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An essay on the theoretical underpinnings of Transfer of learning and its applications in teaching and learning.TRANSCRIPT
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Transfer of Learning
Jason C. Joseph
University of the West Indies, Cave Hill
One of the main goals of education is to enable the learner to use knowledge or skills
learnt in one lesson or situation in a new environment. Students who have been taught how to
calculate surface area or volume in math should be able to apply that learning when measuring
liquids in a science class, or in woodwork class when constructing a chest of drawers. This
ability is referred to as transfer of learning. Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005), define
transfer of learning as the ability to apply previous learning to a new situation, problem, or to
future learning. Another definition explains it as “carrying over knowledge, skills,
understandings, attitudes, and habits of thinking from one learning situation to another” (Johri,
2005, p. 145).
Differences in beliefs about the manner in which transfer occurs, as well as attempts to
categorize differences in the quality of transfer, have led to the emergence of several descriptions
of transfer. Some of those widely used, include positive and negative transfer, lateral and vertical
transfer, near and far transfer, and low road and high road transfer.
Positive transfer happens when learning in one situation improves learning and
performance in another situation. For example, learning the mechanics of sentence construction
should assist students in writing better compositions. Negative transfer happens when learning
in a previous situation interferes with, or inhibits learning in a new situation. One example of
negative transfer could be switching from a right-hand drive vehicle to a left hand-drive. Lateral
transfer happens when learning in one context is employed at the same level in a new context,
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for example, being able to apply the concept of averages in math to find the mean of a set of data
in social studies. Vertical transfer is said to take place when learning at one level facilitates
learning at a higher level. Evidence of vertical transfer can be seen when a music student is able
to compose and arrange a song as a result of chord structures which he learnt previously.
In near transfer, skills and knowledge which are usually done in a procedural manner
are applied from one context to another. While it is usually considered to be the easiest and most
successful transfer, the probability of the learner applying those skills in a new environment will
most likely be low. Far transfer is more difficult to achieve and takes place when learning can
be applied in new situations to solve new problems. The learner acquires general skills which can
be used in more specific situations. The near and far theory of transfer was based on the notion
that some tasks were very similar in nature and therefore allowed learning to transfer easily and
automatically from one situation to the next. Though some tasks may be similar in nature, there
are many learning situations or problems which are very different in nature, at least on a surface
level, and so the concept of automaticity proposed in this approach does not hold.
One of the more recent types of transfer to be proposed by Perkins and Salomon (as cited
in Bruning, Schraw, and Ronning, 1995), is low-road and high-road transfer. Low-road transfer
supposedly happens spontaneously and automatically, after a task has been practiced extensively
in different environments similar to the expected transfer context. It can also be provoked and
encouraged through reflection and self-monitoring exercises. High-road transfer is most likely
to happen when students consciously and deliberately abstract ideas or principles and mindfully
search for connections and situations in which those principles can be applied. It involves
metacognition, analysis, and active involvement on the part of the learner. One of the differences
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between the low and high-road theory of transfer compared to other ideas of transfer, is that it
offers strategies which can be employed to promote transfer.
In an attempt to classify the various types of transfer, Haskell (2000), devised a taxonomy
which comprised of six levels of transfer (p. 29).
Level 1: Nonspecific transfer. All learning falls in that category since all learning depends
on connections with past learning. Although this level of transfer is necessary, it is
viewed more as learning than as true transfer.
Level 2: Application transfer. This level refers to applying previous learning to a specific
situation. For example, after learning the fundamentals of writing a good report, a student
is then able to produce his own report.
Level 3: Context transfer. This refers to the application of previous learning in slightly
different situations. Context transfer is most likely to happen under situated learning
conditions, and a change in context may result in a lack of transfer.
Level 4: Near transfer. When previous learning is transferred to situations which are
similar but not identical to the original learning context, near transfer is said to occur. An
individual who quickly learns how to salsa after having learnt the cha-cha-cha reflects an
example of near transfer.
Level 5: Far transfer. This level involves applying knowledge and skills to situations
which are very different from the original learning context. Anological reasoning is a
good demonstration of the kind of thinking which takes place at this level.
