transitional education: the effects of vocational ... filethe final two years of secondary schooling...
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TRANSITIONAL EDUCATION: THE EFFECTS OF VOCATIONAL
CURRICULUM AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES IN POST-COMPUÜ¥hOÀ
AUSTRALIAN ASSOCIATION FOR RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
ANNUAL CONFERENCE - BRISBANE, AUSTRALIA NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1997
New Times in Secondary Schooling: The effects of vocational education
on the development of self-concept and vocational preparation
Janis P Kane
School of Education, Macquarie University, NSW Australia
Vocational education has emerged in the past ten years as an important
facet of the post-compulsory years of schooling. The growth in
retention rates of students during that time to Years 11 and 12 has
been the impetus for the development of varied curriculum and pathways
of study to ensure that the needs of all students, not just those
aiming for tertiary entrance, are met. In NSW this has resulted in the
Pathways program for the Higher School Certificate, which has enabled
students to diversify their programs of study and to undertake
vocationally-oriented course work in employment preparation programs.
The development of vocational education has been supported by State and
Federal governments as a method of creating a more highly skilled and
educated workforce equipped with the competencies needed for the
changing workplace of the late 20th century.
This paper will give an overview of the development, particularly in
NSW schools, of vocational education. In this paper vocational
education refers to programs of study offered in the post-compulsory
years of secondary schooling, Years 11 and 12, which have a specific
focus on employment preparation and training, rather than on
preparation for tertiary entrance and study in the higher education
sector. and will report on a research project which investigated the
vocational education of low-academic achieving students and its
relationship with the development of self-concept and vocational
preparation, interests and perceptions of competence in the
post-compulsory years of secondary schooling. The results related
self-concept will be focused on and discussion will be developed
related to program design and implementation and implications for
future vocational education and research.
THE EMERGENCE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
Greater diversity in curriculum and expected outcomes in the
post-compulsory years of secondary schooling developed as a result of
the emphasis which has been placed on vocational education and training
by the Federal Government and State educational authorities over the
past decade. One important starting point was the paper Higher
education: A policy statement (1988), issued by the Minister for
Higher Education and Training, John Dawkins, which highlighted the need
to create a more highly skilled and educated workforce and identified
the final two years of secondary schooling as a focus for this
development. The retention of high numbers of students in the
post-compulsory years of schooling was identified as a key element in
the plan to diversify curriculum to cater for the transition from
school to work, as well as for the transition from school to tertiary
study. Another major influence on the diversification of curriculum
was the demand from industry for students to exit school with
competencies which were relevant to the workforce. The relationship
between the expected outcomes of education in Years K to 12 and the
required workplace competencies of the employment sector became another
focus of educational planning and funding, driven by the more
sophisticated skills required for work and the 'diminishing
availability of unskilled work opportunities.' (Harris, Guthrie, Hobart
and Lundberg, 1995, p. 10).
A number of key reviews were commissioned by educational authorities
including the Finn Report on post-compulsory education and training
entitled Young People's Participation in Post-Compulsory Education and
Training (1991). This was followed by The Mayer Committee discussion
paper, Employment-Related Key Competencies: A Proposal for Consultation
(1992) and The Australian Vocational Certificate Training System
(1992) which was a report of The Employment and Skills Formation
Council of the National Board of Education and Training chaired by
Laurie Carmichael. The focus of these reports related to the
development of key competencies in senior secondary school students and
included a number of recommendations about the provision of effective
links and greater flexibility between schools, TAFE colleges and other
training institutions. Such reports also recommended broadening the
Years 11-12 curriculum to give greater emphasis to 'the integration of
vocational and general education.' (Focus K-12, 1992, p. 2). This
emphasis on the diversification of the curriculum and the continued
growth in retention rates of students in post-compulsory secondary
schooling resulted in a rapid and varied expansion of course
development and pathways of progression. It placed vocational
education firmly on the secondary schools' agenda.
