traditional foods - mahlathini.org · during the growing season. below is a table giving an...

Duncan Stewart, Managing Director PO Box 11934, Dorpspruit, 3206 Tel:033-3429043 Fax: 033-3942691 Email: [email protected]

TRADITIONAL FOODS

PRODUCTION AND PROMOTION September 2011

mailto:[email protected]

Produced by the Empowerment for Food Security Programme, KwaZulu Natal Department of Agriculture, environmental Affairs and Rural Development With financial support provided by FICA (Flemish International Cooperation Agency) By Lima Rural Development Foundation

Acknowledgements To the following people and organisations for assistance in researching, writing, graphics and filming -Erna Kruger: Mahlathini Organics, PO Box 8o7, Richmond, Cell: 0828732289 Email: [email protected] - ARC-VOPI: Sunette Laurie Email: [email protected] and Willem Janse van Rensburg Email: [email protected] Ph:012-8419790 -Contributors; Karen Caister (UKZN), Tim Houghton (UKZN), Lawrence Mkaliphi (Biowatch) - Meyer Productions -Lima RDF staff including; Kathy Pitout Email; [email protected], , Minse Modi Email: [email protected], Kamukota Kaluwa and Zinhle Ngubane - EFSP staff including;Zinhle Mlalba Email: [email protected] Mzi Dlamini Email: [email protected] and Quaraishia Merzouk Email: [email protected].

© KZNDAE&RD September 2011








1Nutrition

Nutrition

FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION.................................................................................... 2

GOOD NUTRITION .............................................................................................................. 2

Balanced diets................................................................................................................... 3

Dietary Guidelines.......................................................................................................... 3

The five food groups ...................................................................................................... 3

Malnutrition........................................................................................................................ 4

Some important nutrients................................................................................................... 5

Vitamin a........................................................................................................................ 5

Vitamin c........................................................................................................................ 5

Iron ................................................................................................................................ 6

Iodine............................................................................................................................. 6

THE CONTRIBUTION OF AFRICAN LEAFY VEGETABLES (ALVS) ................................... 6

Recommendeddaily amounts .......................................................................................... 10

FOOD PREPARATION....................................................................................................... 11

Important traditional food-processing and preparation methods....................................... 11

Soaking........................................................................................................................ 11

Germination/malting..................................................................................................... 11

Fermentation................................................................................................................ 12

POPULAR TRADITIONAL FOODS IN KWAZULU- NATAL................................................. 12

Preparation of vegetables and fruit .................................................................................. 14

SOME RECIPES FOR NUTRITIOUS DISHES.................................................................... 14

Mashed Pumpkin with peanut butter ............................................................................ 14

Green Leaves with Peanut Sauce................................................................................ 14

Nutritious snacks ............................................................................................................. 15

Peanut biscuits ............................................................................................................ 15

Peanut sweets ............................................................................................................. 15

Steamed bean flour cakes ........................................................................................... 16

DIVERSIFYING PRODUCTION IN FOOD GARDENING.................................................... 16

Diversity for good nutrition ............................................................................................... 16

Some changes we can make ....................................................................................... 16

Drying of fruit and vegetables .......................................................................................... 17

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 19

2Nutrition

FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITIONIf we want to know whether a family, or a country, enjoys food security, we need to know

whether:

o There is enough food around, in a household or in a country (availability);

o People can get hold of it when they need it, e.g. can grow it, or afford to buy it (access);

and

o People are using the food well (utilisation), meaning the food does not go to waste due

to contamination or loss of nutrients from the food.

The third point shows us that just having lots of food, does not necessarily mean there is

nutrition security – in other words, that a person gets enough nutritious ingredients to be

healthy. This is one of the reasons why even non-poor families in South Africa suffer from

malnutrition.

Food safety is also important, because if we handle food incorrectly, like not washing it

properly or allowing it stand in hot conditions for too long, the food can become unhealthy or

even dangerous.

Adequate care is necessary to ensure that especially children, sick people and other

vulnerable groupings get access to food (point 2 above). Therefore the skills and motivation

of the mother or household caregiver is also an important

matter for food security and healthy eating.

Recommendations for increasing food sceurity include the

following:

o Linking nutritional and agricultural interventions

o Strengthening nutritional and agricultural research

o Promoting mother and infant nutrition

o Reducing malnutrition in children < 5yrs

o Improving and expanding small scale water

management

o Improving access to better seeds and other planting material

o Diversifying on-farm enterprises with high value products and

o Establishing effective agricultural extension services

Increasing agricultural productivity of food insecure farmers is a central theme within the

poverty and nutrition security debate. The promotion and production of indigenous crops falls

within this broader aim.

GOOD NUTRITIONSome general rules of healthy eating are:

o People need to eat from all the food groups every day, (See Figure v: Go, Grow and

Glow Foods) and they need to get enough – but not too much – from each food group.

This is a balanced diet.

Individual foods are

not healthy or

unhealthy,

but a diet as a whole

is healthy or

unhealthy.

3Nutrition

o The greater the variety of foods they can eat every day, the better. This is called dietary

diversity.

o Also, there are certain foods we need to be especially careful that we don’t eat.

People find it very hard to change their behaviour, and particular food behaviour. Most of us

stay with the food habits we learned as children, including food tastes and preferences, food

preparation methods, composition of meals, regularity of eating and even the setting in

which we normally take our meals.

Balanced diets

To eat well, means to eat lots of different kinds of food so that our bodies get all the good

things that they need. This does not mean that people need to buy expensive food. By

thinking carefully about what you eat, and what you prepare for your family, and choosing

food well, your whole family can eat in a healthy and affordable way.

There are a number of ways of introducing healthy dieats at a community level. These are

now mostly food based recommendations rather than a focus on specific nutrients.

Dietary Guidelines

These have been developed at a national level as the nutrition realted messages that need

to be considered and are called the 10 food based dietary guidelines.

o Enjoy a variety of food for more nutrients

o Balance food intake and energy used

o Be active (exercising, walking, working in the garden and sweat)

o Eat regular meals (do not skip meals especially breakfast)

o Make starchy food the basis of most meals ( white vs brown/wholewheat)

o Eat plenty of vegetables and fruit daily, they are very rich in many nutrients

o Eat beans, peas, lentils and soya regularly

o Meat, chicken, fish, milk or eggs can be eaten daily (fatty vs lean or processed meat;

take aways; deep fried meat)

o Use fats sparingly- animal vs plant oil, hard vs soft

o Use less salt, too much salt can lead to heart problems

o Drink clean safe water. Water replaces water lost (i.e. sweat, urine) during exercise.

o If you drink alcohol, drink sensible- don't give children/don’t send children to buy

alcohol

These can be used as a way of introducing nutrition concepts at a community level.

The five food groups

Another way of introducing the concepts of the Five Food Groups in nutrition at a community

level is to use the idea of “Go, Grow and Glow” foods. Foods are grouped according to their

functions in human health and wellbeing.

4Nutrition

Figure : The Five Food Groups: choices and proportions needed daily

Malnutrition

Malnutrition can be either:

❖ Over-nutrition;

❖ Under-nutrition; or

❖ Micronutrient deficiencies

5Nutrition

Over-nutrition occurs where people over consume enregy rich foods such as starches, fats

and suagar. Wieght gain and realted diseases such as hgh blood pressure and diabetes

become chronic conditions.

Under-nutrition relates often to what is knwon as Protein-Energy Malnutrition where too

little protein and energy producing foods are eaten on a regular basis. In the chroni form this

leads to growth impariemnt, immune deficiencies and difficulty with cognitve skill

development.

Micronutriend deficiences are often associated with under nutrition and realtes to specific

nutrients such as Vitamin A, iron, zinc and iodine. Under-nutrition and/or micro-nutrient

deficiencies, especially among young children, can have long-lasting effects on their quality

of life.

Some important nutrients

It is still a good idea ot also focus on a few of the critical nutrients and their functions.These

include the following:

Vitamin a

Vitamin A is a micronutrient found in food. Vitamin A is very important to children under five

years of age, malnourished children, pregnant and lactating women. Excess vitamin in the

body is stored in the liver. Vitamin A is a fat soluble vitamin; therefore a small amount of fat

should be added for vitamin A absorption. Spinach should be chopped and carrot grated for

easy absorption. One of the best ways to prevent Vitamin A deficiency is to encourage

families to grow and eat food all year round that are rich in

Vitamin A .Mothers who are breastfeeding should eat

plenty of food rich in Vitamin A.

Functions:

o Ensures child growth and development

o An anti-oxidant, it protects the body against

infections

o Eye vision

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD)

Vitamin A deficiency may result in: poor growth and

development in children; increased risk of infection, eye

problems and death

Vitamin c

Vitamin C is important for maintaining overall

health and strengthening the immune system.

Defieicencies can lead to many problems nad

infactions, including scurvy in severe cases.

Functions:

o An antioxidant

o Maintains healthy gums, skin and

connective tissues

Good Sources of Vitamin A: Orange-yellow vegetable

(carrot, butternut,orange flesh sweetpotato and fruit

(pawpaw, mango,peach) except citrus fruit

Dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach and African

leafy vegetables. Carrots, butternut.

Good Sources of Vitamin C:All fresh vegetables nad fruit.

Including for example citrus, guava, papayas, spinach, cabbage,

broccoli and marrows.Prolonged boiling and other processing of vegetables will destroy most of the vitamin C – so they need to be eaten raw, lightly steamed or lightly fried.

6Nutrition

o Strengthens the body against infections

Iron

Anaemia is the most widespread nutritional disorder in the world. The most common

cause is a lack, or deficiency, of iron in the diet. Other

causes are parasitic infections (such as hookworm) and

loss of blood during menstruation and child birth.

People with anaemia usually have pale tongues and lips

and the inside rims of their eyelids are white. Anaemia

reduces people’s ability to work, increases tiredness

and slows children’s learning

Functions

o Iron is an important mineral needed to

produce red blood cells and transport

oxygen/ air in the blood white.

Iodine

Iodine deficiency is caused by lack of iodine in food and in

the soils in which food is grown. This is most common in

areas where iodine in the soil has been washed away by

rain, and inland areas that do not have easy access to

seafood.

Iodine deficiency disorders include goitre, which is

indicated by a swelling of the thyroid gland; low birth

weight; inhibited growth in children; and impaired mental

development. In severe cases, brain damage can be caused.

THE CONTRIBUTION OF AFRICAN LEAFY VEGETABLES (ALVS)Common, wild, edilbe leafy vegetbles growin cultiavted lands and in the veld. These are

harvested during the rainy season and are plentiful during the summer months – especially

during the growing season. Below is a table giving an indication of typical occurence of wild

leafy vegetables in KZN.

Iron rich foods include liver, meat and fish. Also legumes such as peas, beans, bambara, groundnut and cowpeas. These must be eaten with foods rich in Vitamin C . Both legumes and Vitamin C rich foods can be

grown in the garden.

The use of iodized salt is the most effective way

of preventing iodine deficiency and is highly

recommended.

7Nutrition

(From: Dr A Modi; Water use, drought tolerance and nutritional value of indigenous crops: an overview. Modi

A.T., Beletse Y. & Oelosfe A. WRC, August 2011)

The leaves of wild vegetables can be cooked and eaten fresh, sun or air-dried. When

cultivated in home gardens, wild vegetables grow and produce in places where it is difficult

for exotic vegetables to grow, because the former do not need many inputs.They grow

easily, contain valuable nutrients, and are palatable at a young stage of plant development.

