The AOU Check-list (AOU 1998) and the ABA Checklist (ABA2002) concentrate on those few species considered establishedand thereby countable on lists; neither checklist attempts toinclude all the exotic birds that have been reported in NorthAmerica. The sixth edition (2002) of the ABA Checklist contains18 exoticsjust 2% of the 921 species included. In Florida,however, attention is paid to exotics, partly because it is impor-tant to document any impacts on native species or ecosystems,on animal husbandry or commercial agriculture, or on humanhealth. Some exoticsespecially feral hogs (Sus scrofa) and sev-eral species of plantsare causing severe environmental dam-age in the state. Impacts from exotic birds appear to be muchmore benign, but more study is needed. As Robertson andWoolfenden (1992) pointed out, ... it seems the exotic avifau-nal element is in Florida to stay, and we need to know muchmore about it. Smith and Smith (1993) added, If birders reallycare about birds and the environment, then they should careabout the identity and impact of exotics, too.

Owre (1973) described the manner in which exotic birdsarrived in Florida and the wholesale habitat alteration that hasenabled them to survive (and in a few cases, to thrive) in thestate. His list of exotics (Owre 1973) contained 26 species,including two (Black-bellied Whistling-Duck and White-winged Dove) that also occur naturally. Nearly 20 years later,Robertson and Woolfenden (1992) compiled the first list that

attempted to include all exotic birds reported to be at liberty in the state. Theirlist totaled 146 species, broken down into 11 species they considered to be estab-lished, 16 considered probably unestablished, and 119 considered non-estab-lished. Stevenson and Anderson (1994) added several species that post-dated orwere overlooked by Robertson and Woolfenden (1992), and they considered 20exotics to be established in the state. James (1997) summarized Floridas exoticavifauna based on the preceding publications and updated information on theimportation of cage birds.

For the past 12 years, I have maintained a list of Floridas exotic birdsa listthat now exceeds 200 species (see pp. 366367). This list includes several species

362 B I R D I N G A U G U S T 2 0 0 4

T R A S H B I R D S

Bill PrantyAvian Ecology Lab

Archbold Biological Station

123 Main Drive

Venus FL 33960

billpranty@hotmail.com

A Preliminary Checklist

The term exotic refers toany plant or animal thatoccurs in an area to which

it is not native, as a result

of accidental or deliber-

ate release by humans.

Several exotic bird

species, such as Ring-

necked Pheasant,

Rock Pigeon, Euro-

pean Starling, and

House Sparrow, are

familiar to ABA birders.

But these four barely scratch the

surface of the exotic avifauna that

has occurred in North America.

W W W . A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G 363

When discovered in Miami in thelate 1940s, Spot-breasted Ori-oles (native to Mexico and Cen-tral America) were misidentifiedas Lichtensteins [Altamira] Ori-oles. Perhaps surprisingly, Spot-breasted Orioles have never beenstudied formally in Florida, andlittle is known about their habits.The population expanded rapidlyin numbers and range throughthe 1950s and 1960s, with strag-glers occurring north to CocoaBeach (Cruickshank 1980, Steven-son and Anderson 1994). Begin-ning in the mid-1970s, thepopulation declined drasticallyfrom unknown causes and hasnever recovered (Pranty 2002).Wakodahatchee Wetlands, Florida;January 2004. James A. Neiger.

B I R D I N G A U G U S T 2 0 0 4364

(e.g., West Indian Whistling-Duck, severalraptors, Inca Dove, Great Kiskadee, CubanGrassquit, and Red-legged Honeycreeper)that may represent natural vagrants ratherthan escapees. However, they are includedhere because their provenance is unknownand they can or do occur in captivity inFlorida. Between January 1993 and December2003, 41 new exotics were reported to be atliberty in Florida (Table 1), an average ofnearly four species per year. With literallyhundreds of bird species kept in captivity(Long 1981, ISIS 2003), it seems likely thatnew species will continue to escape or bereleased into Florida. The cessation of impor-tation of huge numbers of wild-caught parrotsfrom the tropics due to the Wild Bird Conser-vation Act of 1992 may have stemmed theflow of new psittacids into the state (James1997), although most of these species are stillfound in aviculture. Today, only one-third ofFloridas exotics are psittacids; the majority ofthe others include waterfowl, gamebirds, andfinchesspecies that, for the most part,remain legal to import (although intentionalrelease of exotics generally is a violation ofstate law).

