molecular

weights of starches, Starch / Stärke, 28 (1976) 51-54.

[109] Y. Takeda, K. Shirasaka and S. Hizukuri: Examination of the purity and structure

of amylose by gel permeation chromatography, Carbohyd. Res., 132 (1984) 83-92.

[110] A.Susuki, Y. Takeda and S. Hizukuri: Relationship between the molecular

structures and retrogradation of tapioca, potato and kuzu starches, J. Jap. Soc.

Starch Sci., 32 (1985) 205-212.

[111] W. Banks, R. Geddes, C.T. Greenwood and G. Jones: Physicochemical studies on

starches, Die Stärke , 24 (1972) 245-251.

[112] Y. Takeda, S. Hizukuri, C. Takeda and A. Suzuki: Structure of branched molecules

of amylose of various origins and molar fractions of branched and unbranched

molecules, Carbohyd. Res., 165 (1987) 139-145.

[113].

[114] [115] Y. Kitada, M. Sasaki, Y. Yamazoe and H. Nakazawa: Measurements of the

thermal behaviour and amylose content of kuzu and sweet potato starches, Nippon

Kogyo Gokkaishi, 35 (1988) 135-140.

[116] G.L. Doremus, F.A.Crenshaw and F.H.Thurber: Amylose content of sweet potato

starch, Cereal Chem., 28 (1951) 308-317.

[117] N.R.Bertoniere, T.A.McLemore, V.C.Hasling, E.A. Catalano and H.J. Deobald:

The effect of environment variables on the processing of sweet potatoes into flakes

and on some properties of their isolated starches, J. Food Sci., 31 (1966) 574-582.

[118

[119] H.L.Hammet and B.Barrentin: Some effects of variety, curing and baking upon the

carbohydrate content of sweet potatoes, Proc. Amer. Hort. Sci., 78 (1961) 421-426.

[120]

[121] C.G.Biliaderis: DSC in food research- a review, Food Chem., 10(1983) 239-265.

[122] J.W.Donovan: Phase transitions of the starch-water system, Biopolymers, 18

(1979) 263-275.

[123] A. John and P.N.Shastri: Studies on macromolecules by differential scanning

calorimetry, A critical appraisal, J. Food Sci. Technol., 35 (1998) 1-14.

[124] A.C.Eliasson: Interactions between starch and lipids studied by DSC,

Thermochimica Acta, 246 (1994) 343-356.

[125] A. Schiraldi: Calorimetry, thermal analysis and chemical thermodynamics in ffod

science, Thermochimica Acta 162 (1990) 253-264.

[126] C.G.Biliaderis: Thermal analysis of food carbohydrates. In: Thermal analysis of

foods, Eds V.R.Harwalker and C.Y. Ma, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, Essex

(1990) 168-220.

[127] M Wootton and A. Bamunuarachchi: Application of differential scanning

calorimetry to starch gelatinisation I. Commercial native and modified starches,

Starch/Staerke, 31 (1979) 201-204.

[128] M Wootton and A. Bamunuarachchi: Application of differential scanning

calorimetry to starch gelatinisation II. Effect of heating rate and moisture level. ,

Starch/Staerke, 31 (1979) 262-264.

[

[130] K. Wada, K..Takahashi, K. Shirai and Kawamura: Differential Thermal Analysis

(DTA) applied to examining gelatinisation of starches in foods, J. Food Sci., 44

(1979) 1366-1368.

[131] J da Cruz Fransisco., J. Silverio, A.C. Eliasson and K. Larsson: A comparative

study of gelatinisation of cassava and potato starch in an aqueous lipid phase (L2)

compared to water, Food Hydrocolloids, 10 (1996) :317-322.

[132] [133] S.N.Moorthy, J.E. Rickard and J.M.V.Blanshard (unpublished results)

[134] S.N.Moorthy and A.C.Eliasson: DSC studies on different tropical tuber starches

(under publication)

[135] [136] K. Kohiyama and K. Nishinari: Effect of soluble sugars on gelatinisation and

retrogradation of sweet potato starch, J. Agric. Food Chem., 39 (1991) 1406-1410.