The table below gives a comprehensive analysis of the nutrients available in a cooked

portion of the common ALVs.

Table1. Selected leaf nutritional contents (per 80g of cooked leaves*) of some of the wild

vegetables

Wild

vegetable

Macronutrie

ntsMinerals Vitamins

En

erg

y

Pro

tein

Ca

lciu

m

Iro

n

Zin

c

Se

len

iu

m A C E

Rib

o

fla

vin

Nia

cin

B6

(kJ) (g) (mg) (g)(g

RE)(mg)

Recommen

ded Dietary

Allowance

(adult

9240 50 1000 15 12 55 800 60 8 1.3 15 1.6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Cropping field Veld Cropping field Veld Cropping field Veld

August 7th September 10th October 7th

Site type and date of harvest

Leaf m

ass p

er

pla

nt (g

)Black jack

Hairy wild lettuce

Wild lettuce

Water navel

Yellow garden sorrel

Gallant soldier

Wild mustard

Cape pigweed

Red pigweed

8Nutrition

female 25-

50 years)

Amaranthu

s spp217 4.06 364 6.72 2.11 0.7 456.4 64.4 0.23 0.14 1.4 0.252

Black jack 310.8 4.76 245 8.4 1.27 2.5 1376 32.2 3.52 0.25 0.98 0.49

Gallant

soldier218.4 4.48 397.6 7.42 1.82 - 1058 9.38 - 0.29 1.69 -

Water

navel333.2 4.2 334.6 27.5 4.21 - 740.6 32.6 - 0.32 1.12 -

Wild

lettuce229.6 3.92 331.8 20.8 1.12 - - - - 0.224 0.89 -

Wild

mustard198.8 5.18 399 13.3 1.90 - 476 15.4 0 0.196 0.86 -

Cabbage 190.4 2.1 43.4 0.42 0.21 1.26 9.8 42 0.35 0.028 0.42 0.112

Swiss

chard182 3.78 163.8 6.16 1.02 1.68 655.2 33.6 0.42 0.14 0.84 0.112

- indicates no figures were available in available literature.

The graph below provides a more visual presentation of the vitamin A and C content of

commonly eaten leafy vegetables

9Nutrition

Right: Cowpea

leaves

(amakhasa

embumba)

Left:

Amaranthus

(imbuya)

Left: Orange fleshed

sweet potato (ubhatata

obovu)

Right: Lambsquarters/

goosefoot/ fat hen

(imbilikicane)

Far left: Gallant solider

(ushukeyana)

Left: Wild lettuce

(Urhwaburhwabu/ ihabe/

uhabehabe)

10Nutrition

Wild mustard (umasilhlalisane)

Recommendeddaily amounts

Eating a balanced diet means that individual meals are also balanced, that is, each meal

contains a proportion of the nutrients that a person needs every day. There are many ways

of combining foods to make a nutritious meal. The basic nutrients of starch, protein, fats,

vitamins and minerals need to be kept in mind.

11Nutrition

FOOD PREPARATIONSeveral traditional food-processing and preparation methods can be used at the household

level to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets.

Important traditional food-processing and preparation methods

Soaking

Soaking involves immersing food (e.g. grains) in water for a period of time. Traditional

method of soaking grains is healthier than the modern way of simply boiling.

Advantages of soaking

• It improves digestion by breaking down proteins that are difficult to digest. Some

enzymes that reduce nutrient absorption of iron and calcium for example may be

reduced during soaking, making these elements more easy to absorb.

(HealthBanquet, 2007).

• It enhances nutrition by reducing the effect of phytic acid (an anti-nutrient that

prevents absorption of nutrients).

• It saves time and fuel

How to soak grains

I cup grain (e.g. samp)

2 tablespoons of acid

Warm water

For example, put samp, acid and water into a pot and leave to soak for about 7-12 hours (or

overnight). Continue to cook as usual. Remove any foam that appears on top as it can

contain released impurities.

Germination/malting

Malting is the the process of germinating grains to release/create the enzymes needed to

convert the starch to sugar and break down proteins. This

makes these nutrients more available and also releases zinc

and iron. It is an importnat process for creating traditional

cereals for making porridge and fermented products. The

malting creates a thinner cereal porridge without dilution with

water while simultaneously enhancing their energy and

nutrient densities.

Right: Germinated maize seeds (From wwww.stillcoooker.com), and

germinated amaranthus (From www.homebrew.com)

This can only be done by "growing" the seed to the point

where it has the maximum enzymes and halting that same

growing process before the plant starts using those enzymes

to continue growing the plant.

12Nutrition

How to do germination/malting

The grain to be malted is soaked in water until they swell up. They are then places on racks

or spread out in shallow containers and but kept moist and cool for 3-5 days until the seeds

germinate and the roots start to grow out. At this point they are transferred ot a hot, dry

envrionment and the seeds are once again dried. They can be kept like this for a number of

months. This malted grain can be used to make very nutritious porridge and are also used

as an ingredient in fermeted drinks. For the fermentation yeast is either added, or natural

yeast is used, working with a starte culture.

Fermentation

Traditionally fermentation is carried out with

mlated grains. Millet and sorghum work

particulalry well, but maize is also fermented to

produce drinks like amahewu. A yeast starter

culture is needed for the fermentation. Wild

yeasts were used in the past (those linked to

the ceareals themselves) and preserved in the

starter culture traditional clay pots.

Right: an image of a traditional wedding with the

traditional clay pots nad streinrs used to make

sorghum beer. (from www. ezakwantu. com/ Gallery

African Beer Pots - Clay Pots)

Fermentation also improves protein quality and digestibility, vitamin B content, iron and zinc

availability and microbiological safety and

keeping quality.

Examples of tradtional fermented foods are ;

ujeqe (fermented maize bread), amahewu

(fermented maize drink) and umqombothi

(fermented sorghum beer)

Right: Fermented sorghum beer

(umqombothi) (From: Roger de la harpe/Gallo

Images/ Corbis)

POPULAR TRADITIONAL FOODS IN KWAZULU- NATALThe table below lists some of the most well known traditional foods and dishes still prepared

nad nejoyed in Kwazulu-Natal

Some popular Zulu traditional food

Traditional food name and brief description about preparation

Umcaba- is prepared from fermented milk (amasi) and maize or sorghum. Maize or sorghum is roughly

13Nutrition

pounded and then boiled. Once cooked these are cooled down, any water is removed and the boiled

grain is mixed with amasi and served.

Isijingi- is made from crushed maize mixed with pumpkin (see figure below). The pumpkin is boiled and

then maize meal is added. The mixture is cooked for a few minutes before serving warm

Ujeqe – is a bread made by boiling crushed green maize or sorghum. Green maize is crushed to make a

meal and then water is added to make a dough. This dough is raised by adding a small amount of

traditional beer to it. The dough is then covered in and steamed in water until it is cooked.(see figure

below)

Isigwagane: is made by cooking beans. Then maize meal is mixed to a paste with water and added to

the beans. This is cooked again until is is done.

Isijabane- is prepared in a similar way to isijingi, but the leaves used are usually wild leafy vegetables

(imifino) such as balck- jack (uqadolo) and amaranthus (imbuya)

Isiphuphutho: is made by cooking mealies until they are soft. Then add beans/cowpeas/jugobeans and

cook till soft.

Umbhaqanga- is made by cooking beans till soft. Then add maize meal

Izinkobe- boiled maize grain. Maize grains can be fresh or dry.

Izinkobe zikabhontshisi- Maize grains are partially cooked. Beans and salt are added to the mixture and

cooked until done

Umqaba: is made by grinding mealies that have been boiled and then adding amasi to it.

Umxhafele: is a mixture of izinkobe and cooked wild vegetables or pumpkin leaves

Isitambo- is made from stamped dry maize cooked with or without beans. Samp is made by crushing hte

maize in a stamping bolck to rough pieces.

Amahewu- Maize meal is cooked to make porridge. Cool porridge is fermented overnight before serving.

Stamp mealies and soak in water for 2days, remove from water & stamp again to make mealie meal.

Soak mealie meal again (add boiled water to soak mealie meal mix well). Then sieve/sift. Put the sifted

mealie meal in boiling water cook it like porridge. Simmer & put it aside to cool, add fermented amahewu

& mix well. Leave overnight to ferment

Idokwe lamabele: is made by fermenting ground millet /sorghum and cook like porridge. Then leave it

overnight and drink it like amahewu

Left: Isijingi

(Maize and

imifino)

Right: Ujeqe

(steamed bread)

14Nutrition

Preparation of vegetables and fruit

When preparing food, there are a few things to consider to make sure we do not lose the

nutrients in the food. Below is a list with some suggestions:

❖ Buy or pick vegetables on the day you use them.

❖ Store vegetables and fruit in a cool, dry place.

❖ Clean and cut vegetables immediately before cooking. Most of the nutrients are in the

outside parts of the vegetables and fruit. Try not to peel them. Cut the food into big

pieces if possible – small pieces lose more vitamins.

❖ Cook vegetables in just a little water or in a stew, until just tender. Don’t cook too long, or

in a lot of water.

❖ Other ways to preserve nutrients are frying very quickly over high eat or in a little oil.

❖ Eat the food as soon after cooking as possible.

SOME RECIPES FOR NUTRITIOUS DISHESHere are a few fun ideas of nutritious dishes that can be tried out! i

Mashed Pumpkin with peanut butter

INGREDIENTS:1 medium pumpkin or bitter melon, peeled, seeded and cut into cubes

3 cups maize meal

¼ cup peanuts or 3 tablespoons of peanut butter

½ teaspoon of iodized salt

Sugar to taste (for bitter melon)

PREPARATION:

1. Boil pumpkin in salted water until soft

2. Mash until smooth

3. Add maize meal and cook for 30 minutes, stirring occasionally

4. Add peanuts or peanut butter.

Green Leaves with Peanut Sauce

INGREDIENTS:

750 g (3 cups) of leaves (amaranth, black jack, wild lettuce, kale, cow pea, taro, pumpkin,

bean or any other) washed and cut

15Nutrition

½ cups of peanuts or 2 tablespoons of peanut butter

Medium onion

Large tomato

Vegetable oil

Iodized salt to taste

PREPARATION:

1. Sort the leaves and steam them in a pot until tender

2. Roast peanuts and grind to a paste

3. Cook onion and tomato in vegetable oil

4. Add steamed leaves and more water. Add salt to taste

5. Serve with peanut paste.

Nutritious snacks

Small and school going children need to eat some snacks in between their main meals. It is

good for them to eat little bits often, rather than large meals. Nutrient rich snacks should be

preferred.

Peanut biscuits

INGREDIENTS:

12 tablespoons crushed raw peanuts

4 tablespoons sugar

1 egg

6 tablespoons maize meal

Water

1 tablespoon vegetable oil

PREPARATION:

1. Mix the ingredients together

2. Shape mixture into flat cakes

3. Cook cakes slowly on a greased hot plate or frying pan.

Peanut sweets

INGREDIENTS:

1 cup sugar

1 cup water

1 cup shelled and roasted peanuts

Vegetable oil

PREPARATION:

1. Dissolve the sugar in a pan of water

2. Heat the pan and stir until a syrup forms. When the syrup is golden brown, add the

peanuts and mix well.

