Transportation GeographyTransportation Geography

Some Introductory ConceptsSome Introductory Concepts

Transportation GeographyTransportation Geography• Transport geography separate discipline?Transport geography separate discipline?

• Primary concerns: Primary concerns:

• A. Networks- location, structure and A. Networks- location, structure and evolutionevolution

• B. Flows on networks : describing and B. Flows on networks : describing and predicting predicting

• C. Significance and impact of liberalization, C. Significance and impact of liberalization, cost changes, information and other cost changes, information and other technologies on movements and networkstechnologies on movements and networks

What is Transportation?What is Transportation?

• Movement?Movement?

• Flow?Flow?

• Physical only?Physical only?

• Useful to appreciate the French viewUseful to appreciate the French view

• Circulation – very broad Circulation – very broad conceptualization of transportationconceptualization of transportation

• Means all forms of movement and Means all forms of movement and communications communications

Transportation Revolution (s)?Transportation Revolution (s)?

• What comprises such a Revolution?What comprises such a Revolution?

• New and improved transport formsNew and improved transport forms

• Broader access to forms of transportBroader access to forms of transport

• Basic ingredients?Basic ingredients?

• Friction of Distance-Friction of Distance- decline in this value decline in this value

• AccessibilityAccessibility- ease and getting to and from - ease and getting to and from placesplaces

• Collapse or Telescoping of Travel Times-Collapse or Telescoping of Travel Times- concept of time-space convergenceconcept of time-space convergence

Second Transport Revolution?Second Transport Revolution?

• Why? Transport in advanced capitalist Why? Transport in advanced capitalist economies entering a new era: technological economies entering a new era: technological innovationinnovation

• Advances in info technology are creating fresh Advances in info technology are creating fresh opportunitiesopportunities

• Modernizing infrastructure: ERP and congestion Modernizing infrastructure: ERP and congestion pricing, intelligent systemspricing, intelligent systems

• Rethinking transport policiesRethinking transport policies• IT widely regarded as key to change in IT widely regarded as key to change in

economy, environment and safety of all modeseconomy, environment and safety of all modes

Two Revolutions?Two Revolutions?

• Electronic revolution in control of vehicles Electronic revolution in control of vehicles and infrastructure and cargoand infrastructure and cargo

• Revolution in appreciation of assigning Revolution in appreciation of assigning uses of space in urban areas (hubs)uses of space in urban areas (hubs)

• This next revolution will last well into 21This next revolution will last well into 21stst CenturyCentury

• Economic and social institutions must Economic and social institutions must adapt to technological progressadapt to technological progress

• Policy makers already seeking guidance Policy makers already seeking guidance and informationand information

Cumulative Modal Contribution Cumulative Modal Contribution to Economic Opportunitiesto Economic Opportunities

HorsesMaritime shipping

Canal shipping

Railways

Roads Air

Telecommunications

1750 1775 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050

Econ

om

ic O

pp

ort

un

itie

s

Industrial Revolution Mass Production

Globalization

Economic Benefits of TransportationEconomic Benefits of Transportation

Direct SupplyDirect Supply Direct Direct Demand Demand Indirect Micro Indirect Micro Indirect MacroIndirect Macro

• Income from Income from transport transport operations operations (fares and (fares and salaries) salaries)

• Access to Access to wider wider distribution distribution markets and markets and niches niches

• Improved Improved accessibility accessibility

• Time and cost Time and cost savings savings

• Productivity Productivity gains gains

• Division of Division of labor labor

• Access to a Access to a wider range wider range of suppliers of suppliers and and consumers consumers

• Economies of Economies of scale scale

• Rent income Rent income • Lower price Lower price

of of commodities commodities

• Higher Higher supply of supply of commodities commodities

• Formation of Formation of distribution distribution networks networks

• Attraction and Attraction and accumulation accumulation of economic of economic activities activities

• Increased Increased competitivenecompetitiveness ss

• Growth of Growth of consumption consumption

• Fulfilling Fulfilling mobility needs mobility needs

The Share of Transportation in the The Share of Transportation in the GDP, United States 2000GDP, United States 2000