Level 6: Displacement or creative transfer. A newly-discovered relationship between old
and new learning sometimes leads to the creation of a new concept. This kind of transfer
is called displacement or creative transfer.
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Haskell (2000), views only the last three levels of his taxonomy as “significant” transfer.
He postulates that transfer is only significant when it is preceded by some form of new learning.
His taxonomy, like most transfer theories, was based on his assesment of similarity. The idea of
similarity seems to feature in all transfer of learning theories, but contention with regards to what
qualifies and quantifies ‘similar’ has resulted in various views and interpretations of the transfer
phenomenon. In order to understand the multi-faceted, and evasive nature of transfer of learning,
a brief history of the development of transfer theories is necessary.
Transfer of Learning Theories
In an effort to explain how and why transfer takes place, and what transfers from one situation to
the next, various transfer theories have been proposed. Those theories will be summarized and
discussed mainly from a behaviorist and cognitivist perspective. However, a historical analysis
of transfer of learning will first be presented.
Theory of Formal discipline
This theory is based on an older theory of mental faculties by Aristotle. The theory
identifies two different theories of the mind: general-faculty-theory and organismic-unity-
faculty-theory (Johri, 2005). In the general-faculty-theory, it was believed that the mind is made
up of various faculties which worked independently of one another, whereas, in the organismic-
unity-faculty theory, the mind was considered to be one whole unit which expressed itself in
different activities like imagination, recalling, reasoning, and perception.
The theory of formal discipline (also known as the “mental muscle approach”) was based
on the assumption that we all have a set of mental powers which can be trained by practicing
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certain skills or doing specific subjects. It was felt that those mental faculties could be
strengthened in the same way that exercise strengthens the body; the more difficult the mental
exercise, the more impact it would have on the faculties. That training which we receive can then
be applied to other areas of our lives. It was once felt, for example, that taking courses in Latin
would develop one’s ability to think or that learning to spell would also improve attention and
observation. Latin, Greek, Mathematics, and science were the main subjects used in training. The
theory also proposed that mental exercise or the form of the activity were more important than
the content or subject-matter.
The formal discipline theory was subsequently rejected on several grounds. In the late
nineteenth century, William James (as cited in Ormrod, 2008), learnt a new poem every day, for
several weeks in an attempt to see if his ability to learn poems would improve. Instead of
improving, however, he found that he subsequently learnt poems more slowly. Other researchers
also found that students who had studied Latin were no better off in English, grammar, or
spelling, compared to students who had not (Mueller, 1975; Thorndike (as cited in Leberman,
Doyle, & Mc Donald, 2006). It was also suggested that the students who benefitted from the
formal discipline approach benifitted only because they were intelligent students who would be
more inclined to choose the various subjects. In more recent research involving computer
programming, it was also proven that learning skills in computer programming did not
necessarily help students to transfer those skills to other problem solving situations (Ormrod,
2008).
Despite criticisms of the formal discipline theory, there are still aspects of the theory
which are still upheld today. Contemporary research has found that the idea of different
“faculties” of the mind is not totally erroneous since there are areas of the brain which are more
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dominant in performing certain functions (Mueller, 1975). In other experiments, Rychlak,
Nguyen and Schneider (as cited in Ormrod, 2008, discovered that the degree to which the learner
likes a subject can have an impact on future learning. This affective component, they reasoned,
was probably the foundation of the formal discipline approach. One of the major critics of the
theory was Edward Thorndike, who proposed a theory of Identical Elements.
Behaviorist view of Transfer
Theory of Identical Elements
A more specific form of transfer called “Theory of Identical elements” was propounded
by Edward Thorndike. Following a series of experiments, he concluded that transfer is greatly
dependant on the number of similarities which exist, either in content or technique, between the
unfamiliar and familiar situations. Transfer takes place because the common elements in both
situations require the same mental abilities and not because of mental exercise gained from
studying specific topics. He argued that transfer could only be effective if tasks greatly resemble
one another.