In the 1990 Education Reform Act, the NSW Minister for Education, Terry
Metherell, proposed a structure in which the wide variety of
school-based courses were brought together under the categories of
Board of Studies Developed Courses (externally examined and gaining a
(TER) Tertiary Entrance Rank) and Board of Studies Content Endorsed
Courses (developed by schools and other institutions such as TAFE,
which contained curricula that had been approved as relevant and of an
adequate standard). In this period of time, vocational education began
to take on a more diverse form, with the development of Joint Secondary
Schools TAFE courses, which could lead to dual accreditation and the
emergence of private providers who developed industry and school-linked
programs. Cooney (1995, p. 7) has proposed that the curriculum reforms
of the 1990s led to 'the blurring of the distinction between the
training and school sectors and a substantial increase in the number of
subjects and courses available to senior secondary students.'
The NSW ÔHSC Pathways' program which began in 1994, had two main aims -
(1) to cater for the diverse needs of the large student population in
Years 11 and 12; and (2) to encourage more people to re-enter the
education system. Students were able to extend their period of study
to five years to complete all their HSC subjects and could combine
part-time work or TAFE study with school work (Pathways, Information
for Students and Parents, 1994). In this system, students were able to
create a program of study leading towards a Higher School Certificate
but not necessarily towards a Tertiary Entrance Rank. Before the
ÔPathways' program, every student received a TER score, but the
ÔPathways' approach allowed for 10 units of study, which could be split
into six Board Developed courses and four Board Content Endorsed
courses.
The 1996 McGaw Report indicated retention rates of NSW students to Year
12 increased from a rate of 33% in 1980 to a peak of 71% in 1993. The
1996 rate of 67.7% based on the Australian Bureau of Statistics most
recent figures indicates a slowing down of the retention rate. This
has been supported by a recent report from the Australian Council for
Educational Research (Lamb, 1997) which indicates that the student
retention rates have levelled off and in some states have begun to show
a decline. One reason for this decline they suggest, is that the
possible benefits of remaining at school are not being acknowledged by
students and that, as a consequence, there has been some loss of the
alternative packages of study being offered in schools. One of the
implications of this report is that educational programs in the
post-compulsory years of schooling need to be monitored and evaluated
in relation to the curriculum, the course design and school
organisation to ensure they are relevant and motivating for students
and that they offer a positive experience of schooling which delivers
outcomes that students perceive as valuable.
One outcome which has been raised in the literature and which has
direct links to motivation and positive experiences of schooling is to
do with self-concept and self-esteem. It is timely, then, to examine
these links and explore issues related to the links between vocational
development and self-concept.
Despite early work by Super (1951, 1957), Tyler (1951) and others
which established the link between vocational development and
self-concept, there has been limited Australian research in this area.
This link has been recognised in a number of reports as an important
facet in the developmental needs of young adolescents (eg, Board of
Teacher Registration Queensland (BTRQ), 1994). This study aimed to
develop this area of research in the Australian context with emphasis
on a small number of vocational programs developed in NSW schools
relevant to the transition from school to work. Rather than a large
scale survey, the approach taken in this study focused on three
particular programs, in an effort to abstract common themes and
features of curriculum and program design which lead to effective
vocational education for low-academic achievers.
Among many key issues considered in the research were positive concept
and its relationship to vocational potential (Harter, 1989; Damon and
Hart, 1988 (cited by Harter, 1989); the notion of the frame of
reference and its effects on self -concept (Marsh and Parker, 1984;
Marsh, 1987, 1991); the motivational component of self-concept and the
self-consistency motive (Rosenberg, 1979); the influence of the school
environment (Dale, 1974; Schneider, Coutts and Star, 1982 (cited by
Marsh, 1991); the influence of a supportive and positive learning
environment (Hoffman, 1996; Urdan and Maeher, 1995); and the effects
of the process of transition on self-concept (Marsh, Smith, Marsh and
Owens, 1988; Jerusalem, 1994).
The research study reported on in this paper sought to investigate and
clarify some of the issues raised above by investigating, as one of its
focus areas, the effects of vocational education curriculum on
low-academic achieving students in relation to the development of
self-concept.
METHOD
THE SAMPLE SELECTION
Schools
Three Catholic schools from the inner city region of the Sydney
metropolitan area were selected to participate in the study - a
single-sex female school, a co-educational school and a single-sex male
school. To reduce one source of variability, the educational system
was kept constant. The three schools chosen offered different and
innovative post-compulsory vocational education programs aimed at
developing an effective transition from school to work.