[137] [138] E. E. Perez, W.M. Breene, and Y.A. Bahnassey: Gelatinization profiles of

Peruvian carrot, cocoyam and potato starches as measured with Brabender visco

amylograph, Rapid visco analyzer and DSC. Starch/Stärke, 50(1998), 14-16.

[139] V. Barichello, R.Y Yada , R.H Coffin and D.W Stanley: Low temperature

sweetening in susceptible and resistant potatoes: Starch structure and composition. J.

Food Sci. 55 (1990) 1054-1059.

[140] R Hoover and F. Sosulski: Effect of cross linking on functional properties of

legume starches. Starch/ Stärke 38 (1986) 149-155.

[141]R.F. Tester and W.R. Morrison: Swelling and gelatinisation of cereal starches, II

Waxy rice starches, Cereal Chem., 67 (1990) 558-563.

[142] M. J. Leszkowiat, R,Y. Yada, R.H. Coffin and D.W. Stanley : Starch

gelatinisation in cold temperature sweetening resistant potatoes, J. Food Sci. 55

(1990) 1338-1340, 1420

[143] J. Silverio, Retrogradation properties of starch, Ph. D. thesis, Lund University,

Sweden, (1997), pp106.

[144]

M. Gudmundsson and A.C.Eliasson: Retrogradation of amylopectin and the effects

of amylose and added surfactants/emulsifiers, Carbohydrate . Polymers, 13 (1990)

295-315.

[145] A.C.Eliasson and G. Ljunger : Interactions between amylopectin and lipid

additives during retrogradation in a model system, J. Sci. Food Agric., 44 (1988)

353-361.

[146] [147] S.N. Moorthy: Effect of steam pressure treatment on nature and properties of

cassava , AFST (I), Trivandrum, (1982) p. 68-71.

[148] S.N. Moorthy: Acetylation of cassava starch using perchloric acid catalysis, Starch/

Stärke 37 (1985) 307-308.

[149 [150 [151] [152] N.F.Zeobel: Gelatinisation of starch and mechanical properties of

starch paste starches In Starch Chemistry and Technology 2nd Ed., R.L. Whistler,

J.N.BeMiller, and E.F.Paschall, Acad Press, New York (1984),

[153] M.P. Cereda and G. Wosiacki: Characterisation of Pinhao Starch Part II,

Rhological properties of the Paste. Starch/Stärke 37 (1985) 404-407.

[154] [155] H.C. Srivatsava and M.M.Patel: Viscosity stabilisation of tapioca starch,

Starch/Stärke 25 (1973) 17-21.

[156] Mat Hashim, S.N. Moorthy, J.R. Mitchell, S.E. Hill, K.J., Linfoot and J.M.V.

Blandshard: The effect of low levels of antioxidants on the swelling and solubility

of cassava starch, Starch/Stärke 44 (1992) 471-475.

[157] K.C.M.Raja and S.V.Ramakrishna: Influence of salts on the pasting characteristics

of cassava, Food Chem., 28 (1988) 311-318.

[158] R.Revamma: Effect of different types of salt and sugars on the rheological

properties of cassava starch, Thesis, Kerala university, Trivandrum, (1999) 195p.

[159] S.N Moorthy: Viscosity and swelling properties of cassava-maize blends, Proc.

National Syrup on tropical tuber crops, Trivandrum (1987), 215-218.

[160] S.Y.Liu, C.L.Liang and L.Li: Studies on the physicochemical properties of the

tubers of new sweet potato lines, Chuang-hua Nung Yeh Yen Chiu 34 (1985) 21-32.

[161] [162] S. Kinjo and H. Fukuba : Amylose content,gelatinisation and viscosity of

wet taro root starch, J. Jap. Soc. Starch Sci., 25 (1978) 193-197.

[163] I Shiotani, A. Nishimura , S. Yamanaka, M. Taki and T. Yamada: Starch

properties of the sweet potato diploid Ipomoea trifida (H.B.K.).Don. and tetraploid

hybrids, Starch/Stärke, 43 (1991) 133-137.

[164] M.P.Cereda, G. Wosiacki and F.A.D. Conceicao :Aviliacao fisico-quimica e

reologica de vinte e seis cultivare de batata-doce, Hort Brasil 2 (1984) 6-12.