3. Pour the firm mixture on to a large oiled dish, spreading it into a 1-1.5 cm thick layer.

16Nutrition

4. Let the mixture set, but before it gets hard, cut it into small squares.

Steamed bean flour cakes

INGREDIENTS:

Bean flour

Water

Pepper (ground)

Onion (ground)

Salt (optional)

Banana leaves

Dried fish or boiled eggs (optional)

PREPARATION

1. Mix the bean flour with water to form a paste (a little cassava or maize flour

(maizena) can be added to bind the mixture).

2. Add pepper, onion and salt (and other ingredients, if desired) to the paste.

3. Wrap the paste in banana leaves and steam

DIVERSIFYING PRODUCTION IN FOOD GARDENING

Diversity for good nutrition

Generally, when we think about homestead food production, we think about vegetable

gardens. And when we think of vegetable gardens, we may be thinking mainly of crops such

as cabbage, spinach, onion, tomatoes and possibly a few others. Such gardens just provide

a little extra food from time to time. Gardens like these cannot fulfil the purpose of providing

food on a continuous basis, so that there is always something wholesome and nutritious to

eat from the garden. In other words, there is enough, of enough different types of food to

fulfil our dietary needs and preferences.

For this to be possible, we need to think of combining many different types of crops

(vegetables, fruit, herbs) and plants (medicinal, protective, windbreaks, fodder for animals) in

our gardening. We also need to think of including animals (small livestock could be easier –

chickens, ducks, rabbits, pigs and goats). Then we need to combine all of this into a farming

system that can manage itself to a certain extent and support us in the process.

Some changes we can make

For continuity:

We want to be able to have something in the garden to pick and eat throughout the year.

(We need to wait a long time for cabbages and onions) We can include crops such as:

- Amaranthus , other ALVs - Rape, kale

-Spring onions/ bunching onions - Garlic chives

- Leeks - Parsley

17Nutrition

- Coriander - Fennel

- Lettuce - Broccoli, cauliflower (for leaves as well)

- Mustard spinach - Marrow (for leaves as well)

- Sweet potato (as well as orange fleshed for vitamin A)

- Brinjals

For protein:

We want to grow crops that can add protein to our diets, especially for the young children

(ages 1-5years). We can include crops such as:

- Turnip greens - Sugar beans, jugo beans

- Cowpeas, - Peanuts

- Peas

We also need to include small livestock such as chickens, ducks, rabbits, goats and pigs in

our farming system.

For vitamin c and vitamin a:

We want to be able to eat fresh green and yellow fruit and vegetables every day. This is very

important for children and sick people. We can

include crops such as:

- Tree tomatoes (picture on the right)

- Granadilla, gooseberries

- Paw-paws, mango, banana, avocado

- Peaches, apricots, plums

- Oranges, naartjies, lemons

- Guavas

- Butternut, pumpkins of various types

We want to grow a range of fruit, so that there is

fruit to eat throughout the year.

Drying of fruit and vegetables

Processing of food in this way helps to ensure continuity of food supply.

A system of drying racks made with and

covered with shade cloth/ hale netting is

suitable.

Right: Drying of tomatoes brinajl, peppers and

naartjie Drying of almost anything is possible!!

(Pioneered at Dundee Agricultural Research

Station)

The vegetables and fruit are covered with a

layer of netting for hygiene reasons. Dried

vegetables can be stored for two years or more

before being used.

18Nutrition

Right: Bottles of dried vegetables; including from

left to right; Peppers, sweet potato, ground

chillies and brinjals

Below is a table to help you think some more

about different kinds of crops and foods that are

rich in key nutrients, that can be grown and

produced at a homestead level.

Table 2: Home garden crops that are rich in key nutrients

GO Foods

(Energy)

GROW Foods

(protein)

GLOW Foods Iron Fat

Vitamin A Vitamin C

Avocado Bambara

groundnut or jugo

beans

Amaranth or

“imifino”,

Cabbage Beans/ peas* Avocado

Bambara

groundnut

Beans/peas Other wild

leafy

vegetables

Citrus Kidney Bambara

groundnut or

jugo beans

Banana Cow pea Carrots Guava Liver Butter

Cassava Eggs Cassava

leaves

Mango,

Papaya

Meat/ chicken/

fish

Groundnut

Coconut Milk/ maas (soured

milk) / yogurt/

cheese

Sweet potato

leaves and

tubers (also

orange

fleshed)

Peaches,

plums, apples,

pears

Some green

leafy

vegetables

e.g. spinach or

Swiss chard

Oil from plants;

e.g. sunflower,

sesame,

groundnut etc

Groundnut Groundnut Liver Passion fruit Breast milk Tree tomato

Maize Meat/chicken/fish Maize Pineapple Soybean

Millet, wheat,

sorghum

Melon or pumpkin

seeds

Mango Tree tomato

Rice Pigeon Pea Papaya Sweet potato

Sorghum Soybean Pumpkin Tomato

Sweet potato Lentils, dahl Rape or kale Sweet pepper

Taro

19Nutrition

BIBLIOGRAPHYBurgess A., Maina G., Harris P. & Harris S. 1998. How to grow a balanced diet: a handbook

for community workers. London, VSO Books.

FAO, 2001. Improving Nutrition through home gardening. A training package for preparing

field workers in Africa. FAO, 2001.

FAO. 1994. Social communication in nutrition: a methodology for intervention, by M. Andrien.

Rome. Reprinted 1998.

FAO. 1997. Agriculture food and nutrition for Africa: a resource book for teachers of

agriculture. Rome.

FAO/ILSI. 1997. Preventing micronutrient malnutrition: a guide to food-based approaches: a

manual for policy makers and programme planners. Washington, DC, International Life

Sciences Institute (ILSI).

Jeavons, J. 1995. How to grow more vegetables than you ever thought possible on less land

than you can imagine. 5th ed. Published by Ecology Action of the Mid-Peninsula. Berkeley,

California, Ten Speed Press.

Stimie, C., Kruger, E and de Lange, M. 2010. Agricultural water Use in Homestead

Gardening Systems. Volume1 Chapter 3. WRC Report No TT431/2/09.

o www.tearfund.org/tilz : This website has many useful resources; books, manuals

newsletter and training material for health and development workers worldwide.

the PILLARS Guides are designed for facilitators

o www.leisa.info : The Centre for Information on Low External Input and

Sustainable Agriculture provides information about successes in sustainable

smallholder farming

o www.fao.org/sd/seaga : Socio-Economic and gender analysis programme have

produced various guides for facilitators in working with rural households and

resources

http://www.tearfund.org/tilz

http://www.leisa.info/

http://www.fao.org/sd/seaga

1Cultivation of traditional crops

Cultivation of Traditional Crops

ContentsLEGUMES ............................................................................................................................ 3

Bambara groundnuts ......................................................................................................... 3

Climatic requirements and Cultivation ............................................................................ 3

Postharvest:................................................................................................................... 4

Pests and diseases........................................................................................................ 4

Cowpea ............................................................................................................................. 4

Climatic requirements and cultivation............................................................................. 4

Pest and disease control................................................................................................ 5

Harvesting...................................................................................................................... 5

Dry Beans ......................................................................................................................... 6


Fertilisation .................................................................................................................... 6

Harvesting...................................................................................................................... 6

Groundnut ......................................................................................................................... 7


Groundnut Cultivars ....................................................................................................... 7

“Akwa and Kwarts”......................................................................................................... 8

“Anel” ............................................................................................................................. 9

“Tufa” ............................................................................................................................. 9

GENERAL NEEDS FOR PRODUCTION: ...................................................................... 9

CEREALS AND GRAINS .................................................................................................... 10

Maize .............................................................................................................................. 10

Climatic requirements .................................................................................................. 10

Fertilisation: ................................................................................................................. 10

MILLET............................................................................................................................ 11

Climatic requirements and Cultivation .......................................................................... 11

Sorghum.......................................................................................................................... 12

Sweet sorghum ............................................................................................................... 12

Sorghum pests............................................................................................................. 13

TUBERS ............................................................................................................................. 14

Amadumbe...................................................................................................................... 14

Climatic requirements and cultivation........................................................................... 14


Cassava .......................................................................................................................... 14


Pests and diseases...................................................................................................... 16

Sweet potato ................................................................................................................... 18


LEAFY VEGETABLES........................................................................................................ 20

Chinese cabbage ............................................................................................................ 20

Climatic requirements and cultivation........................................................................... 20

Pests and Diseases ..................................................................................................... 20

Cucurbits ......................................................................................................................... 22

Pumpkin .......................................................................................................................... 22

Wild watermelon.............................................................................................................. 22


OTHER INDIGENOUS CROPS NOT COMMONLY GROWN IN KZN................................. 24

Okra ................................................................................................................................ 24

Pigeon pea ...................................................................................................................... 25

Climatic requirements .................................................................................................. 25

Sesame (wing-seeded).................................................................................................... 26


REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 27


LEGUMES

Bambara groundnuts

Scientific name: Vignea subterranean L

Common names: Jugo beans

Zulu names: Indlubu

Family: Fabaceae

(Seeds of Bambara groundnuts (mixed). Image from

http://www.flickr.com/photos/47108884@N07/4350578751/)

Climatic requirements and Cultivation

Ideal climate: hot, dry regions. For best growth, jugo bean needs bright sunshine, high

temperatures, and frequent rain.

Optimal temperature: 20°C to 28°C. It requires a frost-free period of at least 3 to 5 months

(Begemann and Mushongo, 1995).

Days for seed to germinate: 7 – 15

Time to maturity: 3 – 6 months

Annual rainfall: 500 to 600 mm

Fertilisation: no chemicals or fertilizers used and the crop is relatively unaffected by pests

and diseases. Ideal for intercropping with other crops

Propagation method: seed – gives the best yields on a deeply ploughed field with a fine

seedbed.

Planting densities: 25 to 75 kg/ha.

Planting depth: 2.5 to 3.0 cm (heavy soils)

5.0 to 7.5 cm (sandy soils)

Planting time: late October to early December

Seeds of jugo beans should be sown on ridges or mounds.

Ridges: 30 – 40 cm apart (plant space: 20 – 25 cm).

Mound: 40 cm wide (diameter) and 30 cm high. 50 cm apart. Each mound contains

one hole, which receives 2 – 4 seeds at sowing (Chaba, 1994).

Weeding and earthing-up: 2 – 3 times before harvesting.

Yields: 50 to 4000 kg/ha

http://www.flickr.com/photos/47108884@N07/4350578751/


Postharvest:

Whole pods are sun-dried and kept in bags for the next cropping season. Occasionally, the

pods are shelled, and the dry seeds are carefully wrapped in calabashes, with or without

wood ash (Doku, 1969).

Pests and diseases

The main problem affecting the crop is that sometimes the leaves dry up and there are no

pods (or they are empty). Seeds are susceptible to weevils (Begemann, 1986b). In locally

planted trials, Sclerotium rolfsii has caused yield losses. Various viruses have also been

reported as being problems on bambara:

o Meliodogyne incognito and M. javanica are parasitic nematodes on bambara

o Pests attacking bambara are leafhoppers, Hilda patruelis and the larvae of Diacrisia

maculosa and Lamprosema indicate.

o Developing pods of bambara beans are damaged by Piezotrachelus ugandum (moth

beetle), while larvae of the genus Rivellia cause damage to the root nodules.

o There are no chemicals registered for the control of diseases and pests on bambara

in South Africa.

