trends in the early careers of life scientists

TrendsintheEarlyCareersofLifeScientists

CommitteeonDimensions,Causes,andImplicationsofRecentTrendsintheCareersofLifeScientists

BoardonBiologyCommissiononLifeSciences

OfficeofScientificandEngineeringPersonnelNationalResearchCouncil

NationalAcademyPressWashington,DC1998

title: TrendsintheEarlyCareersofLifeScientists

author:publisher: NationalAcademiesPress

isbn10|asin: 0309061806printisbn13: 9780309061803ebookisbn13: 9780585038094

language: English

subject

Lifescientists--Employment--UnitedStates,Lifescientists--Trainingof--UnitedStates,Lifesciences--Vocationalguidance--UnitedStates.

publicationdate: 1998lcc: QH314.T741998ebddc: 570/.23/73

subject:

Lifescientists--Employment--UnitedStates,Lifescientists--Trainingof--UnitedStates,Lifesciences--Vocationalguidance--UnitedStates.

NATIONALACADEMYPRESS2101ConstitutionAvenue,N.W.Washington,D.C.20418

NOTICE:TheprojectthatisthesubjectofthisreportwasapprovedbytheGoverningBoardoftheNationalResearchCouncil,whosemembersaredrawnfromthecouncilsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,theNationalAcademyofEngineering,andtheInstituteofMedicine.Themembersofthecommitteeresponsibleforthereportwerechosenfortheirspecialcompetencesandwithregardforappropriatebalance.

ThisreporthasbeenreviewedbyagroupotherthantheauthorsaccordingtoproceduresapprovedbyaReportReviewCommitteeconsistingofmembersoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,theNationalAcademyofEngineering,andtheInstituteofMedicine.

ThisprojectwassupportedbyContractNo.N01-OD-4-2139betweentheNationalAcademyofSciencesandtheNationalInstitutesofHealth,GrantNo.BIR-9512867fromtheNationalScienceFoundation,GrantNo.APP0589fromtheBurroughsWellcomeFund,andbytheAcademy-IndustryProgramoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,theNationalAcademyofEngineering,andtheInstituteofMedicine.Anyopinions,findings,conclusions,orrecommendationsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewoftheorganizationsoragenciesthatprovidedsupportforthisproject.

LibraryofCongressCatalogCardNumber98-87338

InternationalStandardBookNumber0-309-06180-6

Additionalcopiesofthisreportareavailablefrom:

NationalAcademyPress2101ConstitutionAvenue,N.W.Box285Washington,DC20055800-624-6242202-334-3313(intheWashingtonmetropolitanarea)http://www.nap.edu

Copyright1998bytheNationalAcademyofSciences.Allrightsreserved

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

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CommitteeonDimensions,Causes,andImplicationsofRecentTrendsintheCareersofLifeScientistsShirleyTilghman(Chair),PrincetonUniversity,Princeton,NewJersey

HelenS.Astin,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,California

WilliamBrinkley,BaylorCollegeofMedicine,Houston,Texas

MaryDellChilton,Ciba-GeigyBiotechnology,ResearchTrianglePark,NorthCarolina

MichaelP.Cummings,MarineBiologicalLaboratory,WoodsHole,Massachusetts

RonaldG.Ehrenberg,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NewYork

MaryFrankFox,GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,Atlanta,Georgia

KevinGlenn,Searle,St.Louis,Missouri

PamelaJ.Green,MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing,Michigan

SherrieHans,ThePewCharitableTrusts,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania

ArthurKelman,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,Raleigh,NorthCarolina

JulesLaPidus*,CouncilofGraduateSchools,Washington,DC

BruceLevin,EmoryUniversity,Atlanta,Georgia

J.RichardMcIntosh,UniversityofColorado,Boulder,Colorado

HenryRiecken,UniversityofPennsylvania(emeritus)

PaulaE.Stephan,GeorgiaStateUniversity,Atlanta,Georgia

CommissiononLifeSciencesLiaison

UrsulaW.Goodenough,WashingtonUniversity,St.Louis,Missouri

Adviser

DouglasE.Kelly,AssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges,Washington,DC

Staff

PorterE.Coggeshall

KarenGreif

CharlotteV.Kuh

AlvinG.Lazen,StaffProjectDirector

MollaTeclemariam

JamesA.Voytuk

NormanGrossblatt,Editor

KitW.Lee,SeniorProjectAssistant

*untilMarch1997

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CommitteeonDimensions,Causes,andImplicationsofRecentTrendsintheCareersofLifeScientistsLiaisonGroupNationalScienceFoundation,Arlington,VirginiaJimEdwardsJoanneHazlettCarlosKruytbosch

NationalInstitutesofHealth,Bethesda,MarylandJeffreyEvansJohnNorvellWalterSchaffer

VanderbiltInstituteforPublicPolicyStudies,Nashville,TennesseeGeorginePion

AssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges,Washington,DCJenniferSutton

FederationofAmericanSocietiesforExperimentalBiology,Bethesda,MarylandHowardGarrison

CouncilofGraduateSchools,Washington,DCPeterSyverson

TheAmericanSocietyforCellBiology,Bethesda,MarylandElizabethMarincola

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CommissiononLifeSciences

ThomasD.Pollard(Chairman),TheSalkInstituteforBiologicalStudies,LaJolla,California

FrederickR.Anderson,Cadwalader,Wickersham&Taft,Washington,DC

JohnC.BailarIII,UniversityofChicago,Chicago,Illinois

PaulBerg,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,California

JoannaBurger,RutgersUniversity,Piscataway,NewJersey

SharonL.Dunwoody,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,Wisconsin

JohnL.Emmerson,Fishers,Indiana(retired)

NealL.First,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,Wisconsin

UrsulaW.Goodenough,WashingtonUniversity,St.Louis,Missouri

HenryW.Heikkinen,UniversityofNorthernColorado,Greeley,Colorado

HansJ.Kende,MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing,Michigan

CynthiaJ.Kenyon,UniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco,California

DavidM.Livingston,Dana-FarberCancerInstitute,Boston,Massachusetts

ThomasE.Lovejoy,SmithsonianInstitution,Washington,DC

DonaldR.Mattison,UniversityofPittsburgh,Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania

JosephE.Murray,WellesleyHills,Massachusetts

EdwardE.Penhoet,ChironCorporation,Emeryville,California

MalcolmC.Pike,Norris/USCComprehensiveCancerCenter,LosAngeles,California

JonathanM.Samet,JohnsHopkinsUniversity,Baltimore,Maryland

CharlesF.Stevens,TheSalkInstituteforBiologicalStudies,LaJolla,California

JohnL.VandeBerg,SouthwestFoundationforBiomedicalResearch,SanAntonio,Texas

Staff

PaulGilman,ExecutiveDirector

AlvinG.Lazen,AssociateExecutiveDirector

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BoardonBiologyMichaelT.Clegg(Chairman),UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside,California

DavidEisenberg,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,California

GeraldD.Fischbach,HarvardMedicalSchool,Boston,Massachusetts

DavidJ.Galas,DarwinMolecularCorporation,Bothell,Washington

DavidV.Goeddel,Tularik,Inc.,SouthSanFrancisco,California

ArturoGomez-Pompa,UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside,California

CoreyS.Goodman,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,California

MargaretG.Kidwell,UniversityofArizona,Tucson,Arizona

BruceR.Levin,EmoryUniversity,Atlanta,Georgia

OlgaF.Linares,SmithsonianTropicalResearchInstitute,Miami,Florida

ElliottM.Meyerowitz,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,Pasadena,California

RobertT.Paine,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,Washington

RonaldR.Sederoff,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,Raleigh,NorthCarolina

DanielSimberloff,UniversityofTennessee,Knoxville,Tennessee

RobertR.Sokal,StateUniversityofNewYork,StonyBrook,NewYork

ShirleyM.Tilghman,PrincetonUniversity,Princeton,NewJersey

RaymondL.White,UniversityofUtah,SaltLakeCity,Utah

ExOfficio

ThomasPollard,TheSalkInstituteforBiologicalStudies,LaJolla,California

Staff

PaulGilman,ActingDirector

TaniaWilliams,ProgramOfficer

AmyNoelO'Hara,ProjectAssistant

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OfficeofScientificandEngineeringPersonnelAdvisoryCommitteeM.R.C.Greenwood(Chair),UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz,California

DavidBreneman,UniversityofVirginia,Charlottesville,Virginia

NancyCantor,UniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,Michigan

CarlosGutierrez,CaliforniaStateUniversity,LosAngeles,California

StephenJ.Lukasik,LosAngeles,California

BarryMunitz,CaliforniaStateUniversity,LongBeach,California

JanetNorwood,TheUrbanInstitute,Washington,DC

JohnD.Wiley,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,Wisconsin

TadatakaYamada,SmithKlineBeechamCorporation,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania

A.ThomasYoung,NorthPotomac,Maryland

ExOfficio

WilliamH.Miller,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,California

Staff

CharlotteV.Kuh,ExecutiveDirector

CatherineJackson,AdministrativeAssistant

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TheNationalAcademyofSciencesisaprivate,nonprofit,self-perpetuatingsocietyofdistinguishedscholarsengagedinscientificandengineeringresearch,dedicatedtothefurtheranceofscienceandtechnologyandtotheiruseforthegeneralwelfare.UpontheauthorityofthechartergrantedtoitbytheCongressin1863,theAcademyhasamandatethatrequiresittoadvisethefederalgovernmentonscientificandtechnicalmatters.Dr.BruceAlbertsispresidentoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.

TheNationalAcademyofEngineeringwasestablishedin1964,underthecharteroftheNationalAcademyofSciences,asaparallelorganizationofoutstandingengineers.Itisautonomousinitsadministrationandintheselectionofitsmembers,sharingwiththeNationalAcademyofSciencestheresponsibilityforadvisingthefederalgovernment.TheNationalAcademyofEngineeringalsosponsorsengineeringprogramsaimedatmeetingnationalneeds,encourageseducationandresearch,andrecognizesthesuperiorachievementsofengineers.Dr.WilliamA.WulfispresidentoftheNationalAcademyofEngineering.

TheInstituteofMedicinewasestablishedin1970bytheNationalAcademyofSciencestosecuretheservicesofeminentmembersofappropriateprofessionsintheexaminationofpolicymatterspertainingtothehealthofthepublic.TheInstituteactsundertheresponsibilitygiventotheNationalAcademyofSciencesbyitscongressionalchartertobeanadvisertothefederalgovernmentanduponitsowninitiative,toidentifyissuesofmedicalcare,research,andeducation.Dr.KennethShineispresidentoftheInstituteofMedicine.

TheNationalResearchCouncil(NRC)wasorganizedbytheNationalAcademyofSciencesin1916toassociatethebroadcommunityofscienceandtechnologywiththeAcademy'spurposesoffurthering

knowledgeandofadvisingthefederalgovernment.FunctioninginaccordancewithgeneralpoliciesdeterminedbytheAcademy,theCouncilhasbecometheprincipaloperatingagencyofboththeNationalAcademyofSciencesandtheNationalAcademyofEngineeringinprovidingservicetothegovernment,thepublic,andthescientificandengineeringcommunities.TheCouncilisadministeredjointlybybothacademiesandtheInstituteofMedicine.Dr.BruceAlbertsandDr.WilliamA.Wulfarechairmanandvicechairman,respectively,oftheNationalResearchCouncil.

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Thisreporthasbeenreviewedbyindividualschosenfortheirdiverseperspectivesandtechnicalexpertise,inaccordancewithproceduresapprovedbytheNationalResearchCouncil's(NRC)ReportReviewCommittee.ThepurposeofthisindependentreviewistoprovidecandidandcriticalcommentsthatwillassisttheauthorsandtheResearchCouncilinmakingtheirpublishedreportassoundaspossibleandtoensurethatthereportmeetsinstitutionalstandardsforobjectivity,evidence,andresponsivenesstothestudycharge.Thecontentofthereviewcommentsanddraftmanuscriptremainconfidentialtoprotecttheintegrityofthedeliberativeprocess.Wewishtothankthefollowingindividualsfortheirparticipa-tioninthereviewofthisreport:

MichaelClegg,UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside,California

MaryeAnnFox,TheUniversityofTexas,Austin,Texas

DonaldFredrickson,formerdirector,NationalInstitutesofHealth,Bethesda,Maryland

LyleV.Jones,UniversityofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill,NorthCarolina

ThomasJ.KennedyJr.,formerlywiththeNationalInstitutesofHealth,Bethesda,Maryland,andtheAssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges,Washington,DC

WilliamLennarz,StateUniversityofNewYork,StonyBrook,NewYork

JeremyNathans,HowardHughesMedicalInstitute,Baltimore,Maryland

JohnPerkins,UniversityofTexasSouthwestMedicalCenter,Dallas,Texas

AnnPeterson,W.K.KelloggFoundation,EastBattleCreek,Michigan

ThomasPollard,TheSalkInstituteforBiologicalStudies,LaJolla,California

AnnPreston,StateUniversityofNewYork,StonyBrook,NewYork

PaulRisser,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,Oregon

LeeSechrest,UniversityofArizona,Tucson,Arizona

AllanSprading,HowardHughesMedicalInstitute,Baltimore,Maryland

MichaelTeitelbaum,AlfredP.SloanFoundation,NewYork,NewYork

RaymondWhite,UniversityofUtah,SaltLakeCity,Utah

JohnWiley,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,Wisconsin

WilliamZumeta,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,Washington

Althoughtheindividualslistedabovehaveprovidedmanyconstructivecommentsandsuggestions,responsibilityforthefinalcontentofthisreportrestssolelywiththeauthoringcommitteeandtheNationalResearchCouncil.

SeveralofthereviewerslistedabovehavepublishedpapersonPhDworkforceissues;see,forexample,Dr.Kennedy's1994paper,"GraduateEducationintheBiomedicalSciences:CriticalObservationsonTrainingforResearchCareers,"inAcademicMedicine(69:10).

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PrefaceTheNationalResearchCouncilhasregularlyreportedonissuesofthescientificandengineeringworkforce,includingquestionsrelatedtotheeducation,training,anddeploymentofscientificpersonnel.Itactivelymaintainsfilesondoctoralawardeesandperiodicallysurveystheiremploymentinscience.TheCouncil'sinterestinthisarenaisbasedontheimportanceofscientificresearchtothenation'swelfare,andthatisalsothereasonforinterestinsupportoftheeducationandtrainingoflifescientists.

Thatsupporthaschieflycomefromthreefederalagencies:theNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH),theNationalScienceFoundation(NSF),andtheUSDepartmentofAgriculture;numerousprivatefoundationsandpublicandprivateuniversitieshavealsocontributed.TheUSCongresshasmanifestedinterestinquestionsofsupplyofanddemandfortrainedscientistsinbiomedicalandbehavioralsciencebyestablishingtheNationalResearchServiceAwardprogramatNIH,whichprovidesfundingexplicitlyfortrainingscientists,andbyrequestingaperiodicreportfromtheNationalAcademyofSciencesonnationalneedsforbiomedicalandbehavioralresearchpersonnel.Otheragenciessupportlife-scienceeducationandresearchthroughseparateprograms.Thus,thisreport,bytheCommitteeonDimensions,Causes,andImplicationsofRecentTrendsintheCareersofLifeScientists,intheBoardonBiologyoftheResearchCouncil'sCommissiononLifeSciences,dealswithissuesthatarepertinenttotheagendasofaverywidearrayofagenciesandinstitutions.

Thecommitteewaschargedtoexaminetrendsinresearchcareersoflifescientistsintraining,attheconclusionoftraining,andintheyearsimmediatelyaftertrainingandtoexaminetheimplicationofthesetrendsforthepersonsinvolvedandforthehealthofthelife-science

enterprise.Thecommittee'sgoalwastoframerecommendationsthatwouldbebeneficialbothtotheyoungaspirantstoscientificcareersandtotheenterprisetheyhadcommittedto.Thecommitteerecognizedthatitwasdealingwithinterdependenciesamongeducators,trainees,investigators,funders,andentrepreneursthattrulyconstitutedasociotechnicalsystemofgreatcomplexity.Theimportanceofestablishedstakesinthestatusquoquicklybecameapparent,andthecommitteerecognizedthattherewasnosinglelocusofpowertomakechangesinthesystemthathasproducedundesirableoutcomesforsomeyoungscientists.Ifchangeistooccur,itwillbethroughtheuncoordinatedactionofmanypersonsatmanyinstitutionswhotrytoconsiderwhatisbestfortheirstudentsandtheirprofessionandthentakeappropriateaction.

Thoseinsightstemperedanyambitionthatthecommitteemightinitiallyhavehadto"reform"thesystemovernightbytakingboldmeasures.Theriskofdoingmoredamagethangoodisgreat,giventhecomplexityoftheeducationalsystem,thesizeoftheenterprise,anditsimportanceforthenation'slong-terminterest.Accordingly,thecommittee'sprincipalrecommendationsaremeasuredratherthandramatic.

Thecommitteeappointedtopreparethisreportwasintentionallycomposedofindividualswithabroadrangeofbackgroundsandexperience.Tobesure,10ofthemwerelifescientists,buttheiroccupationsandscientificexpertisewerediverse.Fiveofthe10weretenuredfullprofessorsatmajoruniversities,oneapostdoctoralfellow,andoneagraduatestudentatthetimeoftheirappointment.Twowereemployedinindustry.Amongthenonbiologists,bringingexperienceinstudiesofthescientificlaborforceandscientificcareersandadistancefromdirectinterestinlife-scienceresearchweretwo

Pagexii

economists,twopsychologists,andasociologist.Theagerangeofthememberswasfromthemiddletwentiestothemiddleseventies.Twodepartmentheads,avicepresidentforacademicprogramsandplanning,adeanofagraduateschool,andadirectorofaresearchinstitutebroughtacademicadministrativeviewpointstothedeliberations.(SeeappendixAforbiographicsketchesofthecommitteemembers.)Inshort,theinterestsofverynearlyallthe''stakeholders"inthelife-scienceenterprisewererepresentedonthecommittee.Suchdiverseoutlooksrichlywidenedthearenaofdiscussionandweremutuallyeducative.Theyalsotendedtoslowanyrushtojudgmentuntilatrueconsensuscouldbeachieved.

Toensurethateventhebroadspectrumofviewsfoundamongthecommitteememberswasenrichedbyoutsideviews,weinvitedrepresentativesofgovernmentandprofessionalassociationstotestifybeforeus.Andweconvenedapublicmeetingatwhich18speakerspresentedtheirviewsandmorethan50otherpersonsattendedthemeetingormadetheirviewsknownthroughwrittencomments.AppendixBcontainsthenamesofthespeakersandotherparticipantsinthisactivity.Aliaisongroupofgovernmentandscientific-organizationdataexpertswasaskedtoprovidereactionstoourearlycollectionsofdata;weestablishedcontactwithinstitutionsperformingrelevantstudiesandusedtheinformationtheyprovided.Themembersoftheliaisongrouparelistedafterthecommitteeroster.

Attachedtothisreportisanalternativeperspectiveonthecommittee'srecommendation3,regardingtraininggrants.Allmembersofthecommitteeexcepttheauthorofthealternativeperspectiveendorsedrecommendation3afterextensivediscussionatseveralcommitteemeetings.

Wehavemanyotherpeopletothankforassistanceinaccomplishingourtask.Personswhoinmanyinstancesgaveuppartsoftheir

weekendstosharetheirknowledgewiththecommitteeareRuthKirschstein,WalterSchaffer,JohnNorvell,andJamesOnken,ofNIH;MaryClutterandJoanneHazlett,ofNSF;DouglasKelly,JenniferSutton,andStanleyAmmons,oftheAssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges(AAMC),MaryJordan,oftheAmericanChemicalSociety;andRomanCzujko,oftheAmericanInstituteofPhysics.ParticipantsinandcontributorstoourpublicmeetingarelistedinappendixB.WalterSchaffer,ofNIH,andJamesEdwards,ofNSF,wereextremelyhelpfulintheirrolesasprogramofficersonbehalfoftheiragencies.DataweremadeavailablebyandusefuldiscussionsheldwithJohnNorvell,ofNIH;LawrenceBurtonofNSF;LisaShermanandBrookeWhiting,ofAAMC;GeorginePion,ofVanderbiltUniversity;andThomasJ.KennedyJr.EdwardO'NeillandReneeWilliard,oftheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciso(UCSF)CenterfortheHealthProfessions,provideduswiththeirreportonPewscholarsinthebiomedicalsciences,andtheBioMedicalAssociationofStanfordUniversity,andthePostdoctoralScholarsAssociationofUCSFsharedtheresultsoftheirsurveysofgraduatestudentsandpostdoctoralfellows.

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Thecommittee'staskwouldhavebeenimmeasurablyharderwithouttheconstantlogistic,managerial,andprofessionalsupportofAlLazen,PorterCoggeshall,JamesVoytuk,KarenGreif,CharlotteKuh,andMollaTeclemariam.Ateverystageofourwork,thesededicatedNationalResearchCouncilstaffpreparedmaterialforourenlightenment,respondedtorequestsformorehelp,andtookaconstructivepartinourmeetings;theydeservenoblameandmuchcreditforourreport.

ShirleyTilghmanChair,CommitteeonDimensions,Causes,andImplicationsofRecentTrendsintheCareersofLifeScientists

Pagexv

Contents

ExecutiveSummary 1

Chapter1Introduction 11

Chapter2EducationandResearchTrainingofLife-SciencePhDs

21

Chapter3Early-CareerEmploymentProfilesofLife-SciencePhDs

33

Chapter4Opportunities,Constraints,andFutureNeeds 49

Chapter5ImplicationsoftheFindings 63

Chapter6ConclusionsandRecommendations 79

AlternativeStatementonRecommendation3:HenryRiecken

91

Appendixes

ABiographicInformation 95

BParticipantsinPublicMeeting 97

CSourcesofData 99

DDoctoralFieldsIncludedforDataAnalysis 103

EDataTablesforChapter2 105

FDataTablesforChapter3 129

GGettingStartedontheWorldWideWeb:WebSitesofInteresttoYoungScientists

175

ExecutiveSummaryThe50yearssincetheendofWorldWarIIhaveseenunprecedentedgrowthinthelifesciences.In1997USgovernmentinvestmentsinhealthresearchexceeded$14billion,privatefoundationscontributedmorethan$1.2billion,andindustry'sinvestmentinhealthresearchanddevelopmentexceeded$17billion.Governmentandprivatesupportofagricultureandenvironmentalresearchapproached$5billion.Clearly,thelife-scienceenterpriseislargeandvigorous.

Thelargeinvestmentinthelifescienceshasproducedmanyimportantresults.Discoveriesinagriculturalsciencehaveimprovedourunderstandingofsoilsandtheirchemistryandhaveledtothedevelopmentofnewstrainsofcropplantsthatareresistanttodiseasesandyieldmorefoodpercultivatedacre.Environmentalsciencesandforestryhaveevolvednewmethodsformanagingsustainableresourcesthatwillhelpourexpandingpopulationtopassonmoreofitsnaturalwealthtofuturegenerations.Medicalsciencehasprovidedfundamentalunderstandingofthemolecularbasisofnumerousdiseaseswhichhasledtotheeliminationofsomeandthecontainmentofmany.Advancesinmolecularbiologynotonlyhavespawnedtheeconomicallyimportantbiotechnologyindustrybuthavecontributedfundamentalknowledgeaboutthestructureofgenesandthebehaviorofbiologicalmacromolecules.Theseadvanceshaveyieldednewinsightsintotherelationshipsamongorganismsandintothecontinuumofstructureandfunctionthatconnectslivingandnonlivingthings.Thelong-rangeimplicationsofalltherapidlyevolvingknowledgearehardtopredict,butmanyadditionalbenefitsarenowonthehorizon.

Thecontinuedsuccessofthelife-scienceresearchenterprisedependsontheuninterruptedentryintothefieldofwell-trained,skilled,and

motivatedyoungpeople.Forthiscriticalflowtobeguaranteed,youngaspirantsmustseethatthereareexcitingchallengesinlife-scienceresearchandtheyneedtobelievethattheyhaveareasonablelikelihoodofbecomingpracticingindependentscientistsaftertheirlongyearsoftrainingtopreparefortheircareers.Yetrecenttrendsinemploymentopportunitiessuggestthattheattractivenesstoyoungpeopleofcareersinlife-scienceresearchisdeclining.

Inthelastfewyears,reportsfromtheNationalResearchCouncilhavedetailedachangingworldforyoungscientists.A1994studysoughttodeterminewhetheryounginvestigatorsinthebiologicandbiomedicalsciencesmightbeatadisadvantagecomparedwitholder,establishedscientistsinthecompetitionforresearchsupport.ThestudyfoundnoevidenceofdiscriminationbyageinNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)awards;butitdidrevealthatNIHresearch-grantapplicationsfrominvestigatorsbelowtheageof37hadplummetedbetween1983and1993.Thereasonsforthedeclinewerenotimmediatelyobvious,butconcernovertheseemingcontractionofyoungresearchtalentledtotheappointmentofthepresentcommittee.A1995studyexaminedgraduateeducationinallfieldsofscienceandengineeringandthechangingemploymentopportunitiesforPhDgraduates.ThatcommitteefoundthatmorethanhalfofnewgraduateswithPhDsinalldisciplinesnowfindemploymentinnonacademicsettings,anditrecommendedthatgraduateprogramsdiversifytoreflectthechangingemploymentopportunitiesaffordedPhDscientists.

Thisreportextendstheanalysesofthepreviousreportsbyexaminingthechangesthathaveoccurredoverthelast30yearsingraduateandpostgraduatetrainingoflifescientistsandthenatureoftheiremploymentoncompletionoftraining.ItsuggestsreasonsforthedecreaseinthenumberofyoungscientistsapplyingforNIHgrantsandthegrowing"crisisinexpectation"thatgripsyounglifescientistswhofacedifficultyinachievingtheircareerobjectives.

Charge

Thiscommitteewaschargedto:

ConstructacomprehensivedataprofileofthecareerpathsforrecentPhDrecipientsinthelifesciences.

Usetheprofileforassessingtheimplicationsofrecentcareertrendsforindividualsandfortheresearchenterprise.

Makerecommendations,asappropriate,aboutoptionsforsciencepolicy.

Thechargecalledonthecommitteetoconsiderallthelifesciencesandthehealthoftheenterpriseinadditiontothewell-beingoftheindividualsinvolved.

ThecommitteeapproacheditsfirsttaskbyanalyzingdatacontainedinthelargedatabasesmaintainedbytheNationalResearchCouncilOfficeofScientificandEngineeringPersonnel,whichprovidesthemostcomprehensiveandaccuraterecordavailableoftheeducationalcourseandemploymentstatusofscientistseducatedtothePhDlevelintheUnitedStates.Theserecordsarecollectedwhendegreesareawardedandupdatedbienniallythroughsurveysofasampleofdoctorateholders.Thecommittee'sanalysisincludedthe19701995surveys,andthusenableddocumentationoftrendsinimportantcareerstages.

Findings

Thetrainingandcareerprospectsofagraduatestudentorpostdoctoralfellowinthelifesciencesin1998areverydifferentfromwhattheywereinthe1960sor1970s.Today'slifescientistwillstartgraduateschoolwhenslightlyolderandtakemorethan2yearslongertoobtainthePhDdegree.Today'slife-sciencePhDrecipientwillbeanaverage

of32yearsold.Furthermore,thenewPhDtodayistwiceaslikelyasinearlieryearstotakeapostdoctoralfellowshipandthusjoinanever-growingpoolofpostdoctoralfellowsnowestimatedtonumberabout20,000whoengageinresearchwhileobtainingfurthertrainingandwaitingtoobtainpermanentpositions.Itisnotunusualforatraineetospend5yearssomemorethan5yearsasapostdoctoralfellow.Asaconsequenceofthatlongpreparation,theaveragelifescientistislikelytobe3540yearsoldbeforeobtaininghisorherfirstpermanentjob.Themedianageofatenuredortenuretrackfacultymemberisnowabout8yearsmorethanthatofthefacultymemberofthe1970s.

Thosefactssuggestonesourceoftheseemingcontractionof"younginvestigator"applicantsforNIHresearchgrants."Young"investigatorshavegrownolder,andfewerareinfacultypositionsbeforetheageof37.Moreofthemarepostdoctoralfellows,who,bymostinstitutionalregulations,maynotsubmitapplicationsforindividualresearchgrants.

TherehavebeenmajorchangesincareeropportunitiesforPhDsoverthelast3decades.Historically,thethreemajoremploymentsectorsforlifescientistshavebeenacademe,industry,andgovernment;academehasbeenthelargest.Theopportunitytosecureanacademicappointmenthassteadilynarrowedsincethe1960s.OflifescientistswhoreceivedthePhDin1963and1964,61%hadachievedtenuredappointmentsatuniversitiesor4-yearcolleges10yearslater.Forthecohortwhograduatedin19711972,thatpercentagehaddroppedto54%;andforthe19851986cohort,to38%.Theprobabilityofindustrialemploymentrosefrom12%to24%forthecohortsdescribedabove,andtheprobabilityofworkinginafederalorothergovernmentlaboratorydroppedfrom14%to11%.Overall,thefractionofPhDswith"permanent"1positionsinthetraditionalemploymentsectorsforPhD

1Thecommitteedefinesthegoalofgraduateeducationandpostdoctoraltraininginthelifesciencesasthepreparationofyoungscientistsfor

careersasindependentresearchersinacademe,industry,government,oraprivateresearchenvironment.Wecallpositionsinthosecareers"permanent",althoughitisunderstoodthatnoemploymentisguaranteed,todistinguishthemfromthe"impermanent"positions,suchaspostdoctoralandresearchassociate-positionsheldbypersonswhosecareerobjectiveistoobtainpermanentpositions.

scientistsacademe,industry,andgovernment910yearsafterreceiptofthePhDdeclinedfrom87%to73%from1975to1995.Forthecohort56yearafterreceiptofthePhD,thefractionhasdeclinedfrom89%to61%from1975to1995.

Duringmostofthetimethatthosechangesinpermanentresearch-careeroutcomesweretakingplace,thenumberoflife-sciencePhDsawardedannuallybyAmericanuniversitieswasgrowingsteadily,butslowly,fromabout2,700in1965toabout5,000inthemiddle1980s.Then,in1987,thenumberbegantoriserathersteeplyto7,696in1996.PhDsawardedtoforeignnationalsmadeupthemajorityoftheincreaseafter1987.TherehasbeenasteadyincreaseinthenumberofwomenreceivingPhDssince1965.Differencesexistbetweenbiomedicalandnonbiomedicalfields;almostallthegrowthinnumbersamonglife-sciencePhDshasbeeninthebiomedicalfields.

The42%increaseinPhDproductionbetween1987and1996wasnotaccompaniedbyaparallelincreaseinemploymentopportunities,andrecentgraduateshaveincreasinglyfoundthemselvesina"holdingpattern"reflectedintheincreaseinthefractionofyounglifescientistswhoafterextensivepostdoctoralapprenticeshipsstillhavenotobtainedpermanentfull-timepositionsinthelifesciences.In1995,asmanyas38%ofthelife-sciencePhDs56yearsafterreceiptoftheirdoctoratesstillheldpostdoctoralpositionsorothernonfacultyjobsinuniversities,wereemployedpart-time,workedoutsidethesciences,orwereamongthesteady12%unemployed.Thecomparablefractionin1973wasonly11%.Whatmaybemostalarmingaboutthe1995figureisthatitreflectsthesituationsofthoseearningPhDsin1989and1990,atthebeginningofthesharpriseintherateofPhDproduction.

Thefrustrationofyoungscientistscaughtintheholdingpatternisunderstandable.Thesepeople,mostofwhomare3540yearsold,

typicallyreceivelowsalariesandhavelittlejobsecurityorstatuswithintheuniversity.Moreover,theyarecompetingwitharapidlygrowingpoolofhighlytalentedyoungscientistsincludingmanyhighlyqualifiedforeignpostdoctoralfellowsforalimitednumberofjobsinwhichtheycanindependentlyusetheirresearchtraining.Thissituationanditsimplicationsforbothindividualscientistsandtheresearchenterpriseisamatterofconcerntothecommittee.

Thecommitteevieweditasunlikelythatconditionswillchangeenoughinthenearfuturetoprovideemploymentforthelargenumberoflife-sciencePhDsnowwaitingintheholdingpattern.Federalfundingforlife-scienceresearchisexpectedtogrowbutthegrowthisunlikelytocompensatefortheimbalanceinproductionofPhDsasfederalfundingwasgrowingsubstantiallythroughthe1980sand1990swhiletheemploymentsituationfortheincreasingnumberofyounglifegraduatesworsened.Webelievethatthegrowthinfundingdoesnotensurethattrendsinobtainingpermanentjobswillimprove.Thecostofdoingresearchatprivateuniversitieshasbeenbornetraditionallybyfederalandprivategrantingagencies,anditishighlyunlikelythattuition,alreadyhigh,canbeincreasedtotheextentthatitcouldprovideneededresearchsupport.Schoolsofmedicine,wherelargenumbersofPhDsareeducatedandwork,arefacedwiththeneedtoadjusttotheeraof"managedcare"withamarkedreductioninincomefromclinical-practiceplansthatpreviouslycontributedsubstantiallytothesupportofresearchandtraining.Finally,industryandperhapsspecificallythebiotechnologysectorwhichemployedlargenumbersofnewlife-sciencePhDsinthe1980s,hassloweditshiringinthe1990s.

Inresponsetotheincreasingdifficultyoffindingemploymentintraditionalsectors,traineesandtheirmentorshavelookedtoalternativecareers,suchaslaw,sciencewriting,sciencepolicy,andsecondary-schoolteaching.Ouranalysissuggeststhatopportunitiesinthese

fieldsmightnotbeasnumerousorasattractiveasadvocatesofalternativecareersimply.

Implications

Whetherthecareertrendsdescribedaboveareasourceofconcerndependsontheviewpointofthestakeholderobservingthem.Tothegraduatestudentandpostdoctoraltraineewhohaveinvestedmanyyearsofpreparationwiththeexpectationofhavingaresearchcareer,thesituationisdiscouragingindeed.Totheestablishedinvestigatorandtheoverseersoflife-scienceresearch,theavailabilityoflargenumbersofbrightyoungscientistswillingtoworkveryhardforrelativelylittlefinancialcompensationisanassetthatcontributestoaremarkablysuccessfulenterprise.SinceWorldWarII,thestructureoflife-scienceresearchhasbeenbuiltaroundtheseyoungscientists,whoaretheprimaryproducersofresearch.Thepublic,whosetaxessupporttheenterprise,hasbenefitedfromtheabundanceofyoungtrainees.

Theimbalancebetweenthenumberoflife-sciencePhDsbeingproducedandtheavailabilityofpositionsthatpermitthemtobecomeindependentinvestigatorsconcernsthecommittee.Thelongtimesspentintraining,thedelayinachievingindependence,andespeciallythedifficultyinfindingpositionswhereyoungscientistscanindependentlyusetheirtraininghaveledtoa"crisisinexpectation".Thefeelingsofdisappointment,frustration,andevendespairarepalpableinthelaboratoriesofacademiccenters.Manygraduatestudentsenteredlife-sciencetrainingwiththeexpectationthattheywouldbecomeliketheirmentors:theywouldbeabletoestablishlaboratoriesinwhichtheywouldpursueresearchbasedontheirownscientificideas.Therealitythatnowfacesmanyofthemseemsverydifferent.Thefuturehealthofthelifesciencesdependsonourcontinuingtoattractthemosttalentedstudents.Thatwillrequirethat

studentsberealisticallyinformedatthebeginningoftheirtrainingoftheirchancesofachievingtheircareergoalsandthatfacultyrecognizethatcurrentemploymentopportunitiesaredifferent.Thechallengesforthelife-sciencecommunityaretoacknowledgethatitisthestructureoftheprofessionthathasledtodecliningprospectsforitsyoungandtodevelopaccommodationstomaximizethequantityandqualityofthescientificproductivityofthefuture.

ConclusionsandRecommendations

Thecommittee'sanalysisofthepatternsofemploymentofrecentrecipientsoflife-sciencePhDssuggeststhatthecurrentlevelofPhDproductionnowexceedsthecurrentavailabilityofjobsinacademe,government,andindustrywheretheycanindependentlyusetheirtraining.WhileonlyasmallminorityofrecentPhDshaveleftthefieldentirely,alargefractionofthe"excess"supplyiscurrentlyfoundintwokindsofappointments,"postdoctoral"and"otheracademic,"wheretheymaybecalled''fellows","researchassistants","adjunctinstructors"orsomeothertitlethatconveysaclearmessageofimpermanenceinacademeoutsidethetenuretrackofregularfaculty.

Theprofessionalstructureofthelifesciencesresearchenterprise,inwhichtheimportantworkofconductingexperimentsrestsalmostentirelyontheshouldersofgraduatestudentsandpostdoctoralfellows,wasbasedonthepremisethattherewouldbecontinuousexpansionofavailableindependentresearchpositionsinordertoprovideemploymentcommensuratewiththeirtrainingfortheever-growingnumberoftrainees.Bythe1980s,however,thereweresignsoftroubleaheadasthepostdoctoralpoolbegantoswellinsize.ThedramaticjumpinnumberofgraduatesfromPhDprogramsthatbeganin1987,drivenbytheinfluxofforeign-bornPhDcandidatestogetherwiththeincreaseinforeign-trainedPhDswhohavesoughtpostdoctoral

trainingintheUS,hasgreatlyexacerbatedwhatwasalreadythegrowingimbalancebetweentherateoftrainingversustherateofgrowthinresearch-careeropportunities.

AlthoughthecurrentabundanceofPhDsisanadvantagetoestablishedinvestigators,thoseresponsibleforgraduateeducationinthelifesciencesshouldrealizethatfurthergrowthintherateofPhDtrainingcouldadverselyaffectthefutureoftheresearchenterprise.Intensecompetitionforjobshascreateda"crisisofexpectation"amongyoungscientists;furtherincreaseinthecompetitioncoulddiscouragethebestfromenteringthefield.

Recommendation1:RestraintoftheRateofGrowthoftheNumberofGraduateStudentsintheLifeSciences

Thecommitteerecommendsthatthelife-sciencecommunityconstraintherateofgrowthinthenumberofgraduatestudents,thatis,thattherebenofurtherexpansioninthesizeofexistinggraduate-educationprogramsinthelifesciencesandnodevelopmentofnewprograms,exceptunderrareandspecialcircumstances,suchasaprogramtoserveanemergingfieldortoencouragetheeducationofmembersofunderrepresentedminoritygroups.

ThecurrentrateofincreaseinawardsoflifesciencePhDs5.1%from1995to1996ifallowedtocontinue,wouldresultinadoublingofthenumberofsuchPhDsinjust14years.Ouranalysissuggeststhatwouldbedeleterioustoindividualsandtheresearchenterprise.ThecommitteerecognizesthatthenumberofPhDsawardedeachyearmightalreadybetoohigh.Althoughareturntopre-1988levelsoftrainingmightbebeneficial,webelievethataconcentratedefforttoreducethesizeofgraduate-studentpopulationsrapidlywouldbedisruptivetothehighlysuccessfulresearchenterprise.Whileourdatashowacurrentabundance,someunanticipateddiscoveryinthelifesciencesorunexpectedchangeinfundingtrendsmightleadtoan

increaseindemandforlifescientists.Thecommitteebelievesthatthecurrentsystemiswellpreparedtomeetsuchaneed.

Wecautionthatitwillbenecessarytodistinguishamongfieldswhenmakingdecisionsaboutoptimalnumbersofgraduatestudents.Asshowninchapter2,almostalltheincreaseinlife-sciencePhDproductionhasbeeninbiomedicalfields.Actionstakeninonefieldofthelifesciencesmightbeunnecessaryinothers.Itisworthnoting,however,thatthedatashowninfigure3.10suggestthatbiomedicalandnonbiomedicallife-sciencefieldsareexperiencingsimilarchangesinemploymenttrends,forexample,smallerfractionsofPhDsfindingpermanentemploymentinacademe.

ThecommitteeexaminedseveralapproachestostabilizingthetotalnumberofPhDsproducedbylife-sciencedepartmentsbeyondthefirstandobviousapproachofindividualactiononthepartofgraduateprogramstoconstraingrowthinthenumberofgraduatestudentsenrolled.Somemightarguethatthissolutionisexpectingunreasonablyaltruisticbehavioronthepartofestablishedinvestigatorsandtraining-programdirectorsandthatgraduateprogramswillcontinuetoacceptlargenumbersofstudentssimplytomeettheirfaculties'needforinstructorsandlaboratoryworkers.Thecommitteeurgeslife-sciencefacultiestoseekalternativestotheseworkforceneedsbyincreasingthenumberofpermanentlaboratoryworkers.Astheincreasesoverthelastdecadehavebeenfueledalmostentirelybytheincreasedavailabilityoffederalandinstitutionalsupportforresearchassistants,considerationmightbegiventorestrictingthenumbersofgraduatestudentssupportedthroughtheresearch-grantmechanism.

ThecommitteebelievesthemostprudentwaytoreasonablyreducetherateofincreaseinthenumberofPhDsawardedannuallyandperhapstoachieveagradualreductioninthenumbersbeingtrainedistohelpstudentstomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheircareerchoices.

Tobeeffective,suchdecisionsmustbebasedonrelevantandup-to-dateinformationaboutboththequalityofthetrainingavailableinparticulargraduateprogramsandinthejobopportunitiesofagivenfield.Equallyimportantly,thisinformationmustbeusedbyindividualgraduateprogramsandmentorsindeterminingthenumbersoftraineestheyacceptandinassessingtheeffectivenessoftheirprograms.Itisourexpectationthatsuchinformationwillhavethesalutaryeffectoflettingmarketforcescontroltherateofentryintotheprofessionbeforeyoungpeoplehaveinvestedtenandmoreyearsintraining.

Recommendation2:DisseminationofAccurateInformationontheCareerProspectsofYoungLifeScientists

Thecommitteerecommendsthataccurateandup-to-dateinformationoncareerprospectsinthelifesciencesandcareeroutcomeinformationaboutindividualtrainingprogramsbemadewidelyavailabletostudentsandfaculty.Everylifesciencedepartmentreceivingfederalfundingforresearchortrainingshouldberequiredtoprovidetoitsprospectivegraduatestudentsspecificinformationregardingallpredoctoralstudentsenrolledinthegraduateprogramduringthepreceding10years.

Withthemostaccurateinformationavailable,studentswillbeabletomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheircareers.

Recommendation3:ImprovementoftheEducationalExperienceofGraduateStudents

Thereisnoclearevidencethatcareeroutcomesofpersonssupported

bytraininggrantsaresuperiortothoseofpersonssupportedbyresearchgrants.However,thecommittee,whichincludedmemberswithdirectexperiencewithtraininggrants,concludedthattraininggrantsarepedagogicallysuperiortoresearchgrantsandresultinasuperioreducationalclimateinwhichstudentshavegreaterautonomy.First,traininggrantsarepedagogicallysuperiorbecausetheyprovideamechanismforstringentpeerreviewofthetrainingprocessitself,somethingthatisnotconsideredinthereviewofaresearchproject.Second,theyimprovetheeducationalclimatebecausetheyminimizethepotentialconflictsofinterestthatcanarisebetweentrainersandtrainees.Althoughthestudent-mentorrelationshipisordinarilyhealthyandproductiveforbothpartners,itcanbedistortedbytheconditionsofthementor'semploymentofthestudentandlimittheabilityofstudentstotakeadvantageofopportunitiestobroadentheireducation.Third,traininggrantsprovidethefederalgovernmentwithinformationthatitneedstoevaluatethelevelofitsinvestmentingraduatelife-scienceeducationwiththeaimofdevelopingafundingframeworkforgraduateeducationthatcontributestothelong-termstabilityandwell-beingoftheresearchenterprise.

Thecommitteeencouragesallfederalagenciesthatsupportlife-scienceeducationandresearchtoinvestintraininggrantsandindividualgraduatefellowshipsaspreferabletoresearchgrantstosupportPhDeducation.Agenciesthatlacksuchprogramsshouldlookforwaystostartthem,andagenciesthatalreadyhavethemshouldseekwaystosustainandinsomeinstancesexpandthem.

Thisrecommendationshouldnotbepursuedattheexpenseofscientificandgeographicdiversity.Rather,weencourage

theestablishmentofsmall,focusedtraining-grantprogramsforuniversitiesthathavegroupsofhighlyproductivefacultyinimportantspecializedfields,butmightnothavethenumberoffacultyneededformoretraditional,broad-basedtraininggrants.

ItistruethatthecurrentregulationsgoverningNIHtraininggrantsbringuniversitiessomefinancialdisadvantagesbecauseofrestrictedoverheadrecovery.Furthermore,NIHtraininggrantscannotsupportforeignersonstudentvisas,andsothisrecommendationplacesatdisadvantageprogramsthatdependonforeignstudentsforresearchorteaching.Thesedisadvantagesareoutweighed,inthecommittee'sview,bythesalutaryeffectthatthetraining-grantpeer-reviewprocessbringstothemembersofadepartmentfaculty,leadingthemtoexamineandreflectonhow,asanentity,theyareprovidingfortheeducationandtrainingoftheirgraduatestudents.

OurendorsementoftraininggrantsandfellowshipsisnotintendenttoresultinthetrainingofmorePhDs.Ratherweadvocateashiftfromsupportbyresearchgrantstotraininggrants.Weanticipateimprovementsinthequalityandoversightofgraduateeducationinthelifesciences.Thefederalgovernmentisalreadyheavilyinvestedinlife-scienceeducation;greaterrelianceonsupportofgraduatestudentsontraininggrantsensuresthattaxpayersarereceivingthebestreturnontheirinvestment.

Thecommitteeisalsoconcernedthatthelengthoftimespentintraininghasbecometoolongatamedianof8yearselapsedtimefromfirstenrollmenttoPhDforalllifesciences(thoughfielddifferencesexist).Webelievethatthetimeshouldbeabout56years.However,animmediateefforttoshortenthetimetodegreewouldincreasethenumberofPhDsproduced.EffortstoshortenthetimetodegreeshouldbeundertakenwhentheefforttorestraingrowthinthenumberofPhDshasshownpositiveeffects.

Recommendation4:EnhancementofOpportunitiesforIndependenceofPostdoctoralFellows

Whilethelengthofgraduatetraininghasbeenincreasing,sotoohavetheextentanddurationofpostdoctoraltraining.Prolongedtenureasapostdoctoralfellowprovidesapersonwithvaluableresearchexperience,butitcarriessomerealcosts.Inmostcases,fellowsarenotindependentoftheirmentorssotheycannotpursuetheirownresearch.Werecognizethemanygoodreasonsforprolongedtenureasapostdoctoralfellowbutwebelievethattenureslongerthan5yearsarenotinthebestinterestofeithertheindividualfelloworthescientificenterprise.