A number of further experiments by other researchers, including Thorndike’s own
experiments (Haslerud, 1972), revealed that the amount of transfer was minimal and tended to
inhibit rather than facilitate transfer. Many of Thorndike’s experiments, as well as those of other
classical transfer theorists, were criticized because it was felt that the evidence of transfer which
was found, happened under unnatural circumstances and did not reflect the real learning process.
The idea of detaching the task from the student’s purposes, attitudes, motivation, and
environment was also questioned. His theory was also criticized for being too dependent on drill
and practice. Haskell (2000), again raises the subjectivity of the concept of similarity, and opines
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that the identical elements model only results in near transfer. Despite the criticisms of the
identical elements approach, it has been credited for having the most impact on education. The
idea of practice continues to be a fundamental part of contemporary transfer theories.
Theory of Generalization
This theory was developed by Charles Judd who viewed transfer of learning as
essentially a transfer of principles (Johri, 2005). The theory of generalization contends that
transfer occurs as a result of common features or general principles which one learns in a
situation. As a result, one is able to apply those generalizations to a new situation. In one
experiment, two groups of children were asked to throw darts at an underwater target. The
experimental group which was taught the principles of light refraction was able to transfer that
knowledge and perform better than the control group. Judd’s theory also posited that the attitudes
and dispositions of the learners, such as motivation, also impacted on transfer, and that the
subject matter is not as important as the methodology. His model, in essence, is a precursor to the
cognitive perspective on transfer in the sense that it acknowledges the learners prior knowledge,
as well as the use of strategies to promote transfer.
Cognitive approaches to transfer of learning
Gestalt perspective
Gestalt theorists believed that transfer happens when the individual is able to recognize
similarities among facts, and general concepts or principles which can be applied in another
context. This theory is known as the Configuration or Transposition Theory (Johri, 2005). They
do not subscribe to the view that parts of a whole can operate in isolation, but instead believe in
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emphasizing, in a holistic manner, common elements like perception, insight, and intelligence.
The learner’s perception of the relationship between the old and the new situation is also
important. The more meaningful an experience is, the more thoroughly the concepts will be
grasped, thus facilitating maximum transfer. The use of appropriate teaching methods also plays
an important role in the transfer process.
Other cognitive perspectives
The information processing model or Schema theory suggests that transfer happens
when people are able to retrieve what was learnt previously at the appropriate time. Schema is
the term used to describe a mental representation of knowledge which individuals construct from
previous experiences. Old schemata are adjusted when new learning occurs. In this approach,
positive transfer takes place when the learner uses schema to understand a new situation, or when
a connection is made between prior knowledge, the new situation, and the application of the
prior knowledge. Since knowledge is not always available in the short term memory to allow
people to make connections between the current situation and prior knowledge, transfer is most
likely to happen when connections have been made in the long term memory between what is to
be learned and previous knowledge. Another cognitive perspective is the contextual
perspective which posits that most knowledge and skills learnt are restricted to the situation in
which they are learnt (situated learning) and that transfer to new and different situations is
unlikely. The organization, retrieval, and processing of schema, as well as metacognition, all
play an important role. Transfer becomes more possible when the learner searches for similarities
between the new problem and prior learning.
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Contemporary perspectives on transfer of learning advocate both the general principles
and context-specific approach. The idea that there must be some common elements between the
old and new tasks in order for transfer to occur is still maintained. The idea of general transfer,
on which the formal discipline theory was based, is believed to take place on occasion but not as
often as specific transfer, and not in the extreme manner proposed by the formal discipline
theory. For example, Fong, Krantz, and Nisbett (as cited in Haskell, 2000), found that students
who received training in statistical probability and principles were able to transfer those
principles to everyday reasoning and problem solving. It was also found in another experiment
that the training which graduates received in the rules of certain fields allowed them to transfer
that training in other fields. The importance of prior knowledge, experience, and the learner’s
own involvement in the learning process is also fundamental to all the theories. While it is still
not clear as to exactly how transfer happens, more recent research has outlined several ways in
which positive transfer can be encouraged and the significant role which the teacher must play in
facilitating the transfer process.