Except for the Scarlet Ibis, which is treatedas a native vagrant on the ABA and Floridalists, only those species represented entirely byexotic populations or individuals are discussedin this article. Several other species representedby both native and exotic populations are notdiscussed. In addition to the Black-belliedWhistling-Duck and White-winged Dove men-tioned above, species excluded from consider-ation here include Canada Goose, Mallard,White-cheeked Pintail, Northern Bobwhite, Greater Flamingo,Snowy Owl, Florida Scrub-Jay, and Yellow-faced Grassquit. Insome ways, the populations of Whooping Cranes that are beingreintroduced into Florida could be considered exotics. Alsoexcluded from discussion are tentative identifications (e.g.,Tamaulipas Crow) and apparent misidentifications (e.g.,Eurasian Jackdaw, Altamira Oriole).

At least 97 exotic birds in Florida have been documentedby archived photographic or specimen evidence, which rep-resents slightly less than half of all species reported outsideof captivity in the state. Of the unverifiable species, somedoubtless were misidentified; very few of Floridas exoticbirds have been described formally in the U.S. ornithologicalor birding literature. The identification of exotics often isuncertain, and in some cases it may not be possible due to

any of the following factors: 1) Few observers have extensiveexperience with confusing groups such as Aratinga para-keets, Euplectes bishops, or Lonchura munias, mannikins,and silverbills; 2) Standard North American field guides fre-quently are insufficient for conclusive identification becausemany potential species are excludedfor instance, illustrat-ing the Orange Bishop but not the very similar Red Bishop;3) Some birds may be artificial (i.e., avicultural) colormorphs (e.g., blue Rose-ringed Parakeets or white Java Spar-rows) that are not illustrated in any book; and 4) Some birdsmay be captive- or wild-bred hybrids (e.g., Pranty and Voren2003; see figure, p. 369). In Table 2, the English names ofspecies that can be verified by archived photographic orspecimen evidence are identified with a dagger (). Speciesthat reportedly have bred in Florida outside of captivity are

F L O R I D A E X O T I C S

Table 1. New exotics reported in Florida, 19932003. Taxonomy and nomenclature follow AOU(1998) and supplements through 2003, or Clements (2000). Latin names are provided in Table 2.Year Number of Species Species1993 4 Coscoroba Swan, White Stork, Eurasian Spoonbill,

Black-headed Parrot1994 7 Common Shelduck, Woolly-necked Stork,

Schalows Turaco, Wreathed Hornbill,Silvery-cheeked Hornbill, Common Raven,Orange Bishop

1995 2 Bar-headed Goose, Ringed Kingfisher1996 1 Purple Swamphen1997 0 1998 4 Great White Pelican, Abdims Stork, Black Bulbul,

Village Weaver1999 5 Golden Pheasant, Black Crowned-Crane,

Dusky Lory, African Gray Hornbill, Tricolored Munia2000 5 Philippine Duck, Sacred Ibis, Malabar Parakeet,

Sun/Jandaya Parakeet, Knysna Turaco2001 6 Pink-backed Pelican, Red-breasted Parakeet,

Red-throated Parakeet, Red-and-green Macaw,House Crow, Bronze Mannikin

2002 2 Trumpeter Swan, Rosy-crested Pochard,

Lady Amhersts x Golden Pheasant2003 5 Gray Partridge, Scaly-headed Parrot,

White-necked Raven, Superb Starling,Red-legged Honeycreeper

W W W . A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G 365

identified with an asterisk (*);note, however, that few breedingobservations are verifiable.