Becauseofitsconcernforoptimizingthecreativityofyoungscientistsandbroadeningthevarietyofscientificproblemsunderstudyinthelifesciencesthecommitteerecommendsthatpublicandprivatefundingagenciesestablish"career-transition"grantsforseniorpostdoctoralfellows.Theintentistoidentifythehighest-qualityscientistswhiletheyarestillpostdoctoralfellowsandgivethemfinancialindependencetobeginnewscientificprojectsoftheirowndesigninanticipationoftheirobtainingfullyindependentpositions.

Thecommitteerecommendsagoalof200federalandprivategrantsawardedannually,representingabout1%ofthepostdoctoralpool.Thatnumberofpeoplesupportedwouldbequitesmallbuttheprogrammightprovideanimportantopportunityforthemost

promisingpostdoctoralfellowsandserveasbothexampleandincentivetomanymore.Wemakethisrecommendationwiththeknowledgethatitispossiblethatthemoneyforanewfederalgrantprogramprobablywouldcomefromexistingfederalfunds.Inourview,thebenefitsofincreasedintellectualindependenceandimprovedmotivationoftalentedmidcareerpostdoctoralfellowsjustifysuchareallocationoffunds.Privatefundersmightestablishnewprogramsorenlargeexistingprogramsthatsupportcareer-transitiongrants.

Recommendation5:AlternativePathstoCareersintheLifeSciences

Astraditionalresearchpositionsinacademe,industry,andgovernmenthavebecomemoredifficulttoobtain,positionsin"alternativecareers"suchaslaw,finance,journalism,teaching,andpublicpolicyhavebeensuggestedasopportunitiesforPhDsinthelifesciences.

Theideaofhighlytrainedscientistsinvestingtheirtalentsinnontraditionalcareersseemsatfirstglanceattractive.Scientistshaveanalyticalskillsandaworkethictobringtoanyposition,andtheplacementofhighlytrainedscientistsindiversejobsintheworkforcewouldleadtoanincreaseingeneralscienceliteracy.Asthecommittee'sreviewofalternativeopportunitiesconcludes,however,mostofthepossibilitiesarelessavailableorlessattractivethantheymightatfirstglanceappear.Many"alternative"careersarealsoheavilypopulated,andcompetitionforgoodpositionsisstiff.Othersrequirespecialpreparationorcertification,orofferunattractivecompensation,andnonemakesfulluseofthePhD'shardwonlife-scienceresearchskills.ThecommitteebelievesthattheideaofalternativecareersshouldnotbeoversoldtoPhDcandidates.

TheinterestinalternativecareersforPhDscientistshasinevitablyraisedthequestionofwhetherpreparationforthedegreeshouldbechangedfromitscurrentnarrowfocusontrainingfortheconductof

scientificresearchtoembraceabroadervarietyofeducationalgoalsthatwouldconnecttoalternativecareerpaths.Thecommitteehasdiscussedthatquestionextensively.

ThecommitteerecommendsthatthePhDdegreeremainaresearch-intensivedegree,withthecurrentprimarypurposeoftrainingfutureindependentscientists.

Atthesametime,thecommitteerecognizesthatnotallstudentswhobegingraduateschoolintendingtopursuearesearchcareermaintainthatdesireastheyprogressthroughtraining.Graduateprogramsshouldexpandtheireffortstohelpstudentslearnaboutthediversityofcareeropportunitiesopentothem,anduniversitydepartmentsshouldexaminepossiblealternativestotheresearchPhD.

OnealternativetobroadeningthePhDprogramistostrengthentheMastersdegree,whichmaybeamoreappropriateendpointforstudentswhodetermineearlyenoughintheirtrainingthatPhDtrainingisnotnecessaryforthecareergoalstheyhaveselected.Therehasbeenadeclineinthenumberofmaster's-degreeprogramsinthelifesciencesandwithitagrowingperceptionthatthemaster'sdegreehasbecomeaconsolationprizeforthosewhodonotcompleteaPhDprogram.Thisdevaluationofthemaster'sdegreeeffectivelylimitsthenumberofchoicesforcollegegraduateswhoareinterestedinacareerinthelifesciences,althoughnotnecessarilycareersindirectinglaboratoriesconductingfundamentalresearch.Forexample,thecollegegraduatewhoisinterestedinteachinginsecondaryschoolortwo-yearcolleges,wouldbenefitfromformalandfocusedmaster's-degreeprogramsthatdonotrequirelongperiodsof

research-intensivegraduateandpostdoctoraltraining.MastersdegreeprogramswouldnotonlybemoreappropriatebutalsobepreferabletothePhDforthistypeofemploymentandthesestudents.

WerecommendthatuniversitiesidentifyspecificareasofthebiologicalandbiomedicalsciencesforwhichMaster'sleveltrainingismoreappropriate,moreefficientandlesscostlythanPhDtraining.WerecommendthatfocusedMaster'sProgramsbeestablishedinthoseareas.

Avigorousmaster's-degreeprogramthatproduceshighlyskilledlaboratorytechniciansforindustry,government,andacademecouldpotentiallycontributetorightingtheimbalancebetweenPhDtrainingandthelabormarket.Whenthecommitteerecommendedconstraintinfurthergrowthintraininginrecommendation1,itwasfullyawarethatgraduatestudentsareneededinthelabor-intensivelife-scienceresearchenterpriseandtoteachundergraduates.OnewaytoresolvethisdilemmaistoeffectamodestshifttowardamorepermanentlaboratoryworkforcebyreplacingsomefractionoftheexistingtrainingpositionswithpermanentemployeessuchasMSc-leveltechniciansandPhD-levelresearchassociates.

TheImpactofForeignNationals

ThisreporthasdocumentedthatthemajorityoftherecentincreaseinthenumberofPhDtraineesandpostdoctoralfellowsareforeignnationals,notUScitizens.ThenumberofforeignnationalsreflectstheinternationalnatureofmodernscienceandthecentralplacethattheUSplaysinthisinternationalarena.Furthermore,foreignnationalshavetraditionallycontributedtotheexcellenceofUSscience,assuggestedbythefactthatofthe732membersoftheNationalAcademyofScienceswhoarelifescientists,21.2%areforeignbornand12.4%obtainedtheirPhDtrainingabroad.Foreignnationals'importantcontributionstoUSscientificleadershipisreflectedintheirrepresentationasdepartmentchairs(25%)andtheir

inclusionas"outstandingauthors"inlifesciences(26.4%).Foreignstudentsandfellowsarewelcomeparticipantsintheresearchenterprise,providedtheyareofhighqualityandcompetitivewithAmericanapplicants.

Webelieveitwouldbeunwisetoplacearbitrarylimitationsonthenumberofvisasissuedforforeignstudents.ButwedonotbelievethatUSinstitutionsshouldcontinuetoenrollunlimitednumbersofforeignnationals.Asdecisionsaremadeonwaystoconstrainfurthergrowth,themeasuresadoptedshouldapplyequallytoallstudentsregardlessofnationality.

If,aswehope,implementationofourrecommendationsresultsinconstrainingfurthergrowthinPhDsawardedinthelifesciences,weurgeourcolleaguesongraduateadmissionscommitteestoresistthetemptationtorespondbysimplyincreasingthenumberofforeignapplicantsadmitted.

ResponsibilityforEffectingChange

Thisreporthasdocumentedseveraldramaticchangesincareertrendsinthelifesciencesoverthelastseveraldecades.Therapidgrowthintheacademicscientificestablishmentinthe1960sandtheearly1970ssetinplaceatraininginfrastructurethatwasbuiltonthepremisethattherewouldbecontinuedgrowth.Whentheinevitableslowdowninresourcestosupportthatgrowthoccurred,itwasnotaccompaniedbyacommensurateadjustmentintherateoftraining.Theimpactoftheimbalancebetweenthenumberofaspirantsandtheresearchopportunitiesisnowbeingfeltbyagenerationofscientiststrainedinthelast10yearswhoarefindingitincreasinglydifficulttofindpermanentpositionsinwhich

theirhard-accumulatedskillsinresearchcanbeused.Unlessstepsaretakentoputthesystemmoreinbalance,thedifferencebetweenstudents'expectationsandtherealityoftheemploymentmarketwillonlywidenandtheworkforcewillbecomemoredisaffected.Suchanoccurrencewoulddamagethelife-scienceresearchenterpriseandalltheparticipantsinit.

Thetrainingoflifescientistsisahighlydecentralizedactivity.Notwithstandingtheheavydependenceonfederalfunds,themostimportantdecisionsaffectingtherateofproductionoflifescientistsaremadelocallybytheuniversitiesandtheirfaculties.Thenumbersandqualificationsofstudentsadmittedtograduatestudy,theallocationofinstitutionalfundsfortheirtuitionandstipends(whichaccountforhalformoreofthetotalexpendituresforgraduate-studentsupport),therequirementsforthedegreeallarelocaldecisions.Asaconsequence,alargeportionoftheresponsibilityforimplementingourrecommendationsfallsontheshouldersofestablishedinvestigators,theirdepartmentsanduniversities,professionalscientificorganizations,andstudentsthemselves.Studentsmusttaketheresponsibilityofmakinginformeddecisionsaboutgraduatestudy,buttheymustbeprovidedaccuratecareerinformationonwhichtobasetheirdecisions.Individualfacultymembersmustbewillingtosetasidetheirshort-termself-interestinmaintainingthehighlevelofstaffingoftheirlaboratoriesforthesakeofthelong-termstabilityandwell-beingofthescientificworkforce.Directorsofgraduateprogramsmustbewillingtoexaminethefutureworkforceneedsofthescientificfieldsinwhichtheytrain,notjustthecurrentneedsoftheirindividualdepartmentsforresearchandteachingassistants.

Therecommendationsinthisreportareofferedasfirststepstoimprovetheoverallqualityoftrainingandcareerprospectsoffuturelifescientists.Wehopethattheinformationinthisreportwillbeusedtobegindiscussionswithinthelife-sciencecommunityonthebest

waystopreparefuturescientistsforexcitingcareersintheprofessionandtoprotectthevitalityofthelife-scienceresearchenterprise.

1Introduction

ACapsuleHistoryofAmericanResearchintheLifeSciences

Duringthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,theUnitedStateshaswitnessedsubstantialgrowthinthesizeandeffectivenessofitslife-scienceresearchenterprise.Indeed,theverydefinitionoflifesciencehasemergedduringthiscenturyasthesumofagricultural,biochemical,cellular,developmental,ecologic,evolutionary,molecular,andmedicalbiology.TheNationalInstituteofHealthwasestablishedbytheRansdellActin1930(PL71-251),butduringthe1930slife-scienceresearchinuniversityandindustrylaboratorieswasconductedwithlittlesupportfromthegovernment.TheUSDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)wastheonlysourceoffederalsupportforsuchwork.TheNationalCancerInstitute(NCI)wasestablishedin1937,butalthoughitsmandateincludedthefundingofresearchandtraininginnonfederallaboratories,itsexpendituresformedicalresearchin1940wereonly$3million,includingbothintramuralandextramuralwork.Meanwhile,privatesources,suchastheRockefellerFoundation,contributed$17million,andindustry$25million(NIH1961).In1944,CongresspluralizedtheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)toincludeseveraldisease-orientedinstitutesinadditiontoNCI,butatnotimebetween1938and1945didNIHextramuralexpendituresexceed$250,000(NIH1978).

IntheperiodbeforeWorldWarII,thenumberoflifescientiststrainedperyearwasalsolow;in1930,only342PhDswereawardedinallthelifesciences.By1940,however,changewasintheair:WarrenWeaver,oftheRockefellerFoundation,notedthat"graduallythereiscomingintobeinganewbranchofsciencemolecularbiologywhichis

beginningtouncovermanysecretsofthelivingcell"(Judson1979),andthenumberoflife-sciencePhDsawardedwas672.Itwas,however,theeventsduringandafterWorldWarIIthathadthegreatesteffectontheclimateoflife-scienceresearch.Thepressingproblemsofwartimerequiredsolutionsonanunprecedentedscale.Wholearmiesbecameillwithmalaria,anddrugsforthetreatmentofinfectionandtraumawereneededinmassiveamounts.Ratesoffoodproductionbecameanissueofinternationalimportance.Forthefirsttime,lifescientistsweremobilizedonabroadfrontandgivenabundantresourceswithwhichtotacklethefundamentalandpracticalproblemsofbiology;andbothmedicalandagriculturalproblemsweresolved.ThesuccessesofthoseeffortsandofcomparableworkinotherfieldsofsciencegavecredibilitytotheideathattheentireUnitedStatescouldbenefitfrominstitutionalizedsupportforresearch,aspropoundedinthe1945reportbyVannevarBush,Science,theEndlessFrontier(NSF1960).

ThepostwaryearssawtheestablishmentoftheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)andanexpansionofNIH.By1947,thegovernmentwasinvesting$28millionperyearinmedicalresearch,9timestheinvestmentof7yearsearlierandapproachingindustry's$35million.By1960,NSFwasspending$29milliononbiologicandmedicalsciences.From1956to1961,NIHexpendituresforextramuralresearchwentfrom$40.5millionto$272.9million;duringthesameperiod,NIHinvestmentsfortraininggrewfrom$17.3millionto$132million,proportionallyanevenlargerincrease(NIH1961),sofundsfortrainingkeptpacewithsupportforresearch.Indeed,animportantconsequenceofBush'sblueprintforfederalinvestmentinsciencewastheestablishmentofalinkagebetweenresearchandresearchtraining.Itwasanaturalconsequenceofthepolicythatfederallysupportedresearchwouldbeconductedprimarily

inuniversity-basedresearchlaboratories.Asthefundsforresearchincreasedinthepostwaryears,thenumberoflife-sciencePhDsgrantedperyeargrewcorrespondinglyfrom1,660in1960to4,980in1971,triplinginonly10years.

ThosepatternsofgovernmentinvestmenthadprofoundeffectsonboththenumberandthestructureofUSuniversities.BuildingonthefoundationsestablishedbytheearlyresearchorientationofJohnsHopkinsUniversityandtheexpansionofacademicmedicine,asinitiatedbytheFlexnerreport(Flexner1910),theinfluxoffederalsupportforresearchhelpedtochangeAmericanuniversitiesintoresearch-intensiveinstitutions.Forexample,trainingwasseenaspartofthemissionofNCIfromitsbeginningsinthe1930s.RecodificationoftheRansdellActduring1944reauthorizedthetrainingactivitiesspecifiedintheact.Thetrainingofscientistsatthemaster'sandPhDlevelsbecameanintegralpartofresearch.Asnewnationalinstitutescameintobeing,theauthorityfortrainingresearchorclinicalwasoftenincludedasanessentialcomponentoftheirmissionsandincorporatedintotheirstatutoryportfolio,asspecifiedinTitleIVofthePublicHealthServiceAct.Fundstosupportthetuitionandstipendsofstudentsandfellowswerenowoftenincludedasitemsinthebudgetsoffederalresearchgrants.Bytheearly1950s,NIHhadadministrativelycraftedanelaboratesetoftrainingmechanisms,includinggrantsforpredoctoral,postdoctoral,andspecialfellowshipsandforpredoctoralandpostdoctoraltraining;thesesupportedawidevarietyoftrainingprogramsinthebiomedicalsciences.

ThemostgeneralandcomprehensivestatutoryauthorityforsupportingresearchtrainingwasaddedtoSection301(d)ofTitleIIIofthePublicHealthServiceActbyanamendmentenactedin1962aspartofPL87-838.Theamendmentextendedthelimitedauthorityofthesurgeongeneral(laterthesecretary)fromsupportingsimply"suchresearchprojectsasareapprovedbytheNationalAdvisoryHealth

Council"tosupporting"suchresearchandresearchtrainingprojectsasareapproved"Bytheearly1970s,morethan6,000life-sciencegraduatestudentsweresupportedbyNIHandNSFtraininggrantsorfellowships.TheNationalResearchActof1974(PL93-348)establishedtheNationalResearchServiceAwardsprogram,providingfundsforcompetitiveindividualfellowshipsforgraduatestudentsandpostgraduatefellows.ItalsoinstitutedamechanismbywhichacommitteeappointedbytheNationalAcademyofSciencesmetevery2yearstoidentifycurrentnationalresearchtrainingneeds(NRC1994).Thenewmechanismledtotheterminationofsometraininggrants,butthegenerallevelofsupportforbiomedicaltrainingcontinuedtogrow.Thesumsspentforlife-scienceresearchtrainingcontinuedtomirrorthosespentforlife-sciencesresearch,asexemplifiedbythetransientdropinthenumberofPhDsgrantedperyearduringthemiddletolate1970s,whichfollowedatemporarycessationintherapidgrowthofresearchfundingthatoccurredduringthelate1960s.Whenfederalresearchinvestmentsresumedgrowthinthemiddle1970s,therateofPhDproductionfollowedsuit.Theexpansionoftraininghascontinuedatvariousrateseversince,asdetailedinchapter2.

Thegrowthofthelifescienceshaspermittedtheabsorptionintotheresearchworkforceofalargefractionoftheever-increasingtrainees.ThereadyavailabilityofrecentPhDshasalsocontributedtothesuccessofcompaniesbuiltonthelifesciences,suchasinthebiotechnologyindustry.ScientistsneededtoguidecompanydecisionsandworkerstostaffresearchlaboratorieswerealreadyavailablewhenthediscoveriesofrecombinantDNAinthe1970sempoweredentrepreneurialscientiststodevelopprocessesthatwouldmakemarketableproductsofanunprecedentedkind.Humanproteinscouldnowbesynthesizedinlargequantitiesoutsidethehumanbodyandusedastherapeuticagentsofgreatpracticalutility.Duringthe1980s,this

industrygrewrapidly,fueledinpartbytheenthusiasmofWallStreetforthepossibilitiesassociatedwithnewmarkets.Newinvestmentfromtheprivatesectorflowedquicklyintothelife-scienceenterprise,increasingboththequantityofscientificresearchandtheperceptionthatsuchworkcouldbeofvaluetotheAmericanpeople.In1996,thenumberoflife-sciencePhDsgrantedwas7,696;in1997,federalinvestmentinhealthresearchexceeded$14billion.Privatefoundationscontributed$1.2billiontobiomedicalresearchin1997,andindustry'sinvestmentinhealthresearchanddevelopmentexceeded$17billion(NSF1996,appendixtable4-31).Meanwhile,thecountry'sinvestmentsinplantscienceandagriculturehadalsogrown:during1995,USDAinvested$1.4billioninresearchanddevelopment,andindustry'sinvestmentinagricultureandforestrywas$3.5billion.Thelife-scienceresearchenterprisehadbecomeeconomicallyimportant.

Intherecentdecades,thevarioussectorsofemploymentforlifescientistshaveexpandedatdifferentrates.Thefastestgrowthhasoccurredinindustry,wherethenumberoflife-sciencePhDshasincreasedfromaround5,500in1973tonearly24,000in1995,anaverageannualincreaseofalmost7%.Duringthesameperiod,thepoolofpostdoctoralfellowsandnon-tenure-trackstaffatacademicinstitutionshasgrownfromabout4,000toover20,500,anaverageannualincreaseof7.6%.Incontrast,federal-laboratoryandothergovernmentemploymenthasshownmodestgrowth;andthenumberoflifescientistsholdingfacultyappointmentsinuniversitiesandcollegeshasincreasedfrom28,500in1973toonlyabout49,000in1995,anaverageannualincreaseofonly2.5%.Universitiesremainthelargestemployersoflife-sciencePhDs,buttheirshareofthepoolhasdiminishedsubstantiallyduringthelasttwodecades(seeappendixtableF.8fordetails).

Ourcountry'sinvestmentinthelifescienceshasproducedmany

importantresults.Discoveriesinagriculturalsciencehaveimprovedourunderstandingofsoilsandtheirchemistryandhaveledtothedevelopmentofnewstrainsofcropplantsthatareresistanttodiseasesandthatyieldmorefoodpercultivatedacre.Suchworkhascontributedtothelowcostoffoodthatourcountrynowenjoys.Environmentalsciencesandforestryhaveevolvednewmethodsforsustainablymanagingresourcesthatwillhelpourexpandingpopulationtopassonmoreofitsnaturalwealthtofuturegenerations.Medicalsciencehasprovidedfundamentalunderstandingofthemolecularbasisofnumerousdiseases,whichhasledtotheeliminationofsomeandthecontainmentofmany.Notonlypreventiveapproaches,likepropernutritionandimmunization,butdiagnostictechniquesandameliorativetreatmentsdrugs,surgery,radiation,andphysicaltherapyandpsychotherapyhavereducedhumansufferingandprolongedandenrichedhumanlife.Advancesinmolecularbiologynotonlyhavespawnedthebiotechnologyindustry,whichiscontributingtotheAmericaneconomy,butalsohavecontributedfundamentalknowledgeaboutthestructuresofgenesandthebehaviorofbiologicmacromolecules.Theseadvancesareyieldingnewinsightsintotherelationshipsamongorganismsandaboutthecontinuumofstructureandfunctionthatconnectslivingandnonlivingthings.(Formorespecificexamplesofthefruitsofprogressinthelifesciences,seechapter4.)Thelong-rangeimplicationsofallthisrapidlyevolvingknowledgearehardtopredict,butmanyadditionalbenefitsarenowonthehorizon.

TheStructureoftheLife-ScienceEnterprise

Thespectacularsuccessesofthelifescienceshaveemergedfromaprofessionalstructurethatevolvedtomeettheneedsstemmingfromrapidgrowth.Thelivesofprofessors,industrialbiologists,agriculturalandmedicalresearchers,postdoctoralfellows,andgraduatestudentsinthe

1990sverydifferentfromthoseofcomparablescientists3040yearsago.Atypicalacademicresearchlaboratoryinearliertimesincludedaprofessor,perhapsatechnician,andsometimesagraduatestudent.Today,manylife-sciencelaboratoriesinclude20ormorepeople,mostofwhomareintheprocessoftrainingtobecomeindependentscientists.Thechaptersthatfollowpresentdataonmanyaspectsofthechanges.Tomakethelaterchaptersmoremeaningfulforreaderswhoarenotthemselveslifescientists,wedescribeherethetrainingofalifescientistandthemajorprofessionaleventsinalifescientist'scareertheworktowardaPhD,inmanycasespostdoctoraltraining,thepassagetoajob,andthepursuitofresearchsupportandthensketchtheresearchenvironment.Spacelimitationsrequirethatthistreatmentbebrief,soitisrestrictedinscopeanddetail;thedescriptionsareintendednottobedetailed,buttoillustratewhatitisliketobetrainedandtoworkintoday'sbiologicresearchenterprise.

Itisimportantfirsttorecognizethebreadthofknowledgethatisnowencompassedbythetermlifesciences.Atoneextreme,wefindphysicalandchemicalstudiesofthemoleculesthatmakeuplivingthings:organicmoleculessuchasfats,carbohydrates,andproteinsthatarethestuffofwhichalllivingthingsaremade.ThelifesciencesthenrangeupthroughthestudyofgenesandoftheDNAandRNAfromwhichtheyareconstructedandexpressedtostudiesofmacromolecularassembliesandorganellesandthecellularprocessesthattheyaccomplish.Cellsaresometimestudiedasorganismsintheirownright(forexample,bacteria,protozoa,andsomefungi)andsometimesascomponentsofmulticellularplantsoranimals,whichmustinturnbeanalyzednotonlyasorganisms,butalsoasentitiesthatdevelopfromasinglefertilizedovumandmustinteractwithotherplantsandanimalsintheirenvironments.Wholesystemsofinteractingorganismsmustbestudiedtounderstandanecologicniche.Andtheevolutionistwouldarguethatnoneoftheabovestudies

makessenseunlessviewedinthecontextoftheslowchangesingeneticmakeupthatconstitutebioticevolution.Allthoseaspectsofthelifesciencesarelinkedbytheuniversalityofthegeneticandbiochemicalbasesthatunderliethem,butitisclearthattherearemanywaystostudythecomplexitiesoflife.

Thelifesciencescanbethoughtofinthreecategories:theagriculturalsciences,thebiomedicalsciences,andaharder-to-labelclusterofbasicbiologicsciencesthataddresslifeprocessesthemselves.Thisreportincludesdatafromallthosecategories,andwehavetriedtoaddresstheinterestsofeveryfederalagencythatsupportstrainingandresearchinbiology,broadlydefined.ItmightappearattimesthatNIHandthebiomedicalscienceshavedominatedourconsiderations.ThatappearancehasbeendifficulttoavoidbecauseofthesizeoftheNIHbudgetandtheresultingnumberofyoungandestablishedlifescientiststhatitsupports.Indeed,patternsofsupportthatareinitiatedbyNIHoftenserveasmodelsforprogramsfundedbyotheragencies.Wehopethatourdiscussionsandrecommendationswillberelevanttoallthelifesciences,notsimplythosewithabiomedicalbent.

TheShapeofGraduateEducation

Allnewgraduatestudentsinbiologymustselectfromapanoramaoftopics,likethatsketchedabove,aspecificsubsetthatcanreasonablybemasteredwithinthe510yearsthatarecommonlydevotedtoaPhDdegree.Graduateworkalmostalwaysbeginswithcourses,butmanyprogramsstrivetogettheirstudentsintoaresearchenvironmentassoonaspossible.Theintentispartlytodistinguishgraduatefromundergraduateeducationandpartlytoletstudentsseewhatthelifeofascientistislike.Courseworkusuallydominatesthefirstyearormoreofgraduatestudyandtricklesonthroughyears2and3.Apreliminaryexaminationusuallyevaluatescompetencetocontinuetraining,and

thepassageofageneralexaminationinthesecondorthirdyearpermitsadmissiontocandidacyforthePhDdegree.Agraduatestudentusuallyidentifiesdissertationsupervisorinthefirstorsecondyearandbeginsthesisresearchshortlythereafter.

Itisuncommonforgraduatebiologystudentstopaytheireducationalexpensesfromtheirownresources(seetable2.1inchapter2),becausetherearenumerousalternatives:salarygrantstoindividualstudents,traininggrantstodepartmentsorprograms,researchgrantstofacultymemberswhocanthensupportagraduateresearchassistant,teachingassistantshipsfromthecollegeoruniversity,andinsomecasesloanstohelptopostponeexpendituresuntilmorelucrativeemploymentisavailable.Mostgraduatestudentsteachatsometimeduringtheirtraining,butthedurationofthisteachingexperienceusuallydependsonwhethertheycanobtainsupportfromaresearch-orientedsourcethatallowsthemtocompletetheirthesisworkwithoutthecomplicationsofteachingatthesametime.

Thedurationofgraduatetrainingisvariable,dependinginpartonthesubdisciplineinquestion:molecularbiologyandcellularbiologytendtoward7years(elapsedcalendartimefromthebachelor'sdegreetothePhDdegreeandaboutayearlessasaregisteredstudentintheprogram),buttrainingthatrequiresextensiveworkinthefieldorananalysisofpopulationsoveralongtermtakeslonger.Themeantimetocompletionofalife-sciencePhDhasincreasedfrom6to8yearsoverthelast25years.(Chapter2presentsmoredetaileddataonthegraduateandthepostdoctoralexperience.)

ThePostdoctoralExperience

Graduatestudentsinbiologywhodesireacareerinresearchoftenpursuefurthertrainingatthepostdoctorallevel.AccordingtodatafromtheNationalResearchCouncil'sSurveyofDoctorateRecipients

(SDR,see,forexample,NCR1996),thefractionwhogoontothisleveloftrainingmorethanquadrupledfrom1973to1993;in1995,53%oflife-sciencePhDrecipientspursuedfurthertrainingaspostdoctoralfellowswithin12yearsofearningtheirdegrees.Threereasonsforpostdoctoraltraining'sbecomingsocommoninthelifescienceshavebeensuggested:buildingasuccessfulresearchcareerrequiressuchamagnitudeanddiversityofknowledgethatadditionaltraininginasecondresearchenvironmentishelpful;fundsareoftenavailableforpostdoctoralstipends,makingthesecondtrainingstagerelativelyavailableandadditionaloutlaysbythepostdoctoralfellowunnecessary;andthecompetitionforjobswithmoreindependenceandsecurityisintense.Thus,theimprovementsinone'scurriculumvitae(CV)thatresultfromtheadditionalresearchexperienceandpublicationscharacteristicofpostdoctoralworkareveryimportantforone'sprospectofpermanentemployment.Therelativeimportanceofthosefactorsisdiscussedinchapter5.

Somepostdoctoralfellowsapplyforandreceivetheirownfundingfromagovernmentagencyoraprivatefoundation.Suchfellowshipsareparticularlydesirablebecausetherecognitionthataccompaniesthemcarriesimplicitandexplicitmessagesofintellectualandprofessionalindependenceandbecausethesalarymoneymakesacandidatemoreattractivetoahostlaboratoryofhighquality.Otherpostdoctoralfellowsaresupportedbysalariesspecifiedintheresearchbudgetsoftheirnewhostlaboratory.Tosomeextent,scientistsinthelattergrouparemoreobligedtoworkontheprojectsforwhichtheirnewmentorshavebeenfundedthanonprojectsoftheirownchoosing.However,becausepostdoctoralfellowscommonlyselecttheirhostlaboratoriesonthebasisofaninterestinthesciencethatisdonethere,thatconstraintisusuallyofminorimportance,atleastatfirst.Manyyoungscientistfindthatthefirst2or3yearsofpostdoctoralexperienceisexceptionallyrewarding.Researchersatthisstageofprofessionaldevelopmentarealreadyexperienced

enoughtogetgoodworkdonefast,butnewenoughtothesubdisciplineoftheirnewhostlaboratoriestofindtheirworkbothchallengingandvaluable.Thecombinationofscientificcompetencewithanewscientificprojectisheady,constructive,anduseful.Manyseniorscientistslookbackontheirpostdoctoralyearsasamongthebestoftheirscientificcareers.

Thegraduateexperienceandpostdoctoraltrainingareformativeindevelopingasenseofhowscienceshouldbedone.Virtuallyallgraduatetrainingandmostpostdoctoralworkarecarriedoutintheacademicenvironmentofauniversityormedicalschool,sotheexperiencesofyounglifescientistsareheavilyweightedtowardthelooselystructuredenvironmentscharacteristicofbasic-researchlaboratories.Thatsituationmightcontributetothepreferencethatmanypostdoctoralfellowsshowforcontinuingtheircareersinanacademicenvironment.

Inrecentyears,ithasbecomecommonforpostdoctoraltrainingtolastatleast3years.Thatsituationisnowhavinganimportantonthelivesofolderpostdoctoralfellowsbecausemostpostdoctoralfellowshipslastforonly2or3years.Forthosewhoderivetheirstipendsfromhostlaboratoriesorinstitutions,thesupportrarelyextendsmorethan5years.Adistinctionshouldbemadebetween''postdoctoraltraining",whenayounglifescientistislearningnewapproachesortechniques,and"postdoctoralemployment",whentrainingislargelyoverandtheyoungscientistiscontinuingtoworkatthisprofessionalrank,improvinghisorherCVand/orlookingforamorepermanentandindependentjob.

Asthelengthofthepostdoctoralexperienceincreases,theissueofjobsecuritycanbecomemoreimportant.Moreover,startingpostdoctoralsalariesareusuallyratherlowandincreaseonlymodestlywithadditionalyearsofexperience(therecommendedNIHpostdoctoral

salariesforapersonwithupto5yearsofpreviouspostdoctoralexperiencehaverecentlybeenincreasedtojustover$20,000peryearatthebeginningoftheirNIH-supportedpostdoctoralworkandjustunder$30,000peryearattheend;fringebenefitsarealsomodest).Fewuniversitieshaveaprofessionalstructurethatprovidesadditionalfinancialsupportforpostdoctoralfellows,andalthoughtheyarewelcomedinscientificprofessionalsocieties,theyareneitherstudentsnorestablishedprofessionals.Thatsituationprovidesstrongmotivationformostpostdoctoralfellowstotrytofindadifferentformofemploymentwithin5yearsofobtainingtheirPhDdegrees.

ThePursuitofaJob

Afteraperiodofpostdoctoraltrainingandthepublicationofseveralpapersasevidenceofscientificaccomplishmentandexpertise,mostpostdoctoralfellowsapplyforpositionsthatcarrysomemeasureoffutureprospectsandpermanence:tenure-trackacademicposts,jobsincompaniesorgovernmentlaboratories,orpositionsinalternativeprofessionsthatwillenablethemtousetheirscientifictrainingorresearchskills.Inrecentyears,thejobmarketforlife-sciencePhDshastightenedconsiderably.Thenumberofpositionsinacademicinstitutions,thelargestemployersoflife-sciencePhDs,hasnotincreasedasfastasthenumberofapplicants.Juniorfacultypositionsforwhichthefieldofresearchisnotnarrowlydefinedgenerallyattractseveralhundredapplicants,andgoodjobsinindustryandinprimarilyundergraduate,teaching-intensivecollegesarejustascompetitive.Ofcourse,someyoungscientistswithextraordinarycredentialsgetjobsimmediately,butmanyotherswithimpressiveCVsarenowfindingtheprofessionaltransitionverydifficult(foramorecompletetreatmentofthisimportantissue,seechapter2and3).

Inresponsetothetighteningjobmarket,therehasbeenanexpansionintherangeofpositionsthatyoungbiologistswilllookatseriously.Theextentofthis"alternative"jobmarketisnotat

presentveryclear,butsomeofthemajorresearchcentersarebeginningtoprovidesymposiumsandconferencesonthecareersavailabletolife-sciencePhDsoutsidetheconventionalspheresofemployment.Thereactionamongpostdoctoralfellowshasbeenmixed(asdiscussedinchapter5).Theproblemforanindividualpostdoctoralfellowremainshowbesttobedistinguishedfromthecompetition.Tomaximizetheirmarketabilitymostcandidatestrytopublishasmuchastheycaninjournalsthatarewidelyread.Jobseminarsgetbrightlypolished,andcandidatespracticepresentingthemselvesfavorably.Evenwithstrongcredentialsandabroadperspectiveonthesuitabilityofdiverseemploymentopportunities,however,itoftentakesseveralyearstogetagoodjob.Thisdifficultyisalmostcertainlyanimportantfactorintheincreasingdurationofpostdoctoral"training".

ThePursuitofResearchSupport

Forapplicantswhogetpositionsinindustrialorgovernmentallaboratories,resourcesforresearchareusuallyincluded.Fornewemployeesinacademicinstitutionsandresearchinstitutes,thenextcareerstepisusuallytoobtainfundingthatwillsupportscientificwork.Manyjoboffersincludesomefundswithwhichtosetuplaboratories,soinitialpurchasesofequipmentandoftenthefirstyearorsoofresearchsuppliesarealreadyavailable,buttheexpectationformostnewemployeesintheseresearchinstitutionsisthattheywillapplyforandobtaintheirownresearchfunding.Thedetailsofanapplicationvaryfromonegrantingagencytoanother,butaresearchproposalusuallyincludesadescriptionofthescientificcontextandsignificanceoftheproposedexperimentsandadetailedaccountofhowtheworkwillbedone.Constructionofsuchaproposaltakesanywherefromafewweekstoafewmonths,andtheprobabilityofsuccessoffirstapplicationsisnothigh,rangingfromlessthan10%in

someagenciesto35%inothers.Suchfigures,ofcourse,varyfromyeartoyearanddependprimarilyonthestateoftheeconomyandtheattitudeofCongresstowardresearch.

Stayingfundedisnotmucheasier.Itisimportanttorememberthatobtaininggrantshasbeendifficultformanyyears;therearefewinvestigatorsstillsubmittingproposalswhoseworkisnotofgoodquality.Thecompetitionisthereforeintenseforallinvestigators,youngandold,andachievingarankinthetopone-thirdisnoteasy.Asuccessfulproposalrequiresnotonlyimagination,skill,andhardwork,butalsogoodfortune.Ithelpstobeintherightintellectualplaceattherightscientifictime.Ifaproposalisradicallydifferentfromthescientificmainstream,itcanbedismissedas"risky".Ifitisnotsufficientlyinvolvedwithcurrentmethodsandideas,itcanbedismissedasold-fashioned.Thereisalsosomeluckintheratherarbitrarychoiceofwhoreviewsaparticularproposal.Mostreviewersarehighlyaccomplishedscientists,chosenbywell-meaninggrantadministratorsfortheirexpertiseandfair-mindedness.However,whenthepeoplewhoreviewaproposalknowandrespectboththesubfieldinquestionandtheworkoftheapplicant,thechancesofafundablescorearelikelytoimprove.

Itisalsoimportanttorecognizetheimportanceoffundingforlifescientistsworkingoutsidegovernmentorindustriallaboratories.Mostuniversities,medicalschools,andresearchinstitutesrequiregrantstoindividualsforthepursuitofaparticularproject:ifthereisnogrant,thereisno(orverylittle)supportforresearch.Furthermore,one'slivelihoodisoftenaffectedbyagrant,dramaticallyinsomeinstances.Inmostcollegesofartsandsciencesandrelateduniversitydivisions,asalaryisprovidedforonly9monthsoftheyear,thetimewhenaprincipalinvestigatorisengagedinteachingandrelateduniversityactivities.Salaryforthesummermonthscanbesoughtfromaresearchgrant,andsometimesafractionofaprincipalinvestigator'sacademic-yearsalarywillbeincludedaswell,onthegroundsthatthe

facultymemberisusingthat

portionofhisorhertimeonresearch-relatedactivities.Inmedicalschoolsandothermedicalresearchinstitutionsandinprivateinstitutionstoagreaterextentthaninpublicones,researchpersonnelareexpectedtoobtainsubstantialportionsoftheirsalariesfromgrantsthroughouttheyear.Thus,themotivationtowritesuccessfulproposalsishighindeed.Givenallthosefactors,itisnowonderthatmanyprincipalinvestigatorsspendalargefractionoftheirtimeseekingthefundswithwhichtodoresearch.

TheCharacteroftheResearchEnvironment

Giventhediversityofbiologicresearch,thereisahugerangeinhowlife-scienceresearchisconducted.Someisdone"inthefield",withaheavyemphasisontheobservationoforganismsintheirnaturalsettings.Someisdoneinthefield,literally;selectedplantsaregrowninexperimentalplotssidebysidewithcontrolstrainstoassesstheirrelativesusceptibilitytodisease,drought,ornutritionaldeprivation.Someisdoneinlaboratoriesthatcouldserveachemistoraphysicistaswellasabiologist.Thefollowinggeneralizationsshould,however,bereasonablyapplicabletoall.

Aprincipalinvestigatorbuildsaresearchgroupbydefiningthescientificquestionstobeaddressed,specifyingthemethodstobeused,obtainingnecessaryfunding,findingthesuitableresearchenvironment,andattractingtheresearchpersonnel,usuallyamixtureofstudents,technicians,andpostdoctoralfellows.Theday-to-dayjobsoftheprincipalinvestigatorincludethoseofaresearchmanager:makingdecisionsaboutexpendituresandpersonnelmatters,evaluatingdata,planningthenextexperimentsorobservations,providingtrainingforlessexperiencedpersonnel,anddirectingthewholeenterprisetowardthecompletionofresearchmanuscriptsforpublication.Ancillarytasksincludethewritingofgrantproposalsandsuchresearch-relatedarticlesasreviewsoftheliterature,critiquesof

workofotherprincipalinvestigators,andthecommitteeworkassociatedwiththehostinstitution.Manyprincipalinvestigatorsmustalsoteachandadministeractivitiesdistinctfromtheirownresearchprojects.

Theresearchpersonnelinthegroupusuallyworkonmore-specifictasksthatpertaintotheconstructionofresearchtoolsortheacquisitionandanalysisofdata.Groupsizesusuallyrangefromafewworkerstoaround20;someexceptionalresearchgroupsaremuchlarger.Itiscommonforthesocialstructureoftheresearchenvironmenttobequitefree,permittingandevenencouragingiconoclasticandinnovativecontributionsfromanyoneinthegroup.Rarelyisthejudgmentoftheprincipalinvestigatoralwaysright,andthedetailsofaparticularexperimentorobservationaresometimesknownonlytothepeopledoingthework.Theebbandflowofcriticismandsuggestionbetweentheprincipalinvestigatorandthelaboratorymembersisoneofthethingsthatmakeafreesocialstructuresoeffectivefortheprogressofscience.Thegiveandtakeisoneofthemostinstructiveandconstructiveaspectsofalaboratoryenvironment;itisakeyreasonwhyresearchtrainingmustbeobtained"onthejob"inanapprenticesituation,notinaclassroom.Thegiveandtakeisalsoofgreatvalueforthequalityandquantityofsciencethatgetsdone;mistakesinjudgmentorknowledgeareoftencorrectedquicklywithouttheemotionalstressthatcandevelopinamorestructuredenvironment.Itistherare(andfoolish)principalinvestigatorwhoisoffendedbyconstructivedisagreement.

Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofthelaboratorygroupstructureisitsflexibilityandintellectualmobility.Infast-movingfieldslikethemodernlifesciences,theintellectualossificationthatcanaccompanyamajoradministrativestructure,suchastheenvironmentsuitableforanexpensiveinstrument,impedesthereadjustmentsofpositionanddirectionthatarenecessaryforinnovativework.Flexibilityof

structurehasbeenoneofthegreatstrengthsoflife-scienceresearchintheUnitedStates.Researchgroupscanvarywidelyfromthemodeldescribedabove,dependingonthediscipline,thesizeofthegroup,thepersonalityoftheindividualsinvolved,andtheinstitution;buteventhisvariationisprobablyconstructives:itallowsthecountry'sresearchenterprisetoencompassmanyapproacheswithintheframeworkofresearchthatissupportedbygrantstoindividuallife-scienceinvestigators.TheresultingpluralismhascontributedtotheabilityofAmericanlife-sciencestoexplorethebiologiclandscapefastandeconomically.Eventheresearchstructuresfoundinmanycompaniescanbedescribedbythismodel,althoughtheyincludeadifferentrangeofconstraints,dependingonthescientificandeconomicgoalsofthecompanies.

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2EducationandResearchTrainingofLife-SciencePHDSInthischapter,weexaminethechangesthathaveoccurredoverthelast3decadesinthenumberofnewlife-sciencePhDsproducedandthelengthoftheirdoctoralandpostdoctoraltraining.Wealsoexaminesomekeyfactorsunderlyingthesetrendstoestablishabasisforunderstandingtheforcesthatinfluencethetrendsincareeroutcomespresentedinchapter3.MostofthedatainthischaptercomefromtwoNationalResearchCouncilsurveys:theannualSurveyofEarnedDegrees,whichcollectsbiographicinformation(includingpostdoctoralplans)fromallpersonsreceivingresearchdoctoratesfromUSuniversities,andthebiennialSurveyofDoctorateRecipients,whichcompilescurrentemploymentinformationfroma510%sampleofUS-educatedPhDscientistsandengineers.Additionaldataongraduate-studentsupportandpostdoctoralswereobtainedfromtheNationalScienceFoundation'sSurveyofGraduateStudentsandPost-doctoratesinScienceandEngineering.(SeeappendixCforadditionaldetailonsourcesofdataandappendixDforfieldsofstudyincludedinthecommittee'sanalysis.)

PHDSAwardedintheLifeSciences

Sincethe1960s,thenumberofPhDsawardedannuallyinthelifescienceshasmorethantripled.Asillustratedinfigure2.1,7,696life-sciencedoctorateswereawardedbyUSuniversitiesin1996,comparedwith2,095degreesin1963.However,thegrowthpatternduringthat33-yearperiodhasnotbeenconstant.Duringthefirst8years,primarilyastheresultofthemanynewgraduateprogramsthatwereestablished1andprogramsthatwereexpandedbefore1963(asdiscussedinchapter1),thenumberofPhDawardsgrewatanaverage

of11.4%ayear.Inthenext16years(19711987),therewasminimalgrowthinPhDproduction(lessthan1%ayear).Since1987,thegrowthindoctoraldegreesinthelifescienceshasresumedanaverageofabout4%from1987to1996(themostrecentyearforwhichdataareavailable),foratotalincreaseof42.5%inthatperiod.(SeetableE.1,inappendixE,fordetailsandfigure2.1foragraphicpresentation.)

TheincreasesinPhDawardshavebynomeansbeenuniformacrossthedisciplinesofthelifesciences.Changesinsurveytaxonomydonotpermitadetailedanalysisofthedoctoralincreaseineverylife-sciencediscipline,butsomeofthedifferencesobservedfromdataintablesE.2,E.3,andE.4arestriking.Forthemostpart,thelargestincreaseshaveoccurredinbiomedicalsciences,suchasbiochemistry,cellularbiology,molecularbiology,neuro-sciences,andpharmacology.ThenumbersofPhDsawardedinsomeagriculturalandbasicbiologicsciences(suchasplantsciencesandecology)havealsogrownduringthelast3decadesbuttoamuchsmallerdegree.Overall,almostallthegrowthinthenumberofPhDsawardedhasbeeninthebiomedicalfields(figure2.2).

Twodemographiccharacteristicsoflifescientistshavechangedconsiderablyduringthe30-yearperiodunderstudy.First,ascanbeseeninfigure2.1,thepercentageofPhDsawardedtowomenhasgrownsteadily.In1963,

1Betweenthelate1950sand1970,thenumberofPhD-grantingprogramsinthelifesciencesgrewfrom122to224(NRC1978)

Figure2.1NumberofUSlife-sciencePhDsawardedannually,bysex,19631996.DatafromtableE.1.1996totalincludesfiverecipientsofunknownsex.

Figure2.2

NumberofUSlife-sciencePhDsawardedannually,bybroadfield,19631996.DatafromtablesE.2andE.3.

forexample,fewerthan10%oflifescientistsreceivingPhDswerewomen.By1996,thecorrespondingfractionwasover40%.Incontrast,thenumberofmenreceivinglife-sciencePhDsafterrapidlyrisinginthe1960sactuallydeclinedfrom1971to1987andhasonlymodestlyincreasedsincethen.Althoughtherehasbeenadoublinginthefractionoflife-sciencePhDrecipientswhoaremembersofminoritygroupoverthelast20years(tableE.1),theabsolutenumbersremainverysmallrisingfrom96in1973to341in1996.