Improving learning outcomes through transfer of learning theory:
Implications for teaching and learning
Given the various perspectives of the transfer of learning theory, it is clear that promoting
transfer in the classroom requires a systematic and persistent approach if there is to be any
improvement in the learning outcomes of students. A deliberate and conscious effort must be
made on the part of both teacher and student, and the teaching activities and strategies employed
must be purposeful, and suited to the kind of knowledge to be transferred, as well as the abilities
of the students. Intrinsic motivation should be encouraged, since the amount of motivation a
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student has determines his persistence on a task, which in turn affects the extent to which transfer
will occur (Bransford, 2001). Teachers can help to increase intrinsic motivation by ensuring that
tasks are neither irksome nor too difficult, but instead appropriately challenging. It should be
made clear to the student exactly what is to be learnt and why. Students are more likely to be
motivated when they understand why a particular task must be done, or in what ways it will be
useful to them. The transfer of learning concept has several other implications, some of which
will be highlighted in the following discussion.
Depth of teaching versus scope
The common approach to teaching is to attempt to cover as many topics in the syllabus as
possible in order to prepare students for exams, while sacrificing students’ understanding and
depth of knowledge in the process. According to Wellington, 2006, students should master the
original material thoroughly in order for transfer to take place. This implies that teachers should
also spend some more time in covering material to allow students time to fully grasp the
concepts. In an effort to achieve this depth of understanding, students need to experience the
material in different ways through a variety of different examples. Students who are learning the
multpilication of single digit numbers, for example, should be able to see that 3x4 means 3
groups of 4, and that although 4x3 gives the same result, it represents a different concept from
3x4. The relationship between 3x4 (multiplication) and the sum of 3 groups of 4 (addition) can
also be highlighted since understanding is gained by observing both similarities and differences
of ideas. The students should be able to work with both concrete objects as well as abstract
examples. Students should be presented with several variations of the same concept and the
common principles should be made clear. For example:
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7 x 4 = 28
How many mangoes would you have if someone brought you 6 mangoes every day for a
week?
If a book costs $8, how much would 6 books cost?
One method of teaching math for transfer which has been found to be successful is schema-
based transfer instruction – a method which teaches students how to develop schemas to identify
the superficial aspects of a problem which make it appear to be different (Fuchs, Fuchs, Finelli,
Courey, & Hamlett, 2004). By giving students varied examples and building their vocabulary of
algorithm, students will eventually be able to get past the surface differences of problems and
recognize the underlying principle. Such an approach would ensure that students have a solid
grasp of the subject matter and its related principles, consequently facilitating improved
academic performance.
Planning and assessment
Teaching for transfer will also have implications for unit planning and assesment.
Teachers would need to pay more attention to the selection of content, and to focus mainly on
the more significant and pertinent aspects of the syllabus. In order to do this, the teacher would
also need to know precisely what are the skills, knowledge, or principles to be transferred, and
those should be reflected in the unit and lesson objectives. The structure of tests or examinations
would need to be modified in order to accommodate transfer objectives and the individual
differences among students. Equal emphasis should also be placed on formative assessment and
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alternative forms of assessment, such as observation checklists, and practical exams, since some
transfer behaviours are difficult to observe using traditional evaluation methods.
Creating a spirit and culture of transfer
Failed transfers usually happen when students are unable to make connections between
what was learnt previously and the task at hand. The practice of drawing students attention to
connections, practical applications, and abstract relationships should be a deliberate and
conscious strategy on the teachers’ part. It should become second nature to a teacher to ask
students questions like, “Why is this topic important?”; “In what other situation can this principle
be applied?” This culture of transfer should be ecouraged both in the structured classroom
environment and in informal, out of class settings. While on the way to a class excursion, for
instance, the teacher could seize opportunities for transfer by asking pupils questions such as,
“What does this remind you of?”; “Why do you think this part of the island is much colder than
another part?”. This practice would also inculcate in students a spirit of transfer and get them in
the habit of thinking about their learning and relating school to everyday life.