[165] M.P.Cereda, G. Wosiacki and F.A.D. Conceicao: Characteristicas fisico-quimica e

reologica de cultivare de batata-doce,Cience Technol. Aliment 5 (1985) 61-70.

[166] I.D Evans and D.R. Haisman, 1979, Rheology of gelatinised starch suspensions. J.

Text. Studies, 10 (1979) 347-370

[167] P.D.Orford, S.G.Ring, V.Carrol, M.J.Miles and V.J.Morris: Effect of concentration

and botanical source on the gelation and retrogradation of starch. J. Sci. Food Agric.

39 (1987) 169-177.

[168] S.N. Moorthy, H. Larsson and A.C. Eliasson: Rheological characteristics of

different tropical root starches, (under publication)

[169] [170] H.W.Leach: Gelatinisation of starch In: Starch- Chemistry and Technology,

Vol 1. Ed R.L.Whistler, J.N.BeMiller and E.F.Paschall, Acad. Press, New York,

(1965)

[171] R. Revamma and S. N. Moorthy: Effect of sodium thiosulphate on the swelling and

viscosity properties of cassava starch, Proc. International symposium on tropical root

and tuber crops, 19-22, January, 2000, Trivandrum, India.

[172] T.Nagahama and V. Truong: Physicochemical properties and utilization of

starches from tropical root crops. In Post harvest Biochemistry of plant food

metabolism in the tropics, Ed., I. Uritani, V.V. Garcia, and I.M.T. Mendoza, J. Jap.

Sci. Soc. Press, Tokyo, (1994) 205-221.

[173] K. Kainuma: Structure and Chemistry of the starch granule. The Biochemistry of

Plants, Vol. 14, Ed. P.K.Stumpf and E.E.Conn, Acad Press , New York.

[174] S. Hizukuri, Y. Takeda, T. Shitaozono, J. Abe, A. Ohtakara , C. Takeda and A.

Suzuki: Structure and properties of water chestnut starch, Starch / Stärke, 40 (1988)

165-171.

[175] Cerning-Beroard and J. Le Dividich: Feeding value of some starchy tropical

products-in vitro and in vivo study of sweet potao, yam, malanga, breadfruit and

banana, Ann. Zootech 25 (1976) 155-168.

[176] H.W.Leach and T.J.Schoch: Structure of the starch granule, II Action of various

amylases on granular starches, Cereal Chem., 38 (1961) 34-46.

[177] M. Quadrat-I-Khuda and H.N.De: Studies on indigenous starches of Pakistan,

Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res., 5 (1962) 30-34.

[178] V. Rasper, G. Perry and C.L.Duitschaever: Functional properties of non-wheat

flour substitutes in composite flours II Amylolytic susceptibility on non-wheat

starches, J. Canadian Inst. Of Food Sci. Technol., 7(1974) 166-174.

[179] S.N. Moorthy and G. Padmaja: Comparative study on digestibility of raw and

cooked starch of different tuber crops., J. Root Crops, 17 (Sp) (1991) 255-258.

[180] K.C.M.Raja: Studies on physicochemical and textural qualities of cassava (Manihot

esculenta Crantz.), Ph.D. thesis , Mysore University, Mysore, (1990)

[181] T.Emilia Abraham: A study on the carbohydrates of tubers, Ph.D. thesis, Kerala

University, Trivandrum, (1984)

[182] A.T.Vascencelos: Lactic fermentation and detoxification of cassava during gari

preparation Ph.D. Thesis, NRI, Chatham, UK, 1989.

[183] S.N. Moorthy and Mathew George: Fermentation of cassava and the associated

changes in physicochemical and functional properties, Critical Reviews in Food

Science and Nutrition, 38 (1998) 73-121

[184] F.A.Numfor, W.Walter Jr. and S.J.Schwartz: Physicochemical changes in cassava

starch and flour associated with fermentation-effect on textural properties, Starch /

Stärke, 47 (1995) 86-.91

[185] F.D. Gunstone: Enzymes as biocatalysts in the modification of Natutal lipids, J.Sci.