Thesecondnotablechangeistheincreasesince1987inthenumberofdegreesawardedtocitizensofothercountries.Asshowninfigure2.3andtableE.5,thenumberofforeigncitizens(holdingpermanent-residentstatusortemporaryvisas)earninglife-sciencedegreesatUSuniversitiesmorethandoubledfrom1987to1996(from1,127to2,947).Thepercentageoflife-sciencePhDswhoareforeignnationalswithtemporaryvisaspeakedat28.2%in1993butdeclinedsomewhatthereafter.ThatisalmostcertainlyanartifactattributabletothepassageoftheChineseStudentProtectionActof1992,whichpermittedChinesenationalstemporarilyresidingintheUnitedStatestochangetopermanent-residentstatus;manyChinesestudentswhohaveearnedPhDssince1992havebeencountedintheUScitizenandpermanent-residentcategory.Figure2.3showsthatwhenthenumberoftemporaryresidentsreceivingPhDsdippedafter1993,thenumberofpermanentresidentsincreasedsharplyandthatthesumofthesetwoclassesofforeignnationalsroseatasteadypacefrom1989to1996.

Figure2.3NumberofUSlife-sciencePhDsawardedannually,bycitizenship,19631996.DatafromtableE.5.1996totalincludes178recipientsofunknowncitizenship.

WedonothaveaccuratedataonhowmanyoftheforeignstudentsontemporaryvisashavepursuedresearchcareersintheUnitedStates,butthepercentageappearstobesubstantial.Figure2.4showsthatanincreasingnumberandpercentageoftemporaryresidentsreportonreceivingtheirPhDsthattheyplantoremainintheUnitedStates.Inrecentyears,about60%havesaidthattheyplantoremain.Finnandothers(1996)estimatedthatnearlyone-thirdofthetemporaryresidentswhoearnedlife-sciencePhDsin19871988wereworkinginthiscountryin1992.Theforeign-nationalPhDsarefoundinthehighestproportionsinsubdisciplinesoftheagriculturalsciencessuchasagronomy,animalbreeding,foodengineering,andplantpathologyandfieldsthathavemoredirectapplication,suchaspharmacy.

Figure2.4

NumberofUSlife-sciencePhDsawardedannuallytotemporaryresidentsandnumberandpercentageoftemporaryresidentsplanningtoremainin

theUnitedStates,19631996DatafromtableE.1.

AlthoughwomenandforeignnationalsaccountformostoftheincreaseinthenumberofPhDrecipientsoverthelast10years,thereisanotabledifferenceintheacademicstandingoftheinstitutionsinwhichtheytrain.Overall,thetop26life-sciencePhD-grantingprogramsbyreputation2(NRC1995)educate2532%ofthelife-sciencePhDs,apercentagethathasremainedroughlyconstantoverthelast3decades.Theirprogramshavehistoricallyawardedadisproportionateshareofthedoctoratesreceivedbywomen.Forexample,in1963,whenthetopprogramsgranted34%ofallPhDs,theyawarded45%ofallPhDsgoingtowomen.Althoughthepercentagehasfallen,itconsistentlyhasstayedabovethetop26programs'shareoftotaldegreesawarded;womenwhoreceivePhDsareconsistentlymorelikelytogettheirdegreesfromtopdepartmentsthanaremen.

Incontrast,thelargeincreaseintheproportionofdegreesawardedtotemporaryresidentsoccurredprimarilyatnon-top-26institutions.Onlyintheveryearliestyearswasitashighas,(orhigherthan)theproportionofalldegreesawardedbythetop26programs,andduringmostoftheperioditwassubstantiallylower.

Therehasalsobeenachangeinthemeansoffinancialsupportofgraduatestudentsanincreaseinthefractionofgraduatestudentsreceivingfederalandinstitutionalsupportandalargeincreaseinthefractionsupportedasresearchassistants.Asshowninfigure2.5andtable2.1,thefractionoflife-sciencegraduatestudentsreceivingfederalfundsrosefrom28.3%in1975to28.7%in1985andto34.8%in1995.Almostalltheincreasebetween1985and1995isattributabletothesupportofstudentsbyresearchgrants;thefractionofstudentssupportedbyfederaltraininggrantsorfellowshipsfellduringthesameperiod.Thenumberofstudentssupportedbyinstitutional(university)fundsincreasedmarkedly,almostentirelybecauseofthelargernumbersupportedasresearchassistants.Therelativelysmall

fractionofself-supportedstudentsdroppedsharplybetween1975and1985.

Table2.1isasnapshotintimeoftheprimarymeansofsupport.Inthecourseofagraduatestudent'seducation,thestudentmightshiftfromonemeansofsupporttoanother.Datashowthatabouttwo-thirdsofstudentsreceivefederalsupportatsometimeintheirtraining

TimeRequiredtoAttainthePHD

ThetimerequiredtocompletethePhDinthelifescienceshasincreasedsubstantiallyoverthelast30years.Asillustratedinfigure2.6,themediantimetofinishrequirementsforthedoctorateasmeasuredfromgraduateenrollmenttoPhDaward(thatis,totalelapsedtime)hasincreasedfrom6.0yearsfor1970graduatesto8.0yearsfor1995graduates.AscanbeseenfromthedatapresentedintableE.4,thismediantimehasvariedconsiderablyamongdisciplines.Forexample,fieldsthateitherinvolveextensivefieldworksuchasecology,forestry,conservation,andfishsciencesorrequiremultiyearstudiessuchasepidemiologyandpublichealthhavetypically

2Inalphabeticalorder,thetop26institutionsare:BaylorCollegeofMedicine,BrandeisUniversity,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,ColumbiaUniversity,MainDivision,DukeUniversity,HarvardUniversity,JohnsHopkinsUniversity,MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,NorthwesternUniversity,PrincetonUniversity,RockefellerUniversity,StanfordUniversity,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,UniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego,UniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco,UniversityofChicago,UniversityofMichigan,UniversityofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill,UniversityofPennsylvania,UniversityofTexas/SouthwestMedicalCenter,UniversityofWashington,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,WashingtonUniversity,andYaleUniversity.Thelistincludes26institutionsbecausetherewasatiefor25thplace.

Figure2.5Primarysourceofsupportofgraduatestudentsinlifesciences,1975,1985,1994.

Datafromtable2.1.Datanotavailableonfunctionforselfsupportedandothersupported.

Table2.1NumberandPercentageofGraduateStudentsofVariousKindsandSourcesofSupport,1975,1985,1995

1975 1985 1995

No.%ofGroup

%ofTotal No.

%ofGroup

%ofTotal No.

%ofGroup

%ofTotal

FederalsupportResearchassistant 4653 41.7 6928 58.6 11963 66.5Trainee/fellow 5994 53.7 4285 36.2 5391 30.0Teachingassistant 118 1.1 96 0.8 155 0.9Other 404 3.6 512 4.3 471 2.6Totalfederal 11169 100.1 28.3 11821 99.9 28.7 17980 100.0 34.8InstitutionalsupportResearchassistant 3876 25.3 5678 31.2 8489 38.2Trainee/fellow 2040 13.3 2891 15.9 4017 18.1Teachingassistant 8495 55.5 8647 47.5 8589 38.6Other 901 5.9 978 5.4 1136 5.1TotalInstitutional 15312 100.0 38.7 18194 100.0 44.2 22231 100.0 43.0Other

Self-supported 9359 71.8 6388 57.2 6396 55.5

Tablecontinuedonnextpage

Tablecontinuedfrompreviouspage

1975 1985 1995

No.%ofGroup

%ofTotal No.

%ofGroup

%ofTotal No.

%ofGroup

%ofTotal

(cont'd)Privateandforeign

3676 28.2 4786 42.8 5124 44.5

Totalother 13035 100.0 33.0 11174 100.0 27.1 11520 100.0 22.3GRANDTOTAL

39516 100.0 41189 100.0 51731 100.1

Source:NSF1995.

hadlongerdoctoraltrainingperiodsthandisciplinesthatfocusonlaboratory-basedresearch.Nevertheless,ineverylife-sciencediscipline,themediantimetocompletethePhDislongernowthanitwas2decadesago.Since1992,therehasbeennoincreaseinmediantimetodegree.

Figure2.6MedianelapsedtimetoPhDandageattimeofPhD,19701996.

DatafromtableE.1.

Notunexpectedly,recentPhDrecipientsarecompletingtheirdegreerequirementsathigheragesthantheircolleagueswhograduatedinthe1970sand1980s.Thedatainfigure2.6revealthatthemedianageatPhDhasrisenfrom29.3yearsfor1970graduatesto32.0yearsfor1996graduates.Thisincreaseof2.7yearsissubstantiallygreaterthantheincreaseof2.0yearsinmediantimetocompletegraduatetraining.Thedifferencemightbeexplainedbythatfactthatstudentshavebeenenrollingingraduateprogramsathigheragesespeciallyinrecentyears.

Itisuncertainwhythetimetodegreehaslengthened.Nocompellingacademicreasonexists,inasmuchascourseworktypicallyiscompletedwithin2yearsandresearchusuallybeginsattheendofthefirstyear.Somearguethatfacultyusegraduatestudentsasasourceoflabortoconductfacultymembers'research.Otherspointtopossiblebenefitsforthestudents,suchasanopportunitytoincreasethenumbersofpublicationsonwhichtheirnamesappear.Withoutacaponthenumberofyearsofsupport,theremightbenocompellingreasontocompletethedegree,especiallygiventheperceivedunfavorablejobmarket.Studentscouldalsobetryingtowaitoutaperiodofpooremploymentpossibilitiesbystretchingtheirtimeinschoolandbuildingtheirresumes.Itshouldbenotedthattherehasbeennoincreaseinelapsedtimetodegreeorageatdegreeafter1992.

PostdoctoralTraining

Forasteadilyincreasingfractionoflife-sciencePhDs,receiptofthedoctoraldegreedoesnotsignifythecompletionofresearchtraining.Asshowninfigure2.7,boththenumberandthepercentageofPhDsplanningtotakepostdoctoralappointmentsaftergraduationrosedramaticallyfrom1963to1992.From1993to1996,thenumberofPhDsplanningpostdoctoraltrainingincreased,butthepercentagedecreasedsomewhat.Inthemiddle1960s,fewerthanone-fourthof

thelife-sciencegraduatesplannedpostdoctoralwork;bythelate1980s,thefractionhaddoubled.Thetrendresultedinanincreaseinthetotalnumberofgraduatesplanningpostdoctoralworkfrom485in1963to3,940in1996.Aswillbediscussedinchapter3,thatphenomenonhashadadramaticeffectonthecareerpatternsofyounglifescientists.

Althoughthetrendhasoccurredinalllife-sciencedisciplines,itshouldbeemphasizedthatthelikelihoodofadegreerecipient'stakingapostdoctoralpositionhasvariedgreatlyfromonefieldtoanother(seetableE.4).Inmanyoftheagriculturalsciences,forexample,fewerthanone-fourthoftherecent(19861996)graduateshaveplannedpostdoctoralwork;insomebiomedicaldisciplinessuchasmolecularbiologyandneurosciences,morethanthree-fourthsofthePhDrecipientshavepursuedadditionalresearchtraining.

Figure2.8showsthegrowthinthenumberofpostdoctoralfellows(bothUScitizensandforeignnationals)inacademicinstitutions,whichhasincreasedsteadilysince1972.By1995,thenumberofacademicpostdoctoralfellowshadreached15,348(NSF1995).Inadditiontothepostdoctoralfellowsinacademe,therearepostdoctoralfellowsingovernmentlaboratories(about3,200,includingclinicalfellowsattheNationalInstitutesofHealth)andinindustry.A1995surveybytheAmericanSocietyforMicrobiology(VanRyzinandothers1995)foundthat763PhDmicrobiologistsinindustry(11%ofthe7,090PhDmicrobiologistsinindustry)werepostdoctoralfellows.Weestimatethetotalpopulationofpostdoctoralssatabout20,000,butthenumbercouldwellbehigher.

Figure2.7NumberandpercentageofPhDsplanningpostdoctoraltrainingongraduation,

19631996.DatafromtableE.1.

Figure2.8Postdoctoratesinbiologicandagriculturalsciences,bycitizenship,19721994.Source:NSF/SRSSelectedDataonGraduateStudentsandPostdoctoratesin

ScienceandEngineering,Fall1993,SelectedDataTables,J.G.Hukenpohler,and

NSF/SRS,1995SurveyofGraduateStudentsandPostdoctoratesinScienceand

Engineering.

Overthelast20years,foreignnationalshavemadeanincreasingcontributiontothesizeofthepostdoctoralpool.In1975,theyheldaboutone-fourthofallacademicposts;in1995,theyheldhalftheacademicpostdoctoralpositions.InoneimportantnonacademicenvironmenttheNationalInstitutesofHealthintramuralpostdoctoralprogramalmostexactlyhalfthepostdoctoralwork-ersareforeigncitizens(MichaelFordis,NationalInstitutesofHealth,1996personalcommunica-tion).

Itisimportanttounderstandthatthedataanddiscussionsofchapter3andtheremainderofthisreportgenerallydonotincludethelargenumberofforeigncitizenswho,aftercompletingtheirdoctoraleducationabroad,havecometothiscountryforpostdoctoraltraining.ThosescientistsandforeigncitizenswhohaveobtainedtheirPhDsherebutdeclaredtheirintentiontoleavethecountryarenotincludedintheSurveyofDoctorateRecipients,sothereisnosystematicevidenceavailabletocharttheircareerpaths.Somedataindicatethat,atleastinonesector,foreignnationalscompetewellforpositionsinthiscountry.AssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges(AAMC)dataindicatethatinthelate1980sandinthe1990s,closetoone-thirdofnewhiresofPhDs,MD-PhDs,andMDswhoseprimaryresponsibilitywasresearchinbasic-sciencedepartmentswereforeignnationals(specialanalysisforthisstudyfromAAMCFacultyRosterSystembyLisaSherman,1997;seetableE.9).

LengthofPostdoctoralTraining

Fromcommitteemembers'experienceandfrommuchanecdotalevidencecollectedbythecommittee,itappearsthatmanypostdoctoralfellowsarespendinglongertimesintraininginrecentyears4ormoreyearsisnownotuncommonforyoungbiomedicalscientistsinsomefields.Thetrendspresentedinfigure2.9andtableE.9,basedonaretrospectivereportingbyrespondentstothe1995

SurveyofDoctorateRecipients,confirmtheimpression.Thefractionofyounglifescientistsholdingpostdoctoralappointmentslongerthan2yearsincreasedsubstantiallyamongthosegraduatinginthelate1970s,withmoremodestgrowthsincethen.Asimilarpatternisobservedforthefractionholdingpostdoctoralappointmentsforatotalofmorethan4years.Itistooearlytoobtainreliableestimatesforgraduatesofthe1990sbecausesomeofthemhavenotyetcompletedtheirpostdoctoralwork.Furthermore,figure3.3(inchapter3)showsthatahigherfractionofPhDswereinpostdoctoraltrainingin199534yearsand56yearsaftertheyreceivedtheirdegreesthanin1973andthattheincreaseisgreatestinthecohortsthatreceivedtheirdegrees34and56yearsearlier.Itisnotpossibletoestablishfromthesedataameaningfulmediantimespentinpostdoctoralwork.However,thereareclearindicationsthatmoreyoungscientistsarespendinglongperiodsaspostdoctoralfellows.

Onthebasisofdataanddiscussionabove,itisevidentthatoverthelast2decadeslife-sciencePhDshavebeenspendingincreasingamountsoftimepreparingforresearchcareersaconsequencemainlyofthelongerperiodingraduatetrainingandthelargerfractionthattakepostdoctoralfellowshipsoflongdurations.Moststudentspursuingabiomedicalsciencecareer,forexample,cannowexpecttospend6ormoreyearsingraduateschool,andmanyspendanother4yearsormoreinpostdoctoralwork.

FieldandOtherDifferences

ThischapterfrequentlynotesdifferencesamongsectorsofthePhDpopulation.ThereaderisreferredtotablesE.4tonoteimportant

Figure2.9Timespentinpostdoctoraltrainingbylife-sciencePhDswhotookpostdoctoraltraining,19691994,asreportedin1995.

DatafromtableE.8.

differences,forexample,thatalmostalltheincreaseinthelife-sciencePhDpopulationisinbiomedicalsciences,whereastherehasbeenlittleornoincreaseinthenumberofnonbiomedical-sciencePhDs.TableE.10showsdifferencesbysex,race,citizenship,andtop-26universitiescomparedtonon-top-26institutions.

Summary

Thenumberoflife-sciencePhDsawardedannuallyintheUnitedStateshasincreasedby42%sincethelate1980s,andthenumberawardedin1996wasmorethan3timesthenumberawardedin1963.

Foreignnationalswitheitherpermanentortemporaryvisasaccountedfor38%ofthelife-sciencePhDsin1996,andthenumberoftemporary-visaholdersplanningtoremainintheUnitedStateshasrisentoabout60%inrecentyears.

Almostalltheincreaseinnumbersoflife-sciencePhDsawardedhasbeeninbiomedicalfields;thenumberinnonbiomedicalfieldshasremainedvirtuallythesamesince1970.

Themedianelapsedtimebetweenentryintograduateschoolandreceiptofthelife-sciencePhDhasincreasedbyabout2years,from6to8years,butPhDsareobtainedmorequicklyinsomefields.

Thefederalgovernmentfinanciallysupportstheeducationandresearchtrainingofaboutone-thirdofalllife-sciencegraduatestudents.Thealmost12,000graduatestudentssupportedbyfederalresearchgrantsrepresentthelargestsupportmechanismamongallcategoriesofsupportfederal,institutional,orself.

Anincreasingpercentageoflife-sciencePhDsdopostdoctoralwork,andthelengthoftimespentinpostdoctoraltrainingisincreasing.

Thenumberofpersonsinthepostdoctoralpoolhasbeenincreasingsteadilyandisnowabout20,000.

Thoseseveralchangeshavehadaseriouseffectonthelabormarketforlifescientists.Throughouttheroughly30-yearperiodbeingconsideredinthisreport,thecohortofyoungscientistsenteringtheworkforcehasbeenmuchlargerthanthecohortthattheyreplace(thosewhohadcompletedtheirtraining30orsoyearsearlier).Althoughthenumberoflifescientistsreachingretirementagehasbeensteadilyincreasing,sohasthenumberenteringtheworkforce.Forexample,some2,700doctorateswereawardedin1965,comparedwith7,696in1996.TheimpactofthesetrendsoncareeropportunitiesforyoungPhDsisexaminedindetailinthechapter3.

References

FinnMG,PenningtonLA,AndersonKH.1996.Whostayswholeaves:foreignPhDseightyearsaftergraduation.Pesentedat1996AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceannualmeeting.

NRC(NationalResearchCouncil).1978.Acenturyofdoctorates:dataanalysisofgrowthandchange.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.

NRC(NationalResearchCouncil).1995.StudyofresearchdoctorateprogramsintheUnitedStates:ContinuityandChange.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.

NSF(NationalScienceFoundation).1995.Surveyofgraduatestudentsandpostdoctoratesinscienceandengineering.Washington,DC:NSF.

VanRyzinG,DietzS,WeinerJ,WrightD.1995.Theemploymentoutlookinthemicrobiologicalsciences,1995.

http://www.asmusa.org/pasrc/empoutlk.pdf.

3Early-CareerEmploymentProfilesofLife-SciencePHDSThischapterpresentsnationalsurveydataontheearly-careeremploymentoflife-sciencePhDsovera22-yearperiod.Theemploymenttrendsdiscussedhere,combinedwithsupplyanddemandindicatorsdescribedinotherchapters,constitutethebasisofthecommittee'sfindingsregardingtheprospectsforpersonsinterestedinpursuingcareersinthelifesciences.Thesurveydatahelptoexplainandputinperspectivemuchanecdotalinformationthathascometocommitteemembers'attentionaboutanapparentlackofemploymentopportunitiesforrecentPhDrecipientsinthelifesciences.

Thefiguresinthischapter(andthetablesinappendixF)documentwhatfractionsoflife-sciencegraduatesheldfaculty,industry,andotherpositionswithin10yearsofearningtheirdoctoratesandhowthesefractionschangedfrom1973to1995.ThecommitteepresentsthedatawithafocusonthefractionofPhDsholdingeachtypeofpositionratherthantotalnumbersbecausefractionspermitmoreprecisecomparisonofopportunitiesavailabletostudentsinvariouscohorts.Dataontotalnumbersindifferentpositionsarepresentedattheendofthechapterandintheappendixes.Theneedfordataonemploymentpatternswasnotedina1995nationalstudy(COSEPUP1995)thatexaminedgraduationeducationinallfieldsofscienceandengineering:

Graduatescientistsandengineersandtheiradvisersshouldreceivemoreup-to-dateandaccurateinformationtohelpthemmakeinformeddecisionsaboutprofessionalcareers;broadelectronicaccesstosuchinformationshouldbeprovidedthroughaconcertednationwideeffort.

TheimportanceofsuchinformationwasalsostressedbyseveralspeakersatapublicmeetingthatthecommitteeheldinApril1996andbymanyyoungscientistswhohavecomplainedthattheywereunawareofthedecliningcareerprospectsintheirfieldswhentheyenteredgraduateschool.Someofthelatterfeltthattheyhadbeenmisledbytheirmentors,whohadconveyedanunrealisticallyoptimisticviewofthechancesofobtainingfacultypositionsatmajorresearchuniversities.Oneexplanationforthemisinformationisthatemploymentprospectsinthelifescienceshavechangedsubstantiallyoverthelast2decades;opportunitiesavailabletoPhDrecipientsandpostdoctoralscientistsinthe1990saredifferentfromwhentheirmentorscompletedgraduatetraining.Theemployment-progressionmatricespresentedattheendofthischapterandtheanalysesthatfollowdescribeearly-careerprofiles,whichshouldbeusefultofacultymentorsandtothestudentsandpostdoctoralscientistswhomtheycounsel.

MostofthedatapresentedinthischaptercomefromthebiennialSurveyofDoctorateRecipients,whichsince1973hascollectedcurrentemploymentinformationinacarefullyselectedsample(813%)ofallPhDscientistsandengineersintheworkforce.Becausethesurveyresultsarebasedonarelativelysmalllongitudinalsample,reliableestimatesarenotavailablefornarrowsegmentsofthispopulation.Forexample,onewouldliketobeabletodistinguishamongpatternsindifferentfieldsconstructseparatecareerprofilesofbiochemists,plantbiologists,epidemiologists,andsoon.Onemightalsoliketoexaminetheemploymenthistoriesofminoritygroupscientistsandforeignstudents.Althoughthesamplesizedoesnotpermitsuchdetailedanalyses,itdoesprovidecomparisonsofthe

careerpatternsofwomenandmenandofthegraduatesofthe26leadinguniversitiesandotherlife-sciencePhDs.1Inaddition,ananalysishasbeenmadeoftheemploymenthistoriesofgraduatesinbiomedicalandnonbiomedicalfields.BecauseitisdifficulttoobtainreliabledataonforeignnationalswithtemporaryvisaswhoreceivetheirPhDsintheUnitedStatesandsaythattheywillremaininthiscountry,thetablesandfigurespresentedinthischapterandappendixFincludeonlyUScitizensandthoseholdingpermanentvisaswhohadreceivedlife-sciencePhDsfromUSuniversities.Nevertheless,itshouldberecognizedthatagrowingnumberofforeignstudentshavetakenpostdoctoralappointmentsatUSinstitutionsandthatmanyofthemsubsequentlyseekpermanentemploymenthere.

Despitethelimitationsdescribedabove,theanalysesthatfollowprovidevaluableinsightsintohowtheemploymentopportunitieshavebeenchangingoverthelast2decades.Thishistoricalpictureisespeciallyimportantinshowingthatthecareeroptionsoftoday'sstudentsaredifferentfromtheopportunitiesthattheirmentorshadwhentheywereingraduateschool.Thisinformationhasalreadyprovedusefultothecommitteeinformulatingitsstudyfindingsandrecommendations,butitmightbeofgreaterinteresttograduatestudents,postdoctoralfellows,andfaculty.Thecommitteecautions,however,thatthenationalpictureofalllife-sciencePhDspresentedheredoesnotnecessarilyapplytostudentsinaparticularfieldoruniversitydepartment.Forexample,onlyasmallfractionofbiostatisticsgraduatestakepostdoctoralappointments,whereasmostbiochemistryPhDrecipients

FacultyPositions

Themostimportantchangeinthecareerpatternsoflife-sciencePhDsinthe22-yearperiodwasasteadydecreaseinthefractionholdingtenure-trackfacultypositions.Thedecline,illustratedinfigure3.1,

wasobservedinallPhDcohorts.Fortheyoungestgraduates(those12yearsafterreceiptofthePhD),thefractionholdingfacultyjobsfellfrom0.4in1973to0.14in1995.Someoftheprecipitousdropmightbeexplainedbyanincreaseinthefractionofgraduatestakingpostdoctoralappointmentsduringthisperiod.However,asharpdeclinewasobservedintheoldestcohort(910yearsafterPhD)aswell.Only39%ofthelattergroupheldfacultypositionsin1995,comparedwith61%22yearsearlier.2Whatmightbemostremarkableaboutthistrendistheconsistencywithwhichithasoccurredoverthelast22years.

ItisimportanttorecognizethatasubstantialdeclineinfacultyopportunitieswasobservedinPhD-grantinguniversities,aswellasinotheracademicinstitutions.In1995,forexample,only34%ofthegraduateswith910yearsofpost-PhDexperienceheldtenure-trackfacultyappointmentsindoctoralinstitutions;in1973,thecomparablefigurewas47%(seetableF.1).Ifthisdeclinecontinues,fewerthanone-thirdofthelife-sciencestudentsnowcompletingtheirgraduatetrainingcanexpecttoobtaintenure-trackfacultypositionsindoctorate-grantinginstitutions,whichinthepasthavebeentheprincipalemployersofPhDsinthisfield.

1Inadditiontotheabovelimitations,afewcaveatspertain.Duringthe19731995surveyperiodtherehavebeensomemodificationsinthesamplingframeandthewordingofspecificquestionsaskedinthesurvey.Withregardtotheformer,thesurveysamplesizewassubstantiallyreducedin1991(fromabout13%8%),andaconcertedeffortwasmadetoimprovetheresponserate,whichrosefrom55%in1989tomorethan75%inlatersurveys.Itisdifficulttoestimatetheeffectofthischangeonthesurveyresults.pursuepostdoctoraltraining.Importantdifferencesmightalsobefoundamongprogramswithinthesamefield.Thecommitteeurgesprospectivestudentsandpostdoctoralfellowstoseekdetailedcareerinformationfromtheprogramsthattheyareconsideringandtocomparethisinformationwiththenationaldatapresentedinthischapter.

2Itshouldbenoted,however,thatthetotalnumberholdingfacultypositionshassubstantiallyincreasedduringthe22-yearperiod(seefigure3.14).

Figure3.1FractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsholdingfacultypositions,19731995.

DatafromtableF.1.

EmploymentinGovernment

Amodestdeclinewasalsoobservedinthefractionoflife-sciencePhDrecipientsemployedinnationallaboratoriesandotherfederal,state,andlocalgovernmentpositions.In1995,only11%ofthe910yearcohortheldgovernmentjobs,comparedwith14%22yearsearlier(seefigure3.2).Thedeclinemightbeattributedprimarilytodownsizinginthemajorfederallaboratories,whichinthepasthademployedlargenumbersofPhDscientists.

PositionsinIndustry

Theappreciabledeclineinthefractionofyounggraduatestakingfacultyorgovernmentpositionswasaccompaniedbyincreasedhiringintheindustrialsector,especiallyamongthemoreexperiencedgraduates(seefigure3.2).In1995,23%ofthelife-sciencegraduateswith910yearsofexperiencewereemployedinindustry,compared

withonly12%in1973.Ifthattrendcontinuesforthenextdecade,today'sgraduatestudentsaremorelikelytofindjobsinindustrythanonuniversityfaculties.However,itshouldbenotedthatmostoftheincreaseinindustrialhiringoccurredduringthe1980swithonlymodestgrowthsince1989.Futureemploymentopportunitiesinthissectorwillmostlikelydependonthenationaleconomyandinparticularonthehealthofthebiotechnologyindustry;botharedifficulttopredictwithanyconfidence.

Figure3.2FractionofUSlife-SciencePhDsholdingjobsingovernment,industry,

andothersectors,910yearsafterreceiptofdegree,19731995.DatafromtableF.1.

OtherEmployment

Considerableattentionhasrecentlybeengivento''alternativecareers"forPhDscientists(suchasprecollegeteaching3,andsciencejournalism),butthefractionemployedinsuchpositionsremainedsmall.Asshowninfigure3.2,only7%ofthelife-sciencePhDsin1995heldfull-timepositionsoutsideacademe,industry,andgovernment,andmoreimportantthepercentagehasdeclinedslightlyoverthelastdecade.Variousalternativecareeropportunities(notinvolvingresearch)mightbeavailable,buttheyareunlikelytobeattractivetomostyoungscientistswhohavejustcompleted10yearsormoreofpredoctoralandpostdoctoraltraining.

PostdoctoralAppointments

Inadditiontothegrowthinindustrialemployment,weobserveda

substantialincreaseinthenumberofgraduatestakingpostdoctoralappointmentsinuniversitiesandinfederalandindustriallaboratories.Asillustratedinfigure3.3,thefractionoflife-sciencePhDsholdingpostdoctoralappointments12yearsafterreceiptoftheirdoctoratesmorethandoubledfrom1973to1995,from21%to53%.Perhapsevenmoreimportantistheincreaseinpostdoctoralfellowsintheoldercohorts.In1995,29%ofthegraduateswith34yearsofpost-PhDexperience

3ForadiscussionoftheemploymentopportunitiesforPhDsinprecollegeteaching,seechapter4andCOSEPUP1995,p.334.

Figure3.3FractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsholdingpostdoctoralappointments

inacademe,government,andindustry,19731995.DatafromtableF.1.

and14%ofthosewith56yearsofpost-PhDexperiencestillheldpostdoctoralappointments,comparedwithonly6%and2%,respectively,22yearsearlier.Theavailabilityofpostdoctoralappointmentshasallowedyoungscientiststousetheirresearchtraining,evenduringperiodswhentheirimmediateemploymentprospectswerenotverypromising;thatis,thisapprenticeshiphasservedasan"employmentbuffer".Nevertheless,theuncertainty(lackofjobsecurity)andlowsalaryassociatedwiththesetemporarypositionsmightwellexplainthediscontentandfrustrationthatthecommitteehasobservedinyoungscientistswhoafter10yearsormoreofresearchtraininghavenotyetfoundpermanentjobs.By"permanent"wemeanpositionsinwhichyoungscientistscanindependentlyapplytheireducationandtraininginpositionsthatarenottransitional,aspostdoctoralfellowships,researchassistantship,

andassociatepositionsgenerallyare.

InvolvementinResearch

Thefractionofyounglife-sciencePhDswhodesignatedbasicorappliedresearchastheirprimaryworkactivitygrewsubstantiallyfrom1973to1995.Fortheyoungestcohort,thetrendmightbepartlyexplainedbytherapidriseinpostdoctoralscientists,whodevotedtheirfullenergiestoresearch.However,eventhosewith910yearsofpost-PhDexperienceexhibitedanincreasinginvolvementinresearch58%designatingitastheirprimaryactivityin1995comparedwith41%in1973(seefigure3.4).Onemayconcludefromthisfindingthat,despiteadeclineinthefractionemployedonuniversityfacultiesandingovernment,agrowingmajorityoflife-sciencePhDshavebeenfullyusingtheirresearchtrainingAlthoughmanymightbepostdoctoralfellowswhoarenotindependentresearchers.

Figure3.4FractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsinvolvedprimarilyinbasicorappliedresearch,

19731995DatafromtableF.1.

UnemploymentandUnderUse

Mostlife-sciencePhDshavebeenemployedfull-timeinscienceandengineeringendeavors.Datainfigure3.5confirmthattheunemploymentratesfortheseyounggraduatesaveraged12%duringthe22-yearperiod,andthefractionworkingpart-timeremainedalmostaslow.Furthermore,noconvincingevidencewasfoundthatanincreasingfractionofyounglife-sciencePhDsareleavingthefield.4Thefindings,whenconsideredwiththegrowingresearchinvolvementdescribedabove,suggestthatemploymentprospectshavebeenbetterforyoungPhDsinthelifesciencethanforgraduatesinmanyothersciences,suchasmathematics,physics,andchemistry(COSEPUP1995).

CareerPatternsofWomenandMen

Differencesintheemploymentpatternsofwomenandmennarrowedduringthe22-yearperiod.Asshowninfigure3.6,womenwith910yearsofpost-PhDexperiencein1973weremuchlesslikelythantheirmalecolleaguestoholdfacultyappointmentsindoctorate-grantinguniversitiesortobeemployedinindustryorgovernment;butwomenweremorelikelythan

4The1993and1995fractionsworkingoutsidescienceandengineeringfields,whicharesomewhathigherthaninpreceedingyears,arebasedonanewsurveyquestionandmightnotbecomparablewithearliersurveyresults.

Figure3.5FractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsunemployed,employedpart-time,

oremployedoutsidescienceandengineering,19731995.DatafromtableF.1.

Figure3.6FractionoffemaleandmaleUSlife-sciencePhDsinfaculty,industry,and

government910yearsafterreceiptofdegree,1973,1985,and1995.

DatafromtablesF.2andF.3.

mentoholdfacultypositionsin4-yearand2-yearcolleges.By1995,however,mostofthosedifferencesinemploymentsituationshadgreatlydiminished.Perhapsmoststrikingisthefindingthatduringthe22-yearperiodthefractionofwomenwithfacultyappointmentsinPhDinstitutionsactuallyincreasedslightly(from32%to36%)whilethecomparablefractionformenplummeted(from49%to32%).Oneimportantdifferencepersisted:in1995,menwerenearlytwiceaslikelyaswomentoholdjobsinindustry27%and15%,respectively.

In1973,womenweremuchmorelikelythanmentoholdpostdoctoralappointments(seefigure3.7).By1995,thedifferencehadgreatlydiminished.Nevertheless,itisimportanttorecognizethatthefractioninvolvedinpostdoctoraltrainingincreasedsubstantiallyamongbothwomenandmenduringthe2decadesandthatbothsexeswerespending,ontheaverage,muchlongerperiodsaspostdoctoralfellows.Onelargedifferenceinemploymentstatusdidnotchangemuch:womenwerestillmuchmorelikelythanmentobeemployedpart-time.In1995,forexample,7%ofthewomenwhohadearneddoctorates34yearsearlierworkedpart-time,comparedwithonly1%ofthemen.

Figure3.7FractionoffemaleandmaleUSlife-sciencePhDsholdingpostdoctoral

appointmentsorpart-timejobs12and34yearsafterreceiptofdegree,1973,1985,and1995.


GraduatesofTop-RatedInstitutions

Tocomparethecareerpatternsoflife-sciencePhDrecipientsfromthemostprestigiousprogramswiththosefromotherschools,thesurveysamplewasdividedintotwogroupsbasedonthereputationalratings(seefootnote2inchapter2)ofthedoctoralinstitutions.Asshowninfigure3.8,graduatesofthe26top-ratedschoolswerelesslikelythantheircolleagues910yearsafterreceiptoftheirPhDstoholdpositionsinindustryandgovernment.Whatmightbemostimportant,however,arethe19731995changesinthefractionwithfacultyappointmentsindoctorate-grantinguniversities.Thediminishingopportunitiesforsuchpositionsaffectedbothgroupsofgraduates,butthoseofthehighest-ratedinstitutionsappeartohavefairedmuchbetter.In1995,45%ofthelattergraduatesheldfacultypositionsatPhD-grantinguniversities,comparedwith29%ofthePhDrecipientsfromotherschools.In1973,thedifferencesbetweenthetoogroupswerenegligible.

Figure3.8FractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsfrom26highest-rateduniversitiesholdingjobs

inselectedsectors,comparedwithPhDsfromotherinstitutions,910yearsafterreceiptofdegree,

1973,1985,and1995.DatafromtablesF.4andF.5.

Thosefromthehighest-ratedschoolswerealsomorelikelytotakepostdoctoralappointments(seefigure3.9).In1995,forexample,60%ofthemostrecentgraduatesfromthetop-26institutionsheldpostdoctoralappointments,comparedwith50%ofthePhDrecipientsfromotherschools.Thatfindingisnotsurprisinginasmuchasgraduatesofthemostprestigiousprogramsweremorelikelythantheircolleaguestoobtainuniversityfacultypositions,whichusuallyrequirepostdoctoralexperience.Nevertheless,itshouldbenotedthatin199517%ofthePhDsfromthetop-26schoolsstillheldpostdoctoralappointments56yearsaftergraduationanindicationthatmanywerehavingdifficultyinfindingpermanentpositions.

FieldDifferences

Asalreadyindicated,thesizeofthesurveysampledidnotpermitananalysisofemploymentpatternsinindividualdisciplines.However,itwaspossibletodividethesurveyresponsesintotwobroadcategoriesoffields:biomedicalandnonbiomedical,aslistedinappendixD.Althoughthegeneraltrendsinemploymentweresimilar,theemploymentprofilesofthetwogroupsrevealsomeimportantdifferences(seefigure3.10).BiomedicalPhDsweresomewhatmorelikelythantheirnonbiomedicalcounterpartstoholdfacultypositionsatPhD-grantinginstitutions;thoseinthenonbiomedicalfieldsweresomewhat

Figure3.9FractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsfrom26highest-rateduniversitiesholding

postdoctoralappointments,comparedwithPhDsfromotherinstitutions,1973,1985,and

1995.DatafromtablesF.4andF.5.

Figure3.10FractionofbiomedicalandnonbiomedicalUSlife-sciencePhDsinfaculty,

industry,andgovernment910yearsafterreceiptofdegree,1973,1985,and1995.


morelikelytoholdfacultypositionsatotherthanPhD-grantinginstitutions,NonbiomedicalPhDswerefarmorelikelytofindworkingovernmentthanbiomedicalPhDs.Therearetemporaldifferencesaswell.Forexample,thefractionofnonbiomedicalPhDsonthefacultyofPhD-grantinginstitutionsincreasedslightlybetweenthe1985and1995surveys,whereasthefractionofbiomedicalPhDsinsuchpositionscontinuedthesteadydecreasebegunin1975.However,thenumberofnonbiomedicalPhDsinthesamplewasonlyone-fifththenumberofbiomedicalPhDs,andthedifferencesmightbemoreapparentthanreal.AhighpercentageofbiomedicalPhDstookpostdoctoralpositionsineveryyearexaminedinthisreport.However,graduatesinthenonbiomedicalgroupincreasinglyalsotookpostdoctoralpositions:in1995,33%ofthosewith12yearsofpost-PhDexperienceheldpostdoctoralfellowships,comparedwithonly

6%in1973(seefigure3.11).Itappearsthatthetrendtowardmorefrequentandlongerpostdoctoralappointmentsaffectedallgraduatesnotjustthoseinthebiomedicalsciences.

Discussion

Theforegoinganalysishelpstointerpretanimportantparadoxthatthecommitteehasencountered.Younggraduatesinthelifescienceshaveexpressedfrustrationandanguishoverthedearthofcareeropportunitiesavailabletothemespeciallyintheacademicsector,whereoftenmorethan100candidateshaveappliedforasinglefacultyopeningbutthereisnoevidenceofappreciableunemploymentorunderemployment.

Figure3.11FractionofbiomedicalandnonbiomedicalUSlife-sciencePhDs

holdingpostdoctoralappointments,1973,1985,and1995.DatafromtablesF.6andF.7.

ThedatapresentedinthischapterconfirmthattheunemploymentrateamongrecentPhDrecipientsinthelifescienceshasremainedlow(between1%and2%),andthereisnoindicationthatlargenumbersofthemhaveleftthefield.Moreover,amajorityofthegraduateshavebeenprimarilyengagedinbasicandappliedresearchanindicationthattheyhavebeenfullyusingtheirresearchtrainingandthisfractionhasbeenrising.Theintensiveresearchinvolvementmightbeatleastpartlyattributedtoanexpansioninindustrialhiring,whichbeganintheearly1980s,aswellastoalargeincreaseinthenumberofpostdoctoralfellows.

Sowhatistheproblem?Overthelast2decades,therehasbeenasubstantialdeclineinthefractionofyoungPhDsinthelifescienceswhohaveobtainedtenure-trackpositionsonuniversityandcollegefacultiesthepositionsconsideredmostdesirablebymanylifescientists.Ifthedeclinecontinuesatitscurrentrate,fewerthanone-thirdoftoday'sgraduatescanbeexpectedtoobtainfaculty

appointments,towhichamajorityofstudentshaveaspired.Theapparentmismatchbetweencareerexpectationsandopportunitiesforfacultypositionsmightbeameliorated,atleastinpart,byagrowingawarenessamongstudents,postdoctoralfellows,andfacultyofthecareeroptionsavailabletotoday'sgraduates.Itisthecommittee'shopethatthecareer-progressionmatricesandaccompanyinganalysispresentedherewillenhancetheirawarenessofthechangingemploymentprospectsinthelifesciences.

Asecondproblem,perhapsmoredifficulttosolve,istheincreaseinthefractionofyoungscientistswho,afterextensivepostdoctoralapprenticeships,stillhavenotobtained"permanent"full-timepositionsinacademe,industry,government,orprivateresearchorganization.Asillustratedinfigure3.12,in1995,39%oflife-sciencePhDs56yearsafterreceiptoftheirdoctoratesheldpostdoctoralfellowshipsorothernonfacultyjobsinuniversities,wereemployed

Figure3.12FractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsnotholdingpermanent

full-timejobsinscienceorengineering,1973,1985,and1995.DatafromtableF.1.

part-time,workedoutsidescienceandengineering,orwereunemployed;thecomparablefractionin1973wasonly11%.5Whatmightbemostalarmingaboutthe1995figureisthatitreflectsthesituationsofthosewhoearnedPhDsin1989and1990.Forthosereceivingtheirdoctoratesnow,theprospectsforfindingcareerpositionsonuniversityfacultiesoringovernmentorindustrywheretheirlongresearchtrainingwillbefullyusedareevenlesscertain.Foryoungscientistscaughtinthis"postdoctoralholdingpattern",thefrustrationsareunderstandable;mostofthemare3540yearsold,andtheytypicallyreceivelowsalariesandhavelittlejobsecurityorstatuswithintheuniversitysetting(forexample,mostarenotpermittedtoapplyforresearchgrantsasindependentinvestigators).Moreover,theyarecompetingwitharapidlygrowingpoolofhighlytalentedyoungscientistsincludingmanyhighlyqualifiedforeignpostdoctoral

appointeesforasmallnumberofjobsinacademe,government,andindustry.Thissituationanditsimplicationsforindividualscientistsandtheresearchenterpriseisamatterofgreatconcerntothecommittee.Weexploretheseimplicationsinlaterchapters.

Althoughtheprospectsforpermanentresearchpositionshavedeclinedsubstantiallyforalllife-sciencegraduates,differentgroupshavebeenunequallyaffectedbythetrend.Asshowninfigure3.13,thefractionofwomenwith56yearsofpost-PhDexperiencewhostillheld

5Duringthe22-yearperiod,thetotalnumberinthesetypesofpositionsquintupled.

Figure3.13Fractionof56yearcohortsnotholding''permanent"full-time

jobsinscienceorengineering,1973,1985,and1995.DatafromtablesF.3andF.7.

"temporary"orpart-timepositionshasbeenmuchhigherthanthefractionofmen,butthedifferencenarrowedfrom1973to1995.Graduatesofthehighest-ratedinstitutionsfoundpositionslaterthantheircolleaguesfromotherschools.However,thedifferencemightbeexplainedprimarilybythefactthatgraduatesoftheleadinginstitutionsweremorelikelytotakepostdoctoralapprenticeshipsandmorelikelytoholdpostdoctoralorothernonfacultypositionsinacademe56yearsaftergraduation.Similarly,recentbiomedical-sciencePhDsweremorelikelythangraduatesinnonbiomedicallife-sciencedisciplinestoholdtemporary(non-tenure-track)appointmentsinuniversities.Thoseandotherdifferencesinthecareerpatternsofindividualgroupsindicatethattheobservednationalemploymentpatternsofalllife-sciencePhDsdonotnecessarilyapplytothoseinaparticularfield,department,orgroup.Forthatreason,itisimperative

thattheemploymenthistoriesofgraduatesofindividualuniversitydepartmentsbemadeavailabletoprospectivegraduatestudentsandpostdoctorals.

Thechangesincareerprospectsforyoungscientistsoccurredwhilethetotalnumbersoflifescientistsintheworkforcecontinuedtoincrease.Figure3.14showsthenumbersoflife-sciencePhDs(UScitizensandpermanentresidentsonly)intheworkforce.Thefigurerevealsthatthenumbersemployedineverysectorcontinuedtogrowthroughoutthe22-yearperiod.MuchofthegrowthinthefacultyatPhD-grantinginstitutionsoccurredbefore1989.Incontrast,themostpronouncedandpersistenttrendinthe22-yearperiodisthegrowthinthenumbersinindustry,postdoctoral

Figure3.14NumberofUSlife-sciencePhDsbysector,19731995.

DatafromtableF.8.

fellows,6other(nontenuredornontenure-track)academics,otherincludingself-employed,andthegroupcontainingunemployed,part-time,andPhDsnowworkingoutsidescienceandengineering.

Theresultsofthechangingemploymentpatternsareillustratedinfigure3.15.Thefigureshowschangesinthenumberoflifescientistsemployedineachsectororunemployedandseekingemploymentinthreeperiods:19731981,19811989,and19931995,thelatestperiodonwhichdataareavailable.Inthe1970s,byfarthelargestincreaseintheworkforcewasinfacultyjobs(41.5%ofthetotalgrowth);inthe1980s,industrialpositionsaccountedforthelargestshareofadditionstotheworkforce(28.1%ofthetotalgrowth),justaheadoffacultypositions.However,in19931995,thetotalgrowthinfacultyandindustryworkforcewaslessthantheincreaseinthenumbersofpersonsintemporaryandunderusepositions(postdoctoralandothernonfacultystaff,unemployed,part-timeemployed,andoutside

scienceandengineering),whichaccountedfor45.4%ofthegrowthinlife-science"workforce",comparedwithabout25%inearlieryears.Thedatainfigure3.15helptoexplaintheconundrumofagrowingworkforce,alowrateofunemployment,andahighlevelofdissatisfactionamonglifescientistsseekingtoestablishcareers.Comparedtopreviousyears,anincreasingpercentageoftheseyoungerlifescientistsareintemporarypositions.

6Figure3.14usedSurveyofDoctorateRecipientsdata,whichincludeonlyUScitizensandpermanentresidents.Thenumbersofpostdoctoralfellowsshowninthefigurearethereforelowerthanthenumbersshowninchapter2.

Figure3.15Increaseinlife-sciencePhDworkforcein19731981,19811989,and19931995,

bysector.DatafromtableF.8.

References

COSEPUP(NationalAcademyofSciences,CommitteeonScience,Engineering,andPublicPolicy).1995.Reshapingthegraduateeducationofscientistsandengineers.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.