Cowpea

Scientific name: Vigna unguiculata L.

Common names: cowpea, bachapin

bean, black-eye pea, catjang, china pea,

cowgram

Zulu names: imbumba, indumba,

isihlumaya

Family: Fabaceae

(Crowder peas, cream and clay type of cowpeas. Image

from Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.

2010)

Climatic requirements and cultivation

Environment for growth: hot areas

Yield: 1 t ha-1 seed and 5 t ha-1 hay

Annual rainfall: 300 mm (has excellent drought tolerance)

Soils: sandy soils, and should not be grown on wet or poorly drained soils. It is tolerant to

acidic soils and has been found to produce good yields at over 70% acid saturation (van Rij,

1997).

Planting time: middle of November (cooler areas)

middle of December (warmer areas)


Fertilisation: Phosphorus – 40 kg/ha; Nitrogen – 20 kg/ha; Potassium not necessary

Row spacing: 45 - 50 cm (determinate varieties)

75 cm (indeterminate varieties)

Plant spacing: 10 cm

Plant density: 200 000 - 220 000 plants/ha (determinate), 130 000 plants/ha (indeterminate)

Planting depth: 5 cm

Weed control: The only registered herbicide is triafluralin (Treflan),

Pest and disease control

Cowpeas have two major insect pests in KwaZulu-Natal, namely aphids and thrips. The

thrips damage the crop at flowering and create deformed pods or stop pod formation. Aphids

are important virus carriers and can infest the crop very quickly. Spraying for these pests

increases the yields from roughly 200 kg/ha to 1000 kg/ha (Ntoukam, et al., 2000).

Cowpeas are susceptible to nematodes and thus should not be planted consecutively on the

same land. Cowpeas are also susceptible to viruses, and therefore good quality seed should

be used as some viruses are seed borne as well as being transmitted by insect vectors

(Ntoukam, et al., 2000).

A basic insect control program would be as follows:

o Spray insecticide at flowering to avoid thrips damage

o Spray again at late pod fill, using a pyrethroid, preferably with a sticker. If, at any

stage aphids are observed, spray without delay

Harvesting

If the crop is grown for seed, harvest when 75 – 80% of the pods are dry and cut hay when

25% of the pods are coloured. The harvesting process will be determined by cultivar/type.

For indeterminate types, harvest in windrows and thresh; for determinate types, combine

straight away or pull and thresh the same day. Hand harvesting is recommended for small

areas (Coetzee, 1990).


Dry Beans

Scientific name: Phaseolus vulgaris

Common names: Small white beans, red

speckled, Carioka

Zulu names: Amabhontshisi

Family: Fabaceae

(Dry bean plant. Photo taken from Lethithemba community

garden in Pongola on 05/05/11.)


Optimal growth temperature: 18 to 24°C.

Soils: warm, fertile sandy loam to loam soils with good drainage and moderate organic

matter content.

Soil pH: 5.8 to 6.5 are the best.

Annual rainfall: 600 to 650 (Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. 2010c).

Propagation method: seed. The seedbed must be deep, level and firm

Planting depth: 2.5 to 7 cm

Planting time: March and April (warm areas), November to mid-January (cool areas)

Fertilisation

It is recommended that beans be planted on soils which have been previously well fertilised.

General fertility is more advantageous than direct fertilisation, as beans are sensitive to high

concentrations of mineral salts.

Harvesting

Dry beans should be harvested when all the pods have turned yellow, but before they have

become very dry as the pods will shatter (Shenkut and Brick, 2003).

During harvest, entire plants are pulled and further dried till ready for threshing. After

threshing the beans are further sun dried to estimated 12% moisture to avoid storage

problems.

Seed storage: should be stored in a cool, well-ventilated environment and protected against

high temperature and humidity. This solar drying of bean seeds before storage is essential.

In rural areas, farmers normally mix bean seeds with ash or an ash/chilli mixture before

storing. When completely dry, the seeds are stored in a sealed container such as a metal or

plastic bucket with an air-tight lid. These buckets are regularly checked to ensure that no

weevils are developing (Infonet-biovision, 2011).


Groundnut

Scientific name: Arachis Hypogaea L.

Common names: peanuts, groundnuts

Zulu name: Amakinati.

Family: Fabaceae

(Groundnuts in a plate. Photo taken from Vukuyule mama

community garden in Manguzi on 16/05/11.)


Soils: red and well-drained fertile sandy to

sandy loams

Soil pH: 5.5 to 7.0. Saline soils are not suitable since groundnuts have a very low salt

tolerance. Avoid shallow and compacted soils

Temperature for growth: 20 to 35 °C.

Annual rainfall: 500 – 700 mm

Planting dates: mid- October to mid-November

Planting depth: 5 to 7 cm

Plant spacing: 10 – 15 cm

Population density: 150 000 plants per hectare (dry land)

300 000 plants per hectare (irrigation)

Groundnut Cultivars

“SA Juweel”

Traits:

o High oleic acid content (delays rancidity of products)

o Growth season +/- 150 days

o Growth habit: Upright Spanish bunch type

o Tan, round kernels

o Recommended for production under irrigation

o Yield (Under irrigation): >+/- 3 ton/ha (2006/07)

o Susceptible to leaf diseases such as early and late leaf spot, web blotch (Phoma)

and rust (Puccinia)

“Harts”

Traits:


o Growth season: +/- 120 – 130 days

o Growth habit: Upright, bunch type

o Red, round kernels

o Recommended for dry land and irrigation

o Yield: Under irrigation: > +/- 2.3 ton/ha

o Dry land trials: > +/- 1.9 ton/ha

o Tolerant to leaf diseases such as early and late leaf spot, web blotch and rust.

Resistant to black pod rot.

Above: Different groundnut varieties at ARC-CGI Harts, Juweel, in the foreground. All have

pinkish brown seeds. The red peanut varieties are Kano and Kan Red

“Akwa and Kwarts”

Traits:

o Growth season: +/- 150 days

o Growth habit: Upright, Spanish bunch type



o Yield:

o Under irrigation: > +/- 3 ton/ha

o Dry land trials: > +/- 2 ton/ha

o Tolerant to black pod rot

o Kwarts tolerant to pod nematode


“Anel”

Traits:



o Tan, round and long kernels


o Yield:Under irrigation: > +/- 3 ton/ha (2006/07), Dry land trials: > +/- 2 ton/ha

(2006/07)

“Tufa”

Traits:





o Yield: under irrigation: > +/- 3 ton/ha (2006/07). Dry land trials: > +/- 2 ton/ha

(2006/07)

o Tolerant to leaf diseases such as early and late leaf spot, web blotch, rust and black

pod rot

GENERAL NEEDS FOR PRODUCTION:

• Soil with a high sand content

• Optimum day temperatures: +/- 30°C

• Planting season – October to end of November

• Minimum ground temperature during planting: 15°C and above

• Ca application is essential

• Chemical sprays to control leaf diseases are vital


CEREALS AND GRAINS

Maize

Scientific name: Zea mays L.

Common names: Maize, mealies

Zulu names: Ummbila

Family: Poaceae

Climatic requirements

Annual rainfall: 600 - 900 mm

Soil: well-drained, well-aerated, deep soils containing adequate organic matter and well

supplied with available nutrients.

Soil pH: 5.5 - 7. Maize is also fairly sensitive to salinity.

Method of propagation: direct seeding. It should be sown early in the season, as soon as

soil conditions and temperature are favourable. Planting may be done on hills or in rows, on

flat land or on ridges. On heavy soils ridging is advisable, to improve drainage (Infonet-

biovision, 2011).

Row spacing: 75 cm, plant spacing: 30 cm

Planting depth: 3 – 6 cm,

Plant population: 44,000/ha.

Approximate seed rate is 25kg/ha.

Maize requires a temperature of 18 – 20°C to germinate. Generally maize is planted from

October- March.

In the warm northen parts, maize can be planted as early as August, if there is water to

irrigate.

Fertilisation:

Animal manure or fertilizers are applied at the time of planting.

As a general guide, each ton of maize removes 15-18kg N, 2.5-3kg P and 3-4kg K. Yield

targeting is usually based on whether the crop is irrigated or not. Lower populations are used

for dry land as opposed to irrigated maize and under rain-fed agriculture, the average yields

are around 3t/ha. So if u have a yield of 3t/ha you'll just multiply the extraction rates by 3 to

know how much fertiliser to apply (Mabhaudhi, 2009).

Different landraces of maize. Image from www.infonet-

biovision.org.

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/



MILLET

Scientific name: Panicum miliaceum

Common names: Millet

Zulu name: Uphoko

Family: Poaceae

(Image taken from http://www.infonet-

biovision.org/default/images/132/crops)

Top: Pearl millet

Bottom: Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)


Growing areas: Temperate and subtropical

regions. It is adapted to conditions that are too

hot and too dry

Soils: adapted to soils that are too shallow and

poor for successful cultivation of other cereals.

It is tolerant of a very wide temperature range

but susceptible to frost. Proso millet has one of

the lowest water requirements of all cereals.

Soil pH: 5.0 to 8.2.

Average annual rainfall: 200 - 450 mm

Temperature: 11.1 to 27.4°C

Propagation method: seed

Row spacing: 7.5 – 30 cm within rows

Seed rate: 21 – 38 kg/ha. Sometimes seed is sown in nurseries and seedlings are planted

out when 3 – 4 weeks old. Eleven kg seed provides seedlings for a hectare (Van Wyk, and

Van Oudtshoorn, 1999).


http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/images/132/crops

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/default/images/132/crops


Sorghum

Scientific name: Sorghum bicolor L.

Common names: Sorghum

Zulu name: Amabele

Family: Poaceae

(Field of Sorghum plants. Image from Department of

Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010)

Grain sorghum is a good drought tolerant

crop, as long as the climatic conditions are

warm. They are very sensitive to frost and cool periods during seed set. They can be grown

on in-fertile, shallow and even heavy clay soils more successfully than maize. nutrinet

requirements are simliar to those of maize- although nutrients are used more efficeintly by

sorghum


Growing temperature: 25 – 30°C ,soil teparatures need to be around 18°C for good

germination.

Soils: deep, well-drained, fertile sandy-clay loam, pH: 5.0

Planting times: late October and November (Ayana and Bekele, 1998).

Plant populations: 100 000 – 160 000 plants/ha

Row spacing: 0.9 m , in row spacing 5-7cm

Planting depth: 3 – 5 cm (Wenzel, 2003).

Sweet sorghum

Scientific name: Sorghum bicolor L.

Common names: Sweet sorghum

Zulu name: Imfe

Family: Poaceae

(Imfe or sweet sorghum plant; Potshin, Bergville, 2005. E.Krguer)

This crop is also a type of sorghum and simliar

climatic and growth conditions apply.


Sorghum pests

The shoot fly (Atherigona soccata)

Sorghum shoot fly, (Atherigona soccata), is a

particularly nasty pest of sorghum in Asia, Africa,

and the Mediterranean area. Females lay single

cigar-shaped eggs on the undersides of leaves at

the 1- to 7-leaf stage.