Food Agric, 79(1999) 1535-1549

[186] H. Koch, R. Beck and H. Roper: Starch-derivived products for Detergents, ,

Starch / Stärke, 45 (1993) 2-7

[187] H. Koch and H. Roper: New industrial products from, Starch / Stärke, 40 (1988)

121-131

[188] H.Roper and H. Koch: New carbohydrate derivatives from biotechnical and

Chemical processes, Starch / Stärke, 40 (1988) 453-464

Sim, S.L., Oates, C.G. and Wong, H.A. 1991. Studies on sago starch. Part I:Characterization and comparison of sago starches obtained from Metroxylon saguprocessed at different times. Starch/starke 43 Nr. 12, S. 459-466.

Rekha, S., Singhal and Kulkarni, P.R. 1990. Some properties of Amaranthus paniculatas(Rajgeera) starch pastes. Starch/starke 42 Nr. 1, S. 5-7.

Rekha, S., Singhal and Kulkarni, P.R. 1990. Utilization of Amaranthus paniculatas(Rajgeera) starch in dressing. Starch/starke 42 Nr. 2, S. 52-53.

Lorenz, K., Collins, F. and Colorado. 1990. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) starch –physico-chemical properties and functional characteristics. Starch/starke 42 Nr. 3, S. 81-86.

Abraham, T.E. and Mathew, A.G. 1985. Isolation and physico- chemicalcharacterization of coleus tuber starch. Starch/starke 37 Nr. 7, S. 217-220.

Stone, L.A and Lorenz, K. 1984. The starch of Amaranthus – Physico-chemicalproperties and functional characteristics. Starch/starke 36 Nr. 7, S. 232-237.

Stark, J.R and Aisien, A.O. 1983. Studies on starches from Nigerian sorghum.Starch/starke 36 Nr. 3, S. 73-76.

Dreher, M.L and Berry, J.W. 1983. Buffalo gourd root starch. Starch/starke 35 Nr. 3, S.76-81.

El Faki, H.A, Desikachar, H.S.R, Paramahans, S.V and Tharanathan, R.N. 1983.Physico-chemical characteristics of starches from Chick Pea, Cow Pea and Horse Gram.Starch/starke 35 Nr. 4, S. 118-122.

Ramadas Bhat, U. and Tharanathan, R.N. 1983. Physico-chemical properties of blackpepper starch. Starch/starke 35 Nr. 6, S. 189-192.

Mota, R., Ljolo, F.M., Ciacco, C and Cordenunsi, B.R. 2000. Composition andfunctional properties of banana flour from different varieties. Starch/starke 52 Nr. 2-3, S.63-68.

Perez, L.A.B., Manilla, R.R., Acapulco and Lopez, O.P. 2000. Preparation andproperties of physically modified banana starch prepared by alcoholic-alkaline treatment.Starch/starke 52 Nr. 5, s. 154-159.

Umadevi, S. and Wankhede, D.B. 1981. Isolation and physicochemical properties ofstarch from Winged bean (Psophocarphus tetragonolobus). Starch/starke 33 Nr. 1, S. 23-26.

Wankhede, D.B., Gunjal, B.B., Sawate, R.A., Patil, H.B., Bhosale, M.B., Gahilod, A.T.and Walde, S.G. 1989. Studies on isolation and characterization of starch from Rajgeeragrains (Amaranthus paniculatus Lin.). Starch/starke 41 Nr. 5, S. 167-171.

Wankhede, D.B. Deshpande, H.W., Gunjal, B.B., Bhosale, M.B., Patil, H.B., Gahilod,A.T., Sawate, R.A., and Walde, S.G. 1989. Studies on physicochemical, pastingcharacteristics and amylolytic susceptibility of starch from sorghum (Sorghum bicolour LMoench) grains. Starch/starke 41 Nr. 4, s. 123-127.

Oluwatooyin, F., Osundahunsi, Fagbemi, T.N., Kesselman, E. and Shimoni, E. 2003.Comparison of the physicochemical properties and pasting characteristics of flour andstarch from red and white sweet potato cultivars. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51, 2232-2236.