Eleven species are considered bythe Florida Ornithological SocietyRecords Committee to be estab-lished in the state (Bowman 2000)and are so indicated in Table 2.Species that formerly bred, i.e.,extirpated species, are likewiseindicated in Table 2; some of thesespecies were represented by just asingle breeding attempt, whereasothers bred in numbers for severalyears. The reasons for extirpationvary; in some instances foundingpopulations of many species ap-parently were too small to survivemortality or recapture, whereas inother cases species evidently couldnot tolerate Floridas environment. Exotic gamebirds in par-ticular seem unable to survive in the Southeast (see Sibley2000), perhaps due to unsuitable climate, soil, or vegeta-tional communities. I have provided population data for the37 exotics that are known or presumed to be breeding inFlorida at the present time. These data are necessarilycoarse, because so little is known about the breeding statusof most species. Most population data were obtained fromrecent Christmas Bird Counts (see Pranty 2002). Other datawere taken from Pranty and Garrett (2003) and Pranty and

During spring 2003, Red-legged Honeycreepers(native from Mexico south to Brazil) were discov-ered in Floridasingles at Biscayne National Parkin March and Dry Tortugas National Park in April.Two more honeycreeper records surfaced latersingles at Cape Florida State Park in January 2004and Everglades National Park the following month.Considering that Red-legged Honeycreeper hadnever been observed in the ABA Area previously,these four observationsall of males in alternateplumagewere extraordinary. Unfortunately, Red-legged Honeycreepers are kept by aviculturists inFlorida, which casts doubt on the provenance ofthese non-captive individuals. One Miami avicultur-ist reportedly imports 200300 honeycreepers everythree months (fide L. Manfredi, personal communi-cation). Some Mexican populations are migratory(Howell and Webb 1995), while the Cuban popula-tion may have been introduced (AOU 1998, Raffaeleet al. 1998). Although cagebirds in Florida havenever been known to fly to offshore islands afterthey escape, the Florida Ornithological SocietyRecords Committee rejected the records as repre-senting natural vagrants (R. Bowman, personalcommunication). The ABA Checklist Committee hasyet to vote on the issue. Boca Chita Key, BiscayneNational Park, Florida; 27 March 2003. Larry Manfredi.

Epps (2002), field observations pub-lished in Florida Field Naturalist, sight-ings by reliable observers posted to anyof the several internet birding lists thatserve the state, or personal communica-tion with selected birders or ornitholo-gists. From these data, I have estimatedrough numbers of (presumed) breedingpairs for each species, factoring in thelikelihood that non-breeding individu-als constitute perhaps 2550% of allindividuals. Estimates are as follows: 1pair (used for one species, HouseCrow),

B I R D I N G A U G U S T 2 0 0 4366

Spotted Nothura (Nothura maculosa). White-faced Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna viduata).West Indian Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna arborea).* Mute Swan (Cygnus olor).

W W W . A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G 367

* Orange-fronted Parakeet (Aratinga canicularis). Extirpated.Peach-fronted Parakeet (Aratinga aurea).* Brown-throated Parakeet (Aratinga pertinax). Extirpated. Gray Parrot (Psittacus erithacus).* Rueppells Parrot (Poicephalus rueppellii). Extirpated.* Senegal Parrot (Poicephalus senegalus). Extirpated.Hyacinth Macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus).* Chestnut-fronted Macaw (Ara severa). 2599 pairs.Golden-collared Macaw (Propyrrhura auricollis).Red-shouldered Macaw (Diopsittaca nobilis).Military Macaw (Ara militaris).Red-and-green Macaw (Ara chloroptera). Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao).* Blue-and-yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna).

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F L O R I D A E X O T I C S

Black Swans (native to Australia) have been released into many areas of the world toprovide scenic beauty. Others have escaped from captivity. In Florida, small breedingpopulations have been present around Lakeland and Orlando since the 1980s, andescapees have been seen in recent years at Jacksonville and St. Petersburg. Lake Eola,Orlando, Florida; 28 April 2001. Bill Pranty.