4Opportunities,Constraints,andFutureNeedsThefuturepromisesmanyexcitingopportunitiesforscientificresearchinthelifesciences,buttherearealsoconsiderableuncertainties.Thischapterbrieflyidentifiessomeofthenewlyemergingfieldsofthelifesciencesthatholdparticularpromisefortheimmediatefuture.Itthendescribessomeoftheuncertaintiesthatlifescientistswillfaceandconcludeswithadiscussionsofthediversityofcareeroptionsthatmightbeavailabletoyounglifescientistsnowandinthefuture.

ExcitingEmergingFieldsofInquiryintheLifeSciences

Researchinthelifesciencesishighonournation'slistofprioritieslargelybecauseofthelikelihoodthatthisresearchwillimprovethewell-beingofourpopulation.Ofthemanypromisingfieldsofsciencethatwillcontributetoeconomicandsocialwell-being,wementionhereonlyafewexamples.

Neuroscience

The1990shavebeencalledthe"decadeofthebrain",andneuroscienceoffersessentiallyunlimitedchallengesandopportunitiesinbothbasicandappliedresearch.Highonthelistofpromisingfieldsofresearchisthequestforlinksbetweencognitionandthemolecularactivityofmemoryprocessesinthebrain.Newconceptsandnewtechniquesareopeningexcitingresearchopportunities.Forexample,neuroscientistsareusingstate-of-the-artgeneticengineering,imagingmethods,andmonitoringofbrain-cellphysiologytodefinethemolecularbasesofmemory,recognition,andlearninginexperimentalanimals.Themolecularmappingandelucidationofcomplexbrain-

cellfunctionswilladvancetheunderstandingofAlzheimer'sdisease,learningdisorders,addiction,andothermedicalandpsychologicalconundrumsthatcurrentlyplaguesociety.Careersintheneurosciencescanbebasedontraininginmanycombinationsofmolecularbiology,neurobiology,physiology,psychology,andcomputerscience.

GeneTherapy

Genetherapyisbasedonthetransferofgeneticmaterialintoahuman.Genedeliverycanbeaccomplishedeitherdirectlybytheadministrationofgene-containingvirusesorDNAtobloodortissuesorindirectlythroughtheintroductionofcellsthathavebeenmanipulatedinthelaboratorytoharborforeignDNAforthepurposeoftreatingdisease.Byalteringthegeneticmaterialofsomaticcells,genetherapycouldcorrectunderlyingdisease-specificpathophysiologiccharacteristics.Insomeinstances,itoffersthepotentialofaone-timecurefordevastating,inheriteddisorders,suchasdiabetes.Inprinciple,genetherapyshouldbeapplicabletomanydiseasesforwhichcurrenttherapeuticapproachesareineffectiveorwhentheprospectsforeffectivetreatmentappearexceedinglylow.AsofJune1995,106clinicalprotocolsinvolvinggenetransferhadbeenapprovedbytheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)RecombinantAdvisoryCommittee(RAC).Indeed,morethan600humansubjectshavealreadyundergonegenetransferexperiments.NIHprovidesabout$200millionperyearforresearchrelatedtogenetherapy,andindustrialsupportofgene-therapyresearchhasgrownsteadily.IndustrynowexceedsNIHinfundingandunderwritesmostoftheapprovedclinicalprotocols.Thisyoungfieldisafrontierofmodernmedicine,opentopeoplewithMDorPhDdegreeinmoleculargenetics,molecularbiology,orrelatedsciences.

StructuralBiology

AllofgeneticinformationinanorganismisencodedintheDNAorRNAsequenceofitsgenome.Thegenomeprojectsthatarenowunderwayareproducingvastamountsofdatathatwillbeessentialforunderstandingthenormalandpathologicphysiologyofhumansandofthemanyplantsandanimalsonwhichourlivesdepend.Thereare,however,manyunsolvedproblemsrelatedtogenomeresearch,someofwhicharesonovelthattheyareonlynowbeingdefinedasspecificsubjectsforresearch.Forexample,howisgeneexpressionregulatedonthemolecularlevel?Howdoeschromosomalarchitectureinfluencetherateofgeneexpression?Howisthethree-dimensionalstructureofproteinsdefinedbytheaminoacidsequencesthatarespecifiedbythegenome?Whatarethemechanismsofprotein-proteinrecognitionincomplexbiochemicalprocesses?Whatprocessesregulatetheassemblyofproteincomplexesintoorganelles?

Structuralbiologyprovidessomeoftheresearchtoolsthatarenecessarytosolvethosegrandchallengesinmolecularandcellularbiology.Currentresearchisprovidingimprovedtechniquesbywhichtodeterminethehigh-resolutionstructuresofmacromolecules,andthesemethodsarebeingusedtostudyprocessesofmolecularrecognition,signaltransduction,allostericregulation,andproteinfolding.Theresultingdataareoftenofimmediatepracticalvalueforsuchundertakingsasrationaldrugdesign.Theyarealsooffundamentaltheoreticalvalueasthermodynamicandkineticdatabecomeavailabletocomplementthestructuralinformation.Theresultingsynergybetweendifferentkindsofmoleculardataisprovidingtheviewsthatwillbenecessarytounderstandcomplexbiologicprocesses.Thiscriticallyimportantlineofinquiryisnowinitsearlieststages,andconsiderableeffortwillberequiredtorealizethepracticalbenefitsofsuchresearch.ApersoninterestedinacareerinstructuralbiologyshouldobtainaPhDdegreeinbiochemistry,

biophysics,orstructuralandcomputationalbiology.Prerequisitesincludeastrongbackgroundincomputerscienceandphysics,chemistry,biology,ormathematics.

Bioinformatics

Bioinformaticsusescomputertechnologytosolveinformationalproblemsinthelifesciences,forexample,theidentificationofDNAsequencesinthehumangenomethataremarkedlysimilartogenesthathavebeenidentifiedandstudiedinexperimentalorganismssuchasyeasts.Thecomputerdatabasesofgenomeandproteinsequencesarenowlargeenoughtorequirenewmodelsfortheanalysisandcomparisonofbiologicsystems,andnewalgorithmsareunderdevelopmenttointegrateheterogeneousdataintocoherentprograms.Informaticsalsoplaysaroleinmodelingtheinteractionsbetweendrugsandproteinsorphysiologicprocesses,inthediagnosisofdisease,andinkeepingtrackofhugedatabases,fromtheDNAsequencescitedabovetorecordsofpatientcare.

Medicineisaninformation-basedartandscience,andtheopportunitiesforcomputerapplicationsareconstantlyexpanding.Three-dimensionalvisualizationofhumananatomyisalreadyaninstructionaltool,andthevisualmodelingofchangesintissuestructureduringdiseaseprogressionoffersparallelopportunities.Largepharmaceuticalhousesareespeciallyinterestedinscientistswithtraininginbioinformatics,giventheexplosionofnewdatafromlarge-scalesequencingprojects,liketheworkonthehumangenome,whichwillrequirenewtechnologiesforinformationprocessingtoassistintheexploitationofdataforproductdevelopment.Youngpeoplewithadvancedtraininginstatistics,informationtheory,artificialintelligence,andotheraspectsofcomputersciencecanmakemajorcontributions.

EnvironmentalIssues

Thegrowthofhumanpopulationsisanimportantdrivingforceintheacceleratingchangesthatareoccurringinthemanagedecosystemsonwhichwedependforfood,fiber,andservices,suchasthemaintenanceofcleanairandwater.Humanactivitiesaremeasurablychangingthecompositionoftheatmosphere,addingcarbondioxideandmethane,whichaltertheradiativebalanceoftheplanet,andchlorinegas,whichdestroystheozonelayersinthestratosphere.Humanshavealreadydestroyedvasttractsoftropicalforestsandagriculturallyproductiveland.Industrialandhumanwasteshavedegradedsomeofthelargestsourcesoffreshwater.Wearewitnessingtherapidextinctionofmanyspeciesandtheintroductionofpestsandinfectiousorganismsintonewenvironments,sometimeswithcalamitousresults.Thereisanobviousneedforincreasedattentiontotheseproblemsandforresearchtofindtheirsolutions.Scholarswhoareexpertinallaspectsofenvironmentalscienceswillberequiredtounderstandtheincreasingstressesplacedontheenvironmentbytheexpandinghumanpopulationandtheconcomitantgrowthofindustry.Careersinthischallengingfieldwillrequiretraininginpopulationbiology,ecology,thesocialsciences,andrelatedagriculturesciences.

BiologicControlofPlantPests

ThemajorincreasesinagriculturalproductivitythatfollowedWorldWarIIwereattributableinparttothewidespreaduseofsyntheticchemicalpesticidesforthecontrolofinsects,weeds,andplantpathogens.Initialsuccesseshavebeenfollowedbyunexpectedconsequences,includinginjuriouseffectsonnontargetorganisms,contaminationofsoilandwaterwithchemicalresidues,andthedevelopmentofpesticideresistance,particularlyamonginsects.Inaddition,thepotentialharmfuleffectsofpesticidesinthefoodchain

offerconsiderablereasonforconcern.

Thereisagrowingconsensusthatpest-managementsystemsbasedonbiologiccontrolagentswillprovideamoredesirableapproachforresolvingsomeofthecurrentproblemsandreducingtheuseofsyntheticpesticides.Achievingashifttobiologiccontrolagentswill,however,requirethedevelopmentoftreatmentstrategiesthatareinexpensive,areeasilyapplied,offerlittleornohazardfornontargetorganisms(includingpeople),areequalinefficacytoorbetterthancurrentpesticides,andarepredictableunderarangeofenvironmentalconditions.Thesuccessesindevelopingbiologiccontrolsystemsforinsectshavenotbeenmatchedinprogresstowardcommercialbiologiccontrolofplantpathogensorweeds.Unfortunately,theknowledgethatisnecessarytodevelopsuchbiologiccontrolagentswillrequireamassiveexpansionofcurrentresearcheffort,anditwillinvolvethecompletespectrumofbasicandappliedlifesciences.

Manyofthemajorcorporationsinvolvedindevelopmentofdisease-controlagentshaveclosedresearchlaboratoriesthathaveaprimaryassignmentinbiologiccontrolagents.Emphasishasshiftedtotransgenicplantswithinsect-controlcharacteristicsorchemicalsthatturnonresistancemechanismswhenappliedtoplants.Extensivegrowthinthistypeofresearchisforeseen.Someoftheplantdiseasesthataremostrecalcitranttoallknowncontroleffortsarecausedbysoilbornepathogens.Adeeperunderstandingofthecomplexitiesofthephysicalandbiologiccomponentsofsoilwillrequireresearchonthemicrofloraandmicrofaunaoftheleafandrootsystemsofplantsgoingwellbeyondtheboundsofourcurrentknowledge.Furthermore,biologiccontrolagentsthatarehighlyeffectiveundergreenhouseconditionsareoftenineffectiveorunpredictablewhentestedinthefieldandindifferentgeographicregions.Thus,itislikelythatextensive

fieldtestingandmodificationwillbeneededtodevelopandmarketeffectivebiologicproducts.Thisphaseofdevelopmentwillrequiremanymoreagriculturalbiologiststhanareavailabletoday.

Aquaculture

Adifferentopportunityforexpandedemploymentoflifescientistswillbefoundinaquaculture.Therehasbeenadramaticdeclineintheproductivityoffisheriesaroundtheworld,andsuccessfulexpansionofaquaculturewilldependonincreasedknowledgeaboutthediseasesoffish,theapplicationofimprovedbreedingandselectionprocedures,andthenutritionalrequirementsoffishunderthecontrolledconditionsofaquaculturesystems.Thisisacomparativelyunexploredfieldofmodernbiologyinwhichmuchremainstobedone.

ProspectsforResearchFunding

Itisdifficulttopredicthowresearchfundingwillfareinthefuture.Just2yearsago,inamoodofconcernaboutreductionofthefederalbudgetdeficit,itwaspredictedthatthebudgetsoffederalresearchagenciesmightfallbyupto20%.InPresidentClinton'sproposedbudgetforFY1999,theplannedincreaseforNIHis8.4andtheincreasesproposedfortheNationalScienceFoundationandtheDepartmentofEnergyareevenhigher.Itisimportanttonotethatresearchbudgetswerenotstaticfromthelate1980stothepresent.NIHregularlyincreaseditsbudgetbyabout5%peryear.Butchapters2and3showthatthelargeincreaseinthenumberoflife-sciencePhDsresultedindecreasesinthefractionsofthePhDswhoobtained"permanent"positionsinacademe,industry,andgovernmentresearch.WhethertheincreasesproposedforFY1999willcomeaboutandwhetherincreasedfundingwillchangethetrendsthatwehavereportedisproblematic.ThemoodinWashingtoncontinuestofavor

containmentofdiscretionaryexpenditures.

Onthenationallevel,theshiftingofresponsibilityforwelfareexpenditurestothestatesandthestates'preoccupationwithhealthcarecosts,prisoncosts,andtheirownfinancialsituations,implythatstatesupportforresearchisnotlikelytoexpand.Indeed,statesupportforpublichighereducationhasmoderatedunderallthosetrends,andpublichighereducationhasincreasinglybeenfinancedbytuitionincomeratherthantaxrevenue.

Nongovernmentsourcesofsupportclearlyareimportantforbasiclife-scienceresearchandfundsfromprivatefoundations,suchastheHowardHughesMedicalInstituteandtheAmericanCancerSocietyorAmericanHeartAssociation,willprobablycontinueatthesameorslightlyincreasedlevels.Butprivatephilanthropydoesnothavetheresourcestocompensateforasubstantialdecreaseinfederalfunding(Ruzekandothers1996).Alhoughindustrynowspendsmoreonlife-scienceresearchanddevelopmentthandoesthefederalgovernment,industrialresearchistargetedmostlyatproblemsthatareexpectedtoyieldcommercialpayoffsintheshortrun.Onlythegovernmentiscurrentlywillingtotakethelong-rangeviewthatrecognizesthetremendousreturnsofferedovertheyearsbyinvestmentsinbasicresearch.Thebasiclife-scienceresearchenterprisemustthereforeassumethatmajorincreasesinitsgrantsupportareunlikely.

ChangesFacingHigherEducation

Thenation'sresearchuniversitiesfaceincreasingfinancialpressuresthatareforcingchangesinprioritiesandshiftsofresourcestodifferentacademicpurposes.Ofspecialinterest

forthisreportistheimpactofsuchreorganizationuponuniversity-basedresearchinthelifesciences.Forthelast1015years,universityoperatingcostshavebeenrisingrapidlymorerapidlyinmostinstancesthaninflation(Clotfelter1996).Everycost,fromjanitorialsuppliestofacultysalaries,hasincreasedwhileincreasesinincomehavenotkeptpace.Belowaresomespecificexamples.

ChangesintheFinancingofUndergraduateEducation

Likeallinstitutionsofhigherlearning,researchuniversitieshaveacceptedtheresponsibilityofprovidingfinancialaidtoundergraduatestudentsfromminorityanddisadvantagedpopulations.Manyprivateuniversitieshavemaintainedpoliciesofneed-blindadmissionandneed-basedfinancialaidbydrasticallyincreasingthefractionoftheirresourcesthatisdevotedtothispurpose.Exceptforthefewuniversitiesthathaveverylargeper-studentendowments,thefundsforfinancialaidhavecomemainlyfromincreasesintuition.Reliablestudiesestimatethat1540%oftuitionrevenueisusedforundergraduatefinancialaidatvariousprivateinstitutions.Thesteepincreaseintuitionhas,however,beguntoarousepublicconcern,ifnotresistance,andhasputpressureonuniversitiestolimitfutureincreases.Tuitionatpublicuniversitiestoohavebeenrisingfasterthaninflation,astheshareofeducationalcostssupportedbystategovernmentshasdeclined.

Increasedattentiontoundergraduateeducationatresearchuniversitieshasresultednotonlyfromthesefinancialfactors,butalsofromevidencethattheirclienteleisbecomingawarethatsomeportionofundergraduatetuitionhasimplicitlysubsidizedresearch.Theintellectualjustificationforthissubsidyisthatundergraduateaccesstoleadingresearchersisauniquefeatureofresearchuniversities.Itfollowsthatprovidinganattractiveenvironmentforresearch-orientedprofessorsisalegitimatepartofthecostofundergraduateeducation.

Thequestionremainsopenwhetherfamilieswillcontinuetoacceptthisrationalforhightuitioncosts.Giventhewidespreadresistancetofurthertuitionincreasesandthecompetitionbetweenthelegitimategoalsoftuitionremissionandresearch,itisunlikelythatsubstantialadditionalresourcesforbasicworkinthelifescienceswillcomefromtheresearchuniversitiesthemselves.

DifficultiesinRecoveringtheCostsofExternallySupportedResearch

Atatypicalprivateresearchuniversity,onlyabout85%oftheindirectcostsofsponsoredresearchhasbeenrecoveredinrecentyears.Thesituationinpublicresearchuniversitiesisprobablynodifferent.Theshortfallsresultfromthefactthatmanygovernmentagencies,aswellasmanyprivatefoundationsandcorporations,haverefusedasamatterofpolicytopayfullindirectcostsforresearch.Otheragencies,whichnegotiateindirectcostsaccordingtosomeformula,haverequired"cost-sharing"bytheuniversity;haverefusedtoacceptoutside-the-formula"specialstudies",whichjustifyabove-averagecosts;orhaveplacednon-negotiable"caps"onparticularitemsintheindirect-costpool,generallyfortheexplicitpurposeoflimitingoutlaysforresearchgrants.Asbudget-balancingcontinuestooccupycenterstageinCongress,researchuniversitiesfacealikelydeclineintheirreallevelsoffederalsupport.

Tomaintainanadequatevolumeofresearchandtheinfrastructuretosupportit(theobjectofindirect-costrecovery),researchuniversitiesmustfindalternativesourcesforresearchfunding.Althoughincreasedgiftincomeisonepossibility,undergraduatefinancialaidandresearchwillprobablycontinuetocompetewithoneanotherforscarcetuitiondollars,atleastatprivate

researchuniversities.Successfuleffortstomaintainlevelsofresearchsupportwillprobablyleadtofewerlow-incomestudentsattheseinstitutions.Alternatively,maintainingcurrentlevelsoffinancialaidandstudentdiversitywillmeanlessinternalsupportforresearch.Onlyifuniversitiescanachievesubstantialcutsinotherareasofcostscanthistradeoffbeavoided.

ChangesinRetentionandHiringofFaculty

Oneoftheprincipalcomponentsofauniversity'sbudgetisfacultysalary,thereisanaturaladministrativeinterestinopportunitiesforsavingsinthisline.Unfortunatelyforthispurpose,theabolitionofmandatoryretirementatadesignatedagehasnarrowedonesuchopportunity:itappearsthatasubstantialnumberofprofessorsarechoosingtoretireatlaterages.Evenamodestincreaseof35yearsinageofretirement(to68or70,insteadof65)willmeananincreaseof1015%inthemeandurationofafacultycareerandanequivalentdecreaseinthenumberofpeoplewhocanenterthatcareer,allotherthingsbeingequal.Thatnotonlyslowstherateoffacultyreplacement,butitincreasessalarycostsbecauseseniorfacultytendtobemoreexpensivethantheiryoungercolleagues.Itisnotyetclearwhatstrategiesmighthelptoreversethistrend.Attemptsbyuniversitiestodoso,byofferingincentivestoretire,donotappeartohavesavedmoneyintheshortrun.

Thecurrentfacultyagedistributionsatalmostallcollegesanduniversitiesvirtuallyguaranteethatthecomingyearswillseevacanciesthatcanbefilledbyyoungerscientists.Thesituationdoesnot,however,guaranteethattherewillbevacanciesforresearch-orientedfaculty,northatthepositionsavailablewillbetenure-track.Universitiesseemtoberespondingtofinancialpressuresbyhiringmorenontenureandpart-timefaculty.Thereductionintenure-trackopportunitiesmightmakeacademicresearchpostslessattractiveto

youngscientistsandhaveanimpactontheextenttowhichtalentedcollegestudentsaredrawnintolife-scienceresearch.

ChangesinAcademicHealthCenters

Medicalschools,whicharegenerallypartsofresearchuniversities,nowfaceadditionalproblemsinmaintainingahealthyresearchenvironment.Academichealthcenters(AHCs)includebasic-researchfacultyandclinicalresearchers,aswellasmedicaleducatorsandphysicians;thesescientistsworkcollectivelytoprovideteaching,research,andclinicalcare.AHCsemergedduringtheperiodofunprecedentedgrowthinthehealth-caresectorthatfollowedWorldWarII.Substantialresourcesbecameavailableforbuildinghealth-carepartnershipsamongmedicalschools,universityhospitals,andprivatemedicalcenters.TheresultingAHCsdelivermultiplehealth-careservices.

AHCshaveflourishedonfederaldollars,alongwithasteadystreamofincomefromfacultypracticeplans.Indeed,someAHCstodayreceiveover50%oftheirincomefromrevenuesforpatientcare.Facultypracticeplansin1993providedatleast$2.4billioninsupportofacademicprograms,includingundergraduatemedicaleducation($702million),graduatemedicaleducation($594million),andotheracademicsupport($244million)(JonesandSanderson1996).FacultyresearchgrantsalsoprovideincometoAHCsintheformoffacultyandstaffsalarysupportandindirect-costrecovery.However,shortfallsinindirect-costrecoveryandtherequirementofsomesponsorsforcost-sharingcreateafinancialburdenfortherecipientsofthefunds.Suchfinanciallossesaregenerallycompensatedforbythegainsinintellectualcapitalthatresultfromgreaterscientificsophistication,increasedacademicprestige,morenumerouspublications,and

sometimespatents,whichcanproduceadditionalincome.Insum,researchinmostAHCsisheavilysubsidizedbyclinicalincome,whichisvulnerabletopoliciesthatreducetherevenuefrompatientcare.

TheresearchmissionofAHCshascontributedsignificantlytoAmerica'spreeminenceinmedicineandbiomedicalscience,butthelandscapeischangingfast,andthefutureofresearchatAHCsis,atbest,uncertain.Radicalchangeoccurredin1990whenmanagedcarestartedtoreplacethemedicalfaculty'straditionalfee-for-serviceoperation;competitionfromhealth-maintenanceorganizationsforpatientsnowthreatensincomeflowtoAHCs.AHCadministratorsarescramblingtoreorganizetheirhospitalandclinicalservicesandareattemptingtoestablishtheirownnetworksofclinicalspecialiststocompeteintheprimary-caremarket.

Mergers,acquisitions,andjointventureswithvarioushealth-careprovidersarenowcommon.Suchmaneuversareaccomplished,however,attheexpenseofspecialtycareandofgraduatemedicaleducation.

Itisnotyetclearhowthenewarrangementswillaffectbiomedicalresearchandeducation,whichprincipallyhavebeenconductedbydoctorswhosesalarieswerepartlysubsidizedfrompatient-careincome.Morethanever,thefacultyengagedinresearchwillbeexpectedtofundmost,ifnotall,oftheirsalary,aswellastheirlaboratorycosts,fromtheirownresearchgrants.Thischangeiscomingatatimewhengrantsareharderthanevertoget.InsomeAHCs,thebasic-researchenterpriseisalreadybeingreducedasfacultyleaveorretire.OnecanreasonablyexpectthecurrentstringentconditionswillshrinktheresearchenterpriseatmostAHCs.Moreover,thenetimpactofmanagedcareislikelytobeadevaluationofresearchsuccessasacriterionforpromotionandrewardinmost

medicalschools.Withoutcutting-edgeresearchandastrongacademicenvironment,progressinmedicalresearchcouldlanguish.ItappearsthattheremarkableeraofthetraditionalAHCisending,butthefullimpactofthisseachangeonthemanagement,philosophy,andmoraleofmedical-schoolfacultieshasyettoberealized.

Atthesametime,financialsupportofresearchfrompharmaceuticalcompanieshasincreasedsubstantiallyinrecentyearsandmakesupsomepartofthesupportlostbecauseofchangesinclinical-practiceincome.

ChangesinResearchandInstructionDealingwithAgricultureandNaturalResources

PublicpoliciesaffectingagricultureandforestryweredesignedtoenhancetheproductivityofUSfarmsandforests.Theywerefocusedinparticulartoenhancetheeconomicstatusoffarmersandtopromotegeneralpublicwelfare.Theland-grantuniversitysystem,withitsstrongcomponentsofexperimentstationresearchandextensionservice,hasnurturedanagriculturalenterprisethatallowstheAmericanpublictospendalowerpercentageofitsincomeforthepurchaseoffoodthananyothercountryintheworld:between1956and1996,field-cropyieldshaveabouttripledwhiletheacreagedevotedtoagriculturehasdecreased.TheUSagriculturalresearchenterpriseisthereforeperceivedbymostpeopletobeabargain.

Overthelast30years,therehasbeenaseriouschangeinthesupportofagriculturalresearch.Between1960and1990,theestimatedfundingforprivateresearchinagriculturehastripled;itcurrentlyexceedstheinvestmentbybothstateandfederalagencies.Thesefundshavecomefromchemical,petroleum,andpharmaceuticalcompanies,andalargepercentageinvolvesventurecapitalforbiotechnologyinvestments.Althoughtherecordofexpendituresbycompaniesisnotfullydisclosed,thesum

probablynowexceeds$3.5billionperyear.Asprivateinvestmentshaveincreased,therehavebeenmajorshiftsinthekindsofresearchthatarefunded.Supportofplantbreedinghasquadrupledandthatofanimalhealthhastripledwhilefundsforresearchonmachineryhavedeclinedfrom36%to12%ofthetotalinvested.

Investmentsbythestatesinagriculturalresearchhavecontinuedtoincrease;insum,theyarenowmuchhigherthanthecorrespondingfederalappropriations.Indeed,therateofincreaseinfederalsupporthasnotkeptpacewiththeneedsofteachinginstitutions.Theresulthasbeenindirectbutnegative:adeclineinthenumberofinstructionalpositionsthataredirectlyrelatedtoagriculture.Manyland-grantuniversitieshaveestablishedprogramsinmolecularbiology,biotechnology,sustainableoralternativeagriculture,andenvironmentalsciences.Additionalchangeshavebeenmadeatsomeuniversitiestointegrateforestryandagriculturalresearchprograms,emphasizingstudiesonregionalecosystemsandlandscapeandwildlifemanagementresearchprograms.Thecadreofappliedecologistswillneedtobeincreasedtocopewiththesechangesinresearchperspectives.

Thereisnowapressingneedforagricultural-researchbiologistswhoareresponsivetochangingsocietalrequirementstoinsurethecontinuedavailabilityofagriculturalproductsatarelativelylowcosttotheconsumerwhilemaintainingeconomicstabilityforthegrowers.Suchscientistswillbeessentialifwearetoprovideareasforrecreationandecologicdiversity,toconserveandrestoredamagedecosystems,andtoreduceourdependenceonpesticidesandotherchemicals.Moreover,therewillbeanever-increasingneedforbiologistscapableofusingthemajoradvancesinmolecularbiologytoincreasetheavailability,quality,andsafetyoffoodundercircumstancesthatwillensurethesustainabilityofagricultureandnaturalresources.Thesituationsuggeststhatmore,notless,shouldbe

investedintheagriculturallifesciences,broadlydefined.Thecurrentheavyrelianceonfundingfromtheprivatesectorcarriessomedangerthatsomebasic-researchproblemswithlesspotentialforcommercialpayoffwillnotgettheattentionthattheyneedanddeserve.Thatisalreadyevidentinthedeclineofsupportbymajoragricultural-chemicalcompaniesofresearchonmicrobiologiccontrolagentsforplantdiseases.Theemphasisofthesecompaniesisonresearchonanddevelopmentoftransgeniccultivarswithdiseaseandinsectresistance.

ChangesFacingIndustry

Beforethepost-WorldWarIIburstoffederalfundingthatcreatedtheresearch-intensive,PhD-grantinguniversity,industrywasthemajorsupporteroflife-scienceresearch,andPhDsregularlyenteredindustrialcareers.Somementorsandtraineestodaybelievethattheonlyrespectablecareeraspirationisacademicresearch.Thatopinionissharplyoutofphasewiththefactthatonlyone-thirdofPhDscurrentlyobtainacademicresearchpositions,whereasjobsinindustryhaveincreasinglyprovidedcareeropportunitiesforlifescientists.

Chapter3showsthatduringthe1980s,whenthenumberofacademicresearchpositionswasnolongergrowingrapidly,industrybecameamajorsourceofjobsinthelifesciences.Thetrendsinthe1990ssuggest,however,thatthegrowthinthenumberofindustrialresearchpositionsmightnotbeasrobustinthefutureasitwasintheearly1980s.Severalfeaturesofindustrialorganizationandpatternsofemploymentareaffectingtheavailabilityofcareersinthelifesciences,asdiscussedbrieflybelow.

DoingtheMostwiththeFewest

Thenumberofjobsfordoctoral-level

microbiologistsisprojectedtogrowatanannualrateof6%;about15%ofthegrowthrepresentshiringofpostdoctoralfellows,notscientistswithpermanentpositions,accordingtoarecentlycompletedsurveybytheAmericanSocietyforMicrobiology(VanRyzinandothers1996).TheASMsurveyshowed,however,thatthefastestgrowthwasinemergingfieldsofbiotechnology,suchasbioremediation,molecularimmunology,andantimicrobialchemotherapy.Forsomepharmaceuticalcompanies,thehighestlevelofnewhiringisinsuchfieldsasdrugformulation.Chemistryandtoxicologyshowasteadyrateofhiringthatprimarilyreflectsattrition,withfewnewpositionsappearing.Bycomparison,fieldslikemolecularbiology,whichsawstronggrowthinthemiddle1980s,areshowingnofurthergrowthinthe1990s,andreplacementhiringmightshifttowardotherlife-sciencedisciplines.TheASMsurveyshowedthat57%ofindustrialrespondentsforecastincreasedhiring,butthesecompaniesalsotoldthesurveyorsthatfutureemployeesmustbemoreflexibleandlessspecializedthantheirpredecessors.Atoneleadingpharmaceuticalfirm,anincreasingnumberofopenpositionsthatwereoncefilledwithscientiststrainedatthebachelor'sandmaster'slevelarebeingrefilledwithPhDscientists.

MergersandOutsourcing

Inthepharmaceuticalandbiotechnologyindustries,thelate1980sand1990ssawasteadystreamofconsolidationsthatresultedinsubstantialcorporatesavingswithaconcomitantdisappearanceofresearchpositions.ThelargenumberofexperiencedresearcherswhoarethereforeonthejobmarkethasmadeitdifficultfornewPhDstocompeteforopenpositions.Inaddition,manyactivitiesthatusedtoconsumelargeamountsofresearchtime(suchaspeptideandoligonucleotidesynthesis,proteinandnucleicacidsequencing,monoclonalandpolyclonalantibodyproduction,andreceptor-bindingassaysandimmunoassays)havebecomesufficientlyroutinethat

roboticsandautomationareusefuloptions.Furtherefficienciesofscalehavecomefromtheemergenceofnewcompaniesthatprovidetheservicestopharmaceuticalandbiotechnologyenterprises,butthenewpositionsattheseservicecompaniessimplyoffsetsomepositionslostelsewhereinindustrialresearch.

Appliedvs.FundamentalResearch

Duringtheriseofbiotechnologyinthe1980s,fundamentalresearchwasamajorpartoftheworkbeingdonebythescientistsinthenewpositions.However,thenatureoftheindustrialresearchpositionshasnowshifted.Theemphasisisnowontransformingthefundamentaldiscoveriesofthe1970sand1980sintocommercialusesandapplications.

Industrycontinuestodown-size,consolidate,andbecomemoreefficient.Thetotalvolumeofindustrialresearchwillprobablycontinuetoincreasebutthisresearchisforthemostpartfocusedonappliedresearchthathasshort-termcommercialpayoffs.Moreover,researchonagriculture-relatedtopicsisconstrainedbythecommercialvalueofdiscoveries.Unlikeproductswithcommercialmedicalapplicationswhosecosthasnot,untilrecently,beenprohibitivetodevelopmentagriculturalresearchforcommercialdevelopmentisoftenconstrainedbythecostofthepotentialproducts.Consumersarenotwillingtopayasmuchforagriculturalinnovationastheyhavebeenformedicaladvances;thekindofresearchthatcanprofitablybepursuedinthecommercialsectorofagriculturalresearchhastherebybeenconstrained.

Evenwhenoneunderstandstheeconomicsofagivenbranchofindustrialscience,itisgenerallyhardtousetheknowledgetopredictwhereincreasedworkforceneedswillemerge.Veryfewpeoplepredictedthedramaticemergenceofbiotechnologybeforethe1980s.

Newfieldsofindustrialresearchthatincreasethedemandforlife-scienceresearchersmightemerge.Itmustberemembered,though,thatjustasautomationandincreasedefficiencyhavecomealonginbiotechnologyresearch(forexample,inDNAsequencing),technologicinnovationsthatsubstantiallyreducethedemandforPhDresearcherscanbeexpectedtochangethepatternsofemploymentofnewlytrainedlifescientists.

TrendsinGovernment

Aspointedoutinchapter3,theoverallfractionofrecentPhDswhoareemployedingovernmentisdecreasing,particularlyintheoldercohorts.Ifcurrenttrendstowardgovernmentdown-sizingandbudgetbalancingcontinue,federalemploymentofresearchscientistscannotbeexpectedtoincrease.Somegrowthcanbeexpected,though,inselectedfieldsthatarenotresearch-intensive.Forexample,asreportedbyKatterman(1996),thenumberofbiotechnology-patentapplicationsfiledintheUnitedStateshasgrownabout10%peryearsince1990.Asmoreandmoregeneticallyengineeredproductsnearthemarketplace,therewillprobablybenewemploymentopportunitiesforlife-sciencePhDsinfederalpatent-licensingofficesandinsomeregulatoryagencies,suchastheFoodandDrugAdministration.

TheDiversityandSpectrumofCareersforLife-SciencePhDs

Academic-CareerTrends

Life-sciencePhDswhoseekacademiccareerswithagreateremphasisonteachingmightfindsatisfyingcareersatseveralkindsofnon-PhD-grantinginstitutions:conventional4-yearliberal-artscollegesthatawardbachelor'sandsometimesmaster'sdegrees,2-yearjuniorandcommunitycollegeswhosedegreeisusuallyanassociateinarts,andpublicandprivateelementaryandsecondaryschools.Ananalysisof

currentemploymentpatternsshowsthatPhDsaremorelikelytobefoundinthe4-yearcolleges,lesslikelyincommunitycolleges,andcomparativelyrarely(butnottotallyabsent)onsecondary-schoolsciencefaculties.Asthepresentcropoflife-sciencePhDsinpostdoctoralpositionsseekmorepermanentjobs,theseemploymentpatternsmightchange,soitisimportanttoexaminethecurrentsituationwithsomecare.

ComprehensiveBachelorsandMastersDegreeGrantingInstitutions

About20%ofthelifescientistswhoaretenuredoronthetenuretrackarenowteachingattheroughly1,1504-yearcollegesoruniversitiesthatdonotofferthePhD.Theseinstitutionshavegrowngreatlyoverthelast3decades,andtheyhavebeenanimportantsourceofemploymentforrecentPhDrecipients.UnlikethesituationatPhD-grantinginstitutions,thenumberoffacultypositionsat4-yearnon-PhD-grantinginstitutionshascontinuedtorise,andthenumberofpositionsheldbylifescientistswithin10yearsofreceiptofthePhDincreasedinboth1993and1995afteraperiodofdecline.Becauseofhighstudentinterestinbiologyasamajor,aswellasthecommonfocusonpreparationformedicalschool,manylife-sciencedepartmentshavegrownoverthelastdecade;thistrendmightcontinueasstudentswhomakeupthe''echo"ofthebabyboommatriculateincollege.TheUSDepartmentofEducationprojectsanincreaseof0.7millionstudentsin4-yearinstitutionsduringthenextdecade.Assumingthatteacher:studentratiosremainconstantandthattherearenochangesininstructionalpracticesthatmightdiminishlaborrequirements,thesetrendscouldleadtoanincreaseinthenumberoflife-sciencefaculty.

MostofthebiologydepartmentsinthesecollegesarestaffedbyPhDswhoarewelltrained

inresearch,andmostofthefacultyareexpectedtoconductresearchthatemploysandtrainsstudents.Theleadingliberal-artsinstitutionsarewellknownasthesourceofsomeofthebestgraduatestudentsatthetopresearchuniversities,anditistheresearchopportunitiesthattheyhadasundergraduatesthatpreparedthesestudentssowellforgraduateeducation.Afewsuchinstitutionsalsoofferthemaster'sdegree.Facultymembershaveopportunitiestopursuetheirownresearchinterests,butmostliberal-artscollegeprofessorsstillspendthemajorityoftheirworkingtimeinstructingstudents.Salariesatliberal-artscollegesareontheaveragenearoronlyslightlybelowthoseatresearchuniversities,butthebest-paidteachersatthese4-yearinstitutionsarebettercompensatedthanthoseatlow-payinguniversities.

Becausemostlife-sciencePhDsandpostdoctoralfellowshaveconcentratedintensivelyonresearch,theyhavecomparativelylittleexperienceinteaching,andtheirqualificationsmightnotbeattractivetoteaching-intensivecolleges.SomegraduatestudentscantakeadvantageofnewprogramsatanumberofPhD-grantinginstitutionsthatofferstudentsexposuretoteachinginamorerigorousmanner.Asmallnumberof"teachingpostdoctoralfellowships"havealsobeendeveloped.Onesuchprogram(fundedbyaprivatefoundation)wasdescribedtothecommitteeatitspublichearing;itprovidespostdoctoraltraineeswith2yearsofteachingexperiencesupervisedbyamentor.Suchaprogramseemslikelytobeeffectiveinpreparingparticipantsforpositionsatteaching-intensiveinstitutions.

Two-YearandCommunityColleges

Thecommitteefoundthatthe1,471institutionsatthislevelofhighereducationemployonlyabout600PhDsinlifesciences,andtheprospectsforsubstantiallyincreasingthisnumberappeartobesmall.Theremightbeanincreaseddemandduringthecomingdecade,

fueledagainbytheechogenerationofthebabyboom,whichispredictedtoincreaseenrollmentat2-yearcollegesbyabout11%.Theimpactwillprobablybequiteselective,inthatitisapparentthatmany,perhapsmost,ofthe2-yearinstitutionsdonothaveaPhDinthelifesciencesamongtheirfaculties.

SecondarySchools

HiringprojectionsintheCOSEPUPreport(COSEPUP1995)suggestedthattheechoofthebabyboomcouldleadtonumerousnewpositionsforK-12teachers,providingalternativecareeropportunitiesforscienceandengineeringPhDs.OurcommitteebelievesthatthischangewillprobablycreateademandforPhDsonlyatthesecondary-schoollevel,andevenherethedemandislikelytobesmall.About0.5%ofPhDsinthelifesciencesarecurrentlyK-12teachers.Atthatrate,onemightexpectthat3540oftheroughly7,500PhD'sgraduatingperyearwouldenterprecollegeteaching.Iftherateofentryintosecondaryschoolstriplesowingtoincreasesinthestudentpopulationsandincreasedenthusiasmforthelifesciences,thenumberofPhDlifescientiststhatcouldbeabsorbedwouldbeonlysomewhatmorethan100peryear.Thatislessthe2%ofthecurrentproductionoflife-sciencePhDssothissourceofjobsisnotlikelytohaveamajorimpactoncareerpatternsforlifescientists.

Thereare,furthermore,obstaclestotheemploymentofPhDscientistsinsecondaryschools,notablythelowsalariesandtheteacher-certificationrequirements.AlthoughpayscalesforsecondaryteacherswithPhDsarenormallyhigherthanforteacherswithbachelor'sormaster'sdegrees,theyaregenerallylowerthanthesalariesforentry-levelassistantprofessors.Scientistsattheendofa512yearperiodofpostbaccalaureatetrainingmightwellregardsecondary-schoolteachingasabadbargain.Inaddition,moststatesrequirecredentialsfora

teachingcertificatethatwouldnecessitateayearormoreofadditionaltrainingineducationalsoanunappealinglengtheningofprejobtraining.Althoughafewstateshavespecialprogramstotraincandidateswithadvanceddegreesforpublic-schoolteaching,theburdensofsupportingoneselfandpayingforthisadditionaltrainingarelikelytobeseriousdisincentives.Finally,experiencedadministratorsinpublic-schoolsystemshaveofferedtheopinionthatlifescientistswhoareextensivelytrainedincutting-edgeresearchwouldnotfindschoolteachingcaptivating.

TrendsinLaw,Journalism,andOtherFields

Withtheincreaseinbiotechnologypatentsandanupsurgeintheuseofmolecularbiologyasatoolincriminalinvestigationtherehasbeenanincreaseintheopportunitiesforlife-sciencePhDstoenterthelegalprofession.Thepatentfieldappearstobedominatedbyaboutadozenlargeandmedium-sizedfirms.Estimatesmadein1997bypatentlawyersattwoofthoseinstitutionsindicatethat20100newjobswouldbecomeavailableperyearforlife-sciencePhDs.ItiscustomaryforPhDswhobeginworkingatlawfirmstogotolawschoolatnightfor34yearstoearnthelawdegreethatisdeemedanecessarycredential.Somelargefirmshaveclerkshipprogramsthatcoverlaw-schoolcostsinexchangeforacommitmenttocontinueworkingforthefirms.ThereisarecenttrendtohirePhDs,ratherthanmaster's-levelscientists,forthesejobsbecauseofthelargenumberofhighlyqualifiedcandidates.PhDsalsoaddtoafirm'sreputation.

Thereisagrowinginterestinjournalismamonglife-sciencePhDs.Suchopportunitiesappeartobelargelyassociatedwiththenumerousscientificjournalsthatarepublished,ratherthanwiththemorelimitednumberofpublisherswhohandlescientificbooks.Afewlife-sciencePhDscurrentlyworkinginpublishingwhomwespokewiththoughtthatfutureopportunitiesinthefieldwouldprobablybeconstantor

perhapsincreaseslightly.However,competitionforcareersinjournalismisoftenhigh.Forexample,onejournalistwitharecentPhDinlifesciencemovedfromahighlyregardedspecialtyjournaltoamoregeneralpublication.Therewereabout200applicantsforthelatterposition,andabout50applicationswerereceivedforthepositionvacatedatthemorespecializedjournal.NotalltheapplicantswerePhDs,butadoctorateandjournalisticexperiencewouldappeartohaveprovidedthebestcredentials.TheInternetwascitedasamediumwithparticularlygoodgrowthpotentialforscientificjournalism.

Somelifescientistsfindpositionswithprivatefoundationsandvariousotherscientificconcerns.Again,thecompetitionforsuchpositionsissteep.Aformerassistantprofessorinthelifesciencesreportedtothecommitteethatthereweremorethan200applicantsforherpresentpositionmanagingtheresearch-grantsprogramofaphilanthropicorganization.Thatfigureandothersmentionedearlierindicatethatthereisconsiderableinterestinnontraditionalcareerpathsamonglifescientists.MostPhDprogramsdonot,however,offerthebroaderexposureandtrainingthatwouldbehelpfulforenteringnontraditionalcareer.Thequestionofwhetherlife-sciencesPhDprogramsshouldchangetoofferthisadditionaltrainingisaddressedinchapter6.

Insummary,ourfindingssuggestthatthenumberofpositionsinnontraditionalfieldsofemploymentforlife-sciencePhDsappearstoberathersmall,andthatthecompetitionforthesejobsisstrong.Thecommitteeacknowledgesthatitcannotpredicttheemergenceofentirelynewemploymentopportunitiesthatmightchangeemploymentcharacteristicsconsiderably.SeveralsitesontheWorldWideWeb(forexample,NextWave:AnElectronicNetworkforYoungScientists)offercareerinformationthatmightbe

ofinterest,andappendixGcontainsalistofWebsitesthatprovidedataandcareerinformationforlifescientists.

References

ClotfelterCT.1996.Costescalationinelitehighereducation.NationalBureauofEconomicResearchmonograph.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

COSEPUP(NationalAcademyofSciences,CommitteeonScience,Engineering,andPublicPolicy).1995.Reshapingthegraduateeducationofscientistsandengineers.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress

JonesRandSandersonS.1996.clinicalrevenueusedtosupporttheacademicmissionofmedicalschools:19921993.AcademicMed71:3

KattermanL.1996.Biotechnologypatentboomofferscareeropportunitiesforscientists.TheScientist10:15-6.

RuzekJY,O'NeilEO,WilliardRL,RimelRW.1996.TrendsinUSfundingforbiomedicalresearch.SanFrancisco:UCSFCenterfortheHealthProfessions.

VanRyzinG,DietzS,WeinerJ,WrightD.1995.Theemploymentoutlookinthemicrobiologicalsciences,1995.http://www.asmusa.org/pasrc/empoutlk.pdf.

5ImplicationsoftheFindings

ChangingCareerProspectsforLife-SciencePHDS

Thecareerprospectsin1998foragraduatestudentorpostdoctoralfellowinthelifesciencesareverydifferentfromthoseofsomeonewhotrainedinthe1960sor1970s.Today'slifescientistwillcommonlyhavestartedgraduateschoolataslightlygreaterageandwillhavetaken2yearslongertoobtainthePhDdegree.Thisyear'sPhDrecipientisontheaverage32yearsold.Withdegreeinhand,heorshewillprobablyjoinanever-growingpoolofpostdoctoralfellowsnowestimatedatabout20,000personstoengageinresearchwhileobtainingfurtherprofessionaltraining.Althoughpostdoctoralpositionshavemuchincommonwithmedicalinternshipsandlegalclerkshipsasameanstoobtainfurtherpostgraduatetraining,theyaredifferentinoneimportantrespect:theyhavenofixedlengthoftenure.Itisnotunusualforatraineetospend5yearsormoreasapostdoctoralfellow.Consequently,theaveragelifescientistwillbe3540yearsoldbeforeobtaininghisorherfirstpermanentjob.

Alifescientist'sprobabilityoffindingemploymentineithera4-yearundergraduatecollegeoraresearchuniversityhasdeclinedoverthelast20years,asdescribedinchapter3.Incontrasttodecliningprospectsinacademe,however,thefractionofgraduateswhoholdpositionsinindustryhasincreased;itsurgedduringthemiddle1980s,buttheincreasehasslowedrecently.Inspiteoftheincrease,accordingtotheNationalResearchCouncilsurveys,therehasbeenanoveralldeclineinthepercentageoflifescientistswhoareusingtheirresearchtrainingintheir"permanent"employment;thefractionoflifescientistswhohadgraduated56yearsbeforeandwhowereemployed

in"permanent"positionsinacademe,industry,orgovernmentdecreasedfrom89%inthe1973surveyto62%inthe1995survey1.