Hoover, R., Sinnott, A.W. and Perera, C. 1998. Physicochemical characterization ofstarches from Amaranthus cruentus grains. Starch/starke 50 Nr. 11-12, S. 456-463.

Perez-Sira, E. 1997. Characterization of starch isolated from plantain (Musa paradisiacalnormalis). Starch/starke 49 Nr. 2, S. 45-49.

Perez-Sira, E. and Parada, Z.G. 1997. Functional properties of cassava (Manihotesculenta crantz) starch modified by physical methods. Starch/starke 49 Nr. 2, S. 49-53.

Mariam, T.G., Abeba, A. and Schmidt, P.C. 1996. Isolation and physico-chemicalproperties of enset starch. Starch/starke 48 Nr. 6, S. 208-214.

Toledo, M.C.F., Azzini, A. and Reyes, F.G.R. 1987. Isolation and characterization ofstarch from bamboo culm (Guadua flabellate). Starch/starke 39 Nr. 5, S. 158-160.

Glennie, C.W. 1987. Physico-chemical properties of sorghum starch thermally treatedby different methods. Starch/starke 39 Nr. 8, S. 273-276.

Katayama, K., Komae, K., Kohyma, K., Kato, T., Tamiya, S. and Komaki, K. 2002.New sweet potato line having low gelatinisation temperature and altered starch structure.Starch/starke 54, 51-57.

Stute, R., Heibronn, Klingler, R.W., Boguslawski, S., Eshtiaghi, M.N. and Knorr, D.1996. Effects of high pressures treatment on starches. Starch/Starke 48 Nr. 11/12. S.399-408.

Lii, C.Y., Chang, S.M. and Young, Y.L. 1982. Investigation of the physical andchemical properties of banana starches. Volume 47 – Journal of Food Science-1493.

Kayisu, K., Hood, L.F. and Vansoest, P.J. 1981. Characterization of starch and fiber ofbanana fruit. Volume 46 – Journal of Food Science – 1885.

****Perez, L.A.B., Acevedo, E.A., Hernandez, L.S. and Lopez, O.P. Isolation andpartial characterization of banana starches.

Bultosa, G., Hall, A.N. and Taylor, J.R.N. 2002. Physico-chemical characterization ofgrain tef (Eragrostis tef (zucc.) trotter) starch. . Starch/Starke 54. 461-468.

Ancona, D.A.B., Guerrero, L.A.C, Matos, R.I.C. and Ortiz, G.D. 2001. Physicochemicaland functional characterization of baby lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) starch.Starch/Starke 53. 219-226.

Ancona, D.A.B., Guerrero, L.A.C, Perez, L.A.B., Ortiz, G.D. 2002. Isolation of velvetbean (Mucuna pruriens) starch: Physicochemical and functional properties. Starch/Starke54. 303-309.

Fernandez, L.S., Feria, J.S., Montealvo, G.M., Lopez, O.P. and Perez, L.A.B. 2002.Isolation and partial characterization of okenia (okenia hypogaea) starch. Starch/Starke54. 193-197.

Qian, J.Y. and Kuhn, M. 1999. Characterization of Amaranthus cruentus andchenoposium quinoa starch. Starch/Starke 51 Nr. 4, s. 116-120.

Atichokudomchai, N., Shobsngob, S., Chinachoti, P. and Varavinit, S. 2001. A study ofsome physicochemical properties of high-crystalline tapioca starch. Starch/Starke 53.577-581.

Zhu, Z. 2003. Starch mono-phosphorylation for enhancing the stability of starch/PVAblend pastes for warp sizing. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 54, Issue 1, Pages 115-118.

Atchokudomchai, N. and Varavinit, S. 2003. Characterization and utilization of acid-modified cross-linked Tapioca starch in pharmaceutical tablets. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 53, Issue 3, Pages 263-270.

Thitipraphunkul, K., Uttapap, D., Piyachomkwan, K. and Takeda, Y. 2003. Acomparative study of edible canna (canna edulis) starch from different cultivars. Part I.Chemical composition and physicochemical properties. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume53, Issue 3, Pages 317-324.