The Muscovy Duck (native to Middle America from Mexico to Brazil) is one of 11 countable exotics on the official Florida bird list. Muscovy Ducks are among the most widespread of exoticsin Florida, occurring in nearly all urban areas. To benefit hunters, the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission released wild-caught Muscovy Ducks from Venezuela into the state during19671971, but these apparently did not survive. However, feral stock has been released into residential areas throughout Florida, and Muscovy Ducks are now ubiquitous in the state. Thepopulation presumably numbers in the tens of thousands of individuals, but the species wasnt included on CBCs until 2002. During the 20022003 season 2,741 Muscovy Ducks were foundon 36 Florida CBCs. Most individuals in the state bear little resemblance to wild birds that occur primarily south of the ABA Area. Muscovy Ducks hybridize with feral Mallards in Florida, but theoffspring are sterile (Donkin 1989). This Muscovy hen and brood of 14 just-hatched ducklings were at a suburb of Tampa. Brandon, Florida; 19 May 2000. Bill Pranty.

This Philippine Duck (endemic to the Philippine Islands) was found in a subur-ban area southwest of Fort Lauderdale, a site now known for its PurpleSwamphens. Several other exotic waterfowl species, such as Egyptian Goose,have been seen in the area, along with vagrant Masked Ducksapparently notkept in captivityand Black-bellied Whistling-Ducks that could represent eithernative individuals or escaped captives. Confusion over the provenance of speciesin the ABA Area may be most obvious in waterfowl species in which some indi-viduals may stray naturally to the New World while others escape fromaviculture. Pembroke Pines, Florida; Spring 2000. Kevin Schnitzius.

Above: Strangely, four species of exoticstorks have been reported in Florida outside of captivity. One of these speciesis Abdims Stork (native to Africa). Inlate 1998 and early 1999, three appar-ently different individualsof which atleast one was bandedwere observedin widely separated spots in southwest-ern Florida. Although one Abdims Storkpurportedly had been present on SanibelIsland for more than a year, none wasreported after April 1999. Local escapeessuch as these typically persist for severalmonths to a year or more, and then dis-appear. Sanibel Island, Florida; 20 January1999. Max Parker.

Right: The Scarlet Ibis (native toTrinidad and northern South America)is considered a native species by the AOU (1998), ABA (2002), and FOSRC (Bowman 2000), but the prove-nance of all records in the ABA Area is suspect. Because at least a majority of the Scarlet Ibises reported inFlorida are escapees or hybrids with White Ibis, I have placed the species on the exotic list. The nearest wildScarlet Ibises occur on Trinidad, over 1,900 kilometers south of Florida, and these show little or no inci-dence of vagrancy. All reports of Scarlet Ibis from Cuba have occurred since the 1950s (Raffaele et al. 1998)and these may represent dispersed escapees from Florida. In 1961, 22 Scarlet Ibis eggs from Trinidad wereplaced in White Ibis nests at Miami. Seventeen Scarlet Ibises fledged from these nests, and the birds subse-quently hybridized with White Ibises. Hybrids are varying shades of pink, orange, or red, compared to thedeep scarlet of Scarlet Ibises. Pure Scarlet Ibises have escaped from captivity; virtually every animalexhibit in Florida contains this species. The scarletlike ibis shown herea female in breeding condition;note the throat pouchis a rich reddish-orange color and probably is a hybrid, although Stevenson andAnderson (1994) caution that the plumage coloration of escaped Scarlet Ibises may become diluted fromdietary changes. Fort Myers, Florida; 18 June 1998. Ken Tracey.