The eggs hatch after only a day or two of

incubation, and the larvae cut the growing point of

the leaf, resulting in wilting and drying.

Damage occurs 1-4 weeks after seedling emergence. The damaged plants produce side

tillers, which may also be attacked. The shoot fly's entire life cycle is completed in 17-21

days. Infestations are especially high when sorghum planting is staggered due to erratic

rainfall. Temperatures above 35°C and below 18°C reduce shoot fly survival, as does

continuous rainfall.

What to do:

• Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and several species of spiders are

important predators on eggs.

• Collect and destroy crop residues after harvest to reduce carry-over from one season to

the other.

• Use shoot-fly resistant varieties, if available and adjustment of sowing dates

• Grazing of land during winter, to limit tiller development, as well as tillage practices that

destroy stubble will reduce future infestations


TUBERS

Amadumbe

Scientific name: Colocasia esculenta L.

Schott

Common names: Taro, Cocoyam

Zulu names: Amadumbe

Family: Aracea

Lee (1999) observed that taro (Amadumbe

or cocoyam) is one of the only major staple

foods where both the leaf and underground

parts are used and have equal importance for

human consumption. The excellent

digestibility (98.8%) of the small starch grains

of taro suggests efficient release of nutrients

during digestion and absorption of this food


Environment: Warm, moist, (tropical or subtropical) – long frost free periods.

Average daily temperature: >21°C (Onwueme, 1999).

Soils: moist, heavy soils

Time to maturity: 5 – 10 months.

Yield: 20 – 40 tons/hectare can be expected (van Wyk and Gericke 2000).

Fertilisation: Artificial fertilisers and pesticides should not used

Amadumbe is highly tolerant of saturated soil conditions, such as those found in wetlands,

and artificial drainage of these soils is seldom required. Amadumbe cultivation does little

harm to the wetland if it is restricted only to the less sensitive parts of the wetland. This

presumes that artificial fertilisers and pesticides are not used and tillage is carried out by

hand.

Cassava

Scientific name: Manihot esculenta Crantz

Common names: Cassava

Zulu name: Unjumbula

Family: Euphorbiaceae

(Cassava plant. Image taken from Department of Agriculture, Forestry

and Fisheries: Cassava production guideline (www.nda.agric.za/docs))



This is a tropical plant and the crop requires a

warm humid climate.

Temperature: 25 – 27°C (frost free the year

round) (Keating, 1982).

Annual rainfall: 500 to 5 000 mm.

Soils for best growth: light sandy loams or on

loamy sands which are moist, fertile and deep

(Rey, 2006).

Propagation method: cuttings. It is raised from seed only for the purpose of selection (Rey,

2006). Cuttings are obtained from the stems of plants at least ten months old. Cuttings

should have at least three buds and are taken from the middle third of the stem, which

should be about ten months old.

The cuttings (planting stakes) should be 200 – 300 mm long and 20 – 40 mm in diameter.

They are usually planted at the beginning of the rainy season. The soil should be loosened

to a depth of 200 mm and the cuttings can be planted horizontally about 100 mm below the

soil surface, vertically or at an angle with half of the cutting inserted into the soil.

Cuttings are planted in rows 800 – 1000 mm apart with similar inter-row spacing, depending

on local conditions.

Plant population: 10 000 – 20 000 per hectare.

Fertilization: Cassava is a heavy feeder of macronutrients. These nutrients should be

replaced to maintain yields. A 25-tons/ha crop could remove 122 kg N, 27 kg P, 145 kg K, 45

kg Ca and 20 kg Mg from the soil

A traditional practice is to burn before planting – this destroys soil parasites, and the layer of

ashes increases the amount of potassium salts available to the growing plants. (Leihner,

2002).

Cassava is either planted as a single crop or intercropped with maize, legumes, vegetables,

rubber, oil palm or other plants. Mixed planting reduces the danger of loss caused by

unfavourable weather and pests by spreading the risk over plants with different

susceptibilities (Elias et al., 2000).

Plants should be earthed up at 8 – 12 weeks old to encourage tuber formation. Cassava has

an 18 – 24 month growing cycle, although goods yields can be obtained at 9 – 12 months.

Tubers can be left in the ground for up to 60 months, which makes the crop an excellent

Cassava tubers, image from www.infonet-

biovision.org.


famine reserve. Reaping tubers on a piecemeal basis does not retard the growth of the plant

to any extent. When used as a vegetable, the tubers are harvested when they are still young

Pests and diseases

Cassava Mealy bug (Phenacoccus manihoti)

The cassava mealybug is pinkish in colour. Its

body is surrounded by very short filaments, and

covered with a fine coating of wax. Adults are

0.5-1.4 mm long. This mealybug does not have

males. Females live for about 20 days and lay

400 eggs in average. The lifecycle from egg to

adult is completed in about one month at 27°C. It reproduces throughout the year and it

reaches peak densities during the dry season. Mealybugs are dispersed by wind and

through planting material.

Controlling Cassava Mealy Bug:

o Plant early in the rainy season to allow the cassava plants a good growth before the

dry season; Strong plants are more likely to withstand pest attacks

o Use soil amendments and mulch to avoid moisture stress in sandy or poor soils.

Mealybug numbers are higher on cassava grown on poor, sandy soils, and may

cause damage in spite of the presence of natural enemies

o Avoid using infested plant material. Before planting cuttings can be treated with hot

water [by immersing them in heated water (mixing equal volumes of boiling and cold

water) for 5-10 minutes just before planting] to kill all insects/mites and to avoid

transfer into the newly planted field.

o Avoid using pesticides on crops surrounding cassava fields. Although, no pesticides

are used on cassava in Africa, insecticide drift from neighbouring fields may affect

natural enemies that keep mealybugs and other pests under control

o Use of manure or other fertilizers can result in a reduction in the mealybug

population because improved nutrition results in the production of larger parasitoid

wasps with higher fertility levels. Mulch and fertilizer use also enhances the

antibiotic properties of cassava against mealybug infestation.

Large grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus)

The larger grain borer has been found infesting

cassava chips in storage particularly during the

rainy season in West Africa. This beetle is

currently the most serious pest of dried cassava

in storage. Weight losses as high as 70% after

four months of storage have been reported

elsewhere.


Controlling the Large grain borer:

Use botanicals or plant parts to protect stored cassava. There are reports in Kenya, that the

larger grain borer can be effectively repelled by storing cassava or grains with a fairly large

amount of dried lantana or eucalyptus leaves (Personal communication, field officer of Meru

herbs). Neem is also reported to be effective.

African Cassava Mosaic Disease (ACMD)

Cassava mosaic disease is one of the most

serious and widespread diseases throughout

cassava growing areas in Africa, causing

yield reductions of up to 90%. It is spread

through infected cuttings and by whiteflies

(Bemisia tabaci).

Symptoms occur as characteristic leaf

mosaic patterns that affect discrete areas

and are determined at an early stage of leaf development. Symptoms vary from leaf to leaf,

shoot to shoot

and plant to

plant, even of the

same variety and

virus strain in the same locality. Some leaves situated between affected ones may seem

normal and give the appearance of recovery.

Controlling ACMD:

o Use disease-free cuttings. If it is not possible to find cassava plants that are completely free from the disease, select cuttings from stem branches instead of from the main stem. Stem cuttings from the branches are more likely to sprout into disease-free plants than stem cuttings from the main stems (James et al, 2000).

o Resistance to CMD has been successfully incorporated into high yielding cultivars of acceptable quality through breeding programmes at IITA. Use resistant/tolerant varieties (e.g. SS 4, TMS 60142, TMS 30337 and TMS 30572).

Cassava bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. manihotis)

It is a major constraint to cassava

cultivation in Africa. Infected leaves show

localised, angular, water-soaked areas.

Under severe disease attack heavy

defoliation occurs, leaving bare stems,

referred to as "candlesticks". Since the

disease is systemic, infected stems and

roots show brownish discolouration. During

periods of high humidity, bacterial

exudation (appears as gum) can readily be

African Cassava Mosaic Disease

Cassava plant showing severe symptoms of the African Cassava Mosaic Disease

(ACMD).

Cassava bacterial blight

Cassava bacterial blight (Xanthomonas

campestris pv. manihotis). Angular leaf spots,

sometimes with yellow haloes, rapidly

expanding, leading to necrosis and leaf fall.


observed on the lower leaf surfaces of infected leaves and on the petioles and stems. The

disease is favoured by wet conditions.

This disease is primarily spread by infected cuttings. It can also be mechanically transmitted

by raindrops, use of contaminated farm tools (e.g. knives), chewing insects (e.g.

grasshoppers) and movement of man and animals through plantations, especially during or

after rain. Yield loss due to the disease may range from 20 to 100% depending on variety,

bacterial strain and environmental conditions.

What to do:

• Use clean planting material. This can reduce disease incidence in areas where cassava

bacterial blight is already widespread.

• In cases of sporadic occurrence of the disease, collect cuttings only from healthy plants

and from the most lignified portion of the stem, up to 1 m from the base. Check visually

the cuttings for vascular browning. Disinfect tools regularly

• Intercrop cassava with maize or melon. This been reported to reduce cassava bacterial

blight significantly.

• Practise crop rotation and fallowing. These practices proved very successful when the

new crop was planted with uninfected cuttings. Rotation or fallowing should last at least

one rainy season.

• Remove and burn all infected plant debris and weeds. Alternatively plough them into the

soil.

Sweet potato

Scientific name: Ipomoea batatas L.

Common name: Sweet potato

Zulu: Ubhatata

Family: Convolvulaceae

(Sweet potato roots. From ARC-VOPI – Sweet potato fact sheet)

Sweet potato belongs to the morning glory family

and produces edible storage roots. Sweet potato

is an important food and poverty relief crop that

can be used to combat the widespread deficiency of Vitamin A. Orange-fleshed cultivars are

rich in beta-carotene and thus used in food-based programs to address vitamin A deficiency.

Sweet potatoes are rich sources of energy but also contributes vitamin C and minerals such

as magnesium, copper, iron and zinc.


Soil: Sweet potatoes grow well in sandy-loam, loam or clayey-loam soil. The crop

needs good drainage and is sensitive to water logging, salinity and alkalinity.

Optimum pH (H20) is 5.6 – 6.5. Avoid stony or clay soil.


Climate: It is a warm season crop and they are sensitive to frost.

Cultivars: Orange-fleshed: Impilo and W-119 (dry); Beauregard (moist) Purple skin (fresh

market): Blesbok, Bosbok (moist) Cream skin: Ndou, Monate (dry)

Croprotation: Sweet potatoes should not be grown more than once every 3 years on the

same soil. Suitable soil restorative crops such as peas, cabbage, beans and

maize should be included in the rotation system.

Propagation: Propagation is by stem cuttings. Healthy, insect and disease free pieces of

stem of 20-30 cm long should be taken for cuttings. Top cuttings are more

vigorous. Do not use vines from volunteer sweet potatoes.

Planting Method Ridging: The plants are grown on ridges or mounds. These are especially

beneficial in areas liable to flooding and also to ease harvesting. Cuttings are laid 30 cm

apart on the ridge with the basal end planted in the soil (3 - 4 buds (nodes) in the soil) and

the soil pressed down firmly around the cutting. Flat bed: Some farmers grow sweet

potatoes on flat beds in sandy soil with good results.