PROGRAMS
Programs of study were comprised of a blend of Board of Studies
Developed courses and Board of Studies Content Endorsed courses
including Joint Secondary Schools TAFE courses.
SUBJECTS WITHIN SCHOOLS
Subjects were randomly sampled from Year 11 students who were
participating in two different programs of study in each school. To
control for achievement levels, the sample was selected from students
gaining a C grade in School Certificate English. The sample group was
made up of students participating in the vocational educations
programs, along with comparison groups formed from Year 11 students in
traditional academic programs in each school. Within each program
(Employment Preparation and Tertiary Preparation) within each school
(all female, co-educational and all male), approximately 12 students
were selected at random from students who had achieved a C grade in
School Certificate English. The comparison groups provided baseline
data on changes in self-concept and development of vocational interests
and competencies. A total of 59 students formed the sample group (see
Table 1).
Table 1: Sample Group by School by Program by Sex
School Type_Single-Sex Female_Co-Education_Single Sex Male__Program_E Prep_T
Prep_E Prep_T Prep_E Prep_T Prep__Sex_F_F_M_F_M_F_M_M__Number_12_8_6_3_5_6_10_ 9__
THE INSTRUMENTS
The instruments used to measure self-concept was the Self-Description
Questionnaire-II (Marsh, 1992). In the second stage of the study,
in-depth student interviews were conducted to obtain
qualitative data related to student perceptions of course design,
course value, personal growth in self-concept and career path
expectations and other influences which may have affected their
progress throughout the course.
(a) Self-Description Questionnaire-II (SDQ-II)
Marsh (1985) and Harter (1988) argued for and produced supporting
empirical evidence related to the multi-dimensionality of self-concept.
The Self-Description Questionnaire-II (SDQ-II) (Appendix 2) is a 102
item self-report inventory for high school students which is based on
the Shavelson model of self-concept (Marsh & Shavelson, 1985;
Shavelson, Hubner and Stanton, 1976) and the multiple dimensions of
self-concept outlined in that model. The SDQ-II is constructed to
measure global and multi-dimensional facets of self-concept in senior
high school-age adolescents and contains 11 scales in the following
areas: Academic; Non-Academic; and Global (Total Self, General
Self). Approximately half of the items are negatively worded.
Students are required to respond to simple statements with one of six
responses ranging from False to True. Raw scale scores are calculated
and factor scores are available for comparison to the norming
population. The SDQ-II has been validated in a number of studies eg.
Marsh, 1989, 1990; Marsh, Parker, & Barnes, 1985; Byrne, 1984;
Hattie, 1992.
(b) Interview Schedule
An interview schedule was constructed of a standard set of 35
questions. The interview questions were developed in the focus areas
of: Background Information; Evaluation of Self; Evaluation of
Curriculum; Evaluation of Teaching; and Evaluation of Program.
PROCEDURE
(a) Surveys
The questionnaire was administered to the two groups in a
pre-test/post-test design, aimed at investigating the effects of
vocational curriculum and program design on the development of
self-concept in low-academic achieving students participating in
post-compulsory education.
The pre-test surveys were administered in the early part of each
program, then re-administered as a post-test after approximately three
terms of study. It was necessary to administer post-test surveys at
this stage in order to fit in with the course duration of Program A -
Girls, which is a terminating Year 11 Diploma course conducted across a
10 month period. The survey instrument was group administered and
students were allocated 30 minutes for completion. The survey was
given under standard conditions and instructions.
(b) In-depth Student Interviews
From the group of fifty-nine subjects participating in the study,
eighteen were selected for in-depth student interviews to gather
qualitative data. Six students from each school were interviewed,
randomly selected from each group - three from the Employment
Preparation program and three from the Tertiary Preparation program.
The duration of each interview was approximately one hour and the
interviews were conducted during a one day visit to each school over a
period of one week.