Helping students to make connections
The relationship between concepts and possible applications of knowledge and skill is not
always visible to students. In teaching a lesson, the teacher should assist students in making
those connections by emphasizing simlarities. For example, in teaching the concept of a major
scale, music students should be fully aware of the relationship between the major scale and an
actual melody or song, and a major scale and “do re mi”. The teacher can play a major scale on a
keyboard and ask students what does it remind them of. The teacher can also play the song “Do-
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Re-Mi-“ from the Sound of Music in order to get students to see that the same notes of the scale
are involved using a combination of patterns. The teacher can then play a popular song which
students like and highlight certain parts of the melody to demonstrate that the notes all come
from amajor scale.
Connections between the various disciplines, and how classroom learning tasks relate to
their everyday lives should also be shown. For example, following a simple survey in social
studies to determine the attitudes of students and staff towards the music of Vybz Kartel,
students can be asked to summarize their data using measures of central tendency (math), and
provide a written report which would be checked for proper spelling and grammar (english).
Students should also be fully aware that they were engaged in research that is similar to the kind
of scientific research which happens every day on a wider and more professional level. They
should be made to understand the link between the exercise they did, and what is normally done
before the foods they eat and medicines they use are labelled as being good to eat or safe to use.
The idea of getting students to dig deeper into conceptual issues and to think about why and how
learning is taking place should be habitual.
Emphasize differences between ideas
Understanding the differences between concepts or principles could help minimize
negative transfer. Sometimes it is best to highlight the differences between concepts by
introducing them at the same time. In differentiating between “to” and “too” for example, the
teacher can exaggerate the “oo” sound in the word “too” to emphasize “excess” or “in addition”.
Students presented with two sentences: (a) She wants me to carry her bag, (b) Her bag is
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tooooooo heavy to carry. By exaggerating the “oo” sound, and by presenting both words,
students will better be abe to distinguish between the two.
The differences between other concepts are best understood when taught seperately or in
different environments, such as the difference between a fish and a whale.
The use of appropriate teaching strategies
As has been illustrated so far, teaching for transfer and improved learning outcomes
depends most heavily on the type and appropriateness of the teaching activities used. The
classroom environment should also be conducive to transfer and students should be bombarded
with frequent opportunities within which transfer could take place. Many authors have proposed
several specific strategies for improving transfer in the classroom (Perkins & Solomon, 1992;
Clarizio & Mehrens, 1994; Wellington, 2006). A few of the most widely used methods will be
outlined here, along with examples of how they can ultimately improve learning outcomes.
Hugging and Bridging
Perkins and Salomon, 1992, suggested the technique of “hugging” and “bridging” which
has found appeal in both educational and vocational settings.The method of hugging involves
structuring and presenting a lesson in a way that is similar to the intended application of the
learning. It is a way of encouraging automatic or low road transfer. Bridging promotes high road
transfer and encourages students to think divergently, make connections, and to be more aware
of their thought processes. Two kinds of high road transfer were also suggested. Forward
reaching, or preparing students to apply what is being learnt in a future context, and backward
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reaching, or helping students to refer to what they learnt previously in an effort to solve a current
problem.
Modeling
One of the main ways in which children are socialized and learn new behaviour is
through imitating others (Fisher, 2005). With this strategy, the teacher performs the behaviours
or actions which he wants students to learn or imitate. Thinking aloud, for instance, can be a
good way of showing students the thought processes they should go through in solving a
problem. Other attitudes like enthusiasm, curiousity, and critical thinking can also be modeled.
One area in which this can be useful is in reading and comprehension. The teacher could
model certain reading strategies by reading aloud and thinking aloud. For example, the title of a
story, “Invisible Alligators” could first be read to the class. The teacher could think aloud, “I
wonder what the story will be about. Maybe it’s about an alligator that makes itself invisible to
attack its prey.” (predicting). The teacher could model phrasing and intonation while reading,
and stop to ask himself/herself questions along the way and make inferences.
Scaffolding
With the scaffolding technique emerged from Vygotsky’s idea of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD). Students are given tasks which are slightly more challenging than what
they can manage alone. The teacher provides just enough guidance to help the students use their
prior knowledge in accomplishing the task. The assistance or scaffolds are gradually removed as
the students ability and confidence increase. The scaffolding method can be used in the
following example:
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After a unit on social problems in social studies, students are given an assignment to
produce a two minute video or jingle on a social issue. Teacher can provide general
guidelines as to the kinds of equipment which can be used – digital cameras, mobile
phones, and the school’s computer lab. Students will be allowed to plan their productions
while the teacher provides advice and assistance only when necessary without actually
showing students what to do. The teacher can instead direct students as to where or how
to get help, for example, asking someone who is knowledgeable or searching the internet.
