transitional type for the visually impaired
DESCRIPTION
A process book documenting the design of an optimum reading typeface for low vision users.TRANSCRIPT
i
Note to instructor:
This document has been designed with low vision standards in mind.
It has also been optimized for view on an iPad. Select pages have been rotated in order to fit this format.
Thank you!
IKatie LeeSenior CapstoneProcess Book
T R A NS I T I O NA L T Y P E F OR T H E V I S U A L
L Y I M P A I R E D
II
Table ofContents
Katie LeeProcess BookTable of Contents
III
05 Introduction
11 Design Brief
11 Project Statement
12 Project Description
13 Channel & Application
13 Audience and Research
14 Desired Results
14 Capstone Rubric
16 Report Log
17 Terminology
23 Causes of Vision Loss
31 Precedents
37 Legibility Standards
41 Legibility Checklist
43 Interviews
45 Type Program
46 Next Steps
47 Calendar
49 Appendix
59 Works Cited
Katie LeeProcess BookTable of Contents
4
Introduction
Katie LeeProcess BookIntroduction
5
There’s a problem.
Low vision or blindness affects
1 in 28 Americans over the age
of 40, and increases significantly
with age – especially for people
over the age of 65.
Source: Grand Junction Center for Independence
Katie Lee Introduction
6
Source: National Federation of the Blind
It’s gettingworse.
Today, 6.5 million Americans over
the age of 65 have a severe visual
impairment, and experts predict
that by 2030 the rate of severe
vision loss will double along with
the country’s aging population.
Katie Lee Introduction
7
I see aneed.
Currently, there are few standard
typefaces designed specifically
for those with low vision. Most
materials use existing typefaces
set at large point sizes and fail
to consider other visual factors.
Katie Lee Introduction
8
I’d like tochange that...
Katie Lee Introduction
9
by designing a font just for them.
Katie Lee Introduction
10
DesignBrief
Working Title
Transitional Type for the Visually Impaired
Katie LeeProcess BookDesign Brief
11
To read efficiently, individuals with low vision require typographic solutions tailored to their visual needs. Despite a rising number of Americans with this condition, few options exist for them today. I would like to design a transitional typeface that clarifies roman letterforms and accounts for these unique visual considerations in order to make reading easier for those who have low vision.
“Project Statement
Katie LeeDesign BriefProblem Statement
12
Project Description
The inspiration for this project came from a desire to apply my
visual communication skills to a real world problem.
After learning about the prevalence of vision problems in the
United States, I was astonished to discover how few visual
considerations have been made for those with low vision needs.
With so few typeface options in existence for this audience, it is
a huge opportunity to solve a growing need through design. This
project poses an interesting challenge of my design skills as I will
be designing for those who cannot see as I do.
Increasing one’s ability to function and read, especially as one
ages, can maintain and improve quality of life. It is my belief that
visually impaired individuals should not be hindered in their ability
to read or communicate simply because they do not have the
necessary tools to do so.
I hope this exploration will prove useful as the consideration of
accessibility becomes increasingly relevant to the design world.
Channel
The media best suited for this problem is a typeface with
potential applications to wayfinding, reading materials, or
a standards guide.
Katie LeeDesign BriefProject Description
13
Audience
Americans aged 40 years old and older whose age-related eye
conditions render them with “low vision,” and consequently
functional limitations and an impairment to read average type.
The individuals in this age group have enjoyed normal vision
at one point but now require specialized or supplementary
materials. Their low vision is legally defined as a visual acuity
20/70 to 20/200, and is often caused by macular degeneration,
glaucoma, cataracts, or diabetic retinopathy.
Research Methods & Activities
I plan on conducting various types of research in order to
accumulate relevant information for my topic. Books, articles,
and online resources will make up the majority of this research.
However, I feel that interviewing several visually impaired
individuals would be extremely valuable and enlightening.