(d) Analysis
Data gathered in this 3 x 2 x 2 independent groups design with repeated
measures over time was analysed by a Multiple Analysis of Co-Variance
(MANCOVA) using the pre-test score as the co-variate and comparing
post-test scores using the adjusted post-test means. A MANCOVA was
conducted in preference to a repeated measures analysis of variance in
order to maximise the power of the statistical test.
The interview transcriptions were analysed in relation to the focus
areas of: Background Information; Evaluation of Self; Evaluation of
Curriculum; Evaluation of Teaching; and Evaluation of Program. Common
themes were extracted and illustrative quotes have been included in the
discussion.
RESULTS
THE SELF-DESCRIPTION QUESTIONNAIRE (SDQ-II)
The results of the analysis of data gathered using the Self-Description
Questionnaire will be reported as a summary of the sample at pre-test
and a review of the differences between schools and programs at over
time.
(a) Summary of the Sample at Pre-Test
Analysis of pre-test data revealed that the sample group of Year 11
students displayed a general consistency with the normative population
when factor scores of self-concept were compared. They did display
some differences which would be expected by a group of low academic
achievers, ie. lower levels of Self-Concept in relation to General Self
and General School.
On Total Self-Concept, the sample group from the Boys school
demonstrated significantly higher levels of Self-Concept than
the Girls and Co-Education schools.
On the Self-Concept sub-scales, a 2 (program) x 3 (school) MANOVA with
the 11 Self-Concept sub-scales as dependent variables revealed some
minor differences with pairs of schools differing significantly on
three of the eleven sub-scales. On Physical Abilities, subjects in the
Girls school indicated lower levels of Self-Concept than subjects in
the other two schools; on Physical Appearance, subjects in the Girls
school indicated lower levels of self-concept than subjects in the Boys
school, and on Verbal Abilities, subjects in the Co-Education school
indicated lower levels of Self-Concept than subjects in the Boys
school.
(b) School and Program Differences over Time
A MANCOVA with the post-test Total Self-Concept scores as the dependent
variable and the pre-test scores as covariates revealed a significant
main effect for school (F(2,47)=5.6, p<.005) and a main effect for
program (F(1,47)=4.96, p<.05). There was no significant school x
program interaction.
(i) School Differences on Total Self-Concept Over Time
Adjusted mean results showed that the Total Self-Concept increased more
in the Co-Education school than in the other schools.
Table 2: Total Self-Concept by School Over Time
SCHOOL_n_T1 Mean (SD)_T2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Girls_20_3.96 (.42)_4.04
(.42)_4.21__Co-Education_20_4.08 (.44)_4.46 (.49)_4.54__Boys_19_4.50 (.53)_4.42
(.57)_4.18__
(ii) School Differences on Sub-Scales of Self-Concept Over Time
Results revealed a significant main effect for school for Physical
Appearance (F(2,52)=4.54, p<.05), Maths Abilities (F(2,52)=9.83,
p<.001) and Verbal Abilities (F(2,52)=5.34, p<.01). A picture
consistent with Total Self-Concept was seen in relation to these
sub-scales with results showing self-concept increased more for
subjects in the Co-Education school than in the other two schools.
Multiple comparisons showed that the adjusted mean for Self-Concept on
Verbal Abilities was significantly higher in the Co-Education school
than in the Girls school, but not different to the Boys school adjusted
mean.
Table 3: Self-Concept Sub-Scale Differences by School Over Time
SUB-SCALES_School_n_T1 Mean (SD)_T2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Physical
Appearance_Girls
Co-Ed
Boys_20
20
19_3.24 (.80)
3.70 (.74)
4.37 (.90)_3.57 (1.04)
4.44 (.85)
4.49 (.81)_3.98
4.45
3.98__Math Abilities_Girls
Co-Ed
Boys_20
20
19_2.81 (1.30)
3.52 ( .92)
3.75 ( .99)_2.90 (1.26)
4.10 (1.00)
3.20 ( .95)_3.33
4.00
2.91__Verbal Abilities_Girls
Co-Ed
Boys_20
20
19_3.70 ( .93)
3.16 ( .82)
4.08 ( .85)_3.62 ( .82)
3.87 ( .97)
4.16 (1.05)_3.58
4.26
3.78__
(iii) Program Differences on Total Self-Concept Over Time
Adjusted mean results show that Total Self-Concept of subjects in the
Employment Preparation programs increased more than Total Self-Concept
of subjects in the Tertiary Preparation programs.