Spacing: Place stem cuttings 25-35 cm apart within the row. Generally ridges of 1 m apart

are used. But it can be 90-150 cm apart for field production or 80-90cm

for gardens, and ridges about 30-40 cm high.

Planting time ; Areas with light mild frost: Beginning of November to mid December. Areas

with heavy frost: Mid November to beginning of December.

Frost-free areas: August to March. In cooler areas September to February.

Winter rainfall areas: mid November to beginning of December; November is

optimal.

Fertilization :Approximately 100 g/m2 of a fertilizer mixture such as 2:3:4 (30), or 3:2:1

(25)can be broadcasted directly before planting and must be worked into the soil slightly

before making the ridges. For sandy soils the amount can be increased

to 120 g/m2. Apply a top dressing of 12 g LAN per meter of row or 20 g/m

ammonium sulphate at 3 weeks after planting, and again 6 weeks after planting

if necessary. Sandy soil will require at least two top dressings. Water well after

application of fertilizer.

If compost is applied, it must be well-matured (6 months old), or be worked into

the soil some time before planting. Four 4 big hands/m2 can be broadcast and

incorporated before planting.


LEAFY VEGETABLES

Chinese cabbage

Scientific name: Brassica rapa L. subsp.

Chinensis

Common names: Chinese cabbage

Zulu names: Ishayina

Family: Brassicaceae

(Heading chinese cabbage. Image from

http://s6photos.tradeholding.com)


Grown best under moderate climate. Temperature range of 16 - 21°C give the optimum

growth and quality. Lower temperatures force the plants to bolt early and form seed stalks.

Planting times: Best plantings are from February – September. Moderate temperatures (16

- 21°C) combined with medium or shorter day length favour good vegetable growth.

Time from sowing to harvest: 6 weeks (early maturing),11 weeks (late maturing)

Method of propagation: direct seeding and transplanting seedlings (Tindall, 1983).

Plant spacing: in row-30 – 38 cm (non-heading)

Between row spacing: 60 cm

Yields (non-heading): 5 t ha-1 to 30 t ha-1

Pests and Diseases

The cabbage webworm (Hellula undalis)

Caterpillars are 1.5 cm when fully-grown, creamy-

white in colour with brown stripes along the body

and a brown head. Caterpillars feed on leaves,

petioles, growing points, and stems.

The cabbage moth (Crocidolomia pavonana

(=binotalis))

Cabbage moth larva are 1.6-1.9 cm long when

fully grown. Larvae move to pupate in the soil. The

pupal stage lasts about 10 days. It is primarily a

pest of. Caterpillars are found in groups. Young

caterpillars chew off top leaf surfaces, while older

caterpillars feed under a web of silk on young

http://s6photos.tradeholding.com/


leaves, petioles and growing point of the plant, often damaging it entirely.

Black rot

Black rot is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas

campestris pv. campestris, and is one of the most

serious cabbage diseases in warm climates. The

black rot bacterium can over-season on infected

seeds, in weeds from the family Cruciferae

(including: black mustard, field mustard, wild turnip,

wild radish, shepherd's purse, and pepperweed); or

in infected plant material in the soil.

What to do:

o Disease-free transplants should be used or seeds must be treated with hot water

treatment as described below.

o Hot water treatment of own seed to prevent seed borne diseases such as black

rot, black leg, black spot and ring spot is recommended where the disease has

appeared before. However, the specified temperature and time interval should be

strictly followed in order to maintain seed viability. Use a good thermometer

Recommended time for heat treatment for cabbage: 50°C for 30 minutes

o Establish crops in black rot-free soils that have not grown crops from the family

Cruciferae for at least 3 years.

o Growing chinese cabbage on raised beds with mulching helps eliminate

conditions that induce black rot.

o When possible, remove, burn, or deep plough all crop debris immediately after

harvest to reduce the ability of the bacterium to survive in the soil where there is

no crop.

Bacterial soft rot

Bacterial soft rot is caused by Erwinia

carotovora var. carotovora. It is quite common

on Chinese cabbage in the field. An infected

head is watery and often has a complete head

rot. The affected area becomes soft and mushy

and generally turns dark in color. Soft rot

infection on crucifers almost always emits a foul

odor. The bacterium is spread in the field by

water splashes or contact with tools such as

hoes or knives. If contaminated knives are used to harvest cabbages, the stored crop may

also rot quickly.

What to do:

• Plant on ridges or raised beds to prevent water-logging around the plants.

• Prevent other diseases (e.g. black rot; damping-off) or damage that may provide

opportunities for soft rot to develop.


• Avoid harvesting when conditions are warm and moist. These conditions favour the

development of soft rot.

• Harvest healthy cabbage heads first and store in a cool, dry, airy place.

• Wash hands and harvesting knives.

• Remove and destroy diseased crop or left over stems in the field after the crop has

been harvested.

• Avoid growing brassica crops in the same field for a period of at least three seasons.

Cucurbits

Gourd

Scientific name: Lagenaria siceraria

Common names: bottle gourd, calabash

Zulu names: iselwa

Family: Cucurbitaceae

(Image from http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantklm/lagensic.htm)

Pumpkin

Scientific name: Cucurbita pepo, C.

moschata, C. maxima

Common name: Pumpkin

Zulu names: intanga, umliba


(Leave and flowers of Cucurbita moschata (L.). Image form

http://edibleplantproject.org/2008/07/seminolepumpkin/)

Wild watermelon

Scientific name: Citrullus lanatus L.

Common names: bitter melon, colocynth,

common wild melon, desert melon

Zulu name: ibhece


(Image from http://database.prota.org/dbtw-

wpd/protabase/Photfile%20Images/Citrullus%20lanatus%20RRS

.jpg)

Gourds, pumpkins, squash, wild watermelon (ibeche), marrow, cucumbers, watermelons,

and muskmelons are members of the vine crop family called cucurbitaceae, commonly

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantklm/lagensic.htm

http://edibleplantproject.org/2008/07/seminolepumpkin/


referred to as cucurbits. Pumpkins (round, orange) and squash (other shapes and colours)

contain potassium and beta-carotene (the precursor of vitamin A), and the seeds are rich in

zinc.


Soil: The best results are obtained on loamy to sandy loam soils. Soil should be slightly

acidic, but good results can be obtained over a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5.

Climate: Cucurbits are warm-season crops and they grow best at temperature of 23- 29ºC

day and 15-21ºC night.

Crop Rotation: Keep the area free from weeds by hoeing and shallow cultivation. Rotate

cucurbits with crops from families, e.g. leafy crops or legumes, to prevent spreading of

diseases.

Propagation: Cucurbits are usually direct-seeded when all danger of frost has passed. Two

or three seeds are planted at the given distances within the rows.

Sowing time: September to November in mild areas and August to October in warm areas.

Planting Method: Cucurbit seed is planted 30 to 40 mm deep. Place 2-3 seeds per planting

station, apart from each other. After 2 or 3 weeks when the plants are growing well, the

seedlings are thinned to single plants.

Spacing: Pumpkins and melons are planted in rows 2 - 2.5 m apart, with plants spaced

at 0.5 - 0.6 m. However, many growers use a 2 m x 2 m spacing to allow for intercropping.

Squash/cucumber rows can be closer viz. 1 - 1.5 m apart.

Fertilization: 100 g/m2 of 2:3:4 (27) must be band placed 40 cm wide. It must be worked

into the soil very slightly just before planting. Compost or kraal manure may

be used to supplement the chemical fertilizer. Apply a top dressing three weeks after

transplanting or emergence, use 10 gKAN/LAN fertilizer per meter of row, 10cm from the

stem. A second topdressing can be applied at 5 weeks.

Irrigation: Keep the soil moist throughout the growing season. It is important to irrigate

regularly to avoid water stress. Cucurbits require uniform irrigation for optimum growth and

yield. Reduce the amount of water as fruits reach harvest stage.

Pollination: Bees are an essential part of the production of all cucurbits. Wild bees and

other insects are normlally sufficient ot pollinate small fields.

Annual rainfall: 400 – 600 mm.


OTHER INDIGENOUS CROPS NOT COMMONLY GROWN IN KZN

Okra

Scientific name: Abelmoschus esculentus

Common names: Okra, Lady fingers.

Zulu name:

Family: Malvaceae

(Okra pods. Image from

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abel

moschus%20esculentus)

Climatic Requirements and Cultivation

Environment: warmGrowing temperature: 24 and 30°CSoil pH: 5.8 to 6.5

Annual rainfall: 400 mm

Propagation method: direct seeding

Seeding rate: 8 to 10 kg per hectare

Planting depth: 1.5 cm

Row spacing varies: 45x45 cm, 50x30 cm or 60x15 cm between the rows and within the

rows, respectively.

Planting time: July

Fertilisation : Well-composted manure: 15 to 20 t/ha (17 to 20 g/plant) – apply during

planting. Fertilizer (NPK 2:3:4): 120 kg/ha (2 g/plant). Should be top dressed using 140 kg of

LAN (Lime ammonium nitrate) /ha spilt to two applications.

Harvesting: by hand. The pods can be snapped off or cut off, leaving a small stalk not

longer than one cm.

Uses and Importance

Seed pods are normally cooked creating mucilage that contains a usable form of soluble

fiber. While many people enjoy okra cooked this way, others prefer to minimize sliminess;

keeping the pods intact and cooking quickly help to achieve this. To avoid sliminess, okra

pods are often briefly stir-fried, or cooked with acidic ingredients such as citrus, tomatoes, or

vinegar. A few drops of lemon juice will usually suffice.

Okra leaves may be cooked in a similar way to other leafy greens. The leaves are also eaten

raw in salads. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeinate-free substitute for

coffee.

Okra oil is a pressed seed oil, extracted from the seeds of the okra. The greenish-yellow

edible oil has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in unsaturated fats.

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abelmoschus%20esculentus

http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abelmoschus%20esculentus


Pigeon pea

Scientific name: Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp

Common names: Congo

pea, pigeon pea, red gram,

yellow dahl

Zulu name

Family: Fabaceae (alt.

Leguminosae)

(Pods of Pigeon pea. Image from

http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forag

es/Media/Html/Cajanus_cajan.htm)

It is the major pulse crop of

the semi-arid tropics, has been used for centuries in intercropping systems, and is an ideal

source of fodder, food and firewood in agro-forestry systems

Climatic requirements

Environment: hot and moist

Growing temperature: 18 to 30°C.

Soils: sands to heavy black clays.

Soil pH: 5.0 to 7.0

Propagation method: Direct seeding or seed beds.

Seed beds: deep and free of weeds

Seed yield: 900 to 1 150 kg ha-1.

Row spacing: 2 m

Plant spacing: 35 cm

Planting depth: 2.5 to 10 cm

Planting time: spring to early summer

Seeding rate: 0.5 to 4 kgha-1

Harvested pigeon pea seeds. From Wikipedia.

Importance and uses

The high nutritive value of pigeon pea is perhaps the most important reason why it should

find an important place among the smallholder farmers in Africa. Pigeon pea is wonderfully

abundant in protein and has been reported to range between 18 – 26%.