Tavares, M.I.B., Bathista, A.L.B.S., Silva, E.O., Filho, N.P. and Nogueira, J.S. 2003. Amolecular dynamic study of the starch obtained from the Mangifera indica Cv. Bourbonand Espada seeds by 13C solid state NMR. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 53, Issue 2,Pages 213-216.

Tari, T.A., Annapure, U.S., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 2003. Starch-basedspherical aggregates: screening of small granule sized starches for entrapment of a modelflavouring compound, vanillin. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 53, Issue 1, Pages 45-51.

Carvalho, A.J.F., Job, A.E., Alves, N., Curvelo, A.A.S. and Gandini, A. 2003.Thermoplastic starch/natural rubber blends. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 53, Issue 1,Pages 95-99.

Wang, Y.J. and Wang, L. 2003. Physicochemical properties of common and waxy cornstarches oxidised by different levels of sodium hypochlorite. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 52, Issue 3, Pages 207-217.

Waliszewski, K.N., Aparicio, M.A., Bello, A.L. and Monroy, J.A. 2003. Changes ofbanana starch by chemical and physical modification. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume52, Issue 3, Pages 237-242.

Reyes, E.G., Montealvo, G.M., Feria, J.S., Vazquez, J.F.T. and Perez, L.A.B. 2003.Rheological and thermal characterization of Okenia hypogaea (Schlech. & Cham.) starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 3, Pages 297-310.

Zhai, M., Yoshii, F. and Kume, T. 2003. Radiation modification of starch-based plasticsheets. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 3, Pages 311-317.

Shogren, R.L. 2003. Rapid preparation of starch esters by high temperature/pressurereaction. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 3, Pages 319-326.

Wilhelm, H.-M., Sierakowski, M.-R., Souza, G.P. and Wypych, F. 2003. Starch filmsreinforced with mineral clay. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 52, Issue 2, Pages 101-110.

Szymonska, J., Krok, F., Czepirska, E.K. and Rebilas, K. 2003. Modification ofgranulator potato starch by multiple deep freezing and thawing. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 52, Issue 1, Pages 1-10.

da Silva, B.P. and Parente, J.P. 2003. Bioactve polysaccharides from Costus spicatus.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 51, Issue 3, Pages 239-242.

Santayanon, R. and Wootthikanokkhan, J. 2003. Modification of cassava starch by usingpropionic anhydride and properties of the starch-blended polyester polyurethance.xxxxxx

Santacruz, S., Ruales, J. and Eliasson, A.-C. 2003. Three under-utilised sources of starchfrom the Andean region in Ecuador. Part II. Rheological characterisation. CarbohydratePolymers Volume 51, Issue 1, Pages 85-92.

Mali, S. Grossmann, .M.V.E., Garcia, M.A., Martino, M.N. and Zaritzky, N.E. 2003.Microstructural characterization of yam starch films. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 50,Issue 4, Pages 379-386.

Tari, T.A. and Singhal, R.S. 2003. Starch-based spherical aggregates: stability of amodel flavouring compound, vanillin entrapped therein. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume54, Issue 1, Pages 417-421.

Ridout, M.J., Gunning, A.P., Parker, M.L., Wilson, R.H. and Morris, V.J. 2003. usingAFM to image the internal structure of starch granules. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume50, Issue 2, Pages 123-132.

Ongen, G., Yilmaz, G., Jongboom, R.O.J. and Feil, H. 2003. Encapsulation of α-amylase in a starch matrix. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 50, Issue 1, Pages 1-5.

Gunaratne, A. and Hoover, R. 2003. Effect of heat-moisture treatment on the structureand physicochemical properties of tuber and root starches. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 49, Issue 4, Pages 425-437.

Noda, T., kimura, T., Otani, M., Ideta, O., Shimada, T., Saito, A. and suda, I. 2003.Physicochemical properties of amylose-free starch from transgenic sweet potato.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 3, Pages 253-260.

Perry, P.A. and Donald, A.M. 2003. The effect of sugars on the gelatinisation of starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 2, Pages 155-165.

Santacruz, S., Koch, K., Svensson, E., Ruales, J. and Eliasson, A.-C. 2003. Three under-utilised sources of starch from the Andean region in Ecuador Part I. Physico-chemicalcharacterisation. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 1, Pages 63-70.