Table 4: Total Self-Concept by Program Over Time
PROGRAM_n_T 1 Mean (SD)_T 2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Employment
Preparation_31_4.17 (.41)_4.40 (.49)_4.41__Tertiary Preparation_28_4.20
(.52)_4.22 (.49)_4.21__
(iv) Program Differences on Sub-Scales of Self-Concept Over Time
A consistent pattern emerged in relation to program differences.
Results show significant differences related to program (Table
5) on two sub-scales, Opposite Sex Relations (F(1,52)=5.33,
p<.05) and Same Sex Relations (F(1,52)=6.05, p<.05). Results
revealed that subjects in the Employment Preparation programs increased
more in Self-Concept than subjects in the Tertiary Preparation
programs. Differences in General Self (F(1,52)=3.62, p=.06)
and General School (F(1,52)=3.98, p=.05) were marginally
significant and again showed a greater increase in Self-Concept for
Employment Preparation subjects.
Table 5: Self-Concept Sub-Scales Differences by Program Over Time
SUB-SCALES_Program_n_T1 Mean (SD)_T2 Mean (SD)_Adjusted T2 Mean__Opposite-Sex
Relations_E Prep
T Prep_31
28_4.66 ( .75)
4.15 (1.23)_5.02 ( .79)
4.29 (1.07)_4.83
4.47__Same-Sex Relations_E Prep
T Prep_31
28_4.78 ( . 68)
4.79 ( .75)_5.19 ( .82)
4.85 ( .80)_5.19
4.84__General Self_E Prep
T Prep_31
28_4.54 ( .77)
4.69 ( .75)_4.90 ( .77)
4.72 (.85)_4.95
4.89__General School_E Prep
T Prep_31
28_3.74 ( .92)
3.93 ( .70)_4.01 ( .92)
3.72 ( .81)_4.06
4.00__
DISCUSSION
SELF-CONCEPT RESULTS
Program Effects
The Student Interview findings gave some insights into the reasons for
the positive changes in self-concept which occurred for students in the
Employment Preparation programs. Students nominated the positive
experience of schooling in preparing them for employment and in
clarifying their career path expectations as key factors in relation to
their satisfaction with the program. This preparation for vocational
success and the development of a positive future view of the self in
relation to vocational or occupational success (Harter, 1989) would
appear to be a key element in the overall levels of positive
self-concept. In contrast, the mixed results evident in self-concept
in relation to the subjects in the Tertiary Preparation programs were
also shown in the interview responses. Tertiary Preparation students
expressed less certainty about the value of their course work for
themselves and for all students, particularly in relation to
progression to tertiary study.
For the Tertiary Preparation students, the comparison group may be
particularly salient. As Harter and others have argued (Harter, 1986,
1987, 1989; Rosenberg, 1979) the feelings of negative peer views and
self feelings of low value lead to a lowered self-concept and lower
self-esteem. One student interviewed made the explicit link between his
perceived academic ability in the current setting compared with his
previous schooling:
...when I was at the other school I guess I considered myself above
average .....there is a lot more students and I realised that there are
a lot more people smarter than me (T Prep Boy)
It is likely that, for Tertiary Preparation students, this is a more
general phenomenon. Marsh's work suggests that this important
realisation of the relevant frame of reference, which has been
characterised as moving from a big fish in a little pond to a little
fish in a big pond, is a key element in the development of self-concept
(Marsh, 1987, 1991; Marsh & Parker, 1984).
It was also clear from interview comments that students in the
Employment Preparation programs considered there was a sense of a real
transition from school to work which was stimulating and of great
interest. This key element of transition had been well-developed in
the Employment Programs within the three schools, with work experience
and Joint Secondary Schools TAFE courses being available to students.
In the program within the Girls school, this idea of transition had
been further developed to be incorporated successfully into the
structure and design of the program with students being given special
freedoms and privileges and responsibilities normally associated with
employment (eg. leaving the school grounds for lunch, wearing
business-style uniforms and signing on and off the attendance book).