ChangesintheResearchandTrainingEnterprise

Therapidexpansioninfederalsupportofbasicbiologicresearchthatoccurredduringthe1960sandearly1970sallowedthejointresearchandtrainingsystemtoflourish.ScientistswhoearnedtheirPhDsinthaterahadbrightprospectsforemploymentinresearch.ThetrainingsystemofthattimewasbuiltonthetacitpremisethattherewouldbecontinuousgrowthinthesizeoftheUSresearchenterprisesufficienttoabsorbthetraineeswhoweremovingthroughthesystem.Theresultwasnotsimplythatmorelifescientistswereavailabletoworkinlaboratoriesandinthefield;theactivetrainingenterpriseproducedascientificworkforcewhoseagedistributionbecameskewedtowardyouth.Thatagebiasbroughtenergyandinnovationintotheprofession.

Beginningintheearly1970s,however,therateofexpansioninfederalresearchsupportandthegrowthinthenumberofuniversitiesandcollegesbegantoslowdown.TheslowdownwasnotaccompaniedbyacorrespondingdeclineinPhDproduction.Instead,theannualrateofPhD

1SeeFigures3.12and3.13,inchapter3.Thecategoriesincludedasemployedin"permanent"positionsaretenuredortenure-trackfacultypositionsinPhD-grantingorotheracademicinstitutions,positionsinindustryorgovernment,andotherpositionsincludingself-employment.Thecategoriesincludedasnotemployedin"permanent"positionsareunemployedandseekingaposition,part-timeemployment,positionsoutsidescienceandengineering,postdoctoralappointmentsinanysector,andotheracademicpositions.

productionwasfairlyconstantthroughthe1970sand1980satabout5,500peryear.Twochangesintheemploymentmarketabsorbedthetraineeswhocouldnolongerfindjobsinthetraditionalemploymentsectorsofacademe,thepharmaceuticalandagriculturalindustries,andgovernment.First,thebiotechnologyindustryemergedintimetoprovidenewandexcitingemploymentprospectsformanyPhDgraduatesinthelifesciences.Second,thesystemadaptedtothecontinuedhighrateoftrainingbyincreasingthesupportavailableforpostdoctoralfellows.

Theresultingexpansionofthepostdoctoralpoolhasnot,however,createdpermanentjobsforlifescientists;ithasproducedaholdingpattern.Initsfavor,theincreasedfractionofPhDswhonowtakepostdoctoralworkisprobablyresponsibleforthefindingthatanincreasedfractionoflife-sciencePhDrecipientsareinvolvedprimarilyinresearch(TableF.1).Theresulthasbeenaneconomicalandhighlyeffectiveworkforcewhoseresearchproductivityisexcellentandwhosesalarycostsarecomparativelylow.Theintellectualfluidityandscientificproductivityofthelifesciencesreststoagreatextentuponthiscadreofpostdoctoralfellowswho,withgraduatestudents,operatewithinthetraditionoflaboratoriesthatarefundedthroughhighlycompetitivegrantstoprincipalinvestigatorsforthepursuitoftheirscientificideas.

IftheannualrateofPhDproductionhadbeenconstantintothe1990s,thenumberofscientistsinthepostdoctoralholdingpatternwouldprobablyhavecontinuedtogrow.InrealitytherateofPhDproductionhasincreased.In1996,7,696life-sciencePhDdegreeswereawarded,roughlya42%increaseoverthe5,500characteristicofthe1980s.Asubstantialfractionofthatincreasewasduetoaninfluxofforeignstudents,partlyasaresultofachangeinimmigrationlawdescribedinchapter2.In1995about22.4%ofthePhDrecipientswereforeignnationals.Althoughitisdifficulttoknowpreciselywhatpercentage

ofthoseforeign-borngraduateswillreturntotheircountriesoforigin,themostrecentSurveyofDoctoralRecipientsindicatesthat,atleastatgraduation,themajoritystateanintentiontoremainintheUnitedStates.

Thedramaticincreaseinthenumberoflife-sciencePhDshasalreadyhadasubstantialeffectonthesizeandcompositionofthepostdoctoralpool,andthepoolisbeingenlargedbyaninfluxofforeign-trainedPhDswhohavecometotheUnitedStatesforfurthertraining.Theinevitableconsequencehasbeenanincreaseinthecompetitionamongpostdoctoralfellowsforpermanentpositionsinallemploymentsectors.Thefullimpactofthepopulationincreasehasnotyetbeenfeltinthatmostofthenewpostdoctoralfellowshaveyettofacethepermanent-jobmarket.Thatsuggeststhatyoungpeople'sdifficultyinfindingjobsthatusetheirresearchtrainingwillgetworsebeforetheygetbetter.Moreover,thecommittee'sanalysisinchapter4suggeststhatthereisnonewsourceofjobsforlifescientistslyingjustovertheimmediatehorizonnothingliketheopportunitiesprovidedbyindustryduringthe1980s.Ifanything,theexpectedchangesinthefinancingofhighereducation,academichealthcenters,andindustrywillonlywidenthegapbetweenthenumberoflifescientistsbeingtrainedandthenumberofjobsforthemtodo.

IsthereaProblem?anAnalysisfromDifferentPerspectives

Shouldtherecentchangesinthecareerpathsoflifescientistsbeacauseofconcern?Isthedismaythatisbeingvoicedbythecurrentgenerationoftraineesasymptomthatthesystemisnolongeroptimal,orisitsimplythenormaldiscomfortofstudentsreactingtotheprospectofhealthycompetition?Opinionsaboutthevalue,appropriateness,andstabilityofthecurrent

professionalsystemvarywidely,dependinginpartontheperspectivesofthoseholdingtheopinions.Aconvenientwaytodescribethesituationistoidentifygroupsof"stakeholders"wholookatthecurrentprofessionalsystemfromdifferentpointsofview.

AdministratorsandEstablishedResearchers

Leadersofindustrialorgovernmentlaboratories,universityadministrators,teachersinlargeundergraduateprogramswhereextensivelaboratoryworkisperformed,andestablishedlife-scienceresearcherswhomustcompeteforrenewedfundingarelikelytoarguethatthecurrentsituationhasmuchtooffer;theirmotivationtopromotechangeisweakorabsent.Boththetime-consumingexperimentsthatarecharacteristicofmuchbiologicresearchandtheeducationoflargenumbersofundergraduatesarewellsuitedtotheskillsandtrainingofgraduatestudentsandpostdoctoralfellows.Theresearchproductivityofanindividuallaboratoryevenofanentiredepartmentcandependonthenumberofgraduatestudentsemployed,sofuturefundingandintellectualprestigemightdependonattractingasmanygoodstudentsaspossible.Occasionally,thereareadditionalincentivestokeepnumbersofstudentshigh,suchasthesupplementsprovidedbysomelocallegislaturestotheirstateuniversitiesinproportiontothesizeoftheirgraduateprograms.Allthosefactorsarepowerfulargumentsforleavingthecurrentsituationunchanged.

FewbranchesofthelifesciencesintheUnitedStateshaveadoptedthealternativeprofessionalsystemofhiringpermanentlaboratoryscientistsandtechnicianstrainedatthebachelor's,master's,orPhDlevel.Fromaneconomicpointofview,suchpermanentemployeesusuallyrequirehighersalariesandagreaterinstitutionalcommitment,suchasretirementbenefits,thantemporarystudentsandfellows.Furthermore,fromanintellectualperspective,mostlifescientistswillarguethatstudentsandpostdoctoralfellowsbringfreshapproaches

andnewenergytoalaboratoryfeaturesthataredifficulttoduplicatewithamorepermanentworkforce.Thus,apoolofyoungscientistswhorotatethrougharesearchlaboratoryisconsideredbymanytobeoptimalforcreativityandproductivity,eventhoughtherecanbeinefficiencieswhilestudentsareacquiringexpertise.

FundingAgencies

Organizationsthatfundlife-scienceresearchcanalsobeseenashavingavestedinterestinmaintainingthestatusquo.Life-sciencegraduatestudentssupportedbyresearchgrantsareregardedbymanysuchagenciesasemployees,asreflectedbytheirdesignationonbudgetsheetsandtheresistanceofsomeagenciestopayingtuition.Mostlife-sciencegraduatestudentsaregoodvaluefortheresearchdollar:theyearnannualsalariesofonlyabout$16,000andgenerallyworkveryhard.Theirproductivitymightbemodestearlyintheirdoctoralresearch,buttheybecomeeffectiveproducersofdatalaterintheirtraining.Inthiscontext,itappearsthatalonggraduate-studenttenurehasfeaturesthataredesirabletoestablishedscientistsandfundingagencies;thistrainingsystemincreasesthelikelihoodthatastudentcanaccomplishsubstantialworkwhilestillbeingpaidatacomparativelylowrate.

Fundingagenciesarelikelytoviewtheirinvestmentinpostdoctoralfellowsinmuchthesamelight.Eventhoughtheinitialsalariesofthisgrouparehigherthanthoseofgraduatestudents,tuitionisnolongeranissue,andtheseyoungscientistsaremorelikelythangraduatestudentstobeimmediatelyeffectiveresearchworkers.Thus,thegrowthofbothpopulationsoflifescientistscarriesbenefitsforinstitutionsthatwishtomaximizetheeffectoftheirresearch

investment.

IncomingGraduateStudents

Prospectivegraduatestudentshavegoodreasonsforwantingtheprofessiontomaintainhighenrollmentsinalargenumberofgraduateprograms.Theavailabilityofmanyprogramsoffersstudentsawiderangeofchoices,andhighenrollmentsincreaseone'slikelihoodofbeingaccepted.Stipendsforgraduatelife-sciencestudentsarebelowthecurrentaveragestartingsalaryforapersonwithabachelor'sdegreeinbiology($21,558),soshort-termfinancialsacrificesareassociatedwithgraduatetraining,butonecanreasonablyexpecttorecovertheselosseseventually.Finallybiologyhasanexcitingintellectualfuture,andstudentscanbeconfidentthattheresearchapparatuswillnotrunoutofworkintheforeseeablefuture.

SeniorGraduateStudents

Seniorgraduatestudentsmightbegintoviewthecurrenttrainingsystemmorenegatively.Thedatashowthattheymustexpectaprotractedgraduatecareer;thelongertheirtrainingcontinues,thegreatertheextenttowhichtheirincomeswillfallbehindthesalariesoftheircollegeclassmateswhoenteredtheworkforceatgraduation.Health-insurancebenefitsmightnotbeasgoodasthoseintheoverallworkforceamorepressingissueasastudentcontemplatesstartingafamily.Duringthelaterstagesoftraining,seniorgraduatestudentsmightnolongerbelearningnewskillsbutratherspendingtimeinincreasingtheirprofessionalaccomplishmentsandcontributingtothoseoftheirmentors.

PostdoctoralFellows

Findingapostdoctoralpositionisnormallynotdifficultbecausemanysuchjobsareavailable.Thecompensationoflife-sciencepostdoctoralfellowsis,however,onlymarginallybetterthanthatofgraduate

students,andthequalityofthebenefitsremainslow.Atthebeginningofthiscareerstage,postdoctoralfellowsmightwellbesoinvolvedwiththeirnewandexcitingworkthattheirlong-rangeprofessionalprospectsareinvisible.Virtuallyallbytheirthirdorfourthyear,andsomesooner,facetheprospectofsearchingforamorepermanentposition.Manyenteredgraduateschoolwiththeintentofeventuallyfindingapositionasaprofessorinauniversityorcollege.Theirmentorsinbothgraduateschoolandpostdoctoraltrainingprobablyencouragedthemtopursuethiscareergoal,andsomewillhaveimplied,eitherexplicitlyorimplicitly,thatanyothercareeroutcomewouldbeasignthattheyhadfailed.Yetthelikelihoodthattheywillobtainsuchapositionisnowlowerthanitwaswhentheymadethedecisiontobegingraduatestudies.Althoughunemploymentisverylow(stilllessthan2%inTableF.1)andunderemploymentisonlymodest,thenumberofapplicantsforgoodjobsofallkindswhetherinacademe,governmentorindustryisverylarge.Thus,theprospectsforpermanentemploymentthatwillprovideresearchopportunitiesandintellectualindependenceappeardim.

Eventhemosthighlysuccessfulpostdoctoralfellows,workinginoneofthe26institutionsofthehighestreputation,arenowseeingthat34yearsofpostdoctoraltrainingmightnotbesufficienttosecureagoodjob.ThedatainTableF.1showthatthefractionofscientistsinthecohort34yearsafterreceiptofthePhDwhoarestillengagedinpostdoctoraltraininghasbeensteadilyincreasingoverthelast10years.Membersofthatcohortarecompetingforjobswithmembersofthecohortwhoare56yearspostreceiptofthePhD,whohaveoftenpublishedmorepapers.Inresponsetotheserealities,manypostdoctoralfellowsarenowundergoinga"crisisofexpectation"thatcomesfromasensethatanimplicitcontractbetweenthemandthescientificestablishmenthasbeenbroken.Theyhadagreed

toforgoeconomiccompensationfor1012yearswhiletheyacquiredscientificknowledgeandexpertise;inexchange,theyexpectedareasonablelikelihoodofobtainingasatisfyingjoblater.Hadtheyknowntheirrealisticprospectsatthebeginningofthelongtrainingperiod,theymightwellhavemadedifferentchoices.

YoungInvestigators

Anotherimportantgroupofstakeholdersistheyoungscientistswhohaverecentlybecomeemployedinresearch-orientedinstitutions.Onemightimaginethattheywouldviewtheircareersasestablishedandthattheywouldadopttheviewpointofmore-seniorscientists.Severaldifferencesbetweenyoungandestablishedscientists,however,suggestotherwise.Foronething,thesescientistsarelikelytobeolderthanwerelifescientistsatacomparablestageofprofessionaldevelopmentsomeyearsago.Thedemandingworkofestablishingaproductivelaboratorycomesatatimewhenotherresponsibilities,suchaschildren,mightbecompetingfortheirtime.Decisionsaboutstartingafamilyareimportanttobothmaleandfemalestudents,butfemalesmustconsiderwhethertheywanttohavechildrenbecausetheyarelikelytobeintheirmiddletolate30s,andtheirbiologicclockswillnotgrantthemmuchmoretime.

Younglifescientistswhosejobsarenotinanindustrialorgovernmentlaboratoryfacetheprimaryresponsibilityofattractingresearchsupportsothattheycanbuildtheirresearchprogramsandhavesomelikelihoodofbeingretainedandpromoted.Theymustcompetesuccessfullyformoney,ortheirresearchcareerswillsoonend.Yetsuccessratesinobtaininggrantshavedecreasedforyounginvestigatorsastheyhaveforinvestigatorsofallages.Thesituationhasbeenamelioratedtosomeextentbytheexistenceofothersourcesofresearchmoneythatareavailableexplicitlyforyoungpeople,suchasgrantsfromthePewCharitableTrusts,theSearleFoundation,

formerlyfromtheMarkeyTrust,andnowfromboththeBurroughsWellcomeFund,andtheAmericanCancerSociety,whichisfocusingitsscientific-grantsprogramonyoungpeople.Notwithstandingtheadditionalsources,however,eventhemostsuccessfulyounginvestigatorsviewthetaskofestablishingtheirresearchprogramsasstressfulanddifficult.

TheAmericanPeople

AnadditionalgroupofstakeholdersistheAmericanpeople,thecitizenswhosetaxesandgiftshavesupportedallaspectsofthescientificenterprise.TheAmericanpeoplehavearighttoexpectasystemoflife-scienceresearchthatwillbeproductiveandefficientandthatwillgenerateknowledgethatleadstoimprovementsintheirenvironment,theirfood,andtheirhealth.

ThroughCongress,theelectoratehasconsistentlyendorsedtheimportanceoflife-scienceresearch,andsuchgroupsasResearch!AmericahavefoundthatmostAmericansarewillingeventoincreasethemoneyinvestedinbiomedicalresearch(Research!America1997).Fromaneconomicpointofview,thereismuchvalueintheshortrunassociatedwithalargetrainingenterprisethatkeepslaborcostslow,butthismightnotbethemostcost-effectivestrategytomeettheresearchinterestsofthecountryinthelongrun.Taxpayersdeserveaprofessionalsystemthatwillbestrongandeffectivenotjusttoday,butalsointhefuture.TheinterestsoftheAmericanpeoplewillbebestservedbykeepingfirmlyinmindthequestionofwhatisbestforlife-scienceresearchenterprise,notjustbestforsomecurrentlifescientists.

TheCrisisofExpectation

Theforegoingdiscussionunderscorestherealitythatone'sopinionaboutthefairnessand

effectivenessofthecurrentsystemforproducinglifescientistsandconductinglife-scienceresearchcandependverymuchonhowfaralongthecareerpathoneis.Manyestablishedscientistsviewthecurrentprofessionalsystemasoptimalandpointouttheimportanceofcompetitionforahealthyscientificclimate;thesescientistsoftenrefertotheirownsuccesswithanalogouscompetitionwhentheywereyoung.Thereiscertainlysometruthinthatpointofview,butitmissessomeoftheflavorofthecurrenttimes.Thecurrentcohortofestablishedinvestigatorsbegantheircareersinaverydifferentclimate;regardlessoftheirrecollections,theyexperiencedfarmorefavorableconditionsfromthelengthoftheirtrainingtotheirprospectsofajobandagrantwithwhichtoconductresearch.

Thecrisisofexpectationamongtoday'syounglifescientistsispalpable.Althoughtherearenoextensivedatafromanobjectivesurveyofpublicopinion,thecommitteehadinformationfromfourinformalsources.Inthefallof1994,RichardMcIntosh,presidentoftheAmericanSocietyforCellBiology,wroteashortpieceinthesociety'snewsletter(Mcintosh1994)describinghisunderstandingoftheproblemsfacingyoungcellbiologistsandaskingthoseinterestedtoreplyandpresenttheirviewsorexperience.Morethan50letterswerereceived;somewerewrittenbyseniorinvestigators,butmostcamefromgraduatestudents,postdoctoralfellows,andyoungindependentscientists.Morerecently,thecommitteeheldapublichearinginWashingtonandinvitedmembersofthelife-sciencecommunitytopresenttheirviewsatthehearingandelectronicallythroughe-mail.ThecommitteewasalsogivenaccesstotheresultsofasurveyconductedbytheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciscoCenterfortheHealthProfessionsofthePewScholarsintheBiomedicalSciences.Thisprogram,fundedbythePewCharitableTrusts,hassupported2022newlyindependentscientistsperyearforthelast10years.Pewscholarsareahighlyselectgroupofyoung

investigatorsinallfieldsofthebiomedicalsciences.Thesurveycollectedretrospectivedataonthedurationoftrainingandopinionsofthescholarsregardingthehealthofbiology.Finally,theEducationCommitteeoftheAmericanSocietyforCellBiology,chairedbyProfessorFrankSolomonoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,usedaFederationofAmericanSocietiesforExperimentalBiologye-mailnetworktoqueryabroadrangeofinvestigatorsabouttheirviews.

Clearly,thoseinformalsurveyscannotberegardedasstatisticallyreliableinasmuchasnoeffortwasmadetoobtainarepresentativesampleofthevariouspopulationsoflifescientists.Nonetheless,theyareinformativeinseveralways.First,theyencouragetheviewthatmanyestablishedscientistsareconcernedaboutthefateoftheyoungpeopletheyaretraining,manyofwhomarehavinggreattroublegettingjobsorgrants.Second,thereisaperceptionthatalargegapseparatesthehavesandthehave-nots:thosewhoareestablishedinjobsandwithgrantsandthosewhoaspiretosuchasituation.Third,thereisapervasivesensethatinthecurrentclimateofincreasedcompetition,somethingprecioushasbeenlost;theexcitementandpromisethathavecharacterizedthelifesciencesformanyyearsarenotfeltwiththesameintensitybymanyyoungpeoplebecausetheyaretooconcernedabouttheirfutures.Fourth,thereisawidespreadsenseoffailedexpectations.Mostoftheyoungpeoplewhorepliedhadenteredlife-sciencetrainingwiththeexpectationthattheywouldbecomeliketheirmentors:theywouldbeabletoestablishalaboratory(inindustry,academe,oragovernmentagency)inwhichtheywouldpursueresearchbasedontheirownscientificideas.Therealitythatnowliesbeforethemseemsverydifferent.Theresimplyaretoofewsuchjobs,inanysectoroftheprofession,tohireallthenewlife-scienceaspirantsofhighquality.Theresultisacrisisofexpectations.

Manythoughtfulcommentatorsonthecurrentsituation,includingtheNationalAcademyofSciences'CommitteeonScience,Engineering,andPublicPolicyreport(COSEPUP1995),havearguedthatthereareplentifulalternativecareersforpeoplewiththeintellectualabilitiesandtrainingimpliedbyadoctorateinthelifesciences.Whetherornotthosepositionswillbecomemoreimportantassourcesofemploymentforlife-sciencePhDsintheyearsahead,thereappearstobeasubstantialresistancetocareerredirectionduringthepostdoctoralyears.Atleastfourfactorsseemtocontributetothisunwillingnesstoredirectacareer:

Mostpeoplewhohavegonethroughthelaborofgettingalife-sciencePhD,whetherornottheygoontotrainingatthepostdoctorallevel,lovetheprocessofscienceinapowerfulandfundamentalway.Torelinquishthepursuitofafirstprofessionalloveisatremendousloss.

Itissatisfyingandrewardingtodosomethingthatonedoeswell.MostPhD-trainedlifescientistsarehighlyaccomplishedintheirresearch,andthereisintrinsicsatisfactionindoingmoreofsame.

Theexpectationswithwhichmanypeopleenteredscientifictrainingincludedworkinginafieldthatishighlyrespectedwithinthecountry,earningagoodmiddle-classwageanddoingthingsthatarefundamentallyenjoyable.Theseareattractivefeaturesoflife-scienceresearch;leavingsciencebeforeoneisforcedoutisthereforeverydifficult.

Whenonehasinvestedsomucheffortinhighlyfocusedtraining,itseemswastefulandevenself-destructivetoleaveitbehindandgoontosomethingelse.Therearetransferableskillssuchasproblem-solving,theacquisitionandanalysisofdata,andthehierarchicorganizationofideasandactivitiesbutmanypostdoctoralscientistsexpectthatachangeoffieldswillmeaneitherdoingsomethingroteorgoingthroughyetmoretraining.Aftermorethan10yearsof

''training",thisisanonerousprospect.

FactorsAffectingtheFutureVitalityoftheLife-ScienceEnterprise

OneimportantaspectofAmerica'scurrenttrainingsystemforlifescientistsisbeyonddispute:itisinherentlyexpansionistandisnotatsteadystate.Thesignificantcontributionsofyoungpeopletothelife-scienceenterprisehavemadethemsoattractivetotheseniormembersoftheprofessionthattheratesoftraininghavecontinuedtoincreasewhilethenumberofpeoplestillinpostdoctoralpositions,withoutanyimmediateprospectofpermanentresearchpositions,isalsoincreasing.Themostlikelyfutureforarecentlife-sciencePhdistobeapostdoctoralfellowforaverylongtime.

Thepresentsituationinlifesciencesisnot,however,unique.Allthesciencesexpandedrapidlyinthelate1950sandthe1960sasadirectresponsetothethreatsoftheColdWar.Thenumberofacademicopeningswashuge,comingfrombothexpansioninexistinguniversitiesandtherapidcreationofnewones.Thatgrowthwashighlyunusualinthehistoryofscience,anditisunlikelytoberepeatedsoon.Astheinevitableslowdownoccurred,theredevelopedanover-abundanceofaspirantsrelativetothenumberofpermanentpositionsinthesciences.Inphysics,thereductioninresearchfundingreducedbothavailablepositionsandfundstosupportresearchandtraining;asaconsequence,enrollmentsinphysicsprogramsdeclined.

Theeffectoftheslowdownwasfeltearlierinfieldsotherthanthelifesciences,inpartbecausethelifescienceshaveexperiencedavirtualexplosioninopportunitiesandtheirfederalsupportoverthelast10yearshasoutperformedthatofallothersciences.Inaddition,thelifescienceshavemadeefficientandeffectiveuseofthepostdoctoralpositionbykeepingremunerationofyoungercolleagueslow.Asaconsequence,thelifescienceshavebeenabletosupportamuch

largernumberofpostdoctoralfellowsthananyoftheothersciences.

Thecurrentpressingchallengeforthecommunityoflifescientistsistoacknowledgethatthestructureoftheprofessionhasledtodecliningprospectsforitsyoungandtodevelopaccommodationsthatmaximizethequantityandqualityoffuturescientificproductivity.Successinmeetingthechallengewilldependtoalargeextentonensuringthefuturesuccessofthemosttalentedofyounglifescientists.Inthenextsectionofthischapter,thecommitteeanalyzestheeffectsofthestructuralchangesfromtheperspectiveofthescientificenterpriseitself.

NumberofAspirants

Thecurrentsizeofthelife-sciencePhDcandidatepoolistestimonytotheremarkablesuccessoftheUSinvestmentinlife-scienceresearchoverthelast20years.Manycollege-agestudents,bothhereandabroad,judgethelifesciencestohavethemostexcitingfutureofallthesciences.Asaresult,theenrollmentinundergraduatelifesciencecoursesisgrowing:from1989to1993,thenumberofpeopleearningbachelor'sdegreesinthelifesciencesincreasedbyabout30%(NSF1996).Thefuturevigorofthelifescienceswilldependonensuringthatthemosttalentedstudentscontinuetobeattractedtograduatetraininginthelifesciences.Ofcourse,thefascinatingproblemsthatremaintobesolvedwillalwaysbeadraw,buttoprovidetheseableyoungpeopleaprofessionthatiscommensuratewiththeirtalentswemustmeetatleasttwoadditionalconditions:wemustinformtheminrealistictermsoftheirchancesofachievingtheircareergoalsandwemustrecognizethatthesetimesareverydifferentfromthosewhentoday'sestablishedinvestigatorbegantheircareers.Severaloftherecommendationspresentedinchapter6focusonmeetingthoseconditionseffectively.

BalanceBetweenResearchTrainingandEmploymentOpportunities

Theextraordinaryresearchopportunitiesthataresketchedinchapter4areonlyafewofthemanyinmodernlifesciencethatofferstimulatingchallengesforbothscientificadvanceandcommercialdevelopment.Asareflectionofthescientificopportunities,thebudgetoftheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)hasfaredexceptionallywellinCongressoverthelast10years,whenotherdiscretionaryprogramsofthefederalbudgethavediminished.TheFY1997budgetincludedaremarkable7%increaseforNIHunprecedentedamongagenciesfundedwithinthediscretionarypartofthebudget.ThatvoteofconfidenceonthepartofthepresidentandCongressreflectstheirconvictionthatthelifesciencesareimportanttothefuturehealthandeconomicwell-beingoftheUSpopulation.

Inthecontextofthescientificandfinancialopportunitiesthereappearstobenocompellingjustificationfordiscouragingthebeststudentsfromconsideringgraduatetraininginthelifesciences.Aslongastherearenumeroustaskstobedoneandsufficientfundstosupportresearch,thetrainingofnewscientistshasahighpriorityfortheprofession.Moreover,thelongtimebetweenentryintograduateschoolandassumptionofapermanentpositionmakesitdifficulttopredicttheemploymentmarketaslittleas10yearshence.

ButitwouldbeirresponsibletoignorethesignsthatourexistingPhDproductionisperhapstoolargeandthatthereisanimbalanceinthepopulationoflifescientistscomparedtoavailablepositions.Thesignsincludethelengtheningoftimetograduate-degreereceiptandtheincreasesinthedurationandnumberofpostdoctoralpositions.Itisarguedbysomethatthelengtheningoftrainingreflectsthevastamountofnewinformationthatmustbelearnedtobecomea

successfulmodernbiologist,butthisargumentisdifficulttosustainoneitherintellectualorpracticalgrounds.Asknowledgeincreases,someofwhatusedtobethoughtessentialissetaside,andmoreofwhatisstillessentialistaughtatlowerlevels.High-schoolstudentsnowlearnaboutthestructureandfunctionofDNA,whereas30yearsagothiswascollegematerial.Thecommitteebelievesthatthelengtheningofgraduateandpostdoctoraltrainingisprimarilyaresponsetothegrowingnumberofapplicantsandtheintensecompetitionforpermanentpositions.Tobecompetitiveforthosepositions,youngscientistsmusthaveextensiverecordsofproductivityateachstageoftheircareers.

Thecontinuedincreaseingraduateadmissionsoverthelast10yearshascontributednewstrainstoanalreadystrainedsystem.Onecaneasilyimaginethatfurtherincreasesingraduateenrollments,withoutaconcomitantincreaseinthesizeofthejobmarket,willleadtosuchwidespreadstudentdisaffectionthatthelong-termresultwillbeadropinthenumberofhighlyqualifiedPhDcandidatesinthelifesciences.Thesituationsuggeststhatabalancemustbefoundtomaximizethelikelihoodofagoodsupplyofhigh-quality,well-trainedlifescientistsformanyyearstocome.

StrategiesforOptimizingGraduateandPostdoctoralTraining

MaximizingtheReturnonFundsInvestedinTraining

ThestipendandtuitionofUS-trainedgraduatestudentsinthelifesciencesaresupportedbyavarietyofmechanisms,asdescribedinchapter2,includingtraininggrants,fellowships,andteachingandresearchassistantships.Abouthalfthestudentsareemployedasresearchassistants.Thedifferentsourcesofsupporthaverelativelylittleeffectontheday-to-dayactivitiesofstudents,thevastmajorityofwhomspendtheirtimeconductingresearchinthelaboratoriesof

theirmentors.However,thereisarealdistinctionamongthefundingmechanismsinthelevelofoversightoftrainingitself.WefocusinthefollowingpagesontheNIHsupportoftrainingbecauseNIHisthesinglelargestsourceofsuchsupport.Otherfederalagenciesplayimportantrolesand,ascanbeseeninTable2.1,institutionalsupportofgraduatestudentsand"other"support,includingself-support,alsoaccountforsubstantialnumbersofstudents.

ThecurrentNIHtraining-grantsprogramwasestablishedbyCongressin1973whenitauthorizedNationalResearchServiceAwards(NRSAs)asawaytoensurethattheneedfornewbiomedicalandbehavioralresearchscientistswasbeingmet.Atthesametime,CongressaskedtheNationalResearchCounciltomakeperiodicestimatesofthenationalneedsforsuchpersonnelthatcongressionalcommitteescouldusetoevaluatetheannualNIHbudgetaryrequestsfortrainingfunds;thisactionwasintendedtopreventshortfallsandsurplusesinthenumberofresearchscientistsbeingtrained.Formorethan20years,theResearchCouncil'sCommitteeonNationalNeedsforBiomedicalandBehavioralResearchPersonnelhasbeenmakingadviceavailabletoCongress.

Traininggrantsareawardedtograduateprogramsonthebasisofastringentprocessofpeerreview.Thegrantsfundthestipendsandsomefractionoftuitionforaspecificnumberofstudents,determinedatthetimeofapplicationreview.Somefundsarealsoprovidedforauxiliaryeducationalactivities,suchasseminarprogramsandsymposiums.Graduatestudentsareidentifiedforappointmentunderatraininggrantbytheinstitutionitself,andtheyareusuallysupportedfor23yearsoftheirtotalgraduatecareer.NIHsupportsabout7,500studentsontraininggrantsatabout197institutions,orabout

14%ofthecountry'slife-sciencegraduatestudents.

NIHtraininggrantareawardedonlyafteragraduateprogramhasbeenpeer-reviewedbyatrainingcommitteeappointedbytheNIH.Thereviewprocesstakesintoaccountsuchfactorsasstudents'timetodegree,postgraduationcareers,andaccomplishments.Theprocessalsoholdsprogramstoaveryhighstandardofminority-groupstudentrecruitmentandretentionandfacultydiversity.Andapplicantinstitutionsmustprovideaprogramofformalinstructionintheresponsibleconductofresearch.

Thereviewcommitteevisitsthetraininginstitutionandobservestheeducationalprogram,interviewsstudents,andengagesfacultyindiscussion.Thatkindofreviewbyanexternalgroupbringstotraininganexpertassessmentofqualitythatparallelsthescrutinythatresearchproposalsreceive.Suchcarefulexaminationoffaculty,students,andgraduatesstandsinmarkedcontrastwiththeprocedureforemployingagraduatestudentasaresearchassistantunderaresearchgrant,inwhichcasethejudgmentofthesupervisinginvestigatorandthewillingnessofthestudentaretheonlycontrolsonthequalityoftraining.Inthecommittee'sopinion,theguidanceachievedthroughthereviewprocessislikelytoproduceabetter-balanced,more-roundededucationofstudents.Mostimportant,perhaps,isthattheawardofatraininggrantisbasedonthequalityoftrainingprovidedandthetrainingrecordoftheprogram,andnotjustonthevalueorsignificanceofongoingresearch.Competitionamonguniversitiesfortraininggrantsisfierce.Ingeneral,theprogramsthatsucceedinobtainingtraininggrantsarethoseinthetop-rateduniversities,asrankedbytheNationalResearchCouncil'sSurveyofGraduatePrograms(NRC1995)

Thesuperiorityofoutcomesoftraininggrantsisdifficulttodocument.Oneolderstudyofthequestion(IOM1984)focusedonthe

biomedicalsectorofthelifesciences.Thestudycomparedperformancewithrespecttoaseriesofindicators(forexampletimetodegree,completionofdegree,laterresearch-grantawards,andarticleswritten)ofthreegroupsofformergraduatestudents:thosewhohadheldNIHtraineeships,othersinthesameprogramswhohadnothadtraineeshipsupport,andallotherbiomedicalgraduatestudentsinthesameannualcohorts.Holdersandnonholdersoftraineeshipsinprogramsthathadtraininggrantsperformedaboutthesame,andbothoutperformedthestudentswhohadcompletedprogramsthatdidnothaveanytraininggrants.Itappearsthatthebenefitsoftraininggrantsareprogramwideratherthansupport-specific.Theresultsofthatstudy,whichisnow17yearsoutofdate,wouldappeartosupportthecommittee'sjudgmentthatapplyingforandreceivingatraininggranthaveasalutaryeffectondepartmentfaculty,leadingthemtoaconcernabouthow,asanentity,theyareprovidingfortheeducationandtrainingoftheirstudents.AnupdateofthestudyisbeingsponsoredbyNIH,butitsconclusionswerenotavailableatthetimeofourdeliberations.

Thoseresultsareequivocalinthattraininggrantsareawardedonlytoprogramsthatarealreadyprovidingasuperioreducationorhaveattractedstudentsofsuperiorability.Thealternativeexplanationscannotberuledout,andtheprominenceofhighlyrankedinstitutionsontherosterofthosereceivingtraininggrantslendsthemaddedplausibility.Nevertheless,membersofthecommitteewithpersonalexperienceofthereviewprocessfortraininggrantsbelievethattheprocessaffectsthecriticalstandardsthatfacultyapplytothemselves.Onthisgroundalone,namelythebeneficialscrutinyofpeerswhoarenotimmediatecolleagues,seemstobethestrengthofNIHtraininggrants.

Almost12,000,ortwo-thirds,ofthegraduatestudentssupportedbyfederalfundsin1995were

paidfromresearchgrantsawardedtofaculty(seetable2.1).Unlikethetraininggrantsandfellowshipsawardedtoindividuals,thequalityofgraduatetrainingprovidedthroughthismechanismisnotmonitoredbyanyagencyoutsidetheindividualuniversity.NIH,themajorfederalsponsorofresearchandtraining,doesnotconsidertheresearchfundsusedforgraduate-studentsalariesonresearchgrantsasmoneyinvestedintrainingalthoughtuitionandasalarycanbechargedtothegrant.Rather,thesestudentsareseenasemployeeshiredtoconductresearch.AccordingtoPublicHealthServicepolicy,graduatestudents'tuitionremissionthatischargedtofacultyresearchgrantsisanallowablecostpaymentinlieuofsalaryorwagestostudentsperformingnecessarywork.

Supportingstudenttrainingthroughindividualresearchgrantspermitsafundingagencytheleastamountofpeerreviewofitsgraduatetraininginvestment.Italsopromotesanemployer-employeerelationshipbetweenfacultymentorandstudentthatcreatesapotentialforaconflictofinterestthatmightadverselyimpacteffectivetraining.Forexample,becausePhDtrainingdoesnothaveafixedterm,thedecisionastowhenacandidatehascompletedtrainingusuallyrestswithoneorasmallnumberoffacultymembers.Thissystemcontainsapotentialforabuse,particularlyintimesofjobshortage.Aconflictcanarisebetweenastudent'sinterestinmovingontothenextcareerstageandaprofessor'sinterestinretainingahighlyproductiveworker.Oramentormightdiscourageastudentfromtakingadditionalcourseworkorteachinganadditionalclasstogainmorepedagogicexperienceonthegroundsthattheseactivitiestaketimeawayfromthegrant-supportedactivity.

NIHandtheNationalScienceFoundationalsoawardgraduate-trainingfellowshipsdirectlytoindividuals,althoughthenumberoffellowsatanytimeistinycomparedwiththenumbersoftraineesandresearchassistants.Fellowsusuallyenjoymorefreedominshaping

theirgraduateeducationthandotraineesandassistants,althoughtheymustofcourseabidebydepartmentorprogramrules.Inconsideringfellowshipapplications,theoverallqualityoftheinstitutionchosenfortrainingistakenintoaccount,butthemajorfactorinawardingafellowshipisthequalityoftheapplicant.Oncesuchafellowshiphasbeenawarded,thereisnofollowupreviewtojudgethenatureorqualityofthetrainingthattheawardeehasreceived.Thisformofgraduatesupportthereforelacksanimportantcomponentofpeerreviewthatisfoundintraininggrants.Byrelyingmoreontraininggrantsforthesupportofgraduatestudents,thefederalgovernmentwillbeinabetterpositiontogatherinformationaboutitscurrentinvestmentingraduateeducationandthusbeinabetterpositiontomonitorPhDproduction.

TheProblemofTimetoDegree

Whetherthepressuretolengthenpost-baccalaureatetrainingiscomingfrommentors,whoaremaximizingthereturnontheirinvestmentintraining,orfromthestudentsthemselves,whoaretryingtoimprovetheirresearchrecords,theoutcomeisthatyoungscientistsarespendingtheirmostcreativeandproductiveyearsunderthedirectionofmoreseniorinvestigators.TheUSscientificenterpriseisatriskoflosingwhatmanyconsidertobeitsmostdistinctiveandsuccessfulattribute:thatscientistsaregiventheirindependenceatarelativelyearlyage.IncontrastwithmanyEuropeancountries,wherescientistsspendmanypost-PhDyearsinpositionsthatdependonseniorprofessors,theUnitedStateshasprideditselfonencouragingtheenergy,independence,andcreativityofitstalentedyoungpractitioners.Inthepast,itwasexpectedthatbytheageof35USlifescientistswouldhavetheirownlaboratoriesandtheresourcestocarryoutnewlyconceivedresearchplans.

Figure5.1andtable5.1showthenumberoftenuredandtenure-trackfacultyofvariousagesatPhD-grantingandnon-PhD-grantinginstitutionsin1975,1985,and1995.Thedistributionin1975wasdecidedlyskewedtowardayoungfacultycomplement.By1994,thedistributionwasbroaderandshiftedtowardhigherages(Figure5.2).Whereasin1975,halfthefacultywereunder3940yearsold,halfofthefacultyin1995wereunder4748.

Althoughyoungscientistsmightbeproductiveindependentpostdoctoralpositions,itisimportanttoconsiderwhethertheyareallowed,underthesecircumstances,todevelopandusetheircreativity.Thelengtheningoftimethatyoungscientistsspendindependentpositionswouldbedeleterioustoscienceonlyiftherewereanegativecorrelationbetweenageandscientificinnovation.Inmathematics,theagingofthepopulationwouldbeviewedwithgreatdismay,giventhecommonperceptionthatmathematicsbenefitsfromyoungandnimbleminds.Inthelifesciences,thereisnotthesameperceptionthatyouthisanadvantage.However,usingtheNobelprizeasayardstickoforiginalityandimpactofscientificwork,StephanandLevin(1993)examinedtheageatwhichthecriticalexperimentsawardedNobelprizesinMedicineandPhysiologyin19011992wereconducted.Theyfoundthatthemedianagewas38years,onlyslightlyolderthanthemedianageof37inchemistryand34.5inphysics.Theirdatashowedthatthemostinnovativeexperimentsgenerallyweredonebythose3050yearsold;themajoritywereunder40.Theauthorsconcludedthat"itissafetosaythatregardlessoffield,theoddsofcommencingresearchforwhichaNobelprizeisawardeddeclinedramaticallyafterage40,andvery,veryfewlaureatesundertakeprize-winningworkaftertheageof55."

Figure5.1NumberofUSlife-sciencePhDsintenuredpositions,byage,1975,1985,1995.

Datafromtable5.1.

Table5.1AgedistributionofUSPhDlife-sciencefacultyin1975,1985,and19951975Survey 1985Survey 1995Survey

Age,Years No. %

Cumula-tive% No. %

Cumula-tive% No. %

Cumula-tive%

2728 5 0.0 0 2 0.0 0.02930 132 0.6 0.6 13 0.0 0.0 122 0.3 0.33132 912 4.1 4.7 329 0.9 1.0 471 1.1 1.33334 2093 9.3 14.0 1295 3.6 4.6 881 2.0 3.33536 3218 14.3 28.3 2067 5.8 10.4 1664 3.8 7.13738 2868 12.8 41.1 2523 7.1 17.4 2533 5.7 12.83940 2410 10.7 51.8 3668 10.3 27.7 3324 7.5 20.34142 2002 8.9 60.7 3772 10.6 38.3 3726 8.4 28.74344 1882 8.4 69.1 3353 9.4 47.7 3817 8.6 37.44546 1865 8.3 77.4 3886 10.9 58.5 3274 7.4 44.84748 1421 6.3 83.7 2977 8.3 66.9 3821 8.6 53.44950 1268 5.6 89.3 2353 6.6 73.5 3700 8.4 61.75152 699 3.1 92.4 1782 5.0 78.4 3267 7.4 69.15354 595 2.6 95.1 1971 5.5 84.0 3510 7.9 77.05556 388 1.7 96.8 1668 4.7 88.6 2913 6.6 83.65758 276 1.2 98.1 1366 3.8 92.5 2069 4.7 88.35960 164 0.7 98.8 1124 3.1 95.6 1501 3.4 91.76162 123 0.5 99.3 551 1.5 97.1 1567 3.5 95.26364 86 0.4 99.7 577 1.6 98.8 1079 2.4 97.76566 54 0.2 100.0 190 0.5 99.3 626 1.4 99.16768 6 0.0 100.0 167 0.5 99.8 264 0.6 99.76970 0 0.0 100.0 61 0.2 99.9 61 0.1 99.87172 0 0.0 100.0 24 0.1 100.0 67 0.2 100.07374 0 0.0 100.0 1 0.0 100.0 8 0.0 100.075+ 0 0.0 100.0 0 0.0 100.0 4 0.0 100.0

22,467 35,718 44,271

Thoseauthorsattributedtheassociationbetweenimportantscientific

discoveryandyouthfulnesstomanyfactors,includingtheabilityoftheyoungtofocusonaproblemwithoutthedistractionsandresponsibilitiesthatpeopleaccumulatewithage.Theyalsoidentifiedtheabilitytoapproachaproblemfromafreshperspectiveunfetteredandunbiasedbypreviousexperienceandthefreedomofhavinglittletolosefrombeingwrong.Today,lifescientistsarestillindependentpositionswellintotheir30s;oftentheyareworkingonresearchprojectsdesignedbytheirmentorsratherthanonprojectsthattheydesignedthemselves.

Itcanbearguedthattheage-relatedsuccessofNobellaureates,ahighlyelitegroupofscientists,doesnotreflectthepopulationasawhole.Oneindicationthatagedoesaffectthecreativityofabroadrangeoflifescientistsistheobservationthatthelikelihoodofanyperson'scompetingsuccessfullyforanNIHgrant

Figure5.2CumulativefractionofUSlife-sciencePhDsintenuredpositions,byage,1975,1985,1995.

DatefromTable5.1.

decreasesaftertheageof50.Giventhattrend,itisreasonabletoworrythatdelayingtheindependenceofyoungscientistsuntiltheyarewellintotheir30sorearly40s,willhavelong-termdeleteriouseffectonthequalityofscienceproduced.Otherimpedimentstothecontinualreplenishmentofuniversityandcollegefacultieswithyoungscientists,suchastenureandthedisappearanceofmandatoryretirementbecauseofage,alsocontributetothe"graying"oftheUSfacultyandhavethepotentialofhavingadeleteriouseffectonthequalityandquantityofUSlifescience.Still,onlysomewhatmorethan2%offacultywere65orolderin1995.

Somedatasuggestthatthelengtheningoftrainingisnotaffectingallsegmentsofthetrainingpoolequally.Forexample,arecentretrospectivesurveyof192recipientsoftheprestigiousawardsfrom

thePewScholarsProgramintheBiomedicalScienceswhichidentifiespromisingassistantprofessorsandotherresearchscientistsatthebeginningoftheircareers,indicatedthattheiraveragetimetothePhDdegreewasonly5yearsandthedurationoftheirpostdoctoraltraining3.9years.Thecurrentsystemhasnotsubstantiallyhamperedtherapidprogressionoftheseyoungscientiststhroughtrainingtoindependentpositions,so,atleastinthiscase,itisfulfillingoneofitshighestpriorities:theproductionofacadreoftrulyinnovativescientists.Butitseemsimportanttodowhateverisreasonabletominimizethedurationoftrainingwhilekeepingitconsistentwiththeneedtoprepareyoungscientistsfortheircareers.Itisencouragingthattimetodegreeandageatdegreestoppedincreasingafter1993,buttheyarestillhigherthaninpreviousgenerations

ofgraduates.

EmploymentProspectsofYoungLifeScientists

TheincreaseinthesizeoftheAmericanpostdoctoralpopulation,whichhasbeenfurtherincreasedbytheforeignnationalswhoaretrainingintheUnitedStatesatboththegraduateandpostgraduatelevels,hasledtointensecompetitionforthepermanentpositionsineverysectorofthejobmarket,butespeciallyinuniversitiesand4-yearcolleges.Universityfacultysearchcommitteesreporthundredsofapplicationsforsinglepositions.Competitionamongpostdoctoralfellowsforlimitedemploymentopportunitiesisconsideredbysometobeanidealwaytobringoutthebestineachpersonandtoselectthebestpeopleforthejobs.Atsomecriticalpoint,however,competitionceasestobringoutthebestamongaspiringmembersofthefieldandbecomesadestructiveforce,breedingconservatismand,atitsworst,evendishonesty.Whentheystartnewprojects,younginvestigatorscontributetoanexpansionanddiversificationofthequestionsbeingstudiedinlifescience.Today,inourexperienceinthelaboratoryandonreviewpanels,insteadofbroadeningthefieldsofinquiry,younginvestigatorsaretendingtostaywithinconventionalboundaries.Ifthattrendcontinues,itwillultimatelyhaveanadverseeffectonthequalityofthelifesciences.