I will also need to revisit some basic fundamentals of graphic
design in order to develop typography that will best meet the
needs of my audience. If time and resources permit, I would
also like to interview a professional in the field, either dealing
with eyesight or as a professional in the blind community. All
of this research will ultimately be published to my blog.
Katie LeeDesign BriefAudience
14
Desired Results
I want to:• Improve overall legibility• Increase speed and ease• Reduce eye strain
by:• uniquely adjusting letterforms• creating a system of standards• adjusting for other visual factors
Capstone Rubrics
Critical Thinking: This criteria will be met by considering what
solution most effectively meets the need of my audience, and by
translating large amounts of research into a useful reading tool.
Effective Communication: The communication aspect of my
project will be fulfilled with one of graphic design’s most effective
communication tools: typography.
Knowledge Integration: My understanding thus far of graphic
design and typography principles will be integrated with this
typeface as I will have to clarify as best I can the existing roman
letterforms to meet the specific needs of low vision individuals.
Social Responsibility: My social responsibility will be met by
catering to the growing elderly population whose vision is on
track to become a serious health issue, and who will desperately
need attention in regards to graphic and industrial design.
Katie LeeDesign BriefDesired Results
15
ReportLog
Katie LeeProcess BookReport Log
16
Report Log
Terminology
Katie LeeResearch LogTerminology
17
Visual Acuity
A measurement of clearness of vision, which is dependent
on the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye and the
interpretative faculty of the brain.
Low Vision
A range of vision (beyond correction of eyeglasses, medicine
or surgery) that makes everyday tasks difficult. In addition
to reading, a person with low vision may find it difficult or
impossible to accomplish activities such as writing, shopping,
watching television, driving a car or recognizing faces.
Individuals with low vision need help to learn how to make the
most of their remaining sight and keep their independence.
Losing vision does not mean giving up activities, it means finding
new ways of doing them.
Low vision is defined as a visual acuity between 20/70 and
20/200. A visual acuity below 20/200 is considered to be blind.
Vision
Katie LeeTerminologyVision
18
Low Vision
Blind
Visual Acuity
Distancefrom Object
20/20
20/30
20/4020/50
20/60
20/70
20/80
20/100
20/20020/400
30 ft
20 ft
15 ft
12 ft
10 ft
8.75 ft
7.5 ft
6 ft
3 ft
1.5 ft
Katie LeeTerminologyVision
19
Due to an increase in the number of
aging baby boomers and the growing
prevalence of such diseases as diabetes
and age-related macular degeneration
(AMD), some 61 million Americans are
at high risk of serious vision loss.
Lighthouse International
“
Katie LeeTerminologyVision
20
Typography
Illustration from FontShop
ascender – The portion of lowercase
letters which ascends above the x-height,
as found in the letters b, d, f, h, k, l.
baseline – The vertical origin upon which
capital and non-descending lowercase
letters sit.
bowl – The round or elliptical portion of
letters such as C, D, O, a, b, e, o and p.
cap height – The height of capital letters
such as H, O and X.
character – The smallest component of
written language with semantic value.
character set – A list of characters,
which defines the required character
support for a font in a particular
environment.
counter – The negative space within a
letter, surrounded by positive elements
such as stems, bowls and serifs.
descender – The portion of lowercase
letters which descends below the
baseline, as found in the g, j, p, q, y.
glyph – The graphical representation of
one or more characters.
kern – The adjustment of horizontal
space between two glyphs. In metal type,
the portion of a letter which hangs over
the edge of the type body.
leading – The vertical distance between
lines of text. Expressed as points of lead
(white space) inserted bewteen lines of
text, such as 12 point type with 2 points
leading, or “12 on 14”.
