trends in employment how many hours weekly do we work for pay? –men = 48 (increases with # of...
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Trends in Employment• How many hours weekly do we work for
pay?– Men = 48 (increases with # of kids)– Women = 39 (decreases if married)
• Are we working for pay more hours per week now compared to 50 years ago?– Men are not– Women are
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Trends in Women’s Employment
Women who work
Mothers with children under 6 who work
Mothers with children age 7-18 who work
1960 199737% 60%
19% 63%
39% 75%
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Work and Family – Combining Roles
• Role is a set of expected behaviors according to your social status.
• Role Strain occurs when fulfilling your role conflicts with fulfilling another role. (For example worker and parent.) Often involves putting precedence one role over another.
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Role Strain - Fathers• Good provider role-men
traditionally expected to be primary breadwinner
• If men assume main role in family is provider– Can feel inadequate if can’t
provide
– Can feel he’s done his part if he’s a good provider, therefore does not assume other roles
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Role Strain - Fathers
• Majority of bosses do not believe parental leave, part time work or flexible hours are appropriate for men
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Role Strain – Fathers With Working Wives
• Fathers in dual income households worked an average of 2 hours less per week than fathers in single income households– Earned 20% less in salary
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Role Strain - Mothers
• Should women have jobs?
• Should mothers have jobs?
• What is a mother’s role anyway?
• Can you fulfill the role of mother and employee well?
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Role Strain – Mothers at Home• Homemaker role - Traditionally
women were responsible for child rearing and household work
• Women who assume role feel undervalued
• 60 % stay at home moms say main source of stress is feeling unappreciated by society
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Role Strain – Mothers Working Full Time
• Survey of lawyers 15 years after graduation found women with children earned 40% less than men (Wood,
Corcoran & Courant) .
– Was pay gap due to taking long maternity leave?• NO: Avg unpaid maternity leave was 3 months
– Was pay gap due to working part time?• NO: 75% moms worked full time after maternity leave, only a quarter
of the moms had temporarily worked part time (avg 10 months)
– What is the reason?
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Women’s Experience in Workplace
• Women without children earn 90% salary of men in same job with same education level
• Women with children earn 70% of salary of men in same job with same education level
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Role Strain – Mothers Working Part Time
• Fewer hours and lower wages but you get to keep your job– Sacrifice seniority and benefits and
perks
• Half of women who do this say workload is the same, 10% say workload increased
• Mistrust and resentment of employers and fellow employees
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The Mommy Tax
• Average working mother of two forfeits half of her potential lifetime earnings (Joshi, ’91)
• Reduced earnings including retirement is greater than $1 million for college educated mothers (O’Neill, ’94)
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Mother’s Workforce Participation
• US is among the lowest in developed countries for college educated mothers
– Are they really choosing to not to work?
– Would they keep working if they employers had opportunities for reduced or more flexible hours?
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Women’s Birthplace Participation
• About 20% of women forgo motherhood thesedays compared to less than 10% in the 1950’s
– Are they really choosing not to have children?
• Survey of middle aged childless women when they were in their 20’s found that half of them said they wanted and intended to have children
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The Second Shift• Working wives spend twice as much time
on housework as working husbands
– Men’s time on housework remains stable whether married, single or a parent (22 hrs/wk)
– Women’s time on housework increases• By 10 hours per week when she marries or has a
child (32 hrs/wk to 42 hrs/wk)
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Why is there a Second Shift?• Resource theory– Women have
less power often making less money, must compensate
• Ideological perspective – following traditional gender roles of “women’s work”
• Rational investment perspective – divide labor according to efficiency
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Men’s Perceptions in Dual-Career Families
• Most men say wives’ employment is of secondary importance in family
• However, most men say they support their spouse’s working– Actual measures of support from husbands
(housework, emotional concern, etc) are significantly lower than wives
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Brett & Yogev (1988) Restructuring Study
Restructuring is measured by:– Times of arrival/departure for work dictated by
family?
– Rearrange work to be at home at certain times?
– Limit late nights, weekend work & travel?
– Make special arrangements to attend to child or spouse’s needs?
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Who is Restructuring & Why?
• MEN restructured when
– Wives had high status job
– Wives were feeling low in self-efficacy
• WOMEN restructured when– Had young children
– Husband had job requiring long hours
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Effect of Restructuring on Self-Efficacy
• Self-efficacy- feelings of confidence & effectiveness– Do you feel confident in
solving problems?– Are things going your
way?– Can you cope
effectively with change?– Are you on top of
things?
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Effect of Restructuring on Self-Efficacy
• WOMEN- Self-efficacy unaffected by restructuring.
• MEN- Restructuring associated with low self-efficacy.
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Men’s Marital Satisfaction in Dual-Career Families
• Men’s marital satisfaction suffers when– Wife has more education
– Wife has higher job status
– Wife earns higher income
– Wife has job in male-dominated field
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Marital Satisfaction in Dual Career Families
• HIGH when men work full time, women work part time
• LOWEST when at least one partner works odd hours, overtime hours, or a second job
• HIGH when couples genuinely agree on division of labor (If both full time, highest when men share housework equally)
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Children with Working Mothers • For preschool children, most
studies find no differences in psychological adjustment and school achievement as long as children are in high quality day care
• Adolescent girls exhibit better social adjustment, extraversion & independence