24.2%

14.6%

12.2%10.8%

7.0%

6.9%

24.3%

HousingHealth CareFoodTransportation-relatedEducationRecreationOther

Transport Impacts on Economic Transport Impacts on Economic GrowthGrowth

Transport Improvements

Commodity Market

Labor Market

Expansion New Activities

Growth

Employment in Transportation Employment in Transportation Occupations, United States, 1985-Occupations, United States, 1985-20012001

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

1985 1990 1995 2001

Thou

sand

s

Public transportationattendantsAir transportation

Water transportation

Rail transportation

Motor vehicle operators

Self Reliance

Regional TradeTrade andTransport

Gateway

Trade andTransport

Region A Region B

InternationalTrade

Product A

Product B

Product C

Product D

Product E

Economic Production and SpecializationEconomic Production and Specialization

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h a

b

cd

ef

g

h

G1

G2

Independent Nations Interdependent Groupsof Nations

Economic Integration and Economic Integration and InterdependenciesInterdependencies

Effects of Improved TransportationEffects of Improved Transportation• A. Areal specialization promoted by A. Areal specialization promoted by

improved transportimproved transport– 1. Allows producers to focus on particular 1. Allows producers to focus on particular

forms of productionforms of production– 2. Creation of larger areas of particular 2. Creation of larger areas of particular

product tied to distant markets- example?product tied to distant markets- example?• B. Improvement in transport is B. Improvement in transport is

contradictory!contradictory!– 1. Has made places more alike-share 1. Has made places more alike-share

products, ideas, and servicesproducts, ideas, and services– 2. Simultaneously it has made areas diverse 2. Simultaneously it has made areas diverse

since specialization has been encouragedsince specialization has been encouraged

Additional Effects of Improved Additional Effects of Improved TransportTransport• Access to resources and ability to market goods Access to resources and ability to market goods

that otherwise would have no marketthat otherwise would have no market• Access to raw materials and the stimulation of Access to raw materials and the stimulation of

supplier developmentsupplier development and and outsourcingoutsourcing phenomenonphenomenon

• Expands settlement spacesExpands settlement spaces• City building and supportingCity building and supporting• Political integration- binding together of diverse Political integration- binding together of diverse

political unitspolitical units• Social integration- allows stronger interpersonal Social integration- allows stronger interpersonal

communication and diffusion of information and communication and diffusion of information and ideasideas

• ““Just as commodities flow over a network so too Just as commodities flow over a network so too do ideas and information” do ideas and information”

Explaining Spatial InteractionExplaining Spatial Interaction

• Improvements in transport not alone Improvements in transport not alone responsible for interactionresponsible for interaction

• What are the conditions under which What are the conditions under which interaction develops?interaction develops?

• Three factor model of Edward Ullman still Three factor model of Edward Ullman still relevantrelevant

• Ingredients: complementarity, intervening Ingredients: complementarity, intervening opportunity and transferabilityopportunity and transferability

ComplementarityComplementarity

• Interaction is due to areal or regional or spatial Interaction is due to areal or regional or spatial differentiationdifferentiation

• But mere differences do not produce But mere differences do not produce interactioninteraction

• Must be a demand and supply of specific good Must be a demand and supply of specific good – specific complementarity – specific complementarity

• Toyota assembly in Georgetown and Toyota assembly in Georgetown and production of tires in Akronproduction of tires in Akron

• Complementarity so important that relatively Complementarity so important that relatively low value bulk goods move across the globe: low value bulk goods move across the globe: Australian iron ore, Venezuelan and Iraqi oilAustralian iron ore, Venezuelan and Iraqi oil

Intervening OpportunityIntervening Opportunity

• Complementarity generates interchange Complementarity generates interchange only if no intervening source existsonly if no intervening source exists

• Where alternative source exists flow or Where alternative source exists flow or spatial interaction will be interruptedspatial interaction will be interrupted

• Examples: grocery shopping, forest Examples: grocery shopping, forest products, etcproducts, etc