Katie LeeTerminologyTypography
21
ligature – Two or more characters
represented on a single glyph. Common
ligatures include “fi” and “fl”.
lining figures – Numerals which have a
common height, and thus align vertically
with one another.
metrics – The generic term for any font
or glyph measurements used in the
setting of text. Horizontal metrics include
advance widths, side bearings and
kerning. Vertical metrics include ascent,
descent and line gap dimensions.
oldstyle figures – Numerals which vary
in height such that 6, 8 and 9 ascend
above the x-height and 3, 4, 5, 7 descend
below the baseline.
point – A typographic unit of measure. 72
points = 1 inch.
point size – The size of a font in points.
sans serif – A classification of typefaces
which have no serifs.
serif – A flare or spur at the end of a
stroke. A category of typefaces which
exhibit serifs.
terminal – The name given to the end of
strokes which have no serifs. Terminals
generally fall into one of the following
categories: ball, beak and teardrop.
typeface – A collection of typographic
characters (letters, numerals,
punctuation, symbols) designed to be
used together, and produced as one or
more fonts.
x-height – The height of lowercase
letters which do not ascend, such as x.
H x b y E p e tCap Height Descender Bowl
Ascender StrokeCounterX-height
Katie LeeTerminologyTypography
22
Report Log
Causes ofVision Loss
Katie LeeReport LogCauses of Vision Loss
23
Causes of Low Vision
There are four main causes of low vision among individuals aged
40 and over, all of which can lead to blindness. They are:
Cataracts
Macular Degeneration
Glaucoma
Diabetic Retinopathy
Katie LeeReport LogCauses of Vision Loss
24
Cataracts
Causes:
Affects:
Part of eye:
Risk factors:
Symptoms:
Clouding of the lens; yellow tinting; blur
Ages 40+
Lens
Age, diabetes, smoking, drinking, environmental
factors such as prolonged exposure to sunlight
Cloudy or blurred vision, faded colors, glare, poor
night vision, double vision, prescription changes
Projected Increase in U.S.
Mill
ions
of A
mer
ican
s 40
+
2008 2020
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossCataracts
50%Cataracts make up
of all low vision cases
25
Macular Degeneration
Causes:
Affects:
Part of eye:
Forms:
Risk factors:
Symptoms:
Loss of vision in central field; blur
Ages 50+
Macula of the retina
Wet (Advanced) and Dry
Age, smoking, obesity, Caucasian ethnicity,
family history of AMD, women
Wet: Straight lines appear wavy; Dry: slightly
blurred vision, difficulty recognizing faces,
dimness, drusen (yellow deposits in retina)
Risk of AMD:
Katie LeeCauses of Vision LosMacular Degeneration
2%
30%
Ages 75+In Middle Age
26
Glaucoma
Causes:
Affects:
Part of eye:
Risk factors:
Symptoms:
Depends on type, Loss of peripheral vision; blur
Ages 40+
Optic nerve
Age, family history, African descent,
corticosteroids, systemic diseases, trauma
Sometimes no symptoms; vision loss, tunnel
vision, sudden or severe pain, cloudy vision,
halos, nausea, red eye, swollen eye
2.2millionAmericans diagnosed
millionAmericans unaware2.0
Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossGlaucoma
27
Diabetic Retinopathy
Causes:
Affects:
Part of eye:
Risk factors:
Symptoms:
Blurred and obscured vision
Ages 18+
Retina
All people with diabetes, type 1 or 2
No symptoms in early stages; floating spots,
blocked vision by bleeding vessels, blurred vision
Vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy affects one in
every 12 people who are 40 and older with diabetes.
Katie LeeCauses of Vision LosDiabetic Retinopathy
28
Macular Degeneration
Diabetic Retinopathy
Cataracts
Glaucoma
The effects of:
Normal Affected
Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossSimulation
29
Visual Impairment in the United States by Age
50
0
5
10
15
20
25
18 25 40 60 65 70 75 80(AGE)
(MILLIONS OF AMERICANS)
Diabetic retinopathy; 5.3M
Cataracts; 20.5M
Glaucoma; 4.2M Macular Degeneration; 1.2MLow vision; 490,400
Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossInfographic
30
Report Log
Precedents
Katie LeeReport LogLegibility Standards
31
e b q aKatie Lee
Legibility StandardsPrecedents
Cleverly named by the American Printing House for the
Blind, APHont is the only typeface available to the general
public today that is designed specifically for a low vision
audience.