Cognitive coaching
This is approach fosters independence in learning and develops metacognition by helping
students to be in tuned with their thinking processes. In math, the strategy works best when
students have been taught problem solving skills and strategies, such as algorithms,
brainstorming, and using analogies. Instead of giving students a math problem to solve and
correcting it or “going over” it, as is normally done, students are asked to go through each stage
of the problem solving process in an effort to help them understand their approach, and to enable
the teacher to remedy any misunderstandings. The teacher asks questions like, “What is the first
thing you did? Why? How did you arrive at that answer? Did anybody use a different strategy?”
With this approach, students are more likely to understand why certain procedures are used, have
a deeper understanding of concepts and principles, and become better problem solvers.
There are many other methods which can be used encourage transfer. The inquiry method
of teaching, for example, could allow students to make use of prior learning (backward reaching)
in investigating hypotheses. An example of the inquiry approach could be posing the following
question to a group of students who are preparing to learn about pulleys and levers: “How do you
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think castles, churches and other buildings were constructed in ancient times in the absence of
modern technology?”. Students can be asked to design a machine which could have been used to
raise building material at high altitudes. This activity can encourage creativity, which is an
important aspect of transfer, and also create an opportunity for them to reach back into their
maths, science, or history learning. Students are also more likely to understand and recall key
principles associated with the concepts.
The project method can also be used to help students gain a better understanding of
certain concepts and the relationship between them. In math, students can be given a project to
create a mathematics game, which can encourage the application and transfer of various
mathematical principles, making learning more practical and meaningful. The use of simulations
and drama in the classroom can also contribute to helping students master concepts and make
meaningful connections. According to Courtney, (1989), drama creates high motivation, a
climate for learning, and encourages specific transfer of skills to the real world. Simulations of
job interviews, mock trials, and playing the role of a minister of government during a mock
budget debate can all have positive and far-reaching effects. Writing reflective essays or
portfolios is a good way to develop metacognition in students. Through reflection, students
become more in tuned with their learning styles and strategies, and decide what worked, what
didn’t, and why. Metacognition is recognized as an impotant ingredient in learning and transfer.
Transfer of values and attitudes
One aspect which is often overlooked, yet which has a significant impact on learning, is
the attitudes, self discipline, and values of students. According to Stewart, Jane, Jon, and Keown,
(1996), “it is only by changing the sense students have of themselves as learners that they can
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begin to develop their capacities and realize their potential” (pp. 11). Too often, teachers spend a
considerable amount of time trying to teach or impart appropriate values and attitudes, either in
their daily interactions with students, in moral education, or in citizenship education in social
studies. Those attitudes, however, fail to transfer in real situations. The concept of transfer of
learning can also be applied in this context. In teaching values and attitudes, the hugging and
bridging strategy can be applied. Students can be made to practice, or roll play certain behaviors
in a variety of simulated situations (hugging). Skills such as anger management, conflict
resolution and courtesy, can all be practiced and opportunities can be created for students to put
those skills into paractice. Group work, physical education and other school or class organized
activities are opportunities for practice. Following roll play, students can be asked to reflect on
the experience and to suggest other real life scenarios where the skills being learnt would be
useful (bridging). The teacher could encourage students to think deeper about the reasons why
they behave in a particular way (their causal attributions) and the consequences of such
behaviour, in an effort to promote mindful transfer.
Conclusion
Perhaps one of the reasons why transfer of learning has been such a rare occurrence both at
school and in the work place is because our students have not been taught how to transfer. The
kind of high-road transfer that is desired cannot be left to chance. Educators now have a
responsibility to create a culture of transfer in their classrooms and a spirit of transfer in each
child. This must be done in a deliberate and systematic manner and requires a radical
transformation from traditional teaching methods.
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