These innovative approaches to transition, which had been supported by
students and parents in a formal survey of the program undertaken in
1992 (Price, 1992), seemed to be excellent and effective initiatives
in this area of education.
It was clear, however, that for these special privileges to be
effective the program needed to be accommodated in separate facilities
and a separated location. Originally the Program had been established
in a separate location within the school campus but in the year of
collecting data, the students had been moved into the mainstream
buildings. The subjects expressed a sense of unease in relation to
their status within the school and a desire to be located as a separate
unit within the school, especially as they were clearly identified as
different through the specialised uniform they wore. Despite these
misgivings, students in the Employment Preparation program were
enthusiastic about the program and displayed a greater increase in
self-concept than students in the Tertiary Preparation program.
Another key factor to emerge from the interview analysis was the
importance of relevant and motivating curriculum. Curriculum which is
seen as relevant, of value and offering the opportunity to achieve
success, can be a vital element for students in maintaining and
developing self-concept. It allows not only for the development of
positive self-esteem as an aspect of self-concept, but it also allows
students to maintain their self-consistency (Rosenberg, 1979; Skaalvik,
1983) as they achieve success in areas of value to them. In each of
the Employment Preparation programs specific curriculum had been
developed to cater for the needs and interests of the students and the
requirements of employers in the workplace. In this type of
environment, students had experienced the opportunity for success and a
consequent growth in self-concept. In all schools some common
initiatives had been developed such as the use of specially dedicated
rooms and facilities to cater for specific curriculum, eg. Automotive
Studies, catering facilities for Hospitality Studies. In each school,
Board of Studies Content Endorsed Courses had been developed and
adapted to suit the particular needs of the students and the
marketplace, as those needs changed from year to year. The role of the
Board of Studies in maintaining a consistency in relation to
curriculum integrity and standards was a valuable component of the
development of effective curriculum.
The pattern of subjects undertaken was also important in determining
students' overall perceptions of the programs. Academic subjects were
nominated as a large proportion of the 'least useful subjects' by
students in both programs and vocationally-oriented subjects nominated
amongst the best aspects of the course. There are several possible
explanations for this positive view of vocational subjects. It could
be a reflection of the overall academic ability of the low-achieving
students in the Tertiary Preparation programs or a value judgement
related to the particular subjects chosen. Additionally, the
self-consistency motive (Rosenberg, 1979) could be evident, whereby
students devalue those areas in which they are not achieving success.
The fact that the vocational aspects of the program were appreciated
can be seen in comments related to recommendations about the program.
A number of Tertiary Preparation students nominated the vocational or
occupational aspects of their program as of value, eg. ' ...The
subjects I did helped me a lot to get a job'.
Another possible explanation is that confidence in practical skills and
perceptions of opportunities for employment engender higher levels of
self-esteem as opposed to the anxiety and uncertainty of an extended
educational pathway into higher education (Cienki & Brooks, 1989).
This positive sense of self-concept related to preparation for future
employment prospects was supported by the Employment Preparation
students and could be a function of the identification of positive
'possible selves' (Markus and Nurius, (1986) cited in Harter, 1989)
which envisages a 'well-paying job, loved by family, recognised and
admired by peers' (p. 217) as opposed to negative 'possible selves'
which include unemployment and social disconnection. In contrast, the
sense of uncertainty related to tertiary study was evident in comments
from Tertiary Preparation students, eg. 'I'm not sure, most students
don't need to go to University'.
An important element related to the implementation of curriculum, which
was identified by subjects in both programs, was the value of
supportive and specially-trained staff. Students indicated a
dissatisfaction with teachers who did not give them time or lacked
patience and the ability to relate to them. The importance of teaching
emerged from the interview phase of the study where students identified
as outstanding teachers, those who gave them time, explained things
clearly and were willing to revise and re-explain as often as necessary
and were able to interact in a very supportive and less formal
teaching approach. Although these teacher qualities are ideally present
in all programs, it would seem particularly important that programs
aimed at low achieving, poorly motivated students would employ teachers
with the skills to address their special needs. Therefore, teachers
who had the patience and insights necessary to work with low-achieving
students would seem to be key elements in the planning and delivery of
high quality and effective vocational courses.
