transnational partnerships in higher education in china ...the article will discuss the concept of...

London Review of Education DOI1018546LRE14108Volume14Number1April2016

Transnational partnerships in higher education in China The diversity and complexity of elite strategic alliances

CatherineMontgomeryUniversity of Hull

TransnationalpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiescanillustratethechangingpoliticalsocialandculturalterrainofglobalhighereducationDrawingonsecondarydataanalysisofgovernmenteducational statistics university web pages and a comprehensive literature review thisarticlefocusesontransnationalpartnershipswithparticularreferencetoChinainordertoilluminatethediversifyingrelationshipsbetweennetworksofglobaluniversitiesInternationalpartnershipsdevelopinhistoricalgeographicsocialandculturalcontextsandtheanalysisofChinese universitiesrsquo partnerships across different social cultural and geopolitical contextsindicates that even within the elite groups of universities transnational partnerships arediverseandcomplexThisarticleaimstodemonstratethatthespreadofinternationalizationintheformoftransnationalpartnershipisnotuniformbutisinfluencedbycomplexcontextualfactorssomeofwhichareaccentuatinginequalitiesinthesystem

Keywordstransnationalpartnershipinternationalizationelitesdiversity

Introduction

Fromearlyinthehistoryofhighereducation(HE)universitieshavebeeninfluencedbyastronginternational and transnational dimension (Gunn and Minstrom 2013) and have from theirinceptionmovedacrossnationalboundariesInthepastthreedecadeshowevertransnationalpartnershipshavebecomeincreasinglysignificantbeingatacomplexandcontradictorynexusof both collaboration and competition (Oleksiyenko andYang 2015)Although historicallytransnational partnership in HE centred on research and scholarship latterly programmecoordinationorTransnationalHigherEducation (TNHE)wherestudentsstudypartorallofa foreign degree in their home country has emerged as an increasingly significant elementof internationalization across a rangeof countries (Huang 2007Trahar 2015)Global highereducationpartnershipsarediversifyingandbecomingincreasinglyimportantinabroaderrangeofwaysTheriseintransnationalpartnershipintheUKhasbeenmirroredinotherpartsoftheglobewithparticularlyrapiddevelopmentinEastAsiawithMalaysiaSingaporeandChinabeingthetopthreecountriesforactivity(HESA2015)

Transnationalhighereducation inChinahasalsobeengrowing in the last threedecadesandmore than 1000 programmes and institutions have nowbeen approved by theChinesegovernment (Fang 2012)TNHE plays out differently in different national contexts howeverand in China the emphasis is on controlled cooperation with joint investment in forms ofcapital includingland intellectualpropertybrandsandmanagementsystems(Fang2012)TheunderlyingpurposeofTNHEpartnershipsoftenvaries internationallywith themotivationofUKTNHEbeingpredominantlyfinancialandthedrivingforceforChinarelatingtoaccesstoaninternationalhighereducationathomeforabroaderrangeofthepopulation(Huang2006

Emailcmontgomeryhullacuk copyCopyright 2016 MontgomeryThis is an OpenAccess article distributed under the terms of theCreativeCommonsAttributionLicencewhichpermitsunrestrictedusedistributionandreproductioninanymediumprovidedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited

London Review of Education 71

Houet al2014)Researchinterestsaroundtheconceptoftransnationalpartnershiparealsobeginning to intensify (Oleksiyenko 2015) and there has been a sharp increase in publishedworkinthisareasince2006(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)includinginitiativesaroundEUprogrammecollaborationandresearchcarriedoutbytheBritishCouncilNotwithstandingthisincreaseinresearchOleksiyenkoandYang(2015)notethattherehasbeenadearthofresearchon partnerships and their associated policies and challenges particularlywith regard to theemerging global andeconomicpowersof theBRICSnations (BrazilRussia IndiaChina andSouthAfrica)andChinainparticular