Although major improvements have been made to increase
legibility and distinction between similar letterforms, the font
lacks sophistication and polish, appearing almost childlike
and overly simplistic. I can spot many opportunities for
clarification in the finials, terminals, counters, ascenders,
descenders, and axis.
APHont
32Katie Lee
Legibility StandardsPrecedents
Clearview is a prime example of a typeface designed for a
specific legibility condition; in this case, not in a book, but
from a distance while the audience is simultaneously moving
closer. It was approved for use by the Federal Highway
Administration in 2004 with the growing population of aging
Americans in mind.
When the project began in 2000, only 12.4% of the U.S.
population was over 65. But that number will increase to
20% by 2030, and older drivers have disadvantages on the
road: their reaction time is not as quick, their visual acuity
is diminished and their sensitivity to contrast is reduced.
The answer came in a typeface with a heavier stroke,
enlarged interior shapes, enlarged lowercase letters, and
use in mixed cases, which also reduced overglow from its
reflective background. The results? A stationary viewer
gained an additional 200 feet of added reading distance
using a 10-inch-high letter on the demonstration pane.
Clearview
33Katie Lee
Legibility StandardsAIGA
AIGA published a comprehensive article in 2003 examining
all the visual factors that impact an aging eye's ability to
read type. These factors extended beyond typeface legibility
to loss of contrast, loss of focus, visual field loss, and
sensitivity to color. It outlines ADA standards and simulates
its approved typefaces under low visibility conditions.
AIGA considers these benefits to be beneficial for legibility:
• Consistent stroke widths
• Open counterforms
• Larger x-height
• Pronounced ascenders and descenders
• Wider horizontal proportions
• More distinct forms for each character
(such as tails on the lowercase letters “t” and “j”)
• Extended horizontal strokes for certain forms
(such as the arm of the lowercase letter “r” or the
crossbar of the lowercase letter “t”)
The following typefaces are approved by the ADA:
AIGA:
Typography
and the
Aging Eye
34
AaBbCc123Times Roman
AaBbCc123Garamond Semibold
AaBbCc123Century Schoolbook
AaBbCc123Glypha Roman
AaBbCc123Futura Heavy
Katie LeeLegibility StandardsADA Typefaces
Larger x-height
More consistent stroke
Condensed, closed counters
Wider proportion
Pronounced ascenders
Small counterforms
Wider proportion
More consistent stroke
Constricted counterforms
Distinct slab letterforms
Wider proportion
Less pronounced ascenders
Long ascenders
Simple, circular form
Short crossbar on 't'
35
AaBbCc123Helvetica Bold
AaBbCc123Univers 65
AaBbCc123Frutiger Bold
AaBbCc123Syntax Bold
AaBbCc123APHont
Katie LeeLegibility StandardsADA Typefaces
Larger x-height
Wide proportion
Short ascenders
Consistent stroke
More legible 'r' & 't'
Closing counterforms
Designed for airport
Open counterforms
Longer ascenders
Long ascenders
Pronounced 't'
Slightly condensed counters
Underslung 'j' & 'q'
Larger punctuation
Not aesthetically pleasing
36Katie Lee
Legibility StandardsInstitution Standards
Legibility Standards
Report Log
37Katie Lee
Legibility StandardsAdditional Considerations
American Disabilities Act (ADA)
The ADA does not provide many detailed explanations of
appropriate typeface usage, but it does indicate that ADA
approved fonts must have letterforms whose body width is
60% of its height and that its stroke width must be between
10-20% of the cap height.