It is important to note that there were no school by program
interactions related to self-concept. Therefore, despite the fact that
there were significant differences between schools, the effect for
program was consistent across all schools and school differences did
not influence the program results.
Whilst students in the Employment Preparation programs demonstrated
significantly greater increases in self-concept over time, it can be
seen from raw scale scores that the Tertiary Preparation students did
not always decrease in levels of self-concept and at times, remained
almost the same or increased slightly between time 1 and time 2, for
example, on Total Self-Concept, Opposite-Sex Relations and General Self
measures. It is possible that, as suggested by Marsh (1987), whilst
the level of academic self-concept can be negatively affected by
comparison with fellow students of higher ability when students are
placed in a high ability program, in some cases the level of
self-concept can be positively affected simply by being a member of the
high ability group and the positive feelings associated with that
membership. Therefore, despite the fact that some of the Tertiary
Preparation students were experiencing difficulties with the level of
work and a sense of uncertainty related to their perception of the
value of the program, their acceptance and participation in the
tertiary preparation pathway may have maintained overall self-concept
due their perceived higher academic status within the school.
School Effects
Overall, students in the Co-Education school showed an increased
self-concept over the length of the study. Students in the Tertiary
Preparation and Employment Preparation programs within this school
cited somewhat different reasons for their positive attitudes. The
Employment Preparation students nominated relevance and motivation of
the course work whilst the Tertiary Preparation students nominated a
change towards a more positive and co-operative attitude towards
school.
It is important to note that these students had generally remained
within the same school from Year 7. This school does not receive
students from feeder schools for the post-compulsory years and
therefore students have not generally been affected by transition into
the final two years of schooling. In contrast, at the time of the
study, both the Girls and Boys schools were recipients of students
from feeder schools into their Years 11 and 12 programs. It is likely
that, as suggested by Harter (1989) and supported by Marsh et al.
(1988), the transition to new school environments can cause a
re-evaluation of competence and social confidence which can affect
self-concept and this may have influenced the results in the Girls and
Boys schools.
In the current study and in contrast to previous research, (Foon, 1989;
Block & Robins, 1993; Marsh, Smith, Marsh and Owens, 1988) there was no
clear evidence of differences between males and females in relation to
the global measure of self-esteem or overall self-concept. The overall
results revealed no significant differences on Total Self-Concept
between female subjects in the Girls single-sex school and male
subjects in the Boys single-sex school nor any significant differences
in self-concept on the significant sub-scales of Physical Appearance,
Mathematics Abilities and Verbal Abilities. In each instance, the
subjects in the Co-Education school demonstrated greater changes over
time, and raw scale scores indicate few differences between Girls and
Boys over time.
IMPLICATIONS
The main outcome to emerge from the study was that, for low-academic
achieving students, vocational education programs are more effective
than tertiary preparation programs in developing positive changes in
self-concept. Subjects in the Employment Preparation programs
identified the relevance of the course work, the development of
practical skills, the opportunity for achievement of success and
gaining of credentials, along with growth in self-confidence and
increased motivation through a positive experience of schooling as key
outcomes of their programs of study.
Therefore, one of the main implications to emerge from this study is
that, in order to provide a positive experience of schooling in the
post-compulsory years for low-academic achieving students, effective
vocational programs need to be in place and readily available to all
students.
In order to identify some of the key components and processes involved
in the development of effective vocational curriculum, it is of value
to highlight the initiatives and innovations in place in the three
Employment Preparation programs and to draw more general implications
related to program design and implementation of course work. The
following sections highlight the strengths of each program in turn.
PROGRAM A (GIRLS)
One of the key features of this program was the dynamic and sensitive
nature of the curriculum which had responded to the changing needs of
students and the varied demands of the workforce. An important aspect
to emerge from this program was the challenge to maintain this
responsiveness whilst still meeting the requirements of the Board of
Studies.