Pigeon pea is also widely used as fodder and feed for livestock (Rao et al., 2002). Its foliage

is an excellent fodder with high nutritional value. The seeds are used as animal feed (Wallis

et al., 1986) and its fodder has been demonstrated to increase the intake of low quality

herbage resulting in high animal live weight (Karachi and Zengo, 1998).Pigeon pea seed has

been recommended as an alternative to maize, soybean meal or groundnut cake in the diets

of broi

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Pigeon_peas2.jpg


Sesame (wing-seeded)

Scientific name: Sesamum indicum

Common names: Wing-seeded sesame

Zulu name: Udonqa

Family: Pedaliaceae

(Sesame plant. Image from Flora of Zimbabwe,

(http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw))

Sesame originated in East Africa and is the oldest of

the commercial oil seeds. Its clear oil is edible with a

pleasant taste and has a very good shelf life when

properly refined. Sesame is an excellent rotation crop of

cotton, maize, groundnut, wheat, and sorghum. It is

resistant to drought and tolerant to insect pests and

diseases. Sesame is often sown with other crops such

as pigeon peas, maize or sorghum. It grows to a height

of 1-2 m.


Growing temperature: 26 to 30°C.


Soils: Well-drained, loose, fertile and sandy alluvial soils

Soil pH: 5.4 to 6.75

Time to maturity: 120-140 days.

Propagation method: Direct sowing in

holes

Row spacing: 45 cm

Plant spacing: 15-20 cm

Planting depth: 1.5 to 2.5 cm

Seeding rate: 5-10 kg/ha


Yields: 450-550 kg/ha

(Sesame plants. Image from

http://www.pyroenergen.com/.)

Uses and Importance

Sesame seeds are either consumed directly as a highly nutritious foodstuff or processed by

the confectionery and bakery industries. Sesame hay, if carefully dried, can be used as

fodder. A large proportion of the world's sesame production goes towards producing edible

oil.

http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw)/

http://www.pyroenergen.com/


REFERENCES

Ayana, A. and Bekele, E. 1998. Geographical patterns of morphological variations in sorghum

(Sorghum bicolor L.) Hereditas 129: 195 – 205.

Begemann, F. 1986b. Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea, (L.) Verdc.): Pests and Diseases.

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Genetic Resources Unit, Ibadan, Nigeria.

18 pp.

Begemann, J.H. and Mushongo, J. 1995. Bambara groundnut Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.

Proceedings of the workshop on Conservation and Improvement of Bambara Groundnut .

Harare, Zimbabwe.

Chaba, O. 1994. Intercropping studies in bambara groundnut. BSc (Agriculture) Special Project.

BCA/University of Botswana. 29 pages.

Coetzee, J.J. 1990. Cultural practices for cowpeas. Farming in South Africa: Leaflet A1 Directorate:

Agricultural Information, Pretoria.

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. 2010c. Production guideline for Dry beans.

Directorate Plant Production. Pretoria, South Africa. www. .nda.agric.za/docs. Accessed on

23/05/11.

Doku, E.V. 1969. Growth habit and pod production in Bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea).

Ghana J. Agric. Sci. 2: 91-95.

Elias, M., Rival, L. and McKey, D. (2000). Perception and management of cassava (Manihot

esculenta Cratz) diversity among Makushi Amerindians of Guyana (South America). J.

Ethnobiol. 20: 239-265.

Infonet-biovision, 2011. Maize – General information and agronomic aspects. www.infonet-

biovision.org. Accessed on 30/05/11.

Keating B (1982). Environmental effects on growth and development of cassava (Manihot esculenta

Crantz) with special reference to photoperiod and temperature. Cassava Newsl. 10:10-12.

Kefalidou, E. 2003. Phormiskoi: gourd-shaped terra-cottas from the Ancient Mediterranean. Cucurbit

Network News, Spring: 7.

Leihner, D. (2002). Agronomy and Cropping Systems. In: Cassava: Biology, Production and

Utilization, eds. Hillocks, R..J., Thresh, J.M. and Bellotti, A.C., CAB International, pp. 91-

113.

Mabhaudhi, T. 2009. Responses of Maize (Zea mays L.) landraces to water stress compared with

commercial. MSc thesis. University of KwaZulu-Natal. Pietermaritzburg.

McDonald. M.B. and Copeland, L., 1997. Seed Production: principles and practices. International

Thomson Publishing, New York.

McLean LA, Sosulski FW. and Youngs C.G. (1974) Effects of nitrogen and moisture on yield and

protein in field peas. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 54, 301-305

Ntoukam, G., Murdock, L.L., Shade, R.E., Kitch, L.W., Endondo, C., Ousmane, B., and Wolfson, J.

2000. Managing insect pests of cowpea in storage. Bean/Cowpea, Midcourse 2000

Research Meeting, April 9-14, 2000. Senegal. Pgs: 3-4. (Also available at

www.canr.msn.edu/oerseas/cowpea/proceed.pdf

Onwueme, I.C. (1999) Taro cultivation in Asia and the Pacific Coniine}. Available from:

<http://www.fao.orgfdocrep/005/ac450e/ac450eOO.HTM>

Opeňa, R.T., Kuo, C.G. & Yoon, J.Y. 1988. Breeding and seed production of Chinese cabbage in the

tropics and subtropics. Technical bulletin No.17. Shanhua, Taiwan: Asian Vegetable

Research and Development Center (AVRDC).

Rey, C. 2006. Improvement of cassava for social and economic benefits. Southern African Society for

Plant Pathology. http://saspp.org/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=60.

Accessed on 11/05/11.



http://www.canr.msn.edu/oerseas/cowpea/proceed.pdf

http://saspp.org/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=60


Robertson R.N., Highkin H.R., Smydzuk I. and Went F.W. (1962) The effect of environmental

conditions on the development of pea seeds. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences 15:

1-15.

Shenkut, A.A. and Brick, M.A. 2003. Traits associated with dry edible bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

productivity under diverse soil moisture environments. Euphytica 133: 339 – 347.

Smith, B. 2006. The farming handbook. University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.

Tindall, H.D. 1983. Vegetables in the tropics. London, UK: Macmillan Press.

Wenzel, W.G. 2003. Rainfall and the prediction of sorghum yield in South Africa. South African

Journal for plant soil 20: 38 – 40.

van Rij, N. 1997. Production manual for cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). Cedara Report No.

N/A/97/16. KwaZulu-Natal department of agriculture.

Van Wyk, E. and Van Oudtshoorn, F. 1999. Guide to grasses of southern Africa. Briza Publications,

Arcadia, South Africa.

Van Wyk B.E. and Gericke N. 2000. People's Plants. A Guide to Useful Plants of Southern Africa.

Bma Publications, Pretoria.

1African Leafy Vegetables

African Leafy Vegetables (ALV’s); harvested

from the wild

ContentsAFRICA LEAFY VEGETABLES ............................................................................................ 1

CULTIVATION OF ALVS ...................................................................................................... 1

Description of common wild leafy vegetables in KZN......................................................... 2

References ........................................................................................................................... 6

AFRICA LEAFY VEGETABLESIn a national survey, Jacobs (2004) summarised the use of South African wild food plants,

indicating that about 101 plant species are used as food. Of these, the leaves and stems of

65 plant species were cooked and eaten as relishes or pot-herb ‘imifino’, the roots, tubers

and corms of 26 plant species were collected and fruits and nuts of over 100 shrubs and

trees were picked and eaten. Despite South Africa’s huge biological resources only a few

edible crops have been commercialised and cultivated.

The observations of Jacobs (2004) have recently been confirmed by studies that have

shown that the most reported indigenous edible plants consumed in South Africa are the

leafy vegetables, which have long been known in rural communities as an essential food that

is consumed with carbohydrate staples (Jansen van Rensburg et al., 2007). These

vegetables have high nutritional value and could potentially play an important role in the

prevention of malnutrition.

A high priority has been given to develop alternative indigenous food crops and several of

the ALVs, such as amaranth, Chinese cabbage, nightshade, spider flower, Jews mallow,

pumpkin leaves and cowpea, are investigated for potential commercialization (Beletse et al.,

2009)

CULTIVATION OF ALVSSome of the ALVs are well known crops that have been covered under the previous

sections. These include cowpeas, pumpkins and the like.

For the ALVs that are not usually cultivated the following broad fertilizer regime can be

suggested as a starting point:

At planting, apply 2:3:2 (22) at a rate of 150 kg/ha. The crops can be top dressed with LAN

(28) at a rate of 400kg/ha. (Beletse et al., 2009)


Description of common wild leafy vegetables in KZN

NAME DESCRIPTION NOTES

Amaranthus thunbergiiWild spinach, wild amaranth, cape pigweedUgoboloAmaranthus hybridusRed amaranth Imbuya (isiZulu)

(Amaranthus plant growing in the garden.

Photo taken from Zama community garden

in Richmond on 28/04/2011.)

Amaranthus species are erect annual herbs/ weeds of up to 2metres in height. The leaves are variable in size, green or purple, with slender stalks. Tiny green flowers are borne in dense elongated clusters, usually on the tips of the branches. The seeds are very small and usually shiny black. The cultivated grain amaranths (quinoa/Inca wheat) have grey or white seeds.

They tolerate high temperatures, but do not withstand frost. They are grown from seed, early in the season, as soon as day temperatures start rising. Phosphorus and potassium can be applied at soil test recommended levels. Nitrogen requirements may vary from 50 to 200 kg N/ha and the requirement also differs, depending on the species

Amaranths are among the most important leafy vegetables in Africa

The leaf amaranth species are a valuable source of protein (26-30%) and Vitamin A, particularly in the semi-arid rural areas where other leafy vegetables are difficult to grow. The iron content may be as high as 5 times the recommended daily allowance

Bidens pilosaBlack JackUqadolo (isiZulu)

lackjack plant growing in the garden. Photo taken from Zama community garden in Richmond on 28/04/2011.)

A very common cosmopolitan weed. Seeds are small, black and slender with claws on one end. They are well known for sticking tenaciously to clothing and animal fur.

A drought resistant summer crop which thrives when water is abundant.

Leaves are cooked as a relish. They are usually mixed with other ‘imifino’ as they can be quite bitter. They can also be blanched or par boiled and then dried and stored.

Extracts of Bidens pilosa are used in southern Africa to cure malaria. In South Africa, strong decoctions of the leaf taken in large doses have been reported to be helpful in treating arthritis. The Zulu people use a suspension of powdered leaves as an enema for abdominal trouble. They also use a mixture of the dried and ground leaves of Bidens pilosa, soap and hot pepper as an insecticide for the control of insects.


Cleome gynandraSingle-leaved Cleome, Spider

wisp, African cabbage, Umzonde (isiZulu)

The plants grow to about 1m in height and have compound leaves that radiate from the tip of the leaf stalk. Erect clusters of spider-like white to purple flowers are followed by elongated fruit capsules .

Cleome grows best during summer. It does not grow well when the temperature drops below 15°C. It prefers well drained medium-textured soils and does not grow well in poorly drained or heavy clay soils. It requires full exposure to sunlight.

The young plants and all parts (stems, leaves and fruits) are cooked as a vegetable/ spinach/ relish. It is somewhat bitter and is normally cooked with other less bitter vegetables. The leaves may also be dried after cooking and stored for later use.