Delville, J., Joly, C., Dole, P. and Bliard, C. 2003. Solid state photocrosslinked starchbased films: a new family of homogeneous modified starches. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 49, Issue 1, Pages 71-81.

Dupuy, N. and laureyns, J. 2003. Recognition of starches by Raman spectroscopy.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 49, Issue 1, Pages 83-90.

Tako, M. and Hizukuri, S. 2003. Gelatinization mechanism of potato starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 48, Issue 4, Pages 397-401.

Bhandari, P.N. and Singhal, R.S. 2002. Effect of succinylation on the corn and amaranthstarch pastes. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 48, Issue 3, Pages 233-240.

Pal, J., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 2002. Physicochemical properties ofhydroxypropyl derivative from corn and amaranth starch. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 48, Issue 1, Pages 49-53.

Sun, R. and Sun, X.F. 2002. Succinoylation of sago starch in the N,N-dimethylacetamide/lithium chloride system. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 47, Issue 4,Pages 323-330.

Bhandari, P.N. and Singhal, R.S. 2002. Studies on the optimisation of preparation ofsuccinate derivatives from corn and amaranth starches. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume47, Issue 3, Pages 277-283.

Nabeshima, E.H. and Grossmann, M.V.E. 2001. Functional properties of pregelatinizedand cross-linked cassava starch obtained by extrusion with sodium trimetaphosphate.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 45, Issue 4, Pages 347-353.

Fiedorowicz, M., Tomasik, P. and Lii, C.Y. 2001. Degradation of starch by polarisedlight. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 45, Issue 1, Pages 79-87.

Bertolini, A.C., Mestres, C., Colonna, P. and Raffi, J. 2001. Free radical formation inUV- and gamma-irradiated cassava starch. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 44, Issue 3,Pages 269-271.

Pal, J., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 2000. A comparative account of conditions ofsynthesis of hydroxypropyl from corn and amaranth starch. Carbohydrate PolymersVolume 43, Issue 2, Pages 155-162.

Demiate, I.M., Dupuy, N., Huvenne, J.P., Cereda, M.P. and Wosiacki, G. 2000.Relationship between baking behaviour of modified cassava starches and starch chemicalstructure determined by FTIR spectroscopy. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 42, Issue 2,Pages 149-158.

Muhammad, K., Hussin, F., Man, Y.C., Chazali, H.M. and Kennedy, J.F. 2000. Effect ofpH on phosphorylation of sago starch. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 42, Issue 1, Pages85-90.

McPherson, A.E. and Jane, J. 1999. Comparison of waxy potato with other root andtuber starches. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 40, Issue 1, Pages 57-70.

John, J.K. and Raja, K.C.M. 1999. Properties of cassava starch-dicarboxylic acidcomplexes. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 39, Issue 2, Pages 181-180.

Ahmad, F.B., Williams, P.A., Doublier, J.L., Durand, S. and Buleon, A. 1999. Physico-chemical characterisation of sago starch. Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 38, Issue 4,Pages 361-370.

Sriburi, P., Hill, S.E. and Barclay, F. 1999. Depolymerisation of cassava starch.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 38, Issue 3, Pages 211-218.

Sarangbin, s. and Watanapokasin, Y. 1999. Yam bean starch: a novel substrate for citricacid production by the protease-negative mutant strain of Aspergillus niger .Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 38, Issue 3, Pages 219-224.

Iwuoha, C.I. and Nwakanma, M.I. 1998. Density and viscosity of cold flour pastes ofcassava (Manihot esculenta Grantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. Lam) and yam(Dioscorea rotundata Poir) tubers as affected by concentration and particle size.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 37, Issue 1, Pages 97-101.

Chattopadhyay, S., Singhal, r.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. 1997. Optimisation of conditions ofsynthesis of oxidised starch from corn and amaranth for use in film-forming applications.Carbohydrate Polymers Volume 34, Issue 4, Pages 203-212.

Lewandowicz, G., Fornal, J. and Walkowski, A. 1997. Effect of microwave radiation onphysico-chemical properties and structure of potato and tapioca starches. CarbohydratePolymers Volume 34, Issue 4, Pages 213-220.