This article focuses on transnational partnerships in China and considers the influenceof geopolitical and sociocultural context on the diversity and complexity of Chinarsquos globalpartnershipsThenatureofChinarsquostransnationalpartnershipsisexploredconsideringthevariationwithinthecountryandfocusingontheelite985and211groupsofChineseuniversitiesFirstlythearticlewilldiscusstheconceptoftransnationalpartnershipdrawingonresearchliteratureinthefieldand includingreferencetothehistoricalperspectiveontransnationalpartnershipSecondlythearticlemapsthegeographicallocationoftheelitealliancesofChineseuniversitiesasameansofillustratingthatthegapbetweenurbaneastChinaandtheruralwestisreflectedinthegeographical locationoftheelitegroupsofuniversitiesandhasimplicationsforaccesstohighereducation(Yang2014)ThirdlythearticlefocusesonthepartnershipsestablishedbysomeoftheelitegroupsofChineseuniversitiesdefininglsquoelitersquoasthoseuniversitiesthatarepartoftheChineseC9groupandthe985and211projectsthatareexplainedbelowTwoindividualcasesofuniversitiesindifferentsocioculturalandgeographiccontextsareconsideredinmoredepthwithaviewtounderstandingtheinfluenceofdiversityincontextonpartnershipFinallythearticledrawssomeconclusionsregardingtherelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentofelitealliancesinChinaandinternationalizationinhighereducationmorebroadly

The research

This article draws on three forms of evidenceThe first is a systematic literature reviewofelectronically accessible articles on transnational higher education published in journals andotherelectronicsources(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)Anonlinesearchofhighereducationresearchplatformswascarriedout focusingonhighereducation journalsandresourcesandpaying particular attention to work produced by non-Western authorsThis was a broadliteraturereviewthatselectedsourcesusingawiderangeofsearchtermsincludingforexamplelsquotransnational educationrsquo lsquotransnational higher educationrsquo and lsquointernationalinterculturalpartnershiprsquoandsearcheswerecarriedoutonpolicyatthenationalandsupranational levelslsquostudentrsquofocuslsquostaff rsquofocusandlsquoqualityrsquo(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)AsecondaryanalysisofthelibraryoftheinitialprojectwascarriedoutforthepurposesofthisarticleandthetermswerenarrowedtofocusontransnationalhighereducationinChinaandtheissueofpartnershipelitealliancesandtheimplicationsofHEpartnerships

ThesecondsourceofevidenceisananalysisofChineseMinistryofEducationdocumentsrelatingtothe locationandnatureofpartnershipsofChinesehighereducationTheMinistryofEducation(MoE)onlinestatistics inthepublicdomainwereaccessedinChineseusingtheofficialwebsiteoftheMoEandtranslatedintoEnglishThedataaccessedwasthemostrecentMoEdataavailablecollectedintheyears2012and2013thefiguresfollowatwo-yearcensusperiodandrefresheddatawillbeavailableattheendof2015ThreeareasoftheMoEdatawereexplored inparticularfirstly thegeographicaldistributionofeliteChinese institutions in the211and985groupswasfocusedonmappingthenumbersofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionsinthedifferentprovincesacrossChinaSecondlytheinternationalpartnershipsengagedinby11

72 Catherine Montgomery

eliteChineseinstitutionswerefocusedonincludingthe9universitiesintheChineseC9group(ChinarsquoselitemissiongroupandequivalentoftheUKRussellGroup)and2exampleuniversitiesthataremembersofboththe211and985groupsTheMoEpartnershipdatadiscretelyanalyseddifferentdimensionsofrelationshipsbetweentheinstitutionsincludingexchangeandcooperativeprogrammes jointdegreeprogrammes researchandlsquoacademicexchangeandcooperation inrunningschoolsrsquotheChinesetermfortransnationalhighereducationThethirdandfinalareaofMoEdatarelatestospecificreferencetothegeographicallocationofTNHEprovisioninChinaacross thedifferent provincesof the countryThe spreadof partnerships for each individualprovince is mapped through this dataThis information was also accessed from the officialChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite

Thethirdsourceofevidenceconsistsofadetailedreviewoftwouniversitiesrsquowebpageswhich were translated into English where necessary In addition to this associated publiclyavailabledocumentsandpolicieswereaccessedtoinvestigatethetwouniversitiesrsquointernationalpartnershipsandcollaborationsincludingprobingthestatedaimsbehindtheirpartnershipswithinternationalinstitutionswherethisinformationwasavailable

Transnational partnerships in global HE

Partnershipbetweenuniversitiesworldwideisafundamentalelementoftwenty-firstcenturyinternationalizationandYangandXienote thatglobalizationhasputuniversity internationalnetworkinglsquoonsteroidsrsquo(201566)Thegrowthintransnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofhighereducationinstitutionsacrossthegloberepresentsfundamentalchangesinthewaysthat universities areworking together and constructing themselves Partnerships networksandglobalallianceshavebecomestrategicallyimportantandlsquouniversitiescanrealisesignificantvalue fromengaging in allianceshellipglobal university alliances create substantively importantcollaborative advantages for those involvedrsquo (Gunn and Mintrom 2013 180) Partnershipswithinandbetweenthelargestemergingglobalpoliticalandeconomicpowersarebecomingparticularlysignificantwiththeso-calledBRICSnationsofBrazilRussiaIndiaChinaandSouthAfrica investing hugely in elite groups of flagship institutions in order to compete globally(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)

However transnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofHE institutionsarecomplexandcontradictoryanddevelopagainstabackdropofintensecompetitivenesstermedlsquocompetitive-collaborative perspectivesrsquo by Oleksiyenko andYang (2015) Marginson (2015) notes thatthe shape of higher education systemsworldwide is being stretched vertically and that thehierarchiesofglobaluniversitiesarebecomingmoreacuteThisstratificationandthedevelopingsignificanceoftheglobalrankings(Kehm2014)hasasignificantinfluenceonpartnershipsTheincreasinginfluenceofrankingshascoincidedwithawaveofmodernizationmarketizationandreform of higher education acrossmany national contexts and this has brought interactionbetweentherankingsandmarketization(Locke2014)anduniversitypartnershipsarecaughtupinthiscycleThesignificanceofuniversityrankingshasgonewellbeyondbeingatooltosupportstudentorfamilychoiceofuniversitywiththisformofpoliticalandeconomicpositioningbynationsalsohavinganinfluenceonchoiceofpartnership(Locke2014)particularlywithrespecttoresearchactivitythatisincreasinglyenactedcooperativelyandcompetitivelyonagloballevel(Horta2009)Rankingsorderthestatusofinstitutionsandthishasacceleratedalsquostatusculturersquo(Marginson2014)RolesandpositionsareshiftinginglobalhighereducationwiththestrongstrategiesespousedbyChinahavinganimpactforexampleonHongKongwhichisnolongertheonlynexusorhuboftransnationalpartnershipinEastAsia(Ng2011)


Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership

Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK

Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)

InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject


receivingextensivefundingtolsquogroomtalentsanddevelopdisciplines infaceofthechallengesin21stcenturyrsquo (MinistryofEducationof thePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013a)Duringthefirstphaseoftheprojectapproximately US$22billionwasinvestedinthedevelopmentofthisrelativelysmallgroupofuniversitiesAlongsidethe211Project the985Projectwas initiatedin1999Asmallgroupof39universitieswereselectedforintensivefundingaimingtosupportinternationalizationagendasanddeveloptheseuniversitiesaseliteinstitutionstoreachlsquoworld-classrsquo level(MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013)Table1showstheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChinaincludedintheC9leaguetheequivalentoftheUKRussellGroupofresearch-intensiveuniversitiesThetablealsoshowstwoinstitutionsthataremembersofthe985and211groupsbutnotoftheC9LeagueandthesetwoinstitutionswillbeprofiledinmoredetaillaterinthisarticleThefulllistofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionscanbefoundonlineattheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite(wwwmoeeducn)