Royal Institute for the Blind
The RNIB of the UK is more specific in its type guidelines:
• Minimum 12pt; 14pt is preferred
• Semi-bold or bold weights preferred
• Limited italics and capitals
• Limited underlining
• Write out numbers between 1-10
• Leading set at 1.5 - 2x type size
• 60-70 characters per line in columns
• Limit number of hyphenated words
• Left justification preferred
• Contrast, not color, is most important
• Avoid grey typographic color
• Leave space between paragraphs
• Do not interrupt text with images
• Should never be set vertically
• Use a vertical rule between columns
• Avoid using text over images
• Avoid glossy paper
• Avoid see-through papers
38
Additional Considerations
Katie LeeLegibility StandardsAdditional Considerations
Other factors to consider while developing deliverables or
arranging a typeface are:
• Consistency in grid and object placement
• Clear, logical order and hierarchy
• At least a 70% difference in overlapping color values
• Optimum color contrast without vibration
• Clear, logical order and hierarchy
• Proper kerning, tracking, and leading
• The difference between legibility and readability:
Legibility
Specific typographic traits affecting recognition of letters
and words, including shape, scale and style.
Readability
The clarify and speed with which content can be digested
over an expanse of text such as a paragraph or a page.
Affected by legibility, but also by design and layout
considerations such as dimension, space and alignment.
39
Typographic designers must undertake a
more comprehensive study of this subject
and develop typefaces that work well
with the common vision problems of the
aging population. It seems clear that
there is an opportunity for progress
in this area of research.
American Institute for Graphic Arts (AIGA)
“
Katie LeeCauses of Vision LossTypographic Research
40
Report Log
LegibilityChecklist
Katie LeeReport LogLegibility Checklist
41
Legibility Checklist
Sans-serif typeface
Open counterforms
Consistent stroke
Large x-height
Wide proportion; 100% x 60%
Emphasized 't' crossbar
Long ascenders and descenders
Underslung 'j' and 'q'
Consideration of finials
Attention to 'r', 'a', 'l', 'i', 't', 'j',
Katie LeeReport LogLegibility Checklist
42
Report Log
Interviews
Katie LeeReport LogInterviews
43
Lori Lindsley
Low vision expert at CABVI
I had the opportunity to speak with Lori about my capstone
topic on February 22, just two days prior to our midterm review. I
presented her with my original project statement:
"As the baby boomer generation begins to age, the number of individuals suffering
from visual impairments is increasing dramatically. Despite many experiencing
difficulty reading, very few ever learn how to read braille. I would like to design a
transitional typeface that combines clarified roman letterforms with braille dots in
order to function as both a supplemental reading aid and learning tool for the braille
system. This aid would be designed for those aged 40-75 with low vision who
experience functional limitations and impaired ability to read average type."
She kindly explained that this direction was not likely to work
well, as most individuals who are learning braille for the first time
are encouraged to use only their sense of touch. In fact, many
first-time learners are blindfolded in order to dissuade them from
using any of their remaining sight.
Eager to help me evolve my topic, she suggested that I focus my
efforts on clarifying an actual typeface, or perhaps developing a
guide that would establish typographic and visual standards for
low vision reading materials. The new direction was well received
at the midterm review.
Katie LeeInterviewsLori Lindsley, CABVI
44
Report Log
Type Program
Katie LeeReport LogType Program
45
Fontographer 5
Once a final design direction has been chosen, I hope to recreate
my selected letterforms or alphabet into working, digital typeface.
Drawn letterforms will first be scanned and retraced in vector
format using Adobe Illustrator, then converted into an .otf file
using Fontographer 5.
Once converted, final deliverables and type specimens can be
easily produced for the DAAPworks exhibition.
Katie LeeReport LogType Program
46
Next Steps
Katie LeeProcess BookNext Steps
47Katie Lee
Next StepsCalendar
48
Appendix
Katie LeeProcess BookAppendix
49
Appendix
SupplementaryResearch
Katie LeeAppendixSupplementary Research
50
Concept Map
51
Initial Questions for Research
What portion of the population is blind?