Ourprofessionmustfacethefactthatcurrenttrainingpracticesareinexorablyleadingtoincreasingproblemsforthelifesciences,notjustacrisisofexpectationamongtheyoung.Theissuecomesintosharpfocuswhenwetakeintoaccountthefactthatthelife-sciencePhDpopulationproblemisgoingtogetworse.The42%increaseinPhDproductionisarecentphenomenon,andmostofthenewPhDshavenotyetfacedthepermanentjobmarket,muchlessbeguntocompeteforgrants.Yetthecommittee'sreviewoffuturehiringinthelifesciences,detailedinchapter4,provideslittlelikelihoodofshort-

termsolutionstotheimbalancebetweenPhDproductionandjobs.

Thekeytotheissuemightbeintheresearchandtrainingsystemnowsoentrenched.RepresentativeGeorgeE.Brown,Jr.,therankingDemocratontheHouseCommitteeonScience,haspointedoutthatwiththeendoftheColdWar,andtheslowingoftheincreaseingovernmentinvestmentinresearchanddevelopment,theUSscienceestablishmentneedstoreassessthetraditionallinkbetweenacademicresearchandgraduateeducation(Brown1997).HearguesthatthecontinuedlinkagemeansthatthenumberofPhDsproducedreflectstheavailabilityofacademicR&Dfunding,ratherthanbeingrelatedtoasetofnationalgoalswithrespecttotheneedforscienceandengineeringPhDs.HearguesfurtherthatwearenotanalyzingtheneedssufficientlyandthattheresultisthatproductionofPhDscanexceedtheneeds.

Thiscommittee'sfindingssupportBrown'sviewsontherelationshipbetweenresearchfundingandthenumberofPhDsproduced.Life-scienceresearchfundinghascontinuedtoriseinthelast20yearsalbeitmoreslowlythaninearlierdecadesandPhDoutputhasmorethankeptpace.Increasedresearchfundingmeansgreaterdemandforworkersinlaboratoriesmoregraduatestudentsandpostdoctoralfellows.Buttheresearch-educationlinkalsopushesmoretrainedpersonsintothejobmarketthantheavailablepositionsinacademe,industry,andgovernmentcanaccommodate.Thiscommittee'sexplorationofthenexusbetweentrainingandthejobmarkethasconvincedusthatthequestionofnationalneedsiscomplexandsubtle.Althoughanalysisofnationalneedsmightnothavebeensufficient,wenotethattheproblemhasdefiedfullsolutionfor2decades,becauseofmissingorincompleteevidence,becauseofthecostsofa

fulleranalysis,andforotherreasonssometimesgovernmentrulesandproceduresthemselves.Regardlessofthehistory,weagreewithBrown'sargumentthatareassessmentofthenation'slinkedtrainingandresearchpolicieswouldbeuseful.

Itisplausiblethatjobprospectsofyounglifescientistswilldiminishfurtherinthecomingyearsunlessunforeseeneventsintervene.Thetrainingsystem,byvirtueofitstimebetweengraduate-schooladmissionandobtainingofafirstpermanentposition,isslowtorespondtochangingconditions.Itbehoovestheprofessiontoactinanintelligentandbalancedwaysothatafuturecrisiswillbeavoided.Ifthedifficultiesoffindingappropriateemploymentbecomesufficientlywidespread,thediscontentofpostdoctoralfellowsmightinfectundergraduates,whoareconsideringgraduateeducationinlifesciences,andresultinadeclineinhigh-qualityapplications.Forthefuturehealthofthelife-scienceenterprise,wemustencourageandretainourmosttalentedaspirants,thepeoplewhowillalwayshavemanyattractiveoptions.

Inconclusion,thecurrentlife-sciencetrainingenterpriseisproducingabout2.5timesthenumberofPhDsneededtofillthejobsthatarecurrentlyavailableinacademeandwhenallformsofresearch-orientedemploymentareconsidered,therearestillmoretraineesthantherearepositionsavailableandthenumberoftraineesisgoingup.Therecommendationsinchapter6aredesignedtoamelioratethestressesinthecurrentsituationandtoincreasethelikelihoodthatwecankeeptheAmericanlifesciencesstrongandproductive.

References

Brown,GE.AmericanPhysicalSocietyNewsOnline.http://www.aps.org/apsnews/aug97.html

COSEPUP(NationalAcademyofSciences,CommitteeonScience,

Engineering,andPublicPolicy).1995.ReshapingtheGraduateEducationofScientistsandEngineers.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.

IOM(InstituteofMedicine).1984.TheCareerAchievementsofNIHPredoctoralTraineesandFellows.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.

McIntoshR.1994.Fundingconstraintsandpopulationgrowth:thecellbiologist'snightmare.AmerSocCellBiolNews117(11):15.

NRC(NationalResearchCouncil).1995.ResearchDoctorateProgramsintheUnitedStates.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.

NSF(NationalScienceFoundation).1996.ScienceandEngineeringIndicators1996.NSB96-21.Washington,DC:USGovernementPrintingOffice.

Research!America.1997.PublicDisagreeswithClintonBudgetProposal:MedicalResearchFundingShouldBeDubled.http://www.nicom.com/ramerica/newbrief.html.

StephanPE,LevinSG.1993.AgeandtheNobelPrizeRevisited.Scientometrics28:38799.

6ConclusionsandRecommendationsThecommittee'sstudyofearlyresearchcareersinthelifesciencesrevealedaflourishing,productiveresearchenterprisewithlittleunemploymentbutwithaworkforceheavilyconcentratedin''training"positions,suchasgraduatestudentsandpostdoctoralfellows.TheoccupantsofthesepositionsaretakinglongertoobtaintheirPhDs;theycontinuetheirtrainingaftergraduateschoolbyassumingpostdoctoralpositions;theirtenureinthesepostdoctoralpositionsislengthening;andwhentheyseekoutpermanentpositions,theyfacestiffcompetitionhundredsofapplicantsforasinglepost.Theneteffectofthosetrendsisanever-growingaccumulationofhighlytrainedyoungscientistsinpositionsthatwereintendedtobetransitional.Yettheseverypeopleareessentialfortheaccomplishmentoftheresearchthathasbroughtsomuchbenefittothenationandreputationtoitslife-scienceendeavor.Thecommitteewasfacedwithaninherentconflict:thesystemisproducingmorePhDsthancanbeabsorbedintothepermanentworkforce,andthesetraineesareessentialtotheconductofresearchinUSuniversities.

Thecurrentsituationistheproductofalinkededucation-researchsystemthatisindisequilibriumbecauseoffeaturesthatareintrinsicandstructural,thatarenotconfinedtothelifesciencesbuthaveparallelselsewhereinhighereducation,andthatarelikelytocontinuetoproducethesameoutcomesthatwehavejustsummarized.

Thesituationhasbeenbuildingforalongtime.Inthiscountry,thetrainingofPhDsinscienceandtheperformanceofscientificresearchareintimatelylinked.Ithasbeenanarticleoffaithatleastsincethe1945VannevarBushreportthatboththebodyofscientificknowledge

andtheaptitudeofyoungscientistsbenefitfromthislinkage.Accordingly,becausegraduatestudentsplayanimportantroleinresearchprojects,thelevelofgraduateenrollmentshasbeenstronglyinfluencedbygrowthintheresearchenterprise.Thearrangementservedthenationandthepeopleinvolvedverywellduringtheperiodofrapidgrowthintheacademicsectorthatbeganinthelate1950s.Newprograms,newdepartments,andnewuniversitieswereeagertohirenewPhDs(andthesenewunitssoonbegangraduateeducationprogramsoftheirown).Bythemiddle1970s,however,thegrowthinthesystemhadbeguntoslowandithasneverregaineditsearlierrate.YetthenumberofnewPhDsperyearcontinuedtorise(albeitatamuchslowerrate)whilenewacademicjobsbecamescarcer.Asthosetwotrendscontinuedthroughthe1970sandtheearly1980s,thetermofpredoctoralstudybegantolengthenandtheproportionofnewPhDswhotookpostdoctoralappointmentsbegantoincrease,asdidthelengthoftimetheyspentinthatstatusasignoftheimbalance.Tobesure,asubstantialincreaseinhiringinthepharmaceuticalandbiotechnologyindustriesforaperiodinthe1980shelpedtoabsorbsomeoftheexcessoftrainedscientists,butthattooslowedbytheendofthedecade.Thecurrentsituationhasbeenexacerbatedbyadramatic42%increasefrom1987to1996intheannualnumberofPhDsawardedinthelifesciences,asubstantialproportionofwhichwereawardedtoforeign-borncandidates.Inthesameperiod,thesizeofthepostdoctoralpoolgrewaswell,augmentedbyaninfluxofforeign-trainedscientists.

Mostofthestakeholdersinthelife-sciencecommunityarewellservedbythepresentarrangementsandarelikelytobesatisfiedwithhowthesystemisworking.Theprincipalexceptionsaretheseniorgraduatestudentsandthepostdoctoralfellowswhoaresearchingfor

researchjobswithcareer-ladderprospectsinacademe,industry,orgovernmentwheretheycanapplytheirlengthytrainingandexperience.Thesearchisperhapsmostdifficultforthosewhoaspiretotheuniversitypositionstowardwhichtheirmentorsandtheacademiccultureguidedthem.Althoughtheacademicsectoristhelargestemployeroflifescientists,thenumberofopeningsthereandthegrowthinnewpositionswerebeingoutstrippedbythegrowthintheapplicantpool.

Isthereanyneedtointervene,toattempttoredresstheimbalanceinthesystem?SomesayNothesystemisDarwinian,andthecompetitionforoccupationalsurvivalwillbringthefittesttothetop.Indeed,thesystemisdesignedtowinnowoutthelesscompetent;noteveryonehasthetalentstobecomeanindependentinvestigator,anditisassumedthatsomefractionofthegraduateswilleventuallydecidetopursueothercareers.Thesystemisfunctioningasitshould,andmarketforcesshouldbeallowedtoprevail.

Thiscommitteetakesadifferentposition.Webelievethatthecurrentrateofproductionistoohighandcertainlyshouldnotgrowhigher.Thesystemoftrainingandresearchthatworkedsowellintimesofoverallexpansionoftheenterpriseisincreasinglydeleteriousinaneraoflittlegrowth.Theagingofthe"young"scientistisdisquieting.Thesystemisdelayingindependenceandmufflingcreativityatperhapsthemostproductivephaseoftheindividualscientist'slife.Finallyandmostimportantthecommitteeisconcernedthatanundulycrowdedlabormarketwithsmallchancesforsuccesscouldinthelongrundriveoutthemosttalentedandambitiousaspirants,whowilloptformorepromisingcareeropportunitiesinotherfieldsandprofessions.Whenthesystemproducesanimbalancelikethecontemporaryone,itisinefficient,wasteful,anddispiritingtoitsrecruits.

Forthosereasons,thecommitteebelievesthatthereisjustificationfor

interventiontoadjusttheimbalanceintheeducationandtrainingsystem.Atthesametime,werecognizethecomplexityofthesystemandthediffuseinterdependenceofitscomponents.Inthesectionsthatfollow,wereportavarietyofstrategiesthatthecommitteehasconsideredformakingadjustments,askingofeachstrategynotonlywhatgoodpurposesitmightservebutalsowhatramifications,especiallyunwantedconsequences,itmighthave.Wehavegroupedthestrategiesaccordingtowhatwebelievearedesirablegoalsformakingastartonalleviatingcurrentdifficulties.Overall,ouraimistoensurethecontinuedhealthoftheresearchenterprisewhileconfrontingthedisequilibriumthathascreatedacrisisofexpectationsintheyoungcohortswhorepresentthefutureoflifescience.Wehopethatouranalysiswillfocusonthesystemicfactorsthatledtothepresentdilemmaandwillstimulatewidespreaddiscussioninthescientificcommunityaboutdesirablechanges.

RestraintoftheRateofGrowthoftheNumberofGraduateStudentsintheLifeSciences

Overthelast2decades,therehasbeenasubstantialgrowthinthenumberoflifescientistsinallcategoriesofimpermanentemployment1owinginnosmallmeasuretoasharplyincreasingnumberofPhDsbeingawardedbyUSuniversitiestobothUScitizensandforeignnationals,especiallyinthelastdecade.This

1Wedefinethegoalofgraduateeducationandpostdoctoraltraininginthelifesciencesasthepreparationofyoungscientistsforcareersinindependentresearchinacademe,industry,government,orprivateresearchenvironments.Wecallthese"permanent",althoughitisunderstoodthatnoemploymentisguaranteed,todistinguishthesepositionsfromthe"impermanent"positions,suchaspostdoctoralfellowandresearchassociatepositionsheldbypersonswhosecareerobjectiveistoobtainpermanentpositions.

growth,whichhasoutstrippedthesmallincreasesinthenumberofpermanentpositionsavailable,hasbeenamajorcontributortotheswellingofthepostdoctoralpooloflifescientists.Thepoolnumbersabout20,000,manyofwhomaremarkingtimeuntiltheycanmoveintopermanentpositions.

Recommendation1:Thecommitteerecommendsthatthelife-sciencecommunityconstraintherateofgrowthinthenumberofgraduatestudents,thatis,thattherebenofurtherexpansioninthesizeofexistinggraduate-educationprogramsinthelifesciencesandnodevelopmentofnewprograms,exceptunderrareandspecialcircumstances,suchasaprogramtoserveanemergingfieldortoencouragetheeducationofmembersofunderrepresentedminoritygroups.

Thecurrentannualrateofincreaseinawardsoflife-sciencePhDs5.1%from1995to1996ifallowedtocontinue,wouldresultinadoublingofthenumberofsuchPhDsinjust14years.Ouranalysissuggeststhatthatwouldbedeleterioustoindividualsandtheresearchenterprise.ThecommitteerecognizesthatthenumberofPhDsawardedeachyearmightalreadybetoohigh.Althoughareturntopre-1988levelsoftrainingmightbebeneficial,webelievethataconcentratedefforttoreducethesizeofgraduate-studentpopulationsrapidlywouldbedisruptivetothehighlysuccessfulresearchenterprise.Theprofessionalstructureoflife-scienceresearchrequirestheservicesofgraduatestudentsandpostdoctoralfellowstoconducttheresearchthatisnowbeingfunded.Aseriousreductioninthislaborforcewouldimpair,delay,orforestalltheaccomplishmentofcurrentandfutureresearch.

Wecautionthatitwillbenecessarytodistinguishamongfieldswhenmakingdecisionsaboutoptimalnumbersofgraduatestudents.Asshowninchapter2,almostalltheincreaseinlife-sciencePhDproductionhasbeeninbiomedicalfields.Actionstakeninonefieldofthelifesciencesmightbeunnecessaryinothers.Itisworthnoting,

however,thatthedatashowninfigure3.10suggestthatbiomedicalandnonbiomedicallife-sciencefieldsareexperiencingsimilarchangesinemploymenttrends,forexample,smallerfractionsofPhDsfindingpermanentemploymentinacademe.

Thecommitteeacknowledgesthatitsrecommendationtoconstrainfurthergrowthwillnotbeeasytoimplement.Life-sciencefacultiesneedteachingassistantsandresearchassistants,andlimitingthenumberofenteringgraduatestudentswillberesisted.Butthecurrentrateofgrowthcannolongerbejustified,andthepremisesthathaveproduceditmustbereexamined.Thecommitteeurgeslife-sciencefacultiestoseekalternativestotheseworkforceneeds(seebelowinthischapter).

ThecommitteeexaminedseveralapproachestostabilizingthetotalnumberofPhDsproducedbylife-sciencedepartmentsbeyondthefirstandobviousapproachofindividualactiononthepartofgraduateprogramstoconstraingrowthinthenumberofgraduatestudentsenrolled.Astheincreasesoverthelastdecade,asshowninchapter2,havebeenfueledprimarilybytheincreasedavailabilityoffederalsupportforresearchassistants,federalagenciesmightrestrictthenumbersofgraduatestudentsthattheysupportthroughtheresearchgrantmechanism.IffurtherrestrictionswereplacedbytheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)onthetotalamountofsalaryandtuitionsupportprovidedforstudentsonresearchgrantswellbelowthecurrent$23,000cap,itcouldreducetheattractivenessofresearchgrantsasameansofsupportinggraduatestudents,althoughitmightalsopenalizemanyoutstandingprogramsinprivateinstitutionsthathavehightuitions.Beforeanyactionofthissortisadopted,thefederalagenciesmustcarefullyconsiderwhatimpactitislikelytohaveontheuniversitydepartmentsandtheresearcheffortsbeingsupported.

AnalternativeapproachtorestrainingtherateofPhDgrowthistotrytoinfluencecareerdecisionsmadebyprospectivegraduatestudents.Thatcouldbeaccomplished,atleastinpart,byprovidingaccurateandup-to-dateinformationaboutjobprospectsforthoseconsideringcareersinthelifesciences.Tobesure,thecareerchoicesmadebystudentsareindividualdecisionsbasedonavarietyoffactors,includingtheattractivenessofalternativecareeropportunities,theavailabilityoffinancialsupport,andahostofpersonalcircumstances.Nevertheless,themostprudentwaytoreasonablyreducetherateofincreaseinthenumberofPhDsawardedannuallyandperhapstoachieveagradualreductioninthenumbersbeingtrainedistohelpstudentstomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheircareerchoices.Thekindsofinformationthatmightbeprovidedandhowitmightbestbecompiledarediscussedinthenextsection.

DisseminationofAccurateInformationontheCareerProspectsofYoungLifeScientists

Recommendation2:Thecommitteerecommendsthataccurateandup-to-dateinformationoncareerprospectsinthelifesciencesandcareeroutcomeinformationaboutindividualtrainingprogramsbemadewidelyavailabletostudentsandfaculty.Everylifesciencedepartmentreceivingfederalfundingforresearchortrainingshouldberequiredtoprovidetoitsprospectivegraduatestudentsspecificinformationregardingallpredoctoralstudentsenrolledinthegraduateprogramduringthepreceding10years.

Severalgroupshaverecognizedtheneedtoprovideprospectivegraduatestudentsaccurateandup-to-dateinformationoncareerprospects.Asearlyas1982,aNationalResearchCouncilcommitteestudyingtheemploymentopportunitiesforpostdoctoralfellowsinallfieldsofscienceandengineeringrecommendedthattheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)expanditsnationaldata-gatheringefforttoincludeasurveyspecificallyfocusedoncareerdecisionsofyoung

scientistsandengineers.In1995,areportoftheNationalAcademyofSciences'CommitteeonScience,Engineering,andPublicPolicyongraduateeducationinscienceandengineeringconcludedthatacademicdepartmentsshouldprovideemploymentinformationandcareeradvicetoprospectiveandcurrentstudentsinatimelymanner.Despitethoseandmanyothercallsforbettercareerinformation,mostlife-sciencestudentstodaymustrelyprimarilyontheanecdotalreportsoftheirmentorsandfellowstudents.

Theearlierrecommendationsstressedtheimportanceofinformationforcurrentandprospectivegraduatestudentsbutthiscommitteebelievesthatsuchdatawouldbeequallyvaluabletofaculty,universityadministrators,andfederalpolicy-makers.Inparticular,thecommitteeisconcernedthatthegoalsdiscussedheremightneverbeachievedunlesstheentirelife-sciencecommunityunderstandsfullytheimplicationsoftheemploymenttrends.

Thecommitteehasconsideredseveraloptionstoachievethegoalofimprovedcareerinformation.Thefirstistodisseminatewidelythedatapresentedinthisreport.Chapter3andtheappendixescontainawealthofinformationaboutemploymenttrendsoverthelast2decadesforyoungPhDsinthelifesciences.Nevertheless,thesedatahaveimportantlimitations.Firstandforemost,becausethefindingsfromtheSurveyofDoctorateRecipientsarebasedonlessthan10%ofthePhDpopulation,reliableestimatesarenotavailableforgraduatesinaparticulardiscipline,department,orethnicgroup.

Thus,althoughthedemonstratedglobaltrendscouldbeusefultopolicy-makers,theyarenotespeciallyhelpfultofacultyadvisersandtheirstudentswhoareconsideringindividualcareerdecisions.

AsecondoptionwouldbetoexpandthesampleofrecentgraduatesincludedinNSF'snationalsurvey.Becauseinrecentyearsthissurveyhasobtainedarelativelyhighresponserate(greaterthan80%),anexpansionofthesamplemightbeexpectedtoyieldhighreturns.Thecommitteeregardsthissteptobevaluablebutitmightnotbesufficienttomeetalltheinformationneeds.Forexample,reliabledataontheearlycareersofgraduatesfromparticulardepartmentswouldnotbeavailableunlessaverylargesampleofrecentgraduateswereselectedandthecostsofsuchalargesamplewouldprobablybeprohibitive.

Athirdoptionthatthecommitteestronglyendorseswouldbetorequireeverydepartmentthatreceivesfederalfundingforresearchortrainingtoprovidecurrentemploymentinformationonallpredoctoralstudentsenrolledinitsprogramduringthepreceding10years.Suchinformationmightinclude

Thenumberoftraineesandtheirsex,citizenship,andethnicity.

Thenumberofstudentswholefttheprogrambeforecompletingtheirtraining.

Thelengthoftimefromenrollmenttodegreeforeachstudent.

Thecurrentemploymentsituationofeachgraduate.

Oneofthemajorobstaclesinimplementinganationaldatacollectionofsuchmagnitudewouldbemakingcertainthatallfederallysupporteddepartmentsprovideaccurateandcomprehensiveinformationthatisinastandardformatsothatcomparisonsamongdifferentdepartmentscanbemade.Althoughthedifficultyof

obtainingreliableinformationonthecurrentemploymentsituationsofgraduatesfrom10yearsearliershouldnotbeunderestimated,thetaskisfeasible,asdemonstratedbythefactthatthisinformationhaslongbeenastandardrequirementforuniversityprogramsapplyingforNIHtraininggrants.

Afourthoptionwouldbetoaskprofessionalsocietiestoassumegreaterresponsibilityforcompilinganddisseminatingearly-careerinformation.Inseveralsciencefields(suchaschemistry,mathematics,andphysics),theprofessionalsocietyconductsasurveyofrecentdoctoraterecipientsandreportsmedianstartingsalaries,unemploymentrates,andothermarketindicators.Suchasurveywouldbemoredifficultinthelifesciencesbecausenoprofessionalsocietycoversallthedisciplines.Nevertheless,professionalsocietiesinthelifesciencescouldplayactiverolesindisseminatingtheinformationcollectedbyanyoftheapproachesdescribedabove.AndindeedthecommitteenotesthattheFederationofAmericanSocietiesforExperimentalBiologyhasalreadypublishedsomefindingsfromananalysissimilartothatpresentedinchapter3ofthisreport.

ImprovementoftheEducationalExperienceofGraduateStudentsintheLifeSciences

InadditiontoitsinterestinconstrainingthefurthergrowthofPhDoutput,thecommitteewasconcernedaboutaspectsofthecurrentsystemofsupportinggraduatetraining,especiallythegrowthinthefractionofgraduatestudentswhoareemployedasresearchassistantsbytheresearchgrantsoftheirmentors.Thefederalgovernmentsupportsaboutone-thirdofalllife-sciencegraduatestudentsatanytimeandabout

two-thirdsatsometimeintheirtraining,mostthroughsalaryandtuitionprovidedintheresearchgrantsoffacultymentors.Thatcategoryofstudentsupportaccountedforthelargestpercentageoftheincreaseingraduate-studentenrollmentoverthelastdecade.

Thereisnoclearevidencethatcareeroutcomesofpersonssupportedbytraininggrantsaresuperiortothoseofpersonssupportedbyresearchgrants(seediscussioninchapter5).However,thecommittee,whichincludedmemberswithdirectexperiencewithtraininggrants,concludedthattraininggrantsarepedagogicallysuperiortoresearchgrantsandresultinasuperioreducationalclimateinwhichstudentshavegreaterautonomy.First,traininggrantsarepedagogicallysuperiorbecausetheyprovideamechanismforstringentpeerreviewofthetrainingprocessitself,somethingthatisnotconsideredinthereviewofaresearchproject.Second,theyimprovetheeducationalclimatebecausetheyminimizethepotentialconflictsofinterestthatcanarisebetweentrainersandtrainees.Althoughthestudent-mentorrelationshipisordinarilyhealthyandproductiveforbothpartners,itcanbedistortedbytheconditionsofthementor'semploymentofthestudentandlimittheabilityofstudentstotakeadvantageofopportunitiestobroadentheireducation.Third,traininggrantsprovidethefederalgovernmentwithinformationthatitneedstoevaluatethelevelofitsinvestmentingraduatelife-scienceeducationwiththeaimofdevelopingafundingframeworkforgraduateeducationthatcontributestothelong-termstabilityandwell-beingoftheresearchenterprise.

Recommendation3:Thecommitteeencouragesallfederalagenciesthatsupportlife-scienceeducationandresearchtoinvestintraininggrantsandindividualgraduatefellowshipsaspreferabletoresearchgrantstosupportPhDeducation.Agenciesthatlacksuchprogramsshouldlookforwaystostartthem,andagenciesthatalreadyhavethemshouldseekwaystosustainandinsomeinstancesexpandthem.

Thisrecommendationshouldnotbepursuedattheexpenseofscientificandgeographicdiversity.Rather,weencouragetheestablishmentofsmall,focusedtraining-grantprogramsforuniversitiesthathavegroupsofhighlyproductivefacultyinimportantspecializedfields,butmightnothavethenumberoffacultyneededformoretraditional,broad-basedtraininggrants.

ItistruethatthecurrentregulationsgoverningNIHtraininggrantsbringuniversitiessomefinancialdisadvantagesbecauseofrestrictedoverheadrecovery.Furthermore,NIHtraininggrantscannotsupportforeignersonstudentvisas,andsothisrecommendationplacesatdisadvantageprogramsthatdependonforeignstudentsforresearchorteaching.Thesedisadvantagesareoutweighed,inthecommittee'sview,bythesalutaryeffectthatthetraining-grantpeer-reviewprocessbringstothemembersofadepartmentfaculty,leadingthemtoexamineandreflectonhow,asanentity,theyareprovidingfortheeducationandtrainingoftheirgraduatestudents.

OurendorsementoftraininggrantsandfellowshipisnotintendedtoresultinthetrainingofmorePhDs,whichwearguewouldbeentirelyinappropriate.Rather,anygrowthinthenumbersoftraineessupportedthroughanexpansionoftraininggrantsshouldcomeattheexpenseofthenumbersoftraineessupportedonresearchgrants.Thus,theimplementationofthisrecommendationshouldproducenoincreaseinthenumbersofstudentsbutonlyachangeinthemechanismbywhichtheirtrainingissupportedbyfederalfunds.Itwouldbebestifprincipalinvestigatorsvoluntarilyreducedthenumberofstudentstheysupportontheirresearchgrantsassupportvia

traininggrantsgrew.However,NIH,thelargestproviderofbothtraininggrantsandresearchgrants,andotheragencieswouldberequiredtomanagethenumberssupportedbyresearchgrantstoachievethecommittee'sgoalofconstrainingfurthergrowth.

Thecommitteeisalsoconcernedthatthelengthoftimespentintraininghasbecometoolong,atamedianof8yearsofelapsedtimefromfirstenrollmenttoPhDinallthelifesciencesthoughfielddifferencesexist.Webelievethatthetimeshouldbeabout56years.However,animmediateefforttoshortenthetimetodegreewouldincreasethenumberofPhDsproduced.EffortstoshortenthetimetodegreeshouldbeundertakenwhentheefforttorestraingrowthinthenumberofPhDshasshownpositiveeffects.

EnhancementofOpportunitiesforIndependenceofPostdoctoralFellows

Whilethelengthofgraduatetraininghasbeenincreasing,sotoohavetheextentanddurationofpostdoctoraltraining.Prolongedtenureasapostdoctoralfellowprovidesapersonwithvaluableresearchexperience,butitcarriessomerealcosts.Inmostcases,fellowsarenotindependentoftheirmentorssotheycannotpursuetheirownresearch.Werecognizethemanygoodreasonsforprolongedtenureasapostdoctoralfellowbutwebelievethattenureslongerthan5yearsarenotinthebestinterestofeithertheindividualfelloworthescientificenterprise.

Unfortunatelythecommitteedidnotidentifyawaytorapidlyachieveareductioninthetenureofpostdoctoralfellows.Thelengtheningofthepostdoctoralperiodseemstobeduelargelytothehighlycompetitivejobmarketforpermanentpositionsinacademeandindustry;thesituationwillchangeonlyifthereisanincreaseinthenumberofnewpositionsoradecreaseinthecandidatesforthem.

Recommendation4:Becauseofitsconcernforoptimizingthecreativityofyoungscientistsandbroadeningthevarietyofscientificproblemsunderstudyinthelifesciencesthecommitteerecommendsthatpublicandprivatefundingagenciesestablish"career-transition"grantsforseniorpostdoctoralfellows.Theintentistoidentifythehighest-qualityscientistswhiletheyarestillpostdoctoralfellowsandgivethemfinancialindependencetobeginnewscientificprojectsoftheirowndesigninanticipationoftheirobtainingfullyindependentpositions.

TherecommendationisbasedontheexperienceoftheLucilleP.MarkeyCharitableTrust'sScholarsinBiomedicalSciencesProgram,whichuntilrecentlysupported16postdoctoralfellowsperyearfor2yearsofadditionalpostdoctoralworkand5yearsasfacultymembers.Althoughtheprogramwasverysmall,itidentifiedexcellentcandidatesrelativelyearlyintheircareersandgavethemfinancialandintellectualindependence.Notsurprisingly,theMarkeyscholarswereverysuccessfulinobtainingpermanenttenure-trackpositionsinacademe.SincetheterminationoftheMarkeyprogram,theBurroughsWellcomeFundhasestablishedacomparableprogramforlifescientists.AprogramadministeredbytheUSDepartmentofAgricultureprovidespostdoctoralfellowstheopportunitytoapplyforresearchgrantsandperformindependentresearch.

Weproposegrantsof45yearsindurationthatwouldprovideseniorpostdoctoralfellows(thosewithmorethan2yearsofpostdoctoralexperience)salarycommensuratewiththeirexperienceandamodestsupplybudget.Successfulproposalswoulddefineaninnovativeresearchprojectthatwasdistinctfromtheworkgoingoninthecurrentmentor'slaboratory.Amentorwouldprovidelaboratoryspaceandwould

acknowledgeintheapplicationsthattheprojectwastheintellectualpropertyoftheapplicantandwouldleavethelaboratorywhentheapplicantdid.

Thecommitteerecommendsagoalof200federalgrantsawardedannually,representingabout1%ofthepostdoctoralpool.Thatnumberofpeoplesupportedwouldbequitesmallbuttheprogrammightprovideanimportantopportunityforthemostpromisingpostdoctoralfellowsandserveasbothexampleandincentivetomanymore.Wemakethisrecommendationwiththeknowledgethatitispossiblethatthemoneyforanewfederalgrantprogramprobablywouldcomefromexistingfederalfunds.Inourview,thebenefitsofincreasedintellectualindependenceandimprovedmotivationoftalentedmidcareerpostdoctoralfellowsjustifysuchareallocationoffunds.Privatefundersmightestablishnewprogramsorenlargeexistingprogramsthatsupportcareer-transitiongrants.

Thecareertransitiongrantwoulddifferfromexistingfederalresearchgrantsinseveralimportantways.First,permissiontoapplyfortraditionalgrantsisusuallyrestrictedbyinstitutionstoprincipalinvestigatorswhohavesomeformoffacultystatus,whereasthesenewgrantswouldgotopostdoctoralfellows.Second,thecareer-transitiongrantswouldbemodestinscaleandwouldnotprovidesalarysupportforotherlaboratorypersonnelortrainees.Finally,thegrantswouldbetransferabletonewhostinstitutionsoncetheapplicantsobtainedpositionsandwouldterminateonreceiptoffacultyawards.Thesuccessofthisrecommendationdependsonawillingnessoftraininginstitutionstoacceptgrantstopersonswhodonothavefacultystatusatthetimeofapplication.

Thebenefitofcareer-transitiongrantstoindividualyoungscientistsisobvious:increasedindependencemeansincreasedopportunitytopursuenovelideasandtomakeprogressinworkthatcanestablishacareer,openingopportunitiesforfutureindependentemployment.Substantialbenefitswouldalsoberealizedbythescientificenterprise

asaresultofthisstimulationofresearchenergyandtheincreaseddiversityinthescientificideasbeingpursued.Lessobviousbutnolessimportantisthebenefitthatwouldaccruetothementors.Thepresenceofmoreexperiencedscientistsinthehostlaboratories,althoughnotdirectlycontributingtotheproductivityofthementors'work,willcontributetotheintellectualclimateofthelaboratories.

AlternativePathstoCareersintheLifeSciences

Astraditionalresearchpositionsinacademe,industry,andgovernmenthavebecomemoredifficulttoobtain,positionsin"alternativecareers"suchaslaw,finance,journalism,teaching,andpublicpolicyhavebeensuggestedasopportunitiesforPhDsinthelifesciences.

TheideaofhighlytrainedPhDscientistsinvestingtheirtalentsinnontraditionalcareersseemsatfirstglanceattractive.Scientistshaveanalyticskillsandaworkethictobringtoanyposition,andtheplacementofhighlytrainedscientistsindiversejobsintheworkforcewouldleadtoanincreaseingeneralscienceliteracy.Asthecommittee'sreviewofalternativeopportunities(chapter4)concludes,however,mostofthepossibilitiesarelessavailableorlessattractivethantheymightatfirstglanceappear.Many"alternative"careersarealsoheavilypopulated,andcompetitionforgoodpositionsisstiff.Othersrequirespecialpreparationorcertificationorofferunattractivecompensation,andnonemakesfulluseofthePhD'shard-wonlife-scienceresearchskills.ThecommitteebelievesthattheideaofalternativecareersshouldnotbeoversoldtoPhDcandidates.

TheinterestinalternativecareersforPhDscientistshasinevitablyraisedthequestionofwhetherpreparationforthedegreeshouldbechangedfromitscurrentnarrowfocusontrainingfortheconductofscientificresearchtoembraceabroadervarietyofeducationalgoalsthatwouldconnecttoalternativecareerpaths.Thecommitteehasdiscussedthatquestionextensively.

Recommendation5:ThecommitteerecommendsthatthePhDdegreeremainaresearch-intensivedegree,withthecurrentprimarypurposeoftrainingfutureindependentscientists.

Wehaveseveralreasonsforthatrecommendation.First,asteadysupplyofnew,highlytrainedinvestigativetalentisessentialformaintainingthegrowthandvigoroflife-scienceresearchandforexploitingtheopportunitiesoffuturediscoveries.Second,themajorityofpeoplesotrainedareusingtheirskillsandabilitiesinlife-sciencepositions.Third,wehavenotbeenabletoidentifyasubstantialnumberofunfilledopportunitiesinalternativecareers.

Atthesametime,thecommitteerecognizesthatnotallstudentswhobegingraduateschoolintendingtopursueresearchcareersmaintainthatdesireastheyprogressthroughtraining.Graduateprogramsshouldexpandtheireffortstohelpstudentstolearnaboutthediversityofcareeropportunitiesopentothem,anduniversitydepartmentsshouldexaminepossiblealternativestotheresearchPhD,forexample,rigorousmaster's-degreeprogramsinappliedfieldsofthelifesciences.

Themaster'sdegreemightbeamoreappropriateandpointforstudentswhodetermineearlyenoughintheirtrainingthatPhDtrainingisnotnecessaryforthecareergoalsthattheyhaveselected.Therehasbeenadeclineinthenumberofmaster's-degreeprogramsinthelifesciencesandwithitagrowingperceptionthatthemaster'sdegreehasbecomeaconsolationprizeforthosewhodonotcomplete

aPhDprogram.Thosechangeseffectivelylimitthenumberofchoicesforcollegegraduateswhoareinterestedinacareerinthelifesciences,althoughnotnecessarilycareersindirectinglaboratoriesconductingfundamentalresearch.

Recommendation6:Thecommitteerecommendsthatuniversitiesworktoidentifyspecificfieldsofthelifesciencesforwhichmaster's-degreeetrainingismoreappropriate,moreefficient,andlessexpensivethanPhDtrainingandthatfocusedmaster's-degreeprogramsbeestablishedinthosefields.

Areinvigorationofthemaster'sdegreewillrequirethatnewprogramsbeintimatelytiedtotheopportunitiesinthelabormarket.Forexample,alifescientistwhoisinterestedinaK-12or2-year-collegeteachingcareerwouldbenefitfromformalandfocusedmaster's-degreeprogramsthatdonotrequirelongperiodsofresearch-intensivegraduateandpostdoctoraltraining.Inchapter4,wereportthatlife-sciencePhDshavenotbeenpronetotakepositionsasprecollegeteachers.Certainly,thereisaneedforpersonswithlife-scienceknowledgetoenterteachingcareers.Intensiveeffortsareunderwaytochangethenatureandextentofscienceeducationinourschools.Thoseefforts,basedontheNationalScienceEducationStandardsandsimilarreformdocuments,emphasizeteachingscienceasinquiryratherthanaswordassociations.Noneofthiswillbepossiblewithoutastructuralchangeintheprofessionofprecollegeteachingandalargecadreofpeoplewhobothunderstandscienceandthenatureofscienceasinquiryandhavebeentrainedasleadteachersandscience-resourcespecialists.Focusedandintensivemaster's-degreeprogramswouldbenotonlymoreappropriatebutalsopreferabletothePhDforthistypeofemployment.

Interdisciplinarymaster's-degreeprograms

mightcombineadvancedlife-sciencetrainingwithstudiesinnonscientificfieldssuchasmanagement,publicaffairs,andengineeringthatwouldpreparecandidatesforpositionsingovernmentandindustry.Avigorousmaster's-degreeprogramthatproduceshighlyskilledlaboratorytechniciansforindustry,government,andacademecouldpotentiallycontributetorightingtheimbalancebetweenPhDtrainingandthelabormarket.Whenthecommitteerecommendedconstraintinfurthergrowthintraininginrecommendation1,itwasfullyawarethatgraduatestudentsareneededinthelabor-intensivelife-scienceresearchenterpriseandtoteachundergraduates.Onewaytoresolvethisdilemmaistoeffectamodestshifttowardamorepermanentlaboratoryworkforcebyreplacingsomefractionoftheexistingtrainingpositionswithpermanentemployees,suchasMSc-leveltechniciansandPhD-levelresearchassociates.

Asystemofthatkind,withlessrelianceontraineestoconductresearch,hasbeeninoperationinEuropeformanyyears.Nevertheless,thereislikelytobestrongresistancetosuchachangeintheUSscientificcommunity.Permanentemployeeswouldrequirebettercompensationintheformofsalaryandbenefitsthangraduatestudentsandpostdoctoralfellowsandcouldnotbeexpectedtoworkthelonghoursofmosttrainees.Asaconsequence,ashifttoamorepermanentworkforcewouldprobablyresultinsomereductioninproductivityandcosteffectiveness.FurthermoremanyUSscientistsareoftheopinionthatthecreativityofUSsciencecomesfromtheyoungandinquiringmindsofyoungtrainees.Despitethosereservations,thecommitteebelievesthatabroaderdiscussionofthisoptionwithinthelife-sciencescommunityiswarranted.

TheImpactofForeignNationals

Thisreporthasdocumentedthatmuchoftherecentincreaseinthe

numberoflife-sciencePhDsgrantedbyUSuniversitiesareforeignnationals,notUScitizensinsomeyears,asmuchasone-fourthofthedegreesawarded.ThenumberofforeignnationalsreflectstheinternationalnatureofmodernscienceandthecentralplacethattheUnitedStatesplaysinthisinternationalarena.Furthermore,foreignnationalshavetraditionallycontributedtotheexcellenceofUSscience,assuggestedbythefactthatofthe732membersoftheNationalAcademyofScienceswhoarelifescientists,21.2%areforeign-bornand12.4%obtainedtheirPhDtrainingabroad.Foreignnationals'importantcontributionstoUSscientificleadershipisreflectedintheirinclusionas"outstandingauthors"inlifesciences(26.4%).Foreignstudentsandfellowsarewelcomeparticipantsintheresearchenterprise,providedthattheyareofhighqualityandcompetitivewithAmericanapplicants.

Althoughthereasonsfortheincreaseindegreesawardedtoforeignnationalsarenotaltogetherclear,thecommitteeunderstandsthatitisaphenomenonessentiallycontrolledbylife-sciencedepartmentsthemselves,inasmuchasimmigrationlawvirtuallydelegatesvisadecisionstouniversities.Departmentsanduniversitiesmaketheirownadmissionandfundingdecisionsandissuedocumentstothosetheyadmit,whichnearlyalwaysresultsintheUSgovernment'sissuingstudentvisas(subjecttochecksforfraudandfundingavailability).ThefreedomgiventoUSuniversitiestodeterminehowmanyforeignstudentstheywilladmitcarriesresponsibilities.Ifmisused,itcouldvitiatethecommittee'srecommendationtoprovideup-to-dateandfullcareerinformationtoprospectiveapplicantsforgraduateeducationinthelifesciences.ThatinformationmighthaveapowerfuleffectonUScitizensbutitishighlyunlikelytohaveasimilareffectonstudentsfromlow-wageeconomieswithpooreducationalorresearchopportunities.Eventhelowstipendspaidtograduatestudentsenableahigherstandardoflivingforsuchapplicants;andtheprospectofajoborpostdoctoralpositionandapermanentvisaatthecompletionof

graduatestudyisapowerfulincentiveforcitizensofmanycountries.

Webelieveitwouldbeunwisetoplacearbitrarylimitsonthenumberofvisasissuedforforeignstudents.ButwedonotbelievethatUSinstitutionsshouldcontinuetoenrollunlimitednumbersofforeignnationals.Asdecisionsaremadeonwaystoconstrainfurthergrowth,themeasuresadoptedshouldapplyequallytoallstudentsregardlessofnationality.

Recommendation7:If,aswehope,implementationofourrecommendationsresultsinconstrainingfurthergrowthinPhDsawardedinthelifesciences,weurgeourcolleaguesongraduateadmissionscommitteestoresistthetemptationtorespondbysimplyincreasingthenumberofforeignapplicantsadmitted.

Postdoctoralfellowsarealsorecruitedfromabroad.Atpresent,halftheroughly20,000postdoctoralfellowsintheUnitedStatesareforeignnationals,manyofwhomenteredthecountrywithPhDsawardedelsewhere.Thesescientistsconstituteanimportantpartoftheresearchlaborforce,aswellasofthepoolofapplicantsforpermanentjobsinacademe,industry,andgovernment.Inthisinstanceagain,weurgeourcolleaguestogiveequalopportunitytoUScitizensandforeignersandtorefrainfromhiringforeignnationalstofilltheplacesofUSscientists.

ResponsibilityforEffectingChange

Thisreporthasdocumentedseveraldramaticchangesincareertrendsinthelifesciencesoverthelastseveraldecades.Therapidgrowthintheacademicscientificestablishmentinthe1960sandtheearly1970ssetinplaceatraininginfrastructurethatwasbuiltonthepremisethattherewouldbecontinuedgrowth.Whentheinevitableslowdowninresourcestosupportthatgrowthoccurred,itwasnotaccompaniedbyacommensurateadjustmentintherateoftraining.Theimpactofthe

imbalancebetweenthenumberofaspirantsandtheresearchopportunitiesisnowbeingfeltbyagenerationofscientiststrainedinthelast10yearswhoarefindingitincreasinglydifficulttofindpermanentpositionsinwhichtheirhard-accumulatedskillsinresearchcanbeused.Unlessstepsaretakentoputthesystemmoreinbalance,thedifferencebetweenstudents'expectationsandtherealityoftheemploymentmarketwillonlywidenandtheworkforcewillbecomemoredisaffected.Suchanoccurrencewoulddamagethelife-scienceresearchenterpriseandalltheparticipantsinit.

Thetrainingoflifescientistsisahighlydecentralizedactivity.Notwithstandingtheheavydependenceonfederalfunds,themostimportantdecisionsaffectingtherateofproductionoflifescientistsaremadelocallybytheuniversitiesandtheirfaculties.Thenumbersandqualificationsofstudentsadmittedtograduatestudy,theallocationofinstitutionalfundsfortheirtuitionandstipends(whichaccountforhalformoreofthetotalexpendituresforgraduate-studentsupport),therequirementsforthedegreeallarelocaldecisions.Asaconsequence,alargeportionoftheresponsibilityforimplementingourrecommendationsfallsontheshouldersofestablishedinvestigators,theirdepartmentsanduniversities,professionalscientificorganizations,andstudentsthemselves.Studentsmusttaketheresponsibilityofmakinginformeddecisionsaboutgraduatestudy,buttheymustbeprovidedaccuratecareerinformationonwhichtobasetheirdecisions.Individualfacultymembersmustbewillingtosetasidetheirshort-termself-interestinmaintainingthehighlevelofstaffingoftheirlaboratoriesforthesakeofthelong-termstabilityandwell-beingofthescientificworkforce.Directorsofgraduateprogramsmustbewillingtoexaminethefutureworkforceneedsofthescientificfieldsinwhichtheytrain,notjustthecurrentneedsoftheir

individualdepartmentsforresearchandteachingassistants.

Therecommendationsinthisreportareofferedasfirststepstoimprovetheoverallqualityoftrainingandcareerprospectsoffuturelifescientists.Wehopethattheinformationinthisreportwillbeusedtobegindiscussionswithinthelife-sciencecommunityonthebestwaystopreparefuturescientistsforexcitingcareersintheprofessionandtoprotectthevitalityofthelife-scienceresearchenterprise.

AnAlternativePerspectiveonRecommendation3HenryW.Riecken

LetmebeginbystressingthatIdissentfromtheunqualifiedendorsementandrecommendedexpansionoftraininggrantsinchapters5and6andnotfromtheoverallstudyfindings,whichIstronglysupport.Thecompellingevidencepresentedinchapters2and3andappendixes,togetherwiththeconfirmingtestimonyatthepublicmeetingandexperiencesofindividualcommitteemembers,ledustotheunanimousconclusionthatthecurrentlevelofPhDproductionnowexceedsthecurrentavailabilityofjobsinacademia,government,andindustrywherenewlife-sciencePhDscanindependentlyusetheirtraining.Wealsounanimouslyagreedthatfurthergrowthingraduatetraininginthelifesciencesmustbecurtailedandthatthereshouldbenofurtherexpansionofgraduateeducationalprogramsexcept''underrareandspecialcircumstances".