Table 1TheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChina

University Labels

TsinghuaUniversity 211985C9League

PekingUniversity 211985C9League

FudanUniversity 211985C9League

ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League

ZhejiangUniversity 211985C9League

NanjingUniversity 211985C9League

XirsquoanJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League

UniversityofScienceandTechnologyofChina 211985C9League

HarbinInstituteofTechnology 211985C9League

Two examples of 985 and 211 institutions

XiamenUniversity 211985

EastChinaNormalUniversity 211985

SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)

As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE

TheanalysisofthethreeuniversitiesrsquopartnershipswithUKinstitutionsrevealedthattheChineseeliteinstitutionshadmostlyestablishedlinkswithUKinstitutionsthatweremembersoftheeliteRussellGroupTheseinstitutionsincludetheUKuniversitiesthatperformbestintheglobalrankingsandarealsoknownaslsquoresearch-intensiversquoinstitutions(FilippakouandTapper2015)Table2showstheUKpartnershipsofPekingUniversityoneoftheC9institutionsanddemonstratesthatthevastmajorityofPekingrsquospartnersareprestigiousUKuniversitiesincludingOxfordCambridgeandDurhamuniversities


Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity

Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation

剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup

格拉斯哥大学 UniversityofGlasgow Scotland RussellGroup

诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup

伦敦大学学院 UniversityCollegeLondon

England RussellGroup

牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup

伦敦政治经济学院 LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience


杜伦大学 UniversityofDurham England RussellGroup

卡迪夫大学 CardiffUniversity Wales RussellGroup

伦敦大学玛丽皇后学院 QueenMaryUniversityofLondon


米德尔塞克斯大学 MiddlesexUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)

爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland RussellGroup

阿伯泰邓迪大学 UniversityofAbertayDundee

Scotland Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)

华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup

东安格利亚大学 UniversityofEastAnglia England Unaffiliated

苏塞克斯大学 UniversityofSussex England Unaffiliated

利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds England RussellGroup

克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)

南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton


约克大学 UniversityofYork England RussellGroup

赫尔大学 UniversityofHull England Unaffiliated


ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners


Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity

Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation

伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup

邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated

帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup



克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992

拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated

伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup

曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup

南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup


纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup


萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated


In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables

IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith


thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)

Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK

Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code

艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup

FSA

曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup

FSA

利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup

FSA

霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA

诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity

EnglandPost-1992 S

爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland

英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon

EnglandFRIS

班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS

ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange


Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China

China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion

ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry


Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)

There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces

When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry


Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces

Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces

This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions

ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)

ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50


percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation

Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces

Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases

ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships


notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations

East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai

EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects

ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia

ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier

ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)

Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia

XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast


coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)

Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration

AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries

Concluding remarks

While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships

Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang


et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle

ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina

thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous

(Yang20141)

Acknowledgements

IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible

Notes on the contributor

CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)

References

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BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)

Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32

CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29

ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26

ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31

ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)


DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16

EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)

FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23

FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37

GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92

HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe

roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher

educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific

Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)

mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32

Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12

KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)

LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90

MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online

wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign

transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)

mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)

mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)

mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)

MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov

cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational

Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo

Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD

partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political

falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo

highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)


Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112

Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)

WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And

wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos

ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league

universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90

Related articles in London Review of Education

ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)

AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)

DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)

TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)

WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)


Houet al2014)Researchinterestsaroundtheconceptoftransnationalpartnershiparealsobeginning to intensify (Oleksiyenko 2015) and there has been a sharp increase in publishedworkinthisareasince2006(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)includinginitiativesaroundEUprogrammecollaborationandresearchcarriedoutbytheBritishCouncilNotwithstandingthisincreaseinresearchOleksiyenkoandYang(2015)notethattherehasbeenadearthofresearchon partnerships and their associated policies and challenges particularlywith regard to theemerging global andeconomicpowersof theBRICSnations (BrazilRussia IndiaChina andSouthAfrica)andChinainparticular