Why don’t more people learn braille?
What % currently know how to read it? Do they use it?
When do they typically learn it?
Who teaches them?
What do visually impaired people actually see?
Are there degrees of severity?
How does being visually impaired affect brain development?
Or language, communication, relationships, etc.?
How do their daily lives differ?
What causes blindness?
Do the visually impaired find value in braille?
What are the benefits? Can the system be improved?
How is visual impairment defined?
Do they have a culture? What is their culture like?
What aspects of a typeface make it more legible?
Can road sign designs be leveraged?
Does color affect or aid in contrast?
What type size is best for their reading?
How fast can the visually impaired read roman letters?
How fast can they read braille?
And perhaps the most imperative question is:
Do they actually want to learn?
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AppendixResearch QuestionsKatie Lee
52
Literature Review
"The Ultimate Braille Phone by
designer Shikun Sun"
An interesting concept design that
makes mobile phones easier to use
by the blind. The entire UI is in braille
with a corresponding touch panel.
Interesting thought in relation to
accessible design.
"So You Want to Create a Font"
Beginners guide to drawing type and
overview of different options available
in font design programs.
"Can Braille be faster than QWERTY?
App developer thinks So"
Interesting video about texting in
the form of Braille codes, even for
individuals who have full sight.
"Clear Print Guidelines from the RNIB"
Official PDF document that lists type
considerations for low vision printing.
“Creating Accessible Print
Design” Useful tool from Lighthouse
International that visualized color and
contrast choices for typography.
“Common Questions for the Blind” -
article, National Federation for the Blind
"Dyslexie font designed to help
dyslexics read, write"
A project in a similar vein; a font
developed for children with dyslexia.
Great example of how a typeface can
work around obstacles.
APHont from the APH
Only precedent found for a typeface
designed with low vision needs in mind.
Braille Devanagari by Viraj Deo
An interesting exercise in how
letterforms relate to the braille system
and proportion.
Braille Hybrid by Sam Charman
Experimental relationship between
braille and typography.
Braille Font by Lindsey Muir
Not hugely helpful; seems to be design
for design's sake.
Braille Font by Michael Russ, Theo
Seemann and Christopher Heller
Most successful experimentation
merging braille with type; chaotic.
"Low Vision and the Aging Population"
Infographic from the Vision Council
Katie LeeAppendixLiterature Review
53Katie Lee
AppendixLiterature Review
Heat Sensitive Inks
Could be an interesting application
involving the sense of touch.
"Low vision or blindness affects 1 in
28 Americans"
Facts from the Center for Independence
"Attitudes Toward the Use of Braille"
Addressing stigmas against the
blind and the use of Braille; dispels
commonly believed myths.
"Prevalence of Blindness in America"
Valuable resource for information on
individuals aged 18-45.
"Low Vision Simulators"
Potential use to test typeface and have
available at the end of quarter show to
help simulate low vision for visitors.
"Moon Alphabet"
A less well-known substitute for braille;
is more geographic and simple in form.
“How Braille Works”
A beginner's guide to braille
"Low Vision and Blindness: Changing
Perspective and Increasing Success"
"From this perspective, the difference
between blindness and low vision is not
just one of degree of visual impairment;
rather it is a difference in the methods
and strategies used to function in
everyday life."
Statistics from the World Health
Organization
Surprising information about the
prevalence of blindness and low
vision across the world
“Listening to Braille” - article, NYTimes
We stopped teaching our nation’s blind
children how to read and write. We put
a tape player, then a computer, on their
desks. Now their writing is phonetic
and butchered. They never got to learn
the beauty and shape and structure of
language. - Jim Marks, AHED
“When to Stop Relying on Low Vision
Aids” - Norman Gardner, NFB
54
Appendix
Interviews
Katie LeeAppendixInterviews
55
Randi Strunk
Learning Braille as an Adult
I had the opportunity to correspond with Randi, a family friend,
about her experiences with limited vision and learning braille as
an adult. Here are some of her responses to my questions:
Do you know the measurement of your visual acuity?