Thecommitteehadamuchmoredifficulttime,however,indecidinghowbesttoachievetherecommendedgoalofstabilizinggraduateenrollments.Thedifficultyderiveschieflyfromthecomplexinterdependenceofresearchandtraining,asdescribedinchapter6.Whilesomeofthecommittee'srecommendedactionsinparticular,thebroaddisseminationofinformationpertinenttocareerprospectswillbeusefulinaddressingthisgoal,Istronglydisagreewiththerecommendationtoincreasetraining-grantsupport.Inmyview,thisrecommendationisunsupported,outsidethestudycharge,andinconsistentwiththecommittee'soverallstudyfindings.Myspecificobjectionstothisrecommendationareasfollows:

(1)Recommendingthatfederalagenciesexpandtraining-grantprogramsconflictswiththecommittee'sdesiretostabilizegraduate

enrollments.Whilethereportstatesthat"theexpansionoftraininggrantsshouldcomeattheexpenseofthenumbersoftraineessupportedonresearchgrants",thecommitteeoffersnoguidancetothefederalagenciesonhowtoreducethenumberoffederallysupportedresearchassistants.Atthesecondmeetingofthecommittee,anNIHofficialtoldusthattheagencyhadnocontroloverthetotalnumberofstudentssupportedonresearchgrantssincetheyareessentiallyemployeeshiredbytheuniversitiesandprincipalinvestigators.Absenteffectivecontrolonthenumberofstudentssupportedonfederalresearchgrants,therecommendedexpansionoftraininggrantswouldincreasetheavailabilityoffederalsupportforgraduateeducationandlikelyleadtoanincreaseingraduateenrollmentspreciselywhatthecommitteewishestohalt.

(2)Therecommendationtoreducesupportforresearchassistantships(whileincreasingtraininggrants)alsoconflictswiththecommittee'sexpressedopinionthatitwouldbeunwisetoimposelimitationsontheadmissionofforeignnationalstograduatestudyinUSuniversities.Sinceforeignstudentsarenoteligiblefortraining-grantsupport,thetotalamountofsupportavailabletothemwouldbediminishedbytheproposedsubstitutionoftraineeshipsforresearchassistantshipstherebylimitingtheiraccesstotrainingintheUnitedStates.

(3)Thecommitteewasnotaskedtoevaluatethequalityofpredoctoraleducationortherelativemeritsofalternativemechanismsforsupportofgraduatetraining.Infact,attheoutsetNIHofficialsmadeitclearthatthisstudyshouldnotduplicatetheeffortsoftheNationalResearchCouncilCommitteeonNationalNeedsforBiomedicalandBehavioralResearchPersonnel,whichwasestablishedattherequestofCongressandexplicitlychargedwithrecommendingtheleveloftraining-grantsupportprovidedbyNIH.Therecommendationtoexpandtraining-grantsupportclearlyintrudesonthisotherResearchCouncilcommittee'swork.

(4)Thecommitteedidnotinvestigatesystematicallyandcarefullytheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofalternativemechanismsofpredoctoralsupport.Theonlyfactualevidencepertinenttothisissue(presentedinchapter5)comesfroma1984ResearchCouncilstudy,TheCareerAchievementsofNIHPredoctoralTraineesandFellows.Thisstudyexplicitlystatedthat"itcannotbedeterminedwhether[trainees']superiorrecordsofachievementmaybeattributedtotheselectionprocess,thetrainingtheyreceived,oracombinationoftheseandotherfactors."Thus,anyconclusiondrawnfromthisstudythattraininggrantsareamoreeffectivetrainingmechanismthanresearchgrantsisunfounded.

(5)Thereport'sstatedpreferencefortraininggrantsoverresearchgrantsisnotbasedonhardevidenceofsuperiority,butratherontheopinionsofindividualcommitteemembers"withdirectexperiencewithtraininggrants".Sincethestudychargedoesnotencompassanevaluationofalternativemechanismsforgraduatestudentsupport,itisnotsurprisingthatamajorityofthecommitteedonothavesuch''directexperience".Theyarethereforenotinapositiontomakeindependentjudgmentsabouttherelativemeritsofthesetwotrainingmechanismsandwerenotappointedwiththistaskinmind.

(6)Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofalternativesupportmechanismswereneverfullydiscussedbythecommittee.Hadthestudycalledforacomparisonofalternativemechanismsforpredoctoralsupport,amuchmoredetailedanalysiswouldhavebeenrequired,includinganexaminationofthecostimplicationsfordifferentinstitutionsandfederalsponsors.(NIHtraininggrantsdonotpayfullindirectcosts,whileresearchgrantsdo;andtraininggrantsalsolimittrainees'tuitionreimbursementtotheuniversity.)

(7)Theproposaltosubstitutetraineeshipsforresearchassistantshipspresentsaparticularproblemforinstitutionsthatdonothavetraining

grants,yethavefacultymemberswhoaresuccessfulinobtainingNIHresearchawards.Theseinvestigatorswouldbeunabletomaketherecommendedsubstitution,yetthequalityoftheirresearchcanbeassumedtobeasgoodastheresearchfundedatuniversitiesthatdohavetraininggrants.

(8)Fromtheperspectiveoffederalpolicy-makers,therecommendationtoincreasetraininggrantsupportmayappearnonsensicalespeciallyinlightoftheoverwhelmingevidencethatuniversitiesarealreadytrainingtoomanyPhDsfortheresearchpositionsavailable.WhyshouldCongressappropriatemorefundsfortraininggrantswhenthereisalreadyanoverabundanceoftrainedlifescientists?

IwanttoemphasizethatIhavethesereservationsaboutthetraining-grantrecommendationbecauseofthetotallyinadequateevidentialbasisfortherecommendationandbecauseoftheconsequencesitwouldhavenotbecauseIholdstrongviewsontheintrinsicmeritsofeithertraininggrantsorresearchassistantships.Forseveralyears,IchairedtheaforementionedCommitteeonNationalNeedsforBiomedicalandBehavioralResearchPersonnel,whichrecommendedannuallytoCongressthenumberoftraining-grantpositionstobesupportedundertheNationalResearchServiceAwardsAct.Earlier,IservedasassociatedirectoroftheNationalScienceFoundationwithparticularresponsibilityfortheeducationandtrainingofscientists(inallscientificdisciplines).Theseexperienceshavemademekeenlyawareofthedifficultyofmakingavalidcomparisonbetweenalternativesupportmechanisms,aswellasthemultipledifficultiesofimplementingthechangesrecommendedinthisreport.Withoutconsiderablymoreevidenceontherelativemeritsofalternativemechanismsforsupportinggraduatestudents,arecommendationtoincreasetraininggrantsand

substitutethesepositionsforresearchassistantshipsisunwarrantedanddetractsfromwhatIconsidertobeanotherwisescholarlyandobjectiveanalysis.

AppendixABiographicInformationShirleyTilghman(Chair)istheHowardA.PriorProfessoroftheLifeSciencesatPrincetonUniversityandaninvestigatoroftheHowardHughesMedicalInstitute.Sheisamoleculargeneticistwhoseworkfocusesontheregulationofgenesduringdevelopment.SheisamemberoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon,theNationalAcademyofSciences,andtheInstituteofMedicine.

HelenS.Astinisapsychologist,professorofhighereducation,andassociatedirectoroftheHigherEducationResearchInstituteattheUniversityofCaliforniaatLosAngeles.Herresearchandwritingshavefocusedontheeducationandcareerdevelopmentofwomenandonfacultycareers,productivity,andrewards.

WilliamBrinkleyisDistinguishedServiceProfessorofCellBiology,vicepresidentforgraduatesciences,anddeanofthegraduateschoolofbiomedicalsciences,BaylorCollegeofMedicine.Hisresearchinvolvesstudiesofmitosisandgenomeinstabilityineukaryoticcells.HeisinterestedinPhDeducationinacademichealthcentersandwasthefounderoftheAssociationofAmericanMedicalCollegesGraduateResearchEducationandTrainingCommitteewhiceexploresissuesalsodealtwithinthisreport.

MaryDellChiltonisDistinguishedScienceFellowatCiba-GeigyBiotechnology,whereshecontinuesresearchonthemolecularbiologyofplantgenes.SheisamemberoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.

MichaelP.Cummingswas,atthebeginningofthisstudy,apostgraduateresearchplantgeneticistintheDepartmentofBotany

andPlantSciences,UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside.HeisnowattheCenterforComparativeMolecularBiologyandEvolution,MarineBiologicalLaboratory.Hisresearchfocusesonempiricalandcomputer-basedinvestigationsinmolecularevolution,populationgenetics,andsystematics.

RonaldG.Ehrenbergisvicepresidentforacademicprograms,planning,andbudgetingatCornellUniversity.AmemberoftheCornellfacultyfor21years,heistheIrvingM.IvesProfessorofIndustrialandLaborRelationsandEconomicsandtheauthororco-authorofover100papersandbooks.HewastheeditorofResearchinLaborEconomics,andisaco-editoroftheJournalofHumanResources.HeisalsoaresearchassociateattheNationalBureauofEconomicResearchandamemberoftheExecutiveCommitteeoftheAmericanEconomicAssociation.Muchofhisrecentresearchhasfocusedonhigher-educationissues.Heregularlytaughtapopularcoursetitled"EconomicAnalysisoftheUniversity".

MaryFrankFoxisprofessorofsociology,SchoolofHistory,Technology,andSociety,GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology.Herresearchfocusesonwomenandmeninscientificandacademicorganizationsandoccupations;hercurrentworkisastudyofgenderanddoctoraleducationinfivescienceandengineeringfields.Herpublications,appearinginover30scholarlyjournalsandcollections,includeanalysesofsalary,publicationproductivity,andeducationalandcareerpatternsamongscientists.SheisassociateeditorofSexRoles,pastassociateeditorofGender&Society,andchairoftheEditorialBoardoftheinternationalHandbookofScienceandTechnologyStudies.

KevinGlennisafellowincardiovasculardiseasesresearchatSearle.HehasservedonpreviousNationalResearchCouncilcommitteesinvolvedwithPhDissues.

PamelaJ.Greenisassociateprofessor,Michigan

StateUniversity/DepartmentofEnergyPlantResearchLaboratoryandDepartmentofBiochemistryatMichiganState.HerresearchfocusesonthecontrolofmRNAstabilityandribonucleaseregulationandfunctioninhigherplants.SheispastcochairoftheNorthAmericanArabidopsisSteeringCommitteeandisamemberoftheBoardofDirectorsoftheInternationalSocietyforPlantMolecularBiology.Shehasorganized"ChoicesDay"atthePlantResearchLaboratoryandhascontributedtoworkshopsatAmericanSocietyofPlantPhysiologistsmeetingstoinformstudentsaboutthespectrumofcareersinscience.

SherrieL.HanswasagraduatestudentintheDepartmentofBiochemistryattheUniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciscountilthesummerof1996,whenshereceivedherPhD.ShewassupportedbyaNationalScienceFoundationgraduatefellowshipduringthefirst3yearsofhergraduatecareer.Currently,sheisaprogramofficerforbiomedicalresearchpolicyatthePewCharitableTrustsinPhiladelphia.

BruceR.LevinisprofessorofbiologyanddirectoroftheGraduatePrograminPopulationBiology,EcologyandEvolutionatEmoryUniversity.Dr.Levin'scurrentresearchincludestheoreticalandexperimentalstudiesofthepopulationbiologyandevolutionofbacteriaandinfectiousdisease.HereceivedhisPhDinGeneticsfromtheUniversityofMichiganin1967.HehastaughtatBrownUniversityandtheUniversityofMassachusetts.

ArthurKelmanisaUniversityDistinguishedScholarintheDepartmentofPlantPathology,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,andEmeritusWisconsinAlumniResearchFoundationProfessorofPlantPathologyandBacteriology,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison.Hisresearchhasbeenintheareaofmechanismsofpathogenesisofbacterialplantpathogensandthenatureofdiseaseresistanceinplants.

HehasservedaschairmanoftheBoardonBasicBiology,onanumberofothercommitteesoftheNationalResearchCouncil,andaschiefscientistoftheNationalResearchInitiativeCompetitiveResearchGrantsProgramoftheUSDepartmentofAgriculture.HeisamemberoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesandtheAmericanAcademyoftheArtsandSciences.

J.RichardMcIntoshisprofessorofcellbiologyattheUniversityofColorado,BoulderandaresearchprofessoroftheAmericanCancerSociety.Hisprincipalresearchinterestisthemechanismsbywhichcellsorganizeandsegregatetheirchromosomesinpreparationforcelldivision.HeisalsoprincipalinvestigatoroftheLaboratoryforThree-DimensionalFineStructure,anationalresearchresourcethatisdevelopingnewtechnologiesforthestudyofcellulararchitecture.Hehastaughtcellbiologyatthegraduateandundergraduatelevels.

HenryW.RieckenistheBoyerProfessoremeritusofBehavioralSciencesattheSchoolofMedicineoftheUniversityofPennsylvania.HeisapsychologistwhoformerlyheadedtheDivisionsofScientificPersonnelandEducationattheNationalScienceFoundation.HewasChairmanoftheNationalResearchCouncilCommitteeonNationalNeedsforBiomedicalandBehavioralResearchPersonnel.HeisafoundingmemberoftheInstituteofMedicine

PaulaE.Stephanisassociatedeanandprofessorofeconomics,SchoolofPolicyStudies,GeorgiaStateUniversity.Sheisalaboreconomistbytrainingandherrecentresearchfocusesontheeconomicsofscienceandinnovation.Shehasalsostudiedtherelationshipofage,careerstage,andbirthorigintoproductivity.Sheistheauthorofover50booksandpapers.ShehasservedasaconsultanttoanumberoforganizationsandasavisitingscholarattheWissenschaftszentrumBerlinfürSozialforschung,Berlin,Germany.

AppendixBParticipantsinPublicMeetingThecommitteesponsoredapublicmeetingonApril13,1996,toheartheviewsofthelife-sciencecommunityontheissuesincludedinthecommittee'scharge.Listedbelowarethenamesofspeakersatthepublicmeetingandthenamesofthosewhoattendedthemeetingorsubmittedstatementsforthebenefitofthecommittee.

Speakers

RobynAngliss,NationalMarineFisheriesService

ElieneAugenbaum,AssociationofScienceProfessionals

FinleyAustin,BurroughsWellcomeFund

KevinAylsworth,SenatorHatfield'sOffice

JohnBeneditt,AAAS/SCIENCENextWave

CarolBrewer,UniversityofMontana

MalcolmCampbell,DavidsonCollege

RitaColwell,UniversityofMarylandBiotechnologyInstitute

GlennCrosby,WashingtonStateUniversity

CarenHelbing,UniversityofCalgary,Canada

BrianHyps,AmericanSocietyofPlantPhysiologists

GeneA.Nelson,MicrosoftCorporation

DavidOlson,UniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco

ErikaC.Shugart,UniversityofVirginia

SamSilverstein,FederationofAmericanSocietiesforExperimentalBiology

AbigailStack,FoodandDrugAdministration

MichaelTeitelbaum,SloanFoundation

RobertTombes,VirginiaCommonwealthUniversity

AttendedorSubmittedPapers

JosephineC.Adams,UniversityCollegeLondon

JanetvanAdelsberg,ColumbiaUniversity

StanAmons,AssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges

MichaelBattalora,NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealthSciences

ScottD.Blystone,WashingtonUniversity

DavidB.Bregman,YaleSchoolofMedicine

SherylK.Brining,NationalInstitutesofHealth

ShawnBurgess,MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology

DavidG.Capco,ArizonaStateUniversity

IdaChow,AmericanUniversity

StanCohn,DePaulUniversity

DavidR.Cool,NationalInstitutesofHealth

JalehDaie,UniversityofWisconsin

JerryDodgson,MichiganStateUniversity

DianeEpperson,NationalInstitutesofHealth

EvanFerguson,SigmaXi

MichaelFordis,NationalInstitutesofHealth

CatherineGaddy,CouncilonScientificPersonnel

HowardGarrison,FederationofAmericanSocietiesforExperimentalBiology

UrsulaGoodenough,WashingtonUniversity

JayA.Haron,Knight-RidderInformation

JoanneHazlett,NationalScienceFoundation

PhilipM.Hemken,IowaStateUniversity

JulieR.Hens,UniversityofMaryland

MiltonHernandez,NationalInstitutesofHealth

MarcHorowitz,NationalInstitutesofHealth

ElizabethJansen,UniversityofMinnesota

NaomiKaminsky,AmericanPharmaceuticalAssociation

DougKellogg,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz

EeroLehtonen,UniversityofHelsinki

JohnLowe,UniversityofMichiganMedicalSchool

R.JoelLowy,AFRRI/DepartmentofDefense

AnthonyC.Madu,VirginiaUnionUniversity

MichaelS.Marks,UniversityofPennsylvania

CharlesMatsuda,UniversityofHawaii

BertMenco,NorthwesternUniversity

KatsumiMochitate,NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealthSciences

RandallT.Moon,UniversityofWashington

AlanMunn,Switzerland

RichardMurphy,NeurologicalInstitute,Canada

LynneA.Opperman,UniversityofVirginia

ChristineM.Pauken,FoodandDrugAdministration

MichaelPowell,NationalInstitutesofHealth

LindaPullan

JanetRoss,ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences

CharlesSelden,NationalInstitutesofHealth

HeidiSofia,NationalInstitutesofHealth

RobertStack,UniversityofMichigan

W.StevenWard,NewJerseyMedicalSchool

TracyWare,UniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco

OraA.Weisz,UniversityofPittsburgh

CherylWellington,UniversityofCalgary

MarianneWessling-Resnick,HarvardSchoolofPublicHealth

LawrenceWiseman,CollegeofWilliamandMary

JoyceWoodford,NationalInstitutesofHealth

MarieWooten,AuburnUniversity

AppendixCSourcesofData

NationalResearchCouncil

SurveyofEarnedDoctorates

TheSurveyofEarnedDoctorates(SED)isconductedannuallybytheNationalResearchCouncilandisacensusoftheresearchdoctoratesawardedatUSuniversitiesduringtheacademicyear,fromJuly1ofoneyeartoJune30ofthefollowingyear.Theself-reportresponseratefromthePhDrecipientsisabout95%,andinformationontheremaining5%ofthedoctoratesisobtainedfromcommencementprogramsandinstitutionalsources.Thesurveygathersinformationonallfieldsthatawardresearchandapplied-researchdoctorates,exceptprofessionaldegreessuchastheMD,DDS,OD,DVM,andJD.Itgathersdataonafield-specificbasis,andincludesinformationonethnicbackground,sex,postsecondaryeducation,timetoPhDdegreefromthebaccalaureatedegree,financialsupportduringgraduatestudies,andpostdoctoralplans.ThedatafromthesurveybecomepartoftheDoctorateRecordsFile(DRF),avirtuallycompletedatabaseondoctoraterecipientsfrom1920tothepresent.Thedatainthisfilecanbemanipulatedindifferentwaystoobtainthecharacteristicsofgraduatesbynearly20broadfieldsorseveralhundredfinefieldswithregardtotheirinstitution,theirgraduateprogram,andtheirplans.ThedataintheDRFarekeptonanindividualbasisandarelinkedtootherfiles,suchasthefilefortheSurveyofDoctorateRecipients(seebelow)andtheNationalInstitutesofHealthgrantsfiles.

Inthelife-sciencefieldsincludedinthisreport,7,696doctorateswereaddedtotheDRFin1996.Thefieldspecialtiesinthelifesciencesincludetheagriculturalandbiomedicalsciencesandaportionofthe

healthsciencesasbroadfields,andthesearedividedinto67fine-fieldspecialties.

DataConsiderations

TheinformationintheDRFiscompleteandreliableformostdatapoints.However,inthecaseofthedataonsourcesofsupportduringgraduateschool,studentsarenotalwaysawareoftheirsourcesorthetypeofsupport,andforpostgraduateplans,thesurveyquestionnairemightbecompleteatatimebeforeadefinitecommitmentorreflectahopeofaparticulartypeofpostdoctoralposition.

SurveyofDoctorateRecipients

TheSurveyofDoctorateRecipients(SDR)isabienniallongitudinalsurvey,datingto1973,ofresearchdoctorate-holdersworkingintheUnitedStates.Thesampleforeachsurveyperiodisadjustedbytheadditionofpersonsfromthemostrecent2-yearcohortintheDRFandthedroppingofpersonswhohaveretiredorhavereachedtheagelimitofthesurvey.Before1991,thepopulationofthesurveyincludedabroaderrangeofpeople,suchasholdersofUS-earneddoctoratesinhumanities,education,andprofessionalfieldswhowereworkinginscienceandengineering(S&E),holdersofforeign-earneddoctorateswhowereworkinginS&EintheUnitedStates,anda42-yearperiodofPhDcohorts.TheSDRwasrestructuredin1991toincludeonlypersonsundertheageof76yearswhoholddoctoratesinS&EfromUSuniversities,andthesamplewasreducedby55%toprovideresourcestoincreasetheresponserate.

Thesurveyquestionnaireissentinthespringtoeachpersoninthesample.In1995,thesamplenumbered49,829.Thepeopleinthesampleare

askedaseriesofdemographicandemploymentquestions.Theresponserateforthesurveyin1995wasabout85%aftersecond-wavemailingsandtelephoneinterviews;thiswasabouta30%increaseintheresponserateover1989.Althoughthereductionofthesamplereducedtheoverallnumberofresponsesfrom1989to1995,itisbelievedthattheincreasedresponserateimprovesthequalityofthedata.However,thechangeinthesurveyproducedapotentialdisjunctionbetweendatacollectedbefore1991andthosecollectedsince.

Thesampleisstratifiedacrossthreevariables:fieldofdegree,sex,andacombinationvariablethatincludesdegreefield,sex,handicapstatus,ethnicgroup,andnationalityofbirth.Theresultsofthesurveyarestatisticallyanalyzedtotranslatethedataintoweightednumbersfortheentirepopulation.Fromtheweightedresults,thedoctorateworkforceinS&Ecanbeanalyzedacrossdifferentdimensionsbylookingatdifferentdemographicandemploymentcharacteristicsandbytakingdifferentcohorts.Thatprovidesforbothlongitudinalandtime-seriesanalyses.However,intheanalysis,onemusttakeintoconsiderationthechangeinsamplingframe,theincreasedresponseratein1991,andthefactthatsomecellsinananalysiscouldcontainveryfewactualresponses,inthatthesampleisonlyabout8%oftheS&Eworkforce.

DataavailablefromtheSDRupto1991arefieldofdoctorateandemployment,sectorofemployment,geographiclocation,primaryworkactivity,federalsupport,tenurestatus,salarydata,andethnicdata.However,the1991SDRwasadministeredinthefall,notthespring;somedatapointsarenotdirectlycomparablewiththosefromothersurveyyears.The1993questionnaireincorporatedsubstantialchangesfromearlierones.Inparticular,thequestionnairebefore1993askedfordataonlyasofaspecifictime,butthe1993questionnaireaskedforsomeretrospectiveemploymentinformation.Therewasalso

achangeinthefieldemploymentquestions,withmuchbroaderdefinitionsofjobcategories,suchas"biologicalscientist",asopposedto,forexample,"ecologist"intheearliersurveys.Asaresult,thenumberofpeopleinpostdoctoralpositionsmighthavebeenslightlyoverestimated.In1995,additionalquestionsconcerningdetailedretrospectivedescriptionsofthetimespentinpostdoctoraltrainingwereadded.

DataConsiderations

TheSDRisasamplesurveyofabout8%ofPhDawardees,andthenumberofresponsesmightbelowinsomecases.Aweightingformulaisusedtoadjustthesampletothecompletepopulation.Forexample,aweightedresponseof39unemployedlifescientistsfromthe26high-qualityinstitutionsin1995correspondstofiveresponses;the20peopleworkingoutsideS&Einthesamepopulationisbasedonthreeresponses.IntheexperienceoftheNationalResearchCouncil'sOfficeofScientificandEngineeringPersonnelwhohaveworkedwiththesedataformanyyears,aresponseof10ormoreprovidesagoodestimateforacategory.Althoughthesampleissmallandtheanalysesmustbeusedwithcare,thesamplingandweightingmethodshavebeencarefullydevelopedtoprovidethemoststatisticallyvalidresultspossible.

NationalScienceFoundationSurveyofGraduateStudentsandPostdoctoratesinScienceandEngineering

TheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)conductsvarioussurveysanddata-collectingproceduresaspartofitsresponsibilityinmonitoringthestateofscienceandengineeringdevelopmentintheUnitedStates.ThesurveythatpertainsmostcloselytograduateandpostdoctoraltrainingistheannualSurveyofGraduateStudentsandPostdoctoratesinScienceandEngineering.

ThissurveyisdesignedtoprovideacomprehensivepictureoftrainingoffuturescientistsandengineersinUSgraduateschoolsandisusedtoassessfuturesupplyanddemand.Graduatestudentscountedinthesurveyareenrolledforcreditinscienceandengineeringmaster's-degreeandPhDprogramsinthefalltermofthesurveyyear,andMD,DO,DVM,andDDScandidatesarereportedonlyiftheywillalsoreceiveaPhD.Thesurveyalsoincludesinformationonpostdoctoralappointeesandothernonfacultyresearchersinacademicdepartmentsandprograms.

Thesurveyisdistributedtodepartmentsthroughaninstitutionalcoordinatorandinformationisprovidedonstudentsthatareassociatedwithdepartments.Nearly10,400graduatedepartmentsat730institutionsaresurveyed.Studentsininterdisciplinaryorinterinstitutionalprogramsarereportedonlybytheirprimarydepartment.Therefore,informationaboutindividualprogramscouldbedistributedacrossdepartments,anddatawouldbeaggregatedfordepartmentswithmultipledegreeprograms.

Thefollowingtypesofinformationarerequested:

Numberoffull-timegraduatestudentsseparatedbytypeoffinancialsupport,sourceofsupport,andsex,andnumberoffirst-yearstudents(nodistinctionismadebetweenMSandPhDstudents.

Numberofpart-timestudentsandtheirsex.

Ethnicityoffull-timeandpart-timestudentswhoareUScitizens.

Numberoffull-timeandpart-timeforeignstudents.

Numberofpostdoctoralandnonfacultyresearchpositionsinthedepartment,withtypeofsupportforthepositions,whetherUScitizenorforeign,andthesexofthepersonineachposition.

TheNSFrequeststhatthesurveyformbereturnedbyJanuary31for

dataonthepreviousfallenrollments.Thedataarereportedinaseriesofreports,manyofwhichareavailableonlinethroughtheInternet,onthedifferentaspectsofeducationbyinstitutionandfieldwithintheinstitution.However,datatapeswillprovidemoredetailedinformationonseparatedepartments.

DataintableE.3,andfigures2.3and2.6aretakenfromthisNSFsurveyandarenotdirectlycomparablewithotherdata,fromtheSEDandSDR,usedthroughoutthereport.TheNSFsurveycountsonlypersonsatacademicinstitutionalwhereastheSDRcountsPhDsinallworkenvironments.Furthermore,NSFdefinitionsoffieldsdiffersomewhatfromthoseusedinthisreport(AppendixD).Thosedifferencesarenotimportantwhenaddressingquestionsaboutgraduatestudents,becausestudentsareatacademicinstitutionswhereNSFperformsitssurvey.However,largedifferencesinthecountofpostdoctoralfellowscanexistbetweentheNSFsurveyandtheSDR.WehaveusedtheNSFcountofpostdoctoralfellowsatacademicinstitutionsasastartingpointbecauseNSFcountsbothUScitizensandforeignnationals,whereastheSDRexcludesforeignnationalswhohavenotreceivedtheirPhDinthiscountry.Wehavethenestimatedthenumberofpostdoctoralfellowswhomightbeingovernment,industry,andothernonacademiclaboratoriestoobtainanestimateoftheoverallnumberofpostdoctoralfellowsintheUnitedStates.

DataConsiderations

Thequalityofthesurveydatadependsontheknowledgeofthepersonsatthedepartmentlevelwhocompletethesurvey.

Population.In1995,theNSFsurveyuniverseconsistedof722respondingunitsat602institutions.Thisisacompletesurveyuniverseandhasbeensuchsincethefallof1988.From1984to1987,master's-degree-grantinginstitutionsweresurveyedonasamplebasis.Duringthefall1988surveycycle,thecriteriaforincluding

departmentsinthesurveyuniverseweretightened,andalldepartmentssurveyedwerereviewed.DepartmentsnotprimarilyorientedtowardgrantingresearchdegreeswerenolongerconsideredtomeetthedefinitionofS&E.Asaresultofthereview,itwasdeterminedthatanumberofdepartments,primarilyinthefieldof"SocialSciences,notelsewhereclassified",wereengagedintrainingprimarilyteachers,practitioners,administrators,ormanagersratherthanresearchers;thesedepartmentsweredeletedfromthedatabase.Thatprocesswascontinuedduringthefall19891995surveycyclesandexpandedtoensuretrendconsistencyfortheentire19751995period.Asaresult,totalenrollmentsandsocial-scienceenrollmentsforallyearswerereduced.Anytime-seriesproblembetween1987and1988shouldbesmall.Thedefinitionof"medicalschools"wasrevisedduringthefall1992surveycycletoincludeonlyinstitutionalcomponentsthataremembersoftheAssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges.Thatcouldeffectdatageneratedafterthefall1992surveyinthattheassociationexcludesschoolsofnursing,publichealth,dentistry,veterinarymedicine,andotherhealth-relateddisciplines;thischangeisnotconsideredtohaveamajoreffectonthedata.

ResponseRate.In1995,712of722reportingunitsor98.6%,wereabletoprovideatleastpartialdata.Ofthe11,598departmentssurveyed,11,244or96.9%,responded.Thatis,354departments,or3.1%,requiredcompleteimputation.Itemnonresponsefortherespondingdepartmentswas1,730,or15.4percent;thesehadoneormoredatacellsimputed.Imputationformissingdataelementswasbasedontheprioryear'sdatawhereavailable;otherwise,itwasimputedondataonpeerinstitutions.

AssociationofAmericanMedicalCollegesMedicalFacultyRosterSystem

TheAssociationofAmericanMedicalColleges(AAMC)maintainsseveraldatabasesthatcontaininformationonUSmedicalpersonnel.OneparticularlyrelevantpersonnelsystemisAAMC'sMedicalFacultyRoster.

TheMedicalFacultyRosterisacomprehensivedatadirectoryofmedical-schoolfaculty,includingeducationandemploymenthistory,natureofcurrentactivities,degrees,rank,andethnicity.Thedataforthissystemarecollectedcontinuouslyfrommedicalschools,aschangesoccur,throughquestionnairesthatarecompletedbythefacultymembers.Theaccuracyofthedataisconsideredtobeveryhigh,aswasdemonstratedbypilotsamplesfordifferentstudiesconductedbyAAMC.DatafromthissystemcanbelinkedtootherdatasourcesthroughSocialSecuritynumbers.

AppendixDDoctoralFieldsIncludedforDataAnalysisTheDoctorateRecordsFile(DRF;seeappendixC)categorizesallfieldsinwhichPhDsareawarded.ThecommitteehasdefinedthelifesciencesasconsistingprimarilyofthefieldsinDRFcategoriestitled''agriculturalsciences","biologicalsciences",and"healthsciences".Somefieldsinthesecategorieshavebeenexcluded,forexample,thoseinadministrative,economic,orappliedareas,suchasagriculturaleconomics.Twofieldshavebeenincludedaslifesciencesfromengineeringandchemistrycategoriesandarelistedbelowas"relatedsciences".Wherethereportreferstothe"lifesciences",itmeansallthefieldslistedbelow.

Wherethecommitteedistinguishesinthetext,figures,anddatatablesbetween"biomedical"and"nonbiomedical"fields,itincludesasnonbiomedicalallthefieldslistedbelowintheagriculturalsciencesplusthe6fieldslistedwithanasteriskunder"biologicalsciences".Allotherfieldslistedbeloware,inthecommittee'sdefinition,biomedicalfields.

Becausethetaxonomyoffieldshaschangedoverthelast30years,explanationsforchangesintaxonomyareincluded.

AgriculturalSciences

AgronomyandCropScience

AnimalBreedingandGenetics:addedin1983

AnimalHusbandry:droppedin1983andreplacedwithAnimalBreedingandGenetics

AnimalNutrition

AnimalScience,Other

Conservation/RenewableNaturalResources

DairyScience

FishandWildlife:splitintotwocategoriesin1983

FishScienceandManagement:addedin1983

FoodDistribution:addedin1988;droppedagainin1995

FoodEngineering:addedin1988

FoodScience:splitintothreecategoriesin1988butcontinuestoappearonoldforms

FoodScience,Other:addedin1988

ForestBiology:addedin1988

ForestEngineering:addedin1988

ForestManagement:addedin1988

ForestryandRelatedScience,Other:addedin1988

ForestryScience:splitintoseveralcategoriesin1988butcontinuestoappearonoldforms

HorticultureScience

PlantBreedingandGenetics

PlantPathology

PlantProtectionandPestManagement:

droppedin1991butcontinuestoappearonoldforms

PlantSciences,Other

PoultryScience

SoilChemistry/Microbiology:addedin1988

SoilSciences:droppedin1988whensplitbutcontinuestoappearonoldforms

SoilSciences,Other:addedin1988

Wildlife:droppedin1988andreplacedwith

Wildlife/RangeManagementbutcontinuestoappearonoldforms.

Wildlife/RangeManagement:addedin1988

WoodScienceandPulp/PaperTechnology:addedin1988

AgriculturalSciences,General

AgriculturalSciences,Other

BiologicalSciences

Anatomy

Bacteriology:addedin1983

Biochemistry

BiometricsandBiostatistics

Biophysics

BiotechnologyResearch

* Botany

CellBiology

DevelopmentalBiology/Embryology

* Ecology

Endocrinology

* Entomology

Genetics,AnimalandPlant:dividedintotwocategoriesin1983

Genetics,HumanandAnimal:addedin1983

Hydrobiology:droppedin1980

Immunology

Microbiology:addedin1983

MicrobiologyandBacteriology:splitintotwocategoriesin1983

MolecularBiology

Neuroscience

NutritionalSciences

Parasitology

Pathology,HumanandAnimal

Pharmacology,HumanandAnimal

Physiology,HumanandAnimal

* PlantGenetics:addedin1983

* PlantPathology

* PlantPhysiology

Toxicology

Zoology

BiologicalSciences,General

BiologicalSciences,Other

HealthSciences

EnvironmentalHealth

Epidemiology:addedin1983

Pharmacy

PublicHealth:addedin1983

PublicHealth/Epidemiology:splitintotwocategoriesin1983

HealthSciences,General

HealthSciences,Other

RelatedSciences

BioengineeringandBiomedical

PharmaceuticalChemistry

AppendixEDataTablesforChapter2

TableE.1DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDs,196319961963 1964 1965196619671968196919701971 1972

TotalPhDs 2095 2356 2681288731513695408345034980 4855% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100MenTotal 1887 2113 2401 254227293184351739134265 4117% 90.1 89.7 89.6 88.0 86.6 86.2 86.1 86.9 85.6 84.8UScitizen/perm.residents 1582 1706 1888 202422402607294633373656 3511% 75.5 72.4 70.4 70.1 71.1 70.6 72.2 74.1 73.4 72.3WomenTotal 208 243 280 345 422 511 566 590 715 738% 9.9 10.3 10.4 12.0 13.4 13.8 13.9 13.1 14.4 15.2UScitizen/perm.residents 172 199 245 291 349 460 498 525 637 670% 8.2 8.4 9.1 10.1 11.1 12.4 12.2 11.7 12.8 13.8Whites(allPhDs)%Whites(USandperms)%Minorities(US&perms)%TotalUS&perms 1754 1905 2133231525893067344438624293 4181% 83.7 80.9 79.6 80.2 82.2 83.0 84.3 85.8 86.2 86.1



TableE.1(cont'd)1963196419651966196719681969197019711972

TempvisasstayinginUS 103 104 125 157 174 186 191 178 147 128% 4.9 4.4 4.7 5.4 5.5 5.0 4.7 4.0 3.0 2.6

TempvisasleavingUS 168 229 280 262 260 301 284 324 336 345% 8.0 9.7 10.4 9.1 8.3 8.1 7.0 7.2 6.7 7.1

Totaltemporaryresidents 325 415 518 525 517 586 589 606 589 574% 15.5 17.6 19.3 18.2 16.4 15.9 14.4 13.5 11.8 11.8

Postdoctoralappointments 485 567 709 764 87310951305160717291720% 23.2 24.1 26.4 26.5 27.7 29.6 32.0 35.7 34.7 35.4

Elapsedtimetodegree 6.0 6.0 6.2Medianageattimeofdegree 29.3 29.4 29.8



TableE.1DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDs,19631996

19801981198219831984198519861987198819891990TotalPhDs 51805288536252635414542853605399580759086211% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100MenTotal 39093936392337373855380636883649384438424058% 75.5 74.4 73.2 71.0 71.2 70.1 68.8 67.6 66.2 65.0 65.3UScitizen/perm.residents 32943287324330403118299328412752281427852866% 63.6 62.2 60.5 57.8 57.6 55.1 53.0 51.0 48.5 47.1 46.1WomenTotal 12711352143915261559162216721750196320662153% 24.5 25.6 26.8 29.0 28.8 29.9 31.2 32.4 33.8 35.0 34.7UScitizen/perm.Residents11371200128913631374138014281447160316741701% 21.9 22.7 24.0 25.9 25.4 25.4 26.6 26.8 27.6 28.3 27.4Whites(AllPhDs) 40314118425941554211412639953897415541774331% 77.8 77.9 79.4 78.9 77.8 76.0 74.5 72.2 71.6 70.7 69.7Whites(US&perms) 38293929404339313995388837783667388939113994% 73.9 74.3 75.4 74.7 73.8 71.6 70.5 67.9 67.0 66.2 64.3Minorities(US&perms) 115 143 142 130 158 178 186 192 210 206 221% 2.2 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.6TotalUS&Perms 44314487453244034492437342694199441744594567% 85.5 84.9 84.5 83.7 83.0 80.6 79.6 77.8 76.1 75.5 73.5



TableE.1(cont'd)19801981198219831984198519861987198819891990

TempvisasstayinginUS 167 156 176 191 223 263 264 333 413 476 606% 3.2 3.0 3.3 3.6 4.1 4.8 4.9 6.2 7.1 8.1 9.8TempvisasleavingUS 345 358 353 356 344 408 353 352 376 372 571% 6.7 6.8 6.6 6.8 6.4 7.5 6.6 6.5 6.5 6.3 9.2Totaltemporaryresidents 650 663 674 719 749 865 806 887103211021472% 12.5 12.5 12.6 13.7 13.8 15.9 15.0 16.4 17.8 18.7 23.7Postdoctoralappointments 24252395247424002491248625882647294629493162% 46.8 45.3 46.1 45.6 46.0 45.8 48.3 49.0 50.7 49.9 50.9Elapsedtimetodegree 6.6 6.7 6.9 7.0 7.3 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.7 7.9Medianageattimeofdegree

29.9 29.8 30.2 30.4 30.8 31.1 31.3 31.4 31.7 31.8 32.0

TableE.2DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDsintheBiomedicalSciences,196319961963 1964 1965196619671968196919701971 1972

TotalPhDs 1319 1510 1717191621412501281731363449 3402% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100MenTotal 1136 1311 1472 161417782045232526222828 2753% 86.1 86.8 85.7 84.2 83.0 81.8 82.5 83.6 82.0 80.9UScitizen/perm.residents 975 1098 1206 134215251753202723082505 2444% 73.9 72.7 70.2 70.0 71.2 70.1 72.0 73.6 72.6 71.8WomenTotal 183 199 245 302 363 456 492 514 621 649% 13.9 13.2 14.3 15.8 17.0 18.2 17.5 16.4 18.0 19.1UScitizen/perm.residents 154 170 221 261 312 413 441 463 566 599% 11.7 11.3 12.9 13.6 14.6 16.5 15.7 14.8 16.4 17.6Whites(allPhDs)%Whites(US&perms)%Minorities(US&perms)%



TableE.2(cont'd)1963196419651966196719681969197019711972

TotalUS&perms 1129126814271603183721662468277130713043% 85.6 84.0 83.1 83.7 85.8 86.6 87.6 88.4 89.0 89.4




Postdoctoralappointments 404 483 589 668 759 9491121140614951516% 30.6 32.0 34.3 34.9 35.5 37.9 39.8 44.8 43.3 44.6

Timetodegree 6.0 6.0 6.0Medianageattimeofdegree 29.1 29.1 29.4



TableE.2DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDsintheBiomedicalSciences,1963199619801981198219831984198519861987198819891990

TotalPhDs 37423750386636933813369837893915426243184501% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100MenTotal 26772650269824332531239524262467263726162743% 71.5 70.7 69.8 65.9 66.4 64.8 64.0 63.0 61.9 60.6 60.9UScitizen/perm.residents24032371233621102167199819781941203620052043% 64.2 63.2 60.4 57.1 56.8 54.0 52.2 49.6 47.8 46.4 45.4WomenTotal 10651100116812601282130313631448162517021758% 28.5 29.3 30.2 34.1 33.6 35.2 36.0 37.0 38.1 39.4 39.1UScitizen/perm.residents 9621003105811381150113211851216135313991416% 25.7 26.7 27.4 30.8 30.2 30.6 31.3 31.1 31.7 32.4 31.5Whites(AllPhDs) 29783025311329743020287228862879312231163216% 79.6 80.7 80.5 80.5 79.2 77.7 76.2 73.5 73.3 72.2 71.5Whites(US&perms) 28792946299628722914275427772736297929633006% 76.9 78.6 77.5 77.8 76.4 74.5 73.3 69.9 69.9 68.6 66.8Minorities(US&perms) 87 104 116 104 121 126 135 150 151 161 165% 2.3 2.8 3.0 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 3.5 3.7 3.7TotalUS&perms 33653374339432483317313031633157338934043459% 89.9 90.0 87.8 88.0 87.0 84.6 83.5 80.6 79.5 78.8 76.8



TableE.2(cont'd)19801981198219831984198519861987198819891990

TempvasasstayinginUS 130 112 130 155 164 205 193 278 327 368 473% 3.5 3.0 3.4 4.2 4.3 5.5 5.1 7.1 7.7 8.5 10.5TempvasasleavingUS 108 97 146 100 108 122 126 128 150 155 267% 2.9 2.6 3.8 2.7 2.8 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.6 5.9Totaltemporaryresidents 299 278 341 335 355 417 417 523 596 662 922% 8.0 7.4 8.8 9.1 9.3 11.3 11.0 13.4 14.0 15.3 20.5Postdoctoralappointments 21592118216920982125209521902255249825022665% 57.7 56.5 56.1 56.8 55.7 56.7 57.8 57.6 58.6 57.9 59.2Timetodegree 6.5 6.6 6.9 7.0 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.5 7.7Medianageattimeofdegree

29.4 29.5 29.8 30.0 30.5 30.7 30.9 30.8 31.2 31.3 31.4

TableE.3DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDsinNonbiomedicalLifeSciences,196319961963 1964 1965196619671968196919701971 1972

TotalPhDs 776 846 964 9711010 1194126613671531 1453% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100MenTotal 751 802 929 928 951 1139 119212911437 1364% 96.8 94.8 96.4 95.6 94.2 95.4 94.2 94.4 93.9 93.9UScitizen/perm.residents 607 608 682 682 715 854 9191029 1151 1067% 78.2 71.9 70.7 70.2 70.8 71.5 72.6 75.3 75.2 73.4WomenTotal 25 44 35 43 59 55 74 76 94 89% 3.2 5.2 3.6 4.4 5.8 4.6 5.8 5.6 6.1 6.1UScitizen/prm.residents 18 29 24 30 37 47 57 62 71 71% 2.3 3.4 2.5 3.1 3.7 3.9 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.9Whites(allPhDs)%Whites(US&perms)%Minorities(US&perms)%TotalUS&perms 625 637 706 712 752 901 97610911222 1138% 80.5 75.3 73.2 73.3 74.5 75.5 77.1 79.8 79.8 78.3



TableE.3(cont'd)1963196419651966196719681969197019711972




Postdoctoralappointments 81 84 120 96 114 146 184 201 234 204% 10.4 9.9 12.4 9.9 11.3 12.2 14.5 14.7 15.3 14.0

Timetodegree 6.0 6.1 6.3Medianageattimeofdegree 29.9 30.4 30.7



TableE.3DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDsinNonbiomedicalLifeSciences,1963199619801981198219831984198519861987198819891990

TotalPhDs 14381538149615701601173015711484154515901710% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100MenTotal 12321286122513041324141112621182120712261315% 85.7 83.6 81.9 83.1 82.7 81.6 80.3 79.6 78.1 77.1 76.9UScitizen/perm.residents 891 916 907 930 951 995 863 811 778 780 823% 62.0 59.6 60.6 59.2 59.4 57.5 54.9 54.6 50.4 49.1 48.1WomenTotal 206 252 271 266 277 319 309 302 338 364 395% 14.3 16.4 18.1 16.9 17.3 18.4 19.7 20.4 21.9 22.9 23.1UScitizen/perm.residents 175 197 231 225 224 248 243 231 250 275 285% 12.2 12.8 15.4 14.3 14.0 14.3 15.5 15.6 16.2 17.3 16.7Whites(allPhDs) 10531093114611811191125411091018103310611115% 73.2 71.1 76.6 75.2 74.4 72.5 70.6 68.6 66.9 66.7 65.2Whites(US&perms) 950 98310471059108111341001 931 910 948 988% 66.1 63.9 70.0 67.5 67.5 65.5 63.7 62.7 58.9 59.6 57.8Minorities(US&perms) 28 39 26 26 37 52 51 42 59 45 56% 1.9 2.5 1.7 1.7 2.3 3.0 3.2 2.8 3.8 2.8 3.3TotalUS&perms 10661113113811551175124311061042102810551108% 74.1 72.4 76.1 73.6 73.4 71.8 70.4 70.2 66.5 66.4 64.8