The implication of this effective program outcome is that vocational
education curriculum needs to be responsive to student needs and to the
external demands of the employment sector whilst maintaining the
standards and integrity required by the Board of Studies NSW.
The transitional path which moved students from the mind-set of the
school to that of the workforce, was a positive feature of this Diploma
program. The importance of an effective atmosphere of transition to
work through the blending of school requirements and work routines,
expectations and privileges was another implication for vocational
education.
PROGRAM B (CO-EDUCATION)
The emphasis in this program on achievement of success, in order to
develop positive self-esteem and self-confidence, rather than a primary
focus on immediate job attainment was an innovative approach to
vocational education which took a long-term view of the benefits of a
positive experience of schooling and fostered the notion of life-long
education and retraining. The gaining of credentials which could be
used for future employment or TAFE training were an important external
sign of achievement of success. Quantitative results which showed that
subjects in this Co-Education school demonstrated a greater increase in
positive self-concept over time.
Therefore, an important implication to arise from the investigation of
this program is that vocational education would benefit from the
development of an achievement-based approach to learning, which
encourages and offers the opportunity to achieve success and build
self-concept as a basis for a positive attitude to life-long learning
and future employment potential.
PROGRAM C (BOYS)
The variation in career pathways developed in this program by combining
the curriculum into focused employment packages was an innovation which
offered tremendous possibilities for non-academic students and opened
up their options beyond non-skilled, semi-skilled or stereotypic areas
of employment. The blending of varied but focused curriculum allowed
for depth of learning in particular employment fields such as retailing
and hospitality and opened up the possibilities for effective industry
links. It also offered the opportunity to gain relevant credentials
which were useful for future training and employment.
Therefore an implication of the study to arise from this program is
that vocational education should be focused on specific employment
areas so that students can gain depth of knowledge, breadth of skills
and competencies and specific insights into a particular field of work.
As well, students should have the opportunity to gain credentials
relevant to future employment or ongoing training to give them a
starting-point for their career paths.
OVERALL IMPLICATIONS
As the previous sections have suggested, there are general implications
arising from this study for the design and implementation of future
vocational education programs:
1) Given the increase in self-concept and vocational interests and
perceptions of competence that Employment Preparation programs
engender, it is important that low-academic achieving students be
encouraged to participate in these programs of study, not only to
develop the skills and competencies necessary for the workforce, but
also to develop a positive belief in themselves and their life-long
potential. This may require some effort on the part of schools to
publicise the benefits of such programs.
2) It is important for the implementation of vocational education
programs that there be dedicated and experienced staff involved. The
quality of each program seemed to be inextricably linked to the
expertise and enthusiasm of the staff who had the patience and insights
necessary to work with low achieving students and those with special
needs. Therefore, staff appointments to vocational education programs
need to be carefully considered, not only in relation to the
experience and training necessary, but also to the interests and
abilities of staff to work effectively with low-academic achievers.
This implication is equally important for the staffing of the Joint
Secondary Schools TAFE program.
3) The successful tracking of low-academic achievers into vocational
education programs requires that the programs maintain a status within
the school which makes them attractive to students. Such programs,
therefore, should not be viewed colloquially as Ôa last resort', but
rather they should grow in status in Years 7-12 secondary schools as a
valid and appropriate alternative to the tertiary pathway. One way to
engender this status is for schools to actively encourage effective
links with TAFE and employers to offer work experience programs, not
just across a broad range of jobs, but specifically focused on growth
areas of employment. This narrowing of the broad base of work
experience placements would assist in the development of specific
networks between schools, TAFE and growth industries and would offer
students real opportunities to gain appropriate skills and credentials
to enhance their employment prospects and to access both workplace and
TAFE training.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The study has been limited by focusing on three schools only in one
education system. Whilst the outcomes of the study have clearly
established the effectiveness of vocational education programs in
developing self-concept and vocational preparedness, one recommendation
for future research would be to replicate the study across a larger
number of schools and programs in order to test generalisability of
findings across schools.
An additional recommendation would be to develop a longitudinal study
which tracks subjects through the post-compulsory years of schooling
and into their career pathways, to ascertain the effectiveness of
vocational education in preparing them for employment and life-long
education and training.
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