I think it's 20/400 in my left eye and nothing in my right eye.
What were your reasons for learning braille?
I wanted to learn Braille because I thought it could help me both personally and
professionally. I wanted to be able to speak publicly with notes I could read without
straining, I wanted to be able to label things around the house like spices, CD's, etc. I
really didn't see a down side to it when I decided it might be a good idea.
What were your biggest obstacles in learning it?
The biggest obstacles were learning all the symbols and rules, but beyond the actual
"learning" the biggest issue was putting that knowledge into practice and building my
reading and writing speed/proficiency.
Approximately how long did it take you to learn? Become proficient?
I learned the entire code pretty quickly, probably a month or two, but I still wouldn't
say I'm proficient as I can not read fast enough to read something out loud at a
comfortable speed.
How do you refer to your vision? (Low vision, visual impairment, etc.)
I refer to myself as blind. I don't like messing around with visually impaired, low vision,
legally blind, etc. That tends to lead to more questions like "so how much can you
see?" It's really hard to answer those questions as I have no idea what the person
with "normal" vision sees. I find saying I'm blind just lets us move on to the next thing.
Many people are afraid of the word blind because they think it's harsh or offensive or
something, to me, it's just easier. It cuts to the chase, you know?
Katie LeeAppendixInterview, Randi Strunk
56
Appendix
Low VisionResources &Institutions
Katie LeeAppendixLow Vision Resources
57
Resources
American Academy of Opthalmology
American Council of the Blind
Cincinnati Association for the Blind and Visually Impaired
Lighthouse International
National Eye Institute (NEI)
National Federation of the Blind (NFB)
Royal National Institute for the Blind (RNIB)
Katie LeeAppendixLow Vision Resources
58
WorksCited
Katie LeeProcess BookWorks CitedKatie Lee
59
“Accessible Information & Text.” Royal National Institute for the Blind, 5 Sept. 2011. <http://www.rnib.org.uk/professionals/accessibleinformation/text/Pages/text.aspx>.
“Aging Eye in the U.S.” National Eye Institute and Prevent Blindness America, 2004. <http://www.agingeye.net/mainnews/usaging.php>.
Carter, Rob, Ben Day, and Philip B. Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985. Print.
Cheng, Karen. Designing Type. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2005. Print.
“Eye Health Statistics at a Glance.” American Academy of Opthamology, Apr. 2011. <http://www.aao.org/newsroom/upload/Eye-Health-Statistics-April-2011.pdf>.
Friedman, M.D., M.P.H., David S. “Vision Problems in the U.S.” National Eye Institute and Prevent Blindness America, 2001. <http://www.preventblindness.net/site/ DocServer/VPUS_report_web.pdf?docID=1322>.
Leonard, Robin. “Statistics on Vision Impairment: A Resource Manual.” Lighthouse International, Apr. 2002. <http://www.gesta.org/estudos/statistics0402.pdf>.
Ruder, Emil. Typographie; Ein Gestaltungslehrbuch. Typography; a Manual of Design. Typographie; Un Manuel De Création. Teufen AR: Niggli, 1967. Print.
Vanderbyl, Michael. “Graphic Design Thesis: A Survivor’s Guide.” http://web.utk.edu/~staples/Thesis/Vanderbyl_Thesis.pdf California: California College of Arts and Crafts, 15 Dec. 2006.
“Vision Problems in the U.S.” National Eye Institute, Nov. 2008. <http://www.lowvision. com/information/vision-problems-in-the-united-states-s>.
“What You Need to Know About Low Vision.” American Federation for the Blind, Jan. 2002. Web. <http://www.afb.org/section.aspx?SectionID=26&TopicID=144>.
Process BookWorks CitedKatie Lee