TableE.3(cont'd)19801981198219831984198519861987198819891990

TempvisasstayinginUS 37 44 46 36 59 58 71 55 86 108 133% 2.6 2.9 3.1 2.3 3.7 3.4 4.5 3.7 5.6 6.8 7.8TempvisasleavingUS 237 261 207 256 236 286 227 224 226 217 304% 16.5 17.0 13.8 16.3 14.7 16.5 14.4 15.1 14.6 13.6 17.8Totaltemporaryresidents 351 385 333 384 394 448 389 364 436 440 550% 24.4 25.0 22.3 24.5 24.6 25.9 24.8 24.5 28.2 27.7 32.2Postdoctoralappointments 266 277 305 302 366 391 398 392 447 447 497% 18.5 18.0 20.4 19.2 22.9 22.6 25.3 26.4 28.9 28.1 29.1Timetodegree 6.9 6.9 7.0 7.0 7.3 7.3 7.6 7.7 8.0 8.1 8.2Medianageattimeofdegree

31.1 31.0 31.0 31.3 31.6 31.9 32.3 32.7 32.9 33.3 33.6

TableE.4DemographicandOtherUSLife-SciencePhDsbyFineFieldin10-or11-YearCohortsFY8696DoctorateRecipients FY7685DoctorateRecipients

TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%

MedianTimetoDegreeyrs

TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%

NonbiomedicaldoctoralfieldsAgronomyandcropscience

1437 13 43 20 7.9 1475 7 39

Animalbreedingandgenetics

227 15 41 24 7.1 81 21 31

Animalhusbandry 155 5 19Animalnutrition 634 19 27 22 7.0 1039 10 28Animalscience,other 962 22 31 31 7.2 277 13 31Botany 1201 38 20 40 8.6 1428 27 9Conservation/renewablenaturalresearch

134 19 33 13 9.9

Dairyscience 126 14 33 27 7.5Fishandwildlife 452 7 10Fishscienceandmanagement

427 16 27 18 9.2 117 14 17

Fooddistribution 1 0 0 0 6.8Foodengineering 92 13 59 22 8.0Foodscience 269 34 43 19 8.0 1128 25 37Foodscience,other 1265 39 51 20 8.0Forestbiology 197 24 27 30 8.5Forestengineering 17 6 47 12 10.5Forestmanagement 167 12 35 13 8.6Forestryandrelatedscience,other

502 17 34 14 9.2

Forestryscience 203 12 23 20 7.7 862 6 21Horticulturescience 778 25 38 19 8.0 704 15 31Plantbreedingandgenetics

817 18 41 25 7.6 237 15 27


TableE.4(cont'd)FY8696DoctorateRecipients FY7685DoctorateRecipients

TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%


TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%

Plantpathology 742 29 44 36 8.0 911 17 29Plantprotectionandpestmanagement

13 8 31 23 7.1

Plantscience,other 252 21 39 29 8.0 57 11 28Poultryscience 133 21 39 20 7.6Soilchemistry/microbiology

239 22 36 30 8.3

Soilscience 195 9 36 24 8.0 842 7 44Soilscience,other 647 14 44 25 8.8Wildlife 46 7 9 11 7.3 100 5 13Wildlife/rangemanagement

480 21 20 18 9.0

Woodsciandpulp/papertechnology

166 13 55 15 8.5

Agriculturalsciences,general

67 19 57 18 8.8 54 11 56

Agriculturalsciences,other

268 18 40 16 8.2 754 8 33

BiomedicaldoctoralfieldsAnatomy 821 40 14 62 8.0 1355 31 5Bacteriology 143 40 16 62 8.0 39 31 8Biochemistry 7856 38 22 72 7.0 6237 27 9Biomedicalsciences 233 41 18 59 8.8Biometrics&biostatistics

623 39 27 13 8.6 470 29 14

Biophysics 1193 25 26 71 7.4 1052 15 11Biotechnologyresearch 32 28 28 28 7.6

Biotechnologyresearch 32 28 28 28 7.6Cellbiology 1927 45 14 75 7.6 628 35 5DevelopmentalBiology/embryology

418 49 16 82 7.6 152 39 5




TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%


TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%

Ecology 2018 31 14 37 9.0 1771 20 6Endocrinology 248 46 23 65 8.0 75 39 11Entomology 1483 21 25 32 8.5 1550 13 20Genetics,animal&plant

1041 35 12

Genetics,human&animal

1678 46 16 71 7.5 282 46 6

Hydrobiology 40 15 0Immunology 1882 45 13 74 7.5 1257 37 7Microbiology 4110 39 20 67 7.7 944 37 10Microbiology&bacteriology

2416 29 8

Molecularbiology 5247 40 20 78 7.5 1961 33 8Neurosciences 2558 39 13 78 7.5 552 34 6Nutritionalsciences 1433 70 23 33 8.5 1006 61 16Parasitology 206 36 22 50 8.4 184 16 16Pathology,human&animal

1274 36 18 49 8.3 974 26 11

Pharmacology,human&animal

2889 39 16 71 7.0 2344 24 7

Physiology,human&animal

2898 36 18 63 7.8 2939 23 7

Plantgenetics 324 28 31 65 7.6 70 24 24Plantpathology 383 30 37 50 8.0 97 22 22PlantPhysiology 665 32 28 53 8.1 576 23 17Toxicology 1204 36 12 45 7.9 256 25 5Zoology 1450 30 13 40 8.7 2112 23 4Biologicalsciences, 3087 39 20 50 8.0 1908 31 8

Biologicalsciences,general

3087 39 20 50 8.0 1908 31 8

Biologicalsciences,other

1560 37 17 49 8.3 1416 31 7

Environmentalhealth

473 37 22 20 8.9 356 24 10

Epidemiology 1285 59 17 20 9.3 255 59 14Pharmacy 1417 34 39 22 7.8 762 19 19Publichealth 1464 63 18 11 9.8 219 59 9Publichealth/epidemiology

887 44 10




TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%


TotalPhDsn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%


Healthscience,general

317 43 15 30 8.1 167 30 7 44

Healthsciences,other

1084 46 17 16 9.1 909 31 10 28

Bioengineeringandbiomedical

1549 21 27 36 7.3 700 6 13 31

Pharmaceuticalchemistry

853 32 28 2 7.4 552 18 16 41

*Totalfor197375.Dataonrace/ethnicityisavailableonlyfor1973todate.Percentagescalculatedwithbaseyears1973to1975.**Mediancomputedonlyforperiod1970to1975

TableE.5DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDsbyCitizenship,1963199619631964196519661967196819691970197119721973

TotalPhDs 20952356268128873151369540834503498048554912% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100UScitizen&prm.residents

17541905213323152589306734443862429341814240

% 83.7 80.9 79.6 80.2 82.2 83.0 84.3 85.8 86.2 86.1 86.3UScitizensnativeborn 16921824203922132392278331523504385437053746% 80.8 77.4 76.1 76.7 75.9 75.3 77.2 77.8 77.4 76.3 76.3UScitizennaturalized 4 64 100 92 109 118 113 128% 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 2.0 2.7 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.6UScitizens 16921824203922172456288332443613397238183874% 80.8 77.4 76.1 76.8 77.9 78.0 79.5 80.2 79.8 78.6 78.9Permanentresidents 62 81 94 98 133 184 200 249 321 363 366% 3.0 3.4 3.5 3.4 4.2 5.0 4.9 5.5 6.4 7.5 7.5TempvisasstayinginUS 103 104 125 157 174 186 191 178 147 128 137% 4.9 4.4 4.7 5.4 5.5 5.0 4.7 4.0 3.0 2.6 2.8TempvisasleavingUS 168 229 280 262 260 301 284 324 336 345 342% 8.0 9.7 10.4 9.1 8.3 8.1 7.0 7.2 6.7 7.1 7.0Totaltemporaryresidents 325 415 518 525 517 586 589 606 589 574 584% 15.5 17.6 19.3 18.2 16.4 15.9 14.4 13.5 11.8 11.8 11.9



TableE.5(cont'd)1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Nonresponses 16 36 30 47 45 42 50 35 98 100 88% 0.8 1.5 1.1 1.6 1.4 1.1 1.2 0.8 2.0 2.1 1.8



TableE.5DemographicCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDsbyCitizenship,196319961981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

TotalPhDs 5288 5362 5263 5414 5428 5360 5399 5807 5908% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100UScitizen&perm.residents 4487 4532 4403 4492 4373 4269 4199 4417 4459% 84.9 84.5 83.7 83.0 80.6 79.6 77.8 76.1 75.5UScitizensnativeborn 4142 4188 4076 4128 4034 3894 3790 3953 4042% 78.3 78.1 77.4 76.2 74.3 72.6 70.2 68.1 68.4UScitizennaturalized 140 164 143 174 150 174 169 160 162% 2.6 3.1 2.7 3.2 2.8 3.2 3.1 2.8 2.7UScitizens 4282 4352 4219 4302 4184 4068 3959 4113 4204% 81.0 81.2 80.2 79.5 77.1 75.9 73.3 70.8 71.2Permanentresidents 205 180 184 190 189 201 240 304 255% 3.9 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.8 4.4 5.2 4.3TempvisasstayinginUS 156 176 191 223 263 264 333 413 476% 3.0 3.3 3.6 4.1 4.8 4.9 6.2 7.1 8.1TempvisasleavingUS 358 353 356 344 408 353 352 376 372% 6.8 6.6 6.8 6.4 7.5 6.6 6.5 6.5 6.3Totaltemporaryresidents 663 674 719 749 865 806 887 1032 1102% 12.5 12.6 13.7 13.8 15.9 15.0 16.4 17.8 18.7



TableE.5(cont'd)1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Nonresponses 138 156 141 173 190 285 313 358 347 172% 2.6 2.9 2.7 3.2 3.5 5.3 5.8 6.2 5.9 2.8

TableE.7NumberofUSLife-SciencePostdoctoralFellowsbyFieldandCitizenship,197219951Year Biological Agricultural Total Citizen1972 4845 303 51481973 5237 242 54791974 5231 272 55031975 5785 273 60581976 6282 349 6631 48311977 6588 297 6885 51041978 6848 227 7075 513419791980 7067 258 7325 51341981 7668 292 7960 54771982 7705 293 7998 55001983 8324 308 8632 60001984 8677 375 9052 61671985 9112 371 9483 61671986 9683 412 10095 63321987 10358 442 10800 65171988 10667 464 11131 64111989 11425 517 11942 6648

TableE.8USLife-SciencePhDsWhoTookPostdoctoralTrainingTimeSpentinPostdoctoralPositions,asReportedin1995.YearofPhD>> 199192198990198788198586198384198182197980TotalPhDswhotookpostdoctoraltraining

4632 4502 4553 4410 4015 4024 4056

lessthan2years 1332 1096 1291 1252 1010 1057 1132%lessthan2years 29 24 28 28 25 26 2824years 3300 2022 1609 1698 1560 1666 1687%24years 71 45 35 39 39 41 42greaterthan4years NA 1384 1653 1460 1445 1301 1237%greaterthan4years NA 31 36 33 36 32 30

TableE.10DemographicandOtherCharacteristicsofUSLife-SciencePhDs,by10-YearCohort.FY8696DoctorateRecipients FY7685DoctorateRecipients

TotalPh.D.sn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%


TotalPh.D.sn

Women%

Temp.Res.%

PlanningPostdoc%


Alldoctorates

70989 36 23 51 7.9 51184 25 13 45 6.8

Women 25695 100 18 53 7.9 12850 100 9 51 7.0Men 45096 0 25 50 7.8 38334 0 15 43 6.8Minorities(UScitorperm.)

2781 40 0 47 8.0 1324 35 0 33 7.2

Whites(UScitorperm.)

43581 39 0 55 7.7 37813 26 0 50 6.6

UScitizens&permresearch

52681 39 0 55 7.8 43051 26 0 49 6.8

Temporaryresearch

16093 28 0 46 8.0 6754 17 100 28 7.3

Top26institutions

19436 40 16 59 7.7 14187 30 10 54 6.7

Otherinstitutions

51553 35 25 48 7.9 36997 23 15 42 6.9

AppendixFDataTablesforChapter3Tables1-7inthisappendixshowthefraction(labeledwithan''F")andnumber(labeledwithan"N")ofgraduatesinaparticularcohort(forexample,12yearsafterreceiptofthePhD)whoholdvarioustypesofpositions.Thematrixexampleonthefollowingpageillustrateshowthesecareer-progressmatricesaretoberead.NotethattablesincludeonlypersonswhoatthetimeofdoctoratewereUScitizensorpermanentresidents.

TableF.8showsnumberoflife-scciencePhDsbysector.

TableF.1CareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents.

TableF.2CareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsFemaleUSCitizensandPermanentResidents.

TableF.3CareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsMaleUSCitizensandPermanentResidents.

TableF.4CareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsfrom26High-QualityInstitutionsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents.

TableF.5CareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsfromOtherInstitutionsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents.

TableF.6CareerProgressionofNonbiomedicalLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents.

TableF.7CareerProgressionofBiomedicalLife-Science

PhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

TableF.8NumberofCitizenandPermanentResidentLife-SciencePhDsbySector,19731995

FormatforTablesF.1F.7

CareerProgressionMatrixforLife-SciencePhDs(USCitizensandPermanentResidentswithPhDsfromUS

Universities)

TableF.1FCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Fractionof12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.25 0.19 0.17 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.09Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.15 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.05Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.21 0.37 0.43 0.42 0.48 0.45 0.53Otheracademicposition 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.11Industry 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.08Federallabsandothergovernment 0.11 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.04Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.54 0.59 0.69 0.67 0.76 0.71 0.70Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.52 0.52 0.57 0.45 n/a 0.44 0.49SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.44 0.42 0.48 0.36 n/a 0.39 0.45PanelB:Fractionof34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.03Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.40 0.31 0.29 0.24 0.21 0.17 0.13Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.15 0.13 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.07Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.06 0.11 0.19 0.21 0.22 0.28 0.29Otheracademicposition 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.10 0.13Industry 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.21 0.20 0.17 0.16Federallabsandothergovernment 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.07Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.06 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.44 0.45 0.64 0.61 0.70 0.68 0.63

Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.51 0.46 0.44 0.41 n/a 0.41 0.45



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Fractionof56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.05Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.06Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.32 0.27 0.27 0.22Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.08Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.14Otheracademicposition 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.10 0.08 0.12Industry 0.11 0.11 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.22 0.19Federallabsandothergovernment 0.15 0.13 0.13 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.08Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.45 0.42 0.51 0.54 0.63 0.64 0.65Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.46 0.46 0.43 0.36 n/a 0.37 0.40SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.39 0.37 0.37 0.30 n/a 0.33 0.35PanelD:Fractionof78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01Part-timeemployed 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.47 0.44 0.40 0.38 0.32 0.31 0.32Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.07Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.06Otheracademicposition 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.08Industry 0.11 0.11 0.17 0.20 0.24 0.21 0.22Federallabsandothergovernment 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.10Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.07ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.42 0.41 0.43 0.51 0.61 0.61 0.61Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.51 0.45 0.39 0.38 n/a 0.39 0.39

Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.51 0.45 0.39 0.38 n/a 0.39 0.39SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.43 0.37 0.31 0.32 n/a 0.35 0.35



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Fractionof910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01Part-timeemployed 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.04Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.47 0.42 0.39 0.35 0.36 0.31 0.34Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.06 0.09 0.05Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03Otheracademicposition 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.09Industry 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.18 0.23 0.22 0.23Federallabsandothergovernment 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.11 0.11Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.07ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.41 0.43 0.40 0.44 0.54 0.57 0.58Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.44 0.43 0.36 0.37 n/a 0.37 0.38SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.38 0.34 0.30 0.31 n/a 0.33 0.36

TableF.1NCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Numberin12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 144 175 176 220 111 95 211Part-timeemployed 195 128 222 236 300 221 202Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 136 220 78 262 166 291 319Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions193614731347 956 1002 878 853Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 1158 683 530 510 315 486 469Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 1659284734473498414139524980Otheracademicposition 612 322 539 771 574 968 1031Industry 659 783 906 955 10131075 745Federallabsandothergovernment 864 683 430 484 597 551 359Otherjobsincludingself-employed 412 321 358 438 381 288 293ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 3963421451975132609357996131Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 3807371943133433 n/a 36454308SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 3188301336562727 n/a 31793899PanelB:Numberin34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 70 210 127 132 75 64 173Part-timeemployed 152 113 123 205 295 394 288Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 179 185 157 94 160 387 458Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions2684233623012017169413921162Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 1009 983 631 491 247 543 657Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 384 856 14561742183023522564Otheracademicposition 379 418 643 773 974 871 1106Industry 706 100712891804159314191432Federallabsandothergovernment 758 765 736 654 802 552 656Otherjobsincludingself-employed 390 605 383 521 487 355 313ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 2776312447584861531950594995

Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 3223322833043310 n/a 30463551SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 2680265627432719 n/a 26743141



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Numberin56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 43 132 152 54 92 105 166Part-timeemployed 166 217 149 301 117 308 398Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 102 296 172 289 246 341 460Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions2211308825912573224521671816Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 776 1204783 605 651 476 637Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 94 383 516 815 839 10011171Otheracademicposition 177 307 538 528 861 621 978Industry 549 905 12141657197418201572Federallabsandothergovernment 805 1065962 800 734 778 633Otherjobsincludingself-employed 300 613 579 517 563 505 396ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 2186320036764015499147024683Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 2271351430672688n/a 27362850SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 1926281426252271n/a 24542512PanelD:Numberin78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 36 95 69 94 32 66 113Part-timeemployed 75 119 169 166 300 308 227Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 121 199 167 321 429 463 365Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions1896299628992925286324932521Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 581 930 798 631 488 445 568Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 45 191 185 156 437 460 465Otheracademicposition 77 183 333 491 829 815 594Industry 451 772 12581583212517371734Federallabsandothergovernment 514 870 795 829 730 870 770Otherjobsincludingself-employed 201 471 649 593 653 504 557ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 1571264029493697495844914401Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1916290826702716n/a 28622826

Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1916290826702716n/a 28622826SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 1615240121452338n/a 25712557



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Numberin910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 30 77 128 81 41 111 44Part-timeemployed 72 129 180 232 277 184 242Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 115 224 286 297 296 559 340Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions1672226730562565300525882725Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 501 791 1156 743 508 729 422Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 7 64 59 132 171 264 228Otheracademicposition 47 63 397 425 491 574 745Industry 430 617 847 1321188418611882Federallabsandothergovernment 485 877 1260 939 895 964 882Otherjobsincludingself-employed 162 277 472 676 691 564 588ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 1357214429033004409243344345Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1446214226012484 n/a 28122868SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 1266169922072082 n/a 24962664

TableF.2FCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsFemaleUSCitizensandPermanenetResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Fractionof12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.03Part-timeemployed 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.04 0.03Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.04Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.15 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.07Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.12 0.13 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.04Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.55Otheracademicposition 0.12 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.10Industry 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.08Federallabsandothergovernment 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.03Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&Eposition11Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.68 0.63 0.78 0.68 0.76 0.72 0.7212Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.62 0.59 0.60 0.50 n/a 0.46 0.5513SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.53 0.52 0.56 0.43 n/a 0.40 0.50PanelB:Fractionof34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.09 0.07Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.27 0.28 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.16 0.10Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.17 0.16 0.09 0.09 0.03 0.08 0.09Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.10 0.19 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.28 0.32Otheracademicposition 0.12 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.15 0.10 0.11Industry 0.03 0.04 0.09 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.12Federallabsandothergovernment 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.07Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.05ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.49 0.52 0.59 0.60 0.72 0.64 0.61


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Fractionof56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.01Part-timeemployed 0.18 0.12 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.09 0.09Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.07Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.33 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.19Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.13 0.15 0.14 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.10Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.10 0.09 0.13 0.11Otheracademicposition 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.14 0.10 0.09 0.18Industry 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.15 0.20 0.18 0.17Federallabsandothergovernment 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.06Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.03ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.53 0.49 0.54 0.62 0.60 0.65 0.61Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.58 0.48 0.48 0.39 n/a 0.40 0.44SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.51 0.36 0.42 0.36 n/a 0.38 0.38PanelD:Fractionof78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.03Part-timeemployed 0.15 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.07Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.03Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.29 0.38 0.39 0.29 0.31 0.29 0.29Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.18 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.09Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06Otheracademicposition 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.08Industry 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.13 0.19 0.15 0.19Federallabsandothergovernment 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.10 0.08Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.04 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.07ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.47 0.43 0.51 0.52 0.63 0.6 0.58Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.50 0.54 0.45 0.46 n/a 0.45 0.39


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Fractionof910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01Part-timeemployed 0.11 0.15 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.08Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.09 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.32 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.34 0.29 0.36Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.22 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.06 0.09 0.06Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.01Otheracademicposition 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.11Industry 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.09 0.20 0.18 0.15Federallabsandothergovernment 0.07 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.10Otherjobsincludingself-employed 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.07 0.04 0.07ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.52 0.60 0.57Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.50 0.50 0.43 0.41 n/a 0.39 0.45SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.43 0.43 0.39 0.38 n/a 0.35 0.44

TableF.2NCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsFemaleUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Numberin12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 59 72 59 75 54 39 122Part-timeemployed 105 72 122 132 197 153 102Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 29 57 19 115 62 155 141Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 172 173 194 233 370 314 288Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 130 214 95 139 94 186 172Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 338 725 11031199143716202171Otheracademicposition 133 71 138 164 260 379 389Industry 43 69 166 229 218 340 295Federallabsandothergovernment 45 68 61 131 183 174 126Otherjobsincludingself-employed 71 74 54 128 92 113 109ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 638 879 14091521200822452571Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 580 818 10921110 n/a 14371944SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 492 720 1006 966 n/a 12391768PanelB:Numberin34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 34 43 63 72 71 54 59Part-timeemployed 95 77 116 125 110 264 233Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 31 31 48 57 105 165 174Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 224 356 336 423 451 487 346Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 139 205 144 204 84 253 295Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 80 241 394 536 571 876 1116Otheracademicposition 100 82 96 281 372 311 374Industry 21 50 136 301 350 394 406Federallabsandothergovernment 42 82 145 154 167 164 248Otherjobsincludingself-employed 66 122 113 106 188 129 183ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 327 589 803 1193156916681808

Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 387 626 671 905 n/a 11061370SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 309 531 560 793 n/a 988 1251



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Numberin56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 24 36 42 18 67 49 39Part-timeemployed 116 144 100 154 113 253 268Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 31 28 43 79 78 100 201Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 217 376 439 515 603 646 567Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 88 183 217 97 208 190 306Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 43 106 206 204 228 369 320Otheracademicposition 34 71 126 273 264 240 540Industry 25 91 89 296 523 514 514Federallabsandothergovernment 34 85 133 192 249 291 190Otherjobsincludingself-employed 47 98 156 123 232 161 81ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 257 495 732 1046139515651526Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 284 482 661 667 n/a 953 1099SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 249 362 568 620 n/a 914 966PanelD:Numberin78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 21 24 46 45 16 28 89Part-timeemployed 66 76 66 117 227 272 195Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 21 11 58 51 138 119 94Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 127 320 490 444 749 740 769Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 81 142 180 173 146 174 248Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 25 67 44 63 119 137 166Otheracademicposition 27 38 94 164 261 318 224Industry 15 34 53 200 449 376 517Federallabsandothergovernment 38 63 94 138 144 260 217Otherjobsincludingself-employed 17 72 134 128 142 164 177ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 155 315 559 680 126313051339Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 164 401 494 609 n/a 980 897

Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 164 401 494 609 n/a 980 897SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 132 333 420 482 n/a 879 843



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Numberin910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 21 28 64 20 41 31 19Part-timeemployed 39 103 76 147 238 153 199Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 15 28 26 45 25 231 121Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 111 274 395 478 673 729 935Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 75 89 163 188 125 226 163Postdoctotalappointmentsinanysector 7 31 19 71 38 64 32Otheracademicposition 16 16 88 119 145 220 275Industry 17 37 113 140 403 456 396Federallabsandothergovernment 25 38 87 136 148 271 259Otherjobsincludingself-employed 21 56 103 154 130 111 175ResearchInvolvementinfull-timeS&EpositionEngagedprimarilyinresearch 115 237 433 598 867 12471285Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 135 271 421 528 n/a 812 1010SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 116 230 380 483 n/a 718 984

TableF.3FCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsMaleUSCitizensandPermanentResidents.

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Fractionof12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.27 0.22 0.19 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.15 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.05Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.20 0.35 0.39 0.40 0.48 0.44 0.51Otheracademicposition 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.06 0.11 0.12Industry 0.09 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.08Federallabsandothergovernment 0.12 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.04Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.52 0.58 0.66 0.67 0.76 0.70 0.69Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.51 0.51 0.56 0.43 n/a 0.44 0.46SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.42 0.40 0.46 0.33 n/a 0.38 0.41PanelB:Fractionof34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.01Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.42 0.32 0.31 0.26 0.22 0.17 0.15Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.15 0.13 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.07Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.05 0.10 0.17 0.20 0.22 0.28 0.27Otheracademicposition 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.14Industry 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.19Federallabsandothergovernment 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.07 0.08Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.02ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&E

position)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.43 0.43 0.65 0.61 0.69 0.70 0.65Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.50 0.45 0.43 0.40 n/a 0.40 0.44SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.42 0.36 0.36 0.32 n/a 0.35 0.38



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Fractionof56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.02Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33 0.29 0.29 0.24Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.15 0.15 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.06Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.16Otheracademicposition 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.08Industry 0.11 0.12 0.18 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.20Federallabsandothergovernment 0.17 0.14 0.14 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.09Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.44 0.41 0.51 0.51 0.65 0.63 0.67Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.45 0.46 0.41 0.35 n/a 0.36 0.37SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.28 n/a 0.31 0.33PanelD:Fractionof78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00Part-timeemployed 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.40 0.33 0.31 0.34Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.14 0.13 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.06Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.06Otheracademicposition 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.07Industry 0.12 0.12 0.20 0.22 0.26 0.24 0.23Federallabsandothergovernment 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.11Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.07ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Fractionof910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00Part-timeemployed 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.04Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.49 0.43 0.40 0.35 0.37 0.31 0.32Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.13 0.15 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.05Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04Otheracademicposition 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.09Industry 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.20 0.24 0.24 0.27Federallabsandothergovernment 0.14 0.18 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.11Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.07ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.41 0.43 0.39 0.44 0.54 0.56 0.58Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.43 0.42 0.35 0.35 n/a 0.37 0.35SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.29 n/a 0.33 0.32

TableF.3NCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsMaleUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Numberin12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 85 103 117 145 57 56 89Part-timeemployed 90 56 100 104 103 68 100Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 107 163 59 147 104 136 178Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 176413001153 723 632 564 565Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 1028 469 435 371 221 300 297Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 1321212223442299270423322809Otheracademicposition 479 251 401 607 314 589 642Industry 616 714 740 726 795 735 450Federallabsandothergovernment 819 615 369 353 414 377 233Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 341 247 304 310 289 175 184ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 3325333537883611408535543560Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 3227290132212323 n/a 22082364SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 2696229326501761 n/a 19402131PanelB:Numberin34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 36 167 64 60 4 10 114Part-timeemployed 57 36 7 80 185 130 55Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 148 154 109 37 55 222 284Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 24601980196515941243 905 816Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 870 778 487 287 163 289 362Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 304 615 10621206125914761448Otheracademicposition 279 336 547 492 602 560 732Industry 685 957 11531503124310251026Federallabsandothergovernment 716 683 591 500 635 388 408Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 324 483 270 415 299 226 130ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&E

position)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 2449253539553668375033913187Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 2836260226332405 n/a 19402181SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 2371212521831926 n/a 16861890



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Numberin56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 19 96 110 36 25 56 127Part-timeemployed 50 73 49 147 4 55 130Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 71 268 129 210 168 241 259Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1994271221522058164215211249Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 688 1021 566 508 443 286 331Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 51 277 310 611 611 632 851Otheracademicposition 143 236 412 255 597 381 438Industry 524 814 11251361145113061058Federallabsandothergovernment 771 980 829 608 485 487 443Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 253 515 423 394 331 344 315ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 1929270529442969359631373157Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1987303224062021 n/a 17831751SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 1677245220571651 n/a 15401546PanelD:Numberin78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 15 71 23 49 16 38 24Part-timeemployed 9 43 103 49 73 36 32Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 100 188 109 270 291 344 271Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1769267624092481211417531752Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 500 788 618 458 342 271 320Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 20 124 141 93 318 323 299Otheracademicposition 50 145 239 327 568 497 370Industry 436 738 12051383167613611217Federallabsandothergovernment 476 807 701 691 586 610 553Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 184 399 515 465 511 340 380ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Numberin910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 9 49 64 61 80 25Part-timeemployed 33 26 104 85 39 31 43Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 100 196 260 252 271 328 219Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1561199326612087233218591790Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 426 702 993 555 383 503 259Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 33 40 61 133 200 196Otheracademicposition 31 47 309 306 346 354 470Industry 413 580 734 1181148114051486Federallabsandothergovernment 460 839 1173 803 747 693 623Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 141 221 369 522 561 453 413ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 1242190724702406322530873060Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1311187121801956 n/a 20001858SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 1150146918271599 n/a 17781680

TableF.4FCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsfrom26High-QualityInstitutionsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Fractionof12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.01Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.33 0.19 0.16 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.07Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.04Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.30 0.48 0.47 0.50 0.61 0.55 0.60Otheracademicposition 0.07 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.11Industry 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.06Federallabsandothergovernment 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.03Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.03ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.72 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.84 0.82 0.79Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.67 0.68 0.61 0.51 n/a 0.49 0.55SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.60 0.57 0.52 0.42 n/a 0.45 0.50PanelB:Fractionof34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01Part-timeemployed 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.45 0.40 0.32 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.13Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.10 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.11 0.15 0.21 0.24 0.26 0.34 0.33Otheracademicposition 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.13 0.14Industry 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.24 0.19 0.16 0.18Federallabsandothergovernment 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.07Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.07 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.03

ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.55 0.53 0.71 0.68 0.76 0.71 0.73Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.65 0.61 0.54 0.48 n/a 0.48 0.50SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.58 0.52 0.45 0.39 n/a 0.39 0.48



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Fractionof56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01Part-timeemployed 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.04Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.51 0.49 0.44 0.36 0.31 0.31 0.24Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.11 0.11 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.05Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.13 0.17Otheracademicposition 0.04 0.05 0.12 0.08 0.12 0.09 0.18Industry 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.20 0.17 0.19 0.18Federallabsandothergovernment 0.11 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.04Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.04 0.05 0.10 0.06 0.07 0.11 0.04ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 0.48 0.58 0.61 0.56 0.72 0.77 0.72Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 0.61 0.64 0.57 0.42 n/a 0.45 0.52SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 0.52 0.53 0.52 0.38 n/a 0.40 0.46PanelD:Fractionof78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.00 0 0.02Part-timeemployed 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.02Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.02Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 0.54 0.47 0.52 0.45 0.36 0.35 0.40Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 0.11 0.12 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.02Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.06Otheracademicposition 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.09Industry 0.07 0.08 0.11 0.17 0.24 0.20 0.19Federallabsandothergovernment 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.06 0.07 0.09Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.10ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995


TableF.4NCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsfrom26High-QualityInstitutionsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Numberin12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 30 91 37 30 11 39Part-timeemployed 54 57 83 62 28 44 44Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 21 43 17 125 28 68 20Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 526 374 389 214 283 242 179Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 112 58 87 125 24 58 100Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 476 963 11661194153113261555Otheracademicposition 116 81 211 182 217 193 296Industry 91 98 227 156 145 211 166Federallabsandothergovernment 101 118 99 179 127 169 88Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 75 131 150 134 101 83 90ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 1079133717101607203318741943Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1007123514131108 n/a 11281369SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 899 10371205 910 n/a 10331239PanelB:Numberin34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 33 31 80 43 28 23 27Part-timeemployed 41 31 52 73 102 98 75Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 46 35 12 31 46 79 110Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 706 745 729 536 454 378 312Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 153 111 77 57 49 90 85Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 168 283 495 607 622 773 793Otheracademicposition 121 141 274 290 350 302 327Industry 91 190 334 602 452 360 437Federallabsandothergovernment 109 160 157 97 141 117 176Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 103 122 102 160 131 57 79ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&E

position)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 796 929 15441588167414701619Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 937 106211651124 n/a 992 1112SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 841 907 968 915 n/a 816 1062



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Numberin56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 19 12 9 8 20 8 25Part-timeemployed 64 95 71 116 32 86 89Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 42 55 35 72 49 72 92Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 733 904 946 926 719 713 513Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 165 197 115 80 150 61 102Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 21 104 135 254 328 297 381Otheracademicposition 53 92 261 201 292 200 396Industry 123 159 196 514 402 434 400Federallabsandothergovernment 155 121 162 230 179 184 98Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 64 97 225 160 170 252 84ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 627 964 12391322160716571431Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 801 10661170 993 n/a 953 1019SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 678 893 1054 888 n/a 862 905PanelD:Numberin78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 11 62 20 21 44Part-timeemployed 31 34 78 36 71 120 36Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 24 50 27 58 189 91 49Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 582 766 1078 976 925 830 900Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 120 200 83 71 44 126 38Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 21 57 34 45 112 152 143Otheracademicposition 28 45 110 186 321 253 208Industry 74 129 233 360 623 483 429Federallabsandothergovernment 113 144 198 214 147 155 198Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 75 132 199 188 147 162 231ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)

position)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 455 709 939 1309161314241545Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 648 870 10251047 n/a 10881081SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 604 727 797 1001 n/a 10501017



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Numberin910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 19 11 33 12 26 34 18Part-timeemployed 38 59 80 55 120 55 103Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 25 68 67 101 77 123 48Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 502 753 988 913 1218 884 1069Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 149 157 119 175 104 175 117Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 15 10 45 37 63 24Otheracademicposition 17 31 70 224 202 205 195Industry 96 153 208 261 604 391 508Federallabsandothergovernment 118 155 146 205 163 248 127Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 78 81 111 236 223 204 183ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 405 641 953 1054163913251507Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 474 749 938 942 n/a 10141197SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 447 644 899 845 n/a 895 1173

TableF.5FCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsfromOtherInstitutionsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995


TableF.5NCareerProgressionofLife-SciencePhDsfromOtherInstitutionsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Numberin12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 114 84 139 190 100 95 172Part-timeemployed 141 71 139 174 272 177 158Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 115 177 61 137 138 223 299Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 14101099 958 742 719 633 674Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 1046 625 443 385 291 428 369Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 1183188422812304261026263425Otheracademicposition 496 241 328 589 357 775 735Industry 568 685 679 799 868 864 579Federallabsandothergovernment 763 565 331 305 470 382 271Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 337 190 208 304 280 205 203ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 2884287734873525406039254188Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 2800248429002325 n/a 25172939SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 2289197624511817 n/a 21462660PanelB:Numberin34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 37 179 47 89 47 41 146Part-timeemployed 111 82 71 132 193 296 213Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 133 150 145 63 114 308 348Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 197815911572148112401014 850Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 856 872 554 434 198 452 572Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 216 573 961 1135120815791771Otheracademicposition 258 277 369 483 624 569 779Industry 615 817 955 120211411059 995Federallabsandothergovernment 649 605 579 557 661 435 480Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 287 483 281 361 356 298 234ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&E


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Numberin56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 24 120 143 46 72 97 141Part-timeemployed 102 122 78 185 85 222 309Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 60 241 137 217 197 269 368Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1478218416451647152614541303Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 611 1007 668 525 501 415 535Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 73 279 381 561 511 704 790Otheracademicposition 124 215 277 327 569 421 582Industry 426 746 10181143157213861172Federallabsandothergovernment 650 944 800 570 555 594 535Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 236 516 354 357 393 253 312ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 1559223624372693338430453252Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1470244818971695 n/a 17831831SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 1248192115711383 n/a 15921607PanelD:Numberin78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 25 33 49 73 32 66 69Part-timeemployed 44 85 91 130 229 188 191Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 97 149 140 263 240 372 316Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1314223018211949193816631621Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 461 730 715 560 444 319 530Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 24 134 151 111 325 308 322Otheracademicposition 49 138 223 305 508 562 386Industry 377 643 10251223150212541305Federallabsandothergovernment 401 726 597 615 583 715 572Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 126 339 450 405 506 342 326ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Numberin910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 11 66 95 69 15 77 26Part-timeemployed 34 70 100 177 157 129 139Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 90 156 219 196 219 436 292Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1170151420681652178717041656Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 352 634 1037 568 404 554 305Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 7 49 49 87 134 201 204Otheracademicposition 30 32 327 201 289 369 550Industry 334 464 639 1060128014701374Federallabsandothergovernment 367 722 1114 734 732 716 755Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 84 196 361 440 468 360 405ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 952 150319501950245330092838Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 972 139316631542 n/a 17981671SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 819 105513081237 n/a 16011491

TableF.6FCareerProgressionofNonbiomedicalLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995


TableF.6NCareerProgressionofNonbiomedicalLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Numberin12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 23 31 66 105 31 43 12Part-timeemployed 38 11 48 105 146 39 78Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 45 56 26 79 37 76 151Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 615 547 573 562 426 259 307Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 542 218 243 163 135 237 178Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 138 290 280 438 460 643 632Otheracademicposition 125 107 78 270 57 228 131Industry 258 364 344 313 492 278 221Federallabsandothergovernment 423 374 222 227 263 256 103Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 49 57 55 49 89 60 111ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 890 879 914 1238132412111047Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 833 751 908 758 n/a 743 688SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 615 512 561 509 n/a 542 520PanelB:Numberin34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 4 74 25 34 13 17 32Part-timeemployed 17 23 21 102 84 129 59Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 22 41 75 33 42 69 88Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 849 609 508 818 635 426 270Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 338 328 264 71 92 108 230Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 35 41 86 204 159 291 462Otheracademicposition 59 108 180 205 171 185 267Industry 298 442 533 493 434 355 305Federallabsandothergovernment 337 366 341 229 419 254 271Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 17 35 56 38 112 81 97ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&E

position)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 737 638 1051116711631007 997Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 823 704 657 918 n/a 382 843SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 671 601 387 720 n/a 254 639



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Numberin56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 12 21 35 0 25 18 95Part-timeemployed 45 36 25 34 23 124 124Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 30 94 13 105 26 117 70Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 519 688 527 620 763 568 447Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 312 487 268 267 180 142 48Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 16 59 2 102 57 108 213Otheracademicposition 14 26 131 70 141 94 179Industry 154 274 341 339 436 468 348Federallabsandothergovernment 416 514 493 283 337 216 279Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 28 81 86 86 93 110 38ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 663 662 834 758 1256 883 1064Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 539 882 517 580 n/a 570 493SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 458 650 399 409 n/a 429 354PanelD:Numberin78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 0 24 18 31 4 30 25Part-timeemployed 5 24 5 23 124 51 35Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 55 37 33 77 121 178 161Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 629 922 617 636 782 549 489Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 190 264 268 217 117 168 206Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 5 29 2 37 44 54 58Otheracademicposition 8 47 55 66 203 169 96Industry 138 265 429 507 595 369 387Federallabsandothergovernment 233 369 330 356 295 421 219Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 32 60 70 116 59 99 116ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)

2088

position)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 545 746 557 874 11201092 823Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 637 820 524 563 n/a 525 577SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 528 656 405 374 n/a 380 510



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Numberin910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 13 21 24 12 0 43 0Part-timeemployed 11 12 31 64 46 37 41Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 43 56 124 91 58 159 99Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 587 456 674 483 733 671 547Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 205 280 658 240 197 276 117Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 3 5 6 10 74 34 53Otheracademicposition 18 23 101 86 90 113 198Industry 128 137 216 340 274 428 349Federallabsandothergovernment 236 434 650 458 330 397 393Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 18 34 75 74 164 83 138ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 533 589 751 693 865 10131024Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 465 498 645 472 n/a 575 571SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 393 330 473 394 n/a 430 507

TableF.7FCareerProgressionofBiomedicalLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995



SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995


TableF.7NCareerProgressionofBiomedicalLife-SciencePhDsUSCitizensandPermanentResidents

SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelA:Numberin12YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 121 144 110 115 80 52 199Part-timeemployed 157 117 174 131 154 182 124Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 91 164 52 183 129 215 168Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1321 926 774 394 576 619 546Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 616 465 287 347 180 249 291Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 1521255731673060368133094348Otheracademicposition 487 215 461 501 517 740 900Industry 401 419 562 642 521 797 524Federallabsandothergovernment 441 309 208 257 334 295 256Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 363 264 303 389 292 228 182ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 3073333542833894476945885084Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 2974296834052675 n/a 29023620SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 2573250130952218 n/a 26373379PanelB:Numberin34YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 66 136 102 98 62 47 141Part-timeemployed 135 90 102 103 211 265 229Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 157 144 82 61 118 318 370Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 18351727179311991059 966 892Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 671 655 367 420 155 434 427Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 349 815 13701538167120612102Otheracademicposition 320 310 463 568 803 686 839Industry 408 565 756 1311115910641127Federallabsandothergovernment 421 399 395 425 383 298 385Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 373 570 327 483 375 274 216ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&E


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelC:Numberin56YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 31 111 117 54 67 87 71Part-timeemployed 121 181 124 267 94 184 274Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 72 202 159 184 220 224 390Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1692240020641953148215991369Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 464 717 515 338 471 334 589Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 78 324 514 713 782 893 958Otheracademicposition 163 281 407 458 720 527 799Industry 395 631 873 1318153813521224Federallabsandothergovernment 389 551 469 517 397 562 354Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 272 532 493 431 470 395 358ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 1523253828423257373538193619Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 1732263225502108 n/a 21662357SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 1468216422261862 n/a 20252158PanelD:Numberin78YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 36 71 51 63 28 36 88Part-timeemployed 70 95 164 133 176 257 192Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 66 162 134 244 308 285 204Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1267207422822289208119442032Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 391 666 530 414 371 277 362Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 40 162 183 119 393 406 407Otheracademicposition 69 136 278 425 626 646 498Industry 313 507 829 1076153013681347Federallabsandothergovernment 281 501 465 473 435 449 551Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 169 411 579 477 594 405 441ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)

6073


SurveyYear1973197719811985198919931995

PanelE:Numberin910YearCohortNotinFull-timeS&EWorkForceUnemployedandseekingposition 17 56 104 69 41 68 44Part-timeemployed 61 117 149 168 231 147 201Workingoutsidescienceandengineering 72 168 162 206 238 400 241Full-timeemployedinS&EfieldTenure-trackfacultyposition@PhDInstitutions 1085181123822082227219172178Tenure-trackfacultyposition@OtherInst 296 511 498 503 311 453 305Postdoctotalappointments(inanysector) 4 59 53 122 97 230 175Otheracademicposition 29 40 296 339 401 461 547Industry 302 480 631 981 161014331533Federallabsandothergovernment 249 443 610 481 565 567 489Otherjobs(includingself-employed) 144 243 397 602 527 481 450ResearchInvolvement(infull-timeS&Eposition)Engagedprimarilyinresearch 824 155521522311322733213321Supportedbyfederalgrants/contracts 981 164419562012n/a 22372297SupportedbyHHS,NSF,and/orUSDA 873 136917341688n/a 20662157

TableF.8NumberofCitizenandPermanentResidentLife-SciencePhDsbysector,19731995

1973 1977 1981 1985 1989 1993 1995Unemployedandseeking 343 869 879 1063 852 1414 1682Part-timeemployment 809 940 1463 2164 3016 4581 4447WorkingoutsideS&E 951 1775 1606 3392 4355 6378 6457Tenure-trackfaculty:PhD-grantinginst.

1368518957239232783831857 32908 34257

Tenure-trackfaculty:otherinst. 4817 6316 7469 8048 8191 9272 10014Postdoctoralappointments 2202 4402 5772 6461 7567 8316 9851Otheracademicappointments 1401 1438 3062 4251 5734 6532 7828Industry 3547 5938 88451330817724 20517 21185Federallabs&othergov't 4406 6174 7503 847410160 10675 11143Self-employed&others 1835 3117 4550 6035 7196 7733 8120TotalPhDsinworkforce 3399649926650728103496652103920114984

AppendixGGettingStartedontheWorldWideWeb:WebSitesofInteresttoYoungScientistsThislistisastartingpointforreaderswhowishtosearchtheInternetforinformationrelevanttothisreport.Itisneithercompletenorfullyrepresentative.Newsitesopendaily,andsitesarediscontinuedwithoutnotice.Inclusioninthefollowinglistdoesnotnecessarilyimplyendorsementbythecommitteeoftheinformationfoundatthesite.

SiteswithaFocusonYoungScientists

NationalAcademyofSciencesCareerPlanningCenter:http://www.nas.edu/cpc/index.html

Science'sNextWave:http://nextwave.org

YoungScientists'Network:http://www.edoc.com/jrl-bin/wilma/ema.800726377.htm[electronicnewsletter]http://www.physics.uiuc.edu/ysn/[archivesandotherinformation]

NetworkofEmergingScientists:http://pegasus.uthct.edu/nes/nes.html

PandoraSciencePolicySite:http://www.mit.edu:8001/afs/athena.mit.edu/user/e/r/erw/public/pandoralid.html

NetworkingandEducationSites

NetworkingontheNetwork:http://weber.ucsd.edu/pagre/network.html

PrinciplesofProteinStructure:http://www.cryst.bbk.ac.uk/pps/index.html

http://www.cryst.bbk.ac.uk/pps/index.htmlhttp://pdb.pdb.bnl.gov/pps/index.html(usmirrorsite)

GlobewideNetworkAcademy:http://www.gnacademy.org

TheGlycoproteinNetworkandelectronicconferencing:http://bellatrix.pcl.ox.ac.uk/tgn/Welcome.html

BioMOO:http://bioinfo.weizmann.ac.il/biomoo

ScientificSocieties

NationalAcademyofSciences(NAS):http://www.nas.edu

FederationofAmericanSocietiesforExperimentalBiology(FASEB):http://www.faseb.org

AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(AAAS):http://www.aaas.org

AssociationforWomeninScience(AWIS):http://www.awis.org

AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA):http://www.apa.org

AmericanSocietyforMicrobiology(ASM):http://www.asmusa.org

SocietyforNeuroscience(SN):http://www.sfn.org

AmericanSocietyforCellBiology(ASCB):http://www.ascb.org

Links:TheWorldofScience(hotlinkstoAmericanChemicalSociety,andsoon)http://www.annurev.org/general/univrsty.htm

TheWorldWideWebVirtualLibraryofBiologySocietiesandOrganizations:http://golgi.harvard.edu/afagen/depts/orgs.html

AmericanSocietyofPlantPhysiologists

http://aspp.org

NationalandLocalOrganizationsofGraduateStudentsandPostdoctoralFellows

PostdoctoralScientistsAssociation(PSA)atUniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco:http://saa49.ucsf.edu/psa/

NationalAssociationofGraduate-ProfessionalStudents:http://nagps.varesearch.com/nagps/nagps-hp.html

GovernmentSites

NationalInstitutesofHealth:http://www.nih.gov/

NationalScienceFoundation:http://www.nsf.gov/

U.S.Dept.ofAgriculture:http://www.usda.gov/

DepartmentofEnergy:http://www.doe.gov/

CareerInformation(joblistingsandrelatedinformation)

AlternativeCareersinBiosciences:http://www.mbb.yale.edu/acb/

BiowebCareerCenter:http://www.bioweb.com/

BioOnLine:http://www.bio.com/hr/hr_index.html

EmploymentLinksfortheBiomedicalStudent:http://www.medcor.mcgill.ca/expmed/docs/elbs.html

EducationandCareersinScienceandTechnology-AlfredSloanFoundation:http://www.sloan.org/education/index.html

MedSearchAmerica(mostlyhealthcare-relatedfields):http://www.medsearch.com/

trends in the early careers of life scientists

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