W W W . A M E R I C A N B I R D I N G . O R G 369

Far Right: Aviculturists seem to derive great pleasure from crossing species. This unusual pheasant, a maleGolden Pheasant (native to China)x Lady Amhersts Pheasant (native to China and Tibet) hybrid, wasfound in a Miami yard in January 2002. The bird resembles a Lady Amhersts Pheasant but has the redunderparts of a Golden Pheasant. The yellow sides to the breast are not found on either species, being redin Golden Pheasant and white in Lady Amhersts Pheasant. Naturalized populations of both species occurand hybridize in the U.K. The following website includes more information and photographs of pure andhybrid pheasants that might be observed in the wild in Florida: .Miami, Florida; January 2002. Liliam Regalado.

Below: These two Sacred Ibises (native to Africa) are proof that any species kept in zoos or otherfacilities may be seen outside of captivity. These individuals represent the first published record ofSacred Ibis in Florida, but there have been subsequent observations of multiple birds south ofMiami. Given the abundance of wading bird colonies in southeastern Florida, it would not be sur-prising if Sacred Ibis nesting reports start to surface over the next several years. The videotape fromwhich this image was taken probably documents the first time that Sacred Ibis and Sandhill Cranehave been observed together! West Palm Beach, Florida; 13 August 2000. Peter Merritt.

Above: The Black-hooded Parakeet (native to central South America) may be thenext exotic added to the official Florida bird list. Since the first observation of one in1969, Black-hooded Parakeets have greatly increased their range and numbers in thestate. Their population exceeds 850 individuals, most of which occur along the centralGulf coast, especially in the St. Petersburg area (Pranty and Lovell 2004). Smaller pop-ulations are found at Fort Lauderdale and St. Augustine. Black-hooded Parakeets areeasily identified by their dark hoods, bluish breast patch, and red thighs. St. Peters-burg, Florida; 30 March 2003. Lee F. Snyder.

Left: During 19591962, several Southern Lapwings (native to South America) wereobserved in the southern half of the Florida peninsula, and two of these were collected(Stevenson and Anderson 1994). All are presumed to have been escapees. There wereno subsequent Florida reports until two individuals were found in northern Florida inearly 2003. The Southern Lapwing complex may comprise two species, separated intothe cayennensis group to the north and the chilensis group to the south; meanwhile,the cayennensis group consists of two subspecies, cayennensis and lampronotus (A.Jaramillo, personal communication). The more northerly cayennensis is expanding itsrange northward into Central America and may eventually reach the ABA Area. How-ever, the bird shown here is of the lampronotus subspecies, which, along with theyellow band on this bird, suggests that it is an escapee. Columbia County, Florida;21 April 2003. Lloyd Morrison.

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Far Right: The Purple Swamphen (native to much of the Old World) is one of the few exotics in Florida that has been studied to some degree. Purple Swamphens were discovered along theeastern edge of the Everglades at Pembroke Pines around December 1996. During the 1990s, a few swamphens apparently escaped from one or two local aviculturists. By February 1999 theynumbered at least 135 individuals, and breeding has been observed nearly year-round since then. Dispersal from the introduction site has been rapid: Purple Swamphens seem to occupy morethan two million acres of southern Florida wetlands, including Big Cypress Swamp, Lake Okeechobee, and the Everglades. Purple Swamphens are considered primarily vegetarians, but furtherstudy of feeding habits in Florida is needed. Pranty et al. (2000) and Pranty (2001) provide additional information about the Florida population. Most swamphens in the state appear to be ofthe subspecies P. p. poliocephalus, a gray-headed race native to the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia (Pranty et al. 2000, Kratter et al. 2002). However, a few individuals, such as the onein this photograph, appear to have bluish heads and may represent a separate subspecies; but note that lighting and viewing angle affect head color to some degree. One of the aviculturistswho owned swamphens had a gray-headed male and a blue-headed female that produced numerous young. If any of these potential intergrade swamphens joined the population, that couldexplain the apparent plumage differences noted. Pembroke Pines, Florida; Spring 2002. Dart Humeston.