• Occasionally IO might assist interaction Occasionally IO might assist interaction by making construction of intermediate by making construction of intermediate transport routes profitabletransport routes profitable

TransferabilityTransferability

• Measured in real time and costsMeasured in real time and costs• If distance between market and supply If distance between market and supply

is too great and/or too costly to is too great and/or too costly to overcome, interaction will NOT take overcome, interaction will NOT take place despite perfect complementarity place despite perfect complementarity and absence of intervening opportunityand absence of intervening opportunity

• Tendency here to use alternate goodsTendency here to use alternate goods• Transform product into higher value so Transform product into higher value so

it can withstand cost of transportit can withstand cost of transport• Examples?Examples?

SummarySummary

• Interaction based on three factors:Interaction based on three factors:

• 1. Complementarity1. Complementarity

• 2. Intervening Opportunity2. Intervening Opportunity

• 3. Transferability3. Transferability

• System applies to movement of physical System applies to movement of physical goods but also peoplegoods but also people

• Additional Corollaries Make This Additional Corollaries Make This Concept RicherConcept Richer

Corollaries of Spatial InteractionCorollaries of Spatial Interaction

• Place Utility-Place Utility- added economic value added economic value of a commodity gained by transporting of a commodity gained by transporting it from place where it has little value it from place where it has little value to place where it has moreto place where it has more

• Example: transporting coal from West Example: transporting coal from West Virginia or Kentucky into megalopolisVirginia or Kentucky into megalopolis

• Negative place utility or disutility- pay Negative place utility or disutility- pay to have something removed – reverse to have something removed – reverse logistics! logistics!

Corollaries of Spatial InteractionCorollaries of Spatial Interaction

• Time Utility-Time Utility- transport enhances the ability transport enhances the ability of goods to satisfy human demand-not only of goods to satisfy human demand-not only WHEREWHERE they are needed but also they are needed but also WHENWHEN

• Some Products have short shelf life –fresh Some Products have short shelf life –fresh inventories needed periodically- fruits and inventories needed periodically- fruits and vegetables; Maine lobsters or Hawaiian fishvegetables; Maine lobsters or Hawaiian fish

• Computer parts- ICs need air freight and Computer parts- ICs need air freight and other goods have a very brief product life other goods have a very brief product life cycle cycle

Distance DecayDistance Decay

• Basic geographical concept Basic geographical concept • Tobler’s Law- “Everything is related to Tobler’s Law- “Everything is related to

everything else but things that are everything else but things that are closer together are more related”closer together are more related”

• The negative impact of distance upon The negative impact of distance upon the flow of information or goods or the flow of information or goods or services between placesservices between places

• Linear and nonlinear functionsLinear and nonlinear functions• Spatial Elastic and Non-elastic functionsSpatial Elastic and Non-elastic functions

Reasons for Distance DecayReasons for Distance Decay• What are impedance factors that cause a What are impedance factors that cause a

variable to decay over distance?variable to decay over distance?

• Economic reasons- cost and timeEconomic reasons- cost and time

• Non-economic reasonsNon-economic reasons

• Hold economic factor constant- first class Hold economic factor constant- first class mail- cannot use cost as an explanationmail- cannot use cost as an explanation

• Information- more familiar with our Information- more familiar with our immediate surroundings than with distant immediate surroundings than with distant placesplaces

• Intervening OpportunitiesIntervening Opportunities

Location and Distance ConceptsLocation and Distance Concepts

• Geographers view space and location in Geographers view space and location in several waysseveral ways

• Absolute Location- position on conventional Absolute Location- position on conventional gridgrid

• Relative Location- position with respect to Relative Location- position with respect to other locations, i.e. really situationother locations, i.e. really situation

• Absolute Distance- conventional distance in Absolute Distance- conventional distance in miles/kilometers between placesmiles/kilometers between places

• Relative Distance- uses metric other than the Relative Distance- uses metric other than the above, e.g. cost, social contacts and time above, e.g. cost, social contacts and time between places between places