This article focuses on transnational partnerships in China and considers the influenceof geopolitical and sociocultural context on the diversity and complexity of Chinarsquos globalpartnershipsThenatureofChinarsquostransnationalpartnershipsisexploredconsideringthevariationwithinthecountryandfocusingontheelite985and211groupsofChineseuniversitiesFirstlythearticlewilldiscusstheconceptoftransnationalpartnershipdrawingonresearchliteratureinthefieldand includingreferencetothehistoricalperspectiveontransnationalpartnershipSecondlythearticlemapsthegeographicallocationoftheelitealliancesofChineseuniversitiesasameansofillustratingthatthegapbetweenurbaneastChinaandtheruralwestisreflectedinthegeographical locationoftheelitegroupsofuniversitiesandhasimplicationsforaccesstohighereducation(Yang2014)ThirdlythearticlefocusesonthepartnershipsestablishedbysomeoftheelitegroupsofChineseuniversitiesdefininglsquoelitersquoasthoseuniversitiesthatarepartoftheChineseC9groupandthe985and211projectsthatareexplainedbelowTwoindividualcasesofuniversitiesindifferentsocioculturalandgeographiccontextsareconsideredinmoredepthwithaviewtounderstandingtheinfluenceofdiversityincontextonpartnershipFinallythearticledrawssomeconclusionsregardingtherelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentofelitealliancesinChinaandinternationalizationinhighereducationmorebroadly

The research

This article draws on three forms of evidenceThe first is a systematic literature reviewofelectronically accessible articles on transnational higher education published in journals andotherelectronicsources(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)Anonlinesearchofhighereducationresearchplatformswascarriedout focusingonhighereducation journalsandresourcesandpaying particular attention to work produced by non-Western authorsThis was a broadliteraturereviewthatselectedsourcesusingawiderangeofsearchtermsincludingforexamplelsquotransnational educationrsquo lsquotransnational higher educationrsquo and lsquointernationalinterculturalpartnershiprsquoandsearcheswerecarriedoutonpolicyatthenationalandsupranational levelslsquostudentrsquofocuslsquostaff rsquofocusandlsquoqualityrsquo(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)AsecondaryanalysisofthelibraryoftheinitialprojectwascarriedoutforthepurposesofthisarticleandthetermswerenarrowedtofocusontransnationalhighereducationinChinaandtheissueofpartnershipelitealliancesandtheimplicationsofHEpartnerships

ThesecondsourceofevidenceisananalysisofChineseMinistryofEducationdocumentsrelatingtothe locationandnatureofpartnershipsofChinesehighereducationTheMinistryofEducation(MoE)onlinestatistics inthepublicdomainwereaccessedinChineseusingtheofficialwebsiteoftheMoEandtranslatedintoEnglishThedataaccessedwasthemostrecentMoEdataavailablecollectedintheyears2012and2013thefiguresfollowatwo-yearcensusperiodandrefresheddatawillbeavailableattheendof2015ThreeareasoftheMoEdatawereexplored inparticularfirstly thegeographicaldistributionofeliteChinese institutions in the211and985groupswasfocusedonmappingthenumbersofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionsinthedifferentprovincesacrossChinaSecondlytheinternationalpartnershipsengagedinby11















University Labels







































































FSA


FSA


FSA



EnglandPost-1992 S



EnglandFRIS



































Concluding remarks







(Yang20141)

Acknowledgements




References





































































University Labels







































































FSA


FSA


FSA



EnglandPost-1992 S



EnglandFRIS



































Concluding remarks







(Yang20141)

Acknowledgements




References














































































































FSA


FSA


FSA



EnglandPost-1992 S



EnglandFRIS



































Concluding remarks







(Yang20141)

Acknowledgements




References



















































































Concluding remarks







(Yang20141)

Acknowledgements




References



























































(Yang20141)

Acknowledgements




References























































transnational partnerships in higher education in china ...the article will discuss the concept of...

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