Right: Seventy-seven of the worlds 352species of psittacids have been reportedoutside of captivity in Florida, and allbut the extinct Carolina Parakeet areexotics. Most psittacids have never bredin the state, and only three species cur-rently are considered to be establishedin the state (Bowman 2000). Red-rumped Parrots (native to southeast-ern Australia) have two subspecies.This individual, apparently of thenominate subspecies, is the onlyFlorida observation. Tampa, Florida;May 1986. Betty Wargo.

Above: In contrast to the rapid increase of the Common Myna population in Florida, the HillMyna (native to India, Indochina, China, and Pacific islands) has decreased in range and num-bers in the state. Discovered in Florida at West Palm Beach in 1968, Hill Mynas ranged south toHomestead. Currently, they are limited to the Miami area; the cause of the range contraction isnot known. Perhaps reflecting insufficient coverage in North American field guides, Commonand Hill Mynas are frequently misidentified in Florida. Both species have yellow or orangish soft-parts, including bare skin around the eyes, and white wing patches that are conspicuous inflight. Otherwise, Hill Mynas are entirely black, whereas Common Mynas have brown bodieswith blackish heads and primaries. The two species differ markedly in behavior. Common Mynasfrequently forage on the ground, and they nest in artificial cavities and inside lettering on build-ings. On the other hand, Hill Mynas are arboreal and nest primarily in natural cavities. Pinecrest,Florida; March 2002. Larry Manfredi.

Right: Troupials (native to South America) are believed to have been introduced into theWest Indies long ago. These orioles now occur on Puerto Rico, where they are locally com-mon; they also occur less commonly on some of the Lesser Antilles (Raffaele et al. 1998).The individual shown here represents the only verifiable record in Florida. Sanibel Island,Florida; Spring 1997. Doug Suitor.

Far Right: Corvids such as these House Crows (native to India) are not usually thought of as exotics, but several species are kept as pets or are displayed in zoos and other exhibits.These two individuals were discovered near Sarasota toward the end of 2001. They bred in 2003, when a nest with three nestlings was photographed in May. House Crows havespread from India and have colonized much of the Old World, in part by ridingships. These individuals (with a native Fish Crow, rear) appear to represent the firstrecord for the New World. Nokomis, Florida; 15 November 2002. Owen Comora.

Right: Of all the non-countable exotics in Florida, the Common Myna (native fromIran to southeast Asia) seemingly is the most numerous and wide-ranging. Mynaswere first found in the state atMiami in 1983 and now rangefairly continuously from WestPalm Beach to Key West, withscattered outposts at Clewis-ton, Sanford, and perhapselsewhere. Probably the onlyimpediment to the CommonMynas being added to theofficial Florida bird list as anestablished exotic is that nobirder or ornithologist has yetbeen willing to study the birdsin their primary habitatsparking lots and signs outsideshopping malls and fast-foodrestaurants in urban and sub-urban areas. Kendall, Florida; 31May 2003. John Boyd III.

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A population of Java Sparrows (native to islands of Oceania) was found at Coral Gables around 1960 and numbered up to 150 individuals in19681969 (Owre 1973). However, this population was extirpated by 1977(Stevenson and Anderson 1994). Java Sparrows no longer can be importedinto the U.S. (James 1997), although they are found in aviculture. Escapees,including white avicultural morphs, are frequently reported in Florida, butthey do not persist. This individual was one of two that built a nest in thegutter of a house, but both birds disappeared within three weeks. CocoaBeach, Florida; November 2000. Craig Chamberlin.

Bishops and widowbirds are small finches that are native to Africa. Com-mon in aviculture, several species have formed naturalized populations inthe New World (e.g., Yellow-crowned Bishop in Jamaica, Orange Bishop inCalifornia), but there are no breeding reports from Florida. Four species ofEuplectes have been reported in Florida, but only the Orange Bishop(native to Africa) has been photographically documented. This maleOrange Bishop was one of six birds that frequented a yard near Sarasotafor three months before they all disappeared. In a closely related species,the Red Bishop, males in alternate plumage have black chins and throats.South Venice, Florida; late 1999. Charles Sample.

F L O R I D A E X O T I C S

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