Relative DistanceRelative Distance

• Absolute Distance Absolute Distance A>>>>B>>>>CA>>>>B>>>>C• Social Contact Distance A>>>>>>>B>CSocial Contact Distance A>>>>>>>B>C• Cost DistanceCost Distance A>>B>>>>>>>>>CA>>B>>>>>>>>>C• Time Distance Time Distance

A>>>B>>>>>>>>>>>>>CA>>>B>>>>>>>>>>>>>C• Why? Spaces in which people live and behave are Why? Spaces in which people live and behave are

much more psychological (relative) than absolutemuch more psychological (relative) than absolute• Important to consider what people think is the Important to consider what people think is the

distance between placesdistance between places• Individuals make decisions in context of relative Individuals make decisions in context of relative

rather than absolute spacerather than absolute space• Therefore time and cost may be better predictors Therefore time and cost may be better predictors

of travel behavior of travel behavior

Time-Space Convergence (TSC)Time-Space Convergence (TSC)

• Absolute space has not changed over timeAbsolute space has not changed over time• But relative space has changed greatlyBut relative space has changed greatly• Space adjusting techniques such as Space adjusting techniques such as

transport and communications enable us transport and communications enable us to restructure space by changing relative to restructure space by changing relative distances which separate placesdistances which separate places

• TSC is way of measuring relative distance TSC is way of measuring relative distance by measuring the rate at which places by measuring the rate at which places approach one another in time distanceapproach one another in time distance

Space / Time ConvergenceSpace / Time ConvergenceTr

avel

Tim

e (A

– B

)

Time

T1 (1950)

T2 (2000)

T

TT

A B6.2 hours

A B2.6 hours

yearhoursSTC

STC

TTTSTC

/072.0

195020002.66.2

Regional Space / Time Regional Space / Time Convergence (in minutes)Convergence (in minutes)

Between London and Edinburgh (1658-2000)

02000

40006000

80001000012000

1400016000

1800020000

1650 1750 1850 1950

-130-120-110-100-90-80-70-60-50-40-30-20-100

Travel Time (left)

STC (right)

Between New York and Boston (1800-2000)

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Mail Delivery Times between New Mail Delivery Times between New York and San Francisco, 1840-2000 York and San Francisco, 1840-2000 (in days)(in days)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

180 days

Cost Space ConvergenceCost Space Convergence

• Concept of space convergence can be extended Concept of space convergence can be extended to other contextsto other contexts

• Cost space convergence or divergenceCost space convergence or divergence

• Divergence indicates that places actually move Divergence indicates that places actually move further apart in terms of cost-examples? further apart in terms of cost-examples?

• Complete time-space convergence- no Complete time-space convergence- no differences in time required to reach near or differences in time required to reach near or distant pointsdistant points

• Examples? USPS, cellular telephony Examples? USPS, cellular telephony

Impact of Complete Cost Space Impact of Complete Cost Space ConvergenceConvergence

• In absence of normal distance cost In absence of normal distance cost relationships, activities can agglomerate at one relationships, activities can agglomerate at one location OR disperse equally throughout a location OR disperse equally throughout a regionregion

• No incentive for firms to develop a hierarchy of No incentive for firms to develop a hierarchy of merchandising centers-less costly to distribute merchandising centers-less costly to distribute direct and save building costsdirect and save building costs

• Envision a world where all activities become Envision a world where all activities become footloose?footloose?

• True or false? True or false?

1500-1840 Average speed of wagon and sail ships: 16 km/hr

1850-1930 Average speed of trains: 100 km/hr.Average speed of steamships: 25 km/hr

1950 Average speed of airplanes: 480-640 km/hr

1970 Average speed of jet planes: 800-1120 km/hr

1990 Numeric transmission: instantaneous

Space / Time Convergence of the Space / Time Convergence of the World Transport SystemWorld Transport System

The Transport SystemThe Transport SystemNodes

Netw

orks Dem

and

LocationsTerminals

Flows

Friction

PeopleFreight

Information

OriginsDestinationsIntermediacy

Linkages