Chorcorus olitorius,Jews Mallow, Wild Okra, Ligusha (seSotho)

(Images from http://www.lookfordiagnosis.com/images.php?term=Corchorus)

An annual herb that is easily recognised by the hairlike teeth at the base of the leaves, serated leaf margins and small yellow flowers. Jew’s mallow can be established naturally from seeds and tolerates a wide range of soils and climates (Oladiran, 1986).

The cooked leaves are mostly eaten as a relish with porridge.

Chenopodium album, Goosefoot, Lambsquarters

Imbilikicane (isiZulu)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:6H-Lambs-quarter.jpg

A cosmopolitan weed growing in disturbed ground. It grows well in summer on deep well-drained soil. The leaves are alternate in appearance. They are waxy coated with a whitish coat on the underside.

Young twigs and leaves are boiled and eaten as spinach. The leaves may be dried and stored for alter use.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/6H-Lambs-quarter.jpg

http://www.lookfordiagnosis.com/images.php?term=Corchorus

http://www.lookfordiagnosis.com/images.php?term=Corchorus




Galinsoga parviflora Cav.Gallant-soldiers, potato weed

Ushukeyana (isiZulu)

This is a tough plant that will grow in sandy, loamy and clay soils. It will tolerate acidic, neutral and basic conditions and will grow in semi shade to full sun. It requires a moist soil and can be found in cultivated beds, disturbed soil and pavements.

The stems are erect, branched and slender. The leaves are opposite, pale green and petiolate (with leaf stalk). They are 1-6cm long and 0.5-4cm wide. The flowers are small with white petals and yellow centres. Flowers mainly during summer.

It is sweet and soft and it shrinks a lot when cooked, it has to be cooked with other vegetables. It is extremely effective in treating wounds. The juice of galinsoga helps blood to coagulate faster and also acts as an antibiotic agent.

Lactura inermisWild LettuceIklabeklabe (isiZulu)

E. Kruger, 2006

Perennial herb up to 1m in height. Leaves are elongated and irregularly toothed or lobed. It resembles some loose leaved lettuce varieties

Leaves are cooked as spinach when young. Older leaves are bitter.

Mommordia balsaminaAfrican cucumber, Balsam Pear

Insthungu, intshungwana yehlathi (isiZulu)

A perennial climber, with a tuberous rootstock. Fruit look like small, smooth cucumber, green initially and ripening to a bright orange to red. The seeds are edible and are encased in a sticky scarlet red fleshy covering that is edible and sweet, tasting like watermelon. Thrives in full sun and semi-shade. It can be grown from seed in most areas, as long as the young plants are protected against drought, severe frost and too much sunlight. As a climber, the stems will need some support

Leaves are used as a spinach. They are very bitter. Leaves and fruit are boiled and made into a soup that is eaten with porridge.

Infusions of the plant are used for stomach and intestinal complaints. It is also used in a poultice for burns and is reputed to be used to treat diabetes.


Portulaca oleracea. Pigweed, Common Purslane

(Image from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portulaca_oleracea)

An annual succulent weed which can reach 40 cm in height. It has smooth, reddish, mostly prostrate stems and alternate leaves clustered at stem joints and ends. The yellow flowers have five regular parts and are up to 6 mm wide. Seeds are formed in a tiny pod, which opens when the seeds are ready. Purslane has a taproot with fibrous secondary roots and is able to tolerate poor, compacted soils and drought.

A favoured vegetable in all parts of South Africa. The stems, leaves and flower buds are all edible. Purslane can be used fresh as a salad, stir-fried, or cooked like spinach.

Rumex lanceolatus, DockIdololenkonyana (isiZulu)

E. Kruger, 2006

A common weed of seasonally wet places.It has a deep tap root and can be quite invasive. The plant is a goof boi accumulatro of nutrients, specifically potassium.

The leaves are cooked and mixed with porridge

Plectranthus esculentusLivingstone-, African- or Wild-potatoUmbondiwe,Utilo, Utikwe, Uhlazaluthi (isiZulu)

A perennial herb with square hairy stems and pairs of opposite, stalk less toothed leaves. The edible parts are stem tubers which grow in clusters from those parts of branches in contact with the soil

Tubers are boiled and have a unique taste resembling parsnips and turnips. Nutritional value is high; it contains more protein, vitamin A, calcium and iron than standard potatoes

Requires well drained deep soils, a rainfall of minimum 600mm per year and warm temperatures to grow well.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portulaca_oleracea

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portulaca_oleracea

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Portulaca_oleracea.JPG

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Portulaca_oleracea_blossom.jpg

http://dianabuja.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/plectranthus-esculentus-nas1.jpg


Brassica juncea (L.) and Brassica nigra( L.)Wild mustardMasihlalisane (isiZulu)

An erect herb, up to 1m high with grey silky, hairy stems. Upper leaves a smaller than the lower leaves, but mostly still hairy.

The crop thrives in cool conditions, but can not be continually wet.

Leaves are cooked as a vegetable.

Solanum nigrum and retroflexumAfrican or common nightshadeUmsobo (isiZulu)

An erect annual, branched herb. Leaves are alternate and flowers white. Fruits are small round green berries, turning black when ripe.

A summer crop that grows well in most soils. It grows well in cool areas.

Leaves are cooked as a vegetable. Ripe fruits are edible and can be made into a jam. Green fruit are poisonous.

REFERENCESAVRDC, 2003. Spider plant. AVRDC International Cooperators’ Fact sheet. AVRDC – The World

Vegetable Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. 2 pages

Beletse Y.G, Du Plooy C.P and Mogotlane D.I. 2009. Preliminary results on water use efficiency of

four African leafy vegetables. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, Vol. 9. pp. 263

– 265. Agricultural Research Council - Roodeplaat Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute

(VOPI), Private Bag X293,Pretoria 0001, South Africa

Bromilow, C. 1995. Problem plants of South Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria, South Africa. 315

pages.

Chweya, J.A. and Mnzava, N.A. 1997. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilised and

neglected crops. 11. Cat’s Whiskers. IPGRI, Rome, Italy. 53 pages.

Cunningham GM, Mulham PL, Leigh JH (1981) 'Plants of Western New South Wales.' (NSW

Government Printing Office: Australia)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Solanum_nigrum.jpeg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Solanum_nigrum_fruit_black.jpg


Diederichs N, Modi A, Mander J, Mander M and Alleramn J. 2004. Indigenous and Traditional Food

Plants: Precis of candidates with potential for value-adding and food security Prepared by

The Institute for Natural resources for KZN DAE&RD.

Faber, M., van Jaarsveld, P.J. and Laubascher, R. 2007. The contribution of dark-green leafy

vegetables to total micro-nutrient intake of two- to five-year-old children in a rural setting.

Water SA, 33 (3), 407-412

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS. 1988. Traditional Food

Plants. FAO, Food and Nutrition Paper 42.

Fox, F.W. and Norwood Young, M.E. 1982. Food from the veld: Edible wild plants of Southern Africa.

Delta Books, Johannesburg, South Africa. 399 pages

Harden GJ (Ed) (2002) 'Flora of New South Wales.' (University of New South Wales Press Ltd:

Sydney, Australia)

Hart, T.G.B. and Vorster, H.J. 2006. Indigenous knowledge on the South African landscape –

Potentials for agricultural development. Urban, rural and economic development programme.

Occasional paper No 1. HSRC Press, Cape Town, South Africa. 52 pages.

Jacobs, T.V. 2004. Some South African wild food plants. Southern African Ethnobotany e-Newsletter.

1 (2), 24-28

Jansen Van Rensburg, W.S., van Averbeke, W., Slabbert, R., Faber, M., van Jaarsveld, P., van

Heerden, I. Wenhold, F. and Oelofse, A. 2007. African leafy vegetables in South Africa.

Water SA, 33 (3), 317-326(Special edition). Available on website http:// www.wrc.org.za

Kleinschmidt HE, Johnson RW (1987) 'Weeds of Queensland.' (QLD Department of Primary

Industries: Brisbane, Australia

Mzava, N.A. and Chigumira Ngwerume, F. 2004. Cleome gynandra L. In: Grubben, G.J.H. and

Denton, O.A. (Eds). PROTA 2: Vegetable/Legumes [CD ROM]. PROTA, Wageningen, The

Netherlands. 191 – 195.

Oladiran JA (1986). Effect of stage of harvesting and seed treatment on germination, seedling

emergence and growth in Corchorus olitorius ‘Oniyaya’. Sci. Hortic. 28: 227-233

Schippers, R.R. 2000. African Indigenous Vegetables. An overview of the cultivated species. Natural

Resources Institute/ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation,

Chatham, UK, 214 pages.

Schippers, R., Maundu, P., Imbuni, M. and Obiero, H. 2002. How to grow and use Spider plant.

Horticultural Development Service, Baarn, The Netherlands. 10 pages.

Van Den Heever, E. and Coertze, A.F. 1996. Indigenous leaf crops A2 – Cleome. Agricultural

Research Council leaflet. ARC-VOPI, Pretoria, South Africa. 130 pages

Van Wyk, B. and Gericke, N. 2000. People’s Plants. A guide to useful plants of southern Africa. Briza

Publications, Pretoria, South Africa. 352 pages.

Vorster, H.J., Jansen Van Rensburg, W.S., Van Zijl, J.J.B. and Van den Heever, E. 2002. Germplasm

management of African leafy vegetables for the nutritional and food security needs of

vulnerable groups in South Africa. Progress report. ARC-VOPI, Pretoria, South Africa. 130

pages.

http://www.wrc.org.za/

1Indigenous wild fruits of KZN

Indigenous wild fruits of KwaZulu-Natal

ContentsUMDONI (WATER BERRY) .............................................................................................. 2

Background and Description .......................................................................................... 2


Uses and cultural aspects .............................................................................................. 3

MONKEY ORANGE .......................................................................................................... 3

Background and description........................................................................................... 3


Uses and importance ..................................................................................................... 4

WILD APRICOT ................................................................................................................ 5




RAISIN BUSH ................................................................................................................... 6



Uses and Importance..................................................................................................... 7

NUM-NUM......................................................................................................................... 7




KEI APPLE........................................................................................................................ 9

Background and description........................................................................................... 9


Uses and importance ................................................................................................... 10

MARULA ......................................................................................................................... 10

Background and Description ........................................................................................ 10

Climatic Requirements and Cultivation......................................................................... 11

Uses and Importance................................................................................................... 12


This information has been obtained through reading current literature, interviewing farmers in

rural communities and stakeholder consultations. Acknowledgement to sources and author

contributions has been given.

UMDONI (WATER BERRY)

Scientific name: Syzygium cordatum Horchst

Common names: Water berry, water tree

Zulu names: Umdoni, umSwi

Family: Myrtaceae

(from Carolus and Porter, 2004.

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantqrs/syzygcord.htm)

Background and Description

Syzygium cordatum is commonly found along streams in Kwazulu-Natal northwards to

Mozambique. It is a water-loving, medium-sized tree which grows to a height of 8 -15 m. It is

often found near streams, on forest margins or in swampy spots (Palmer and Norah, 1972).

The leaves are elliptic to circular, bluish green on top and a paler green below. Young leaves

are reddish. The white to pinkish fragrant flowers are borne in branched terminals and have

numerous fluffy stamens and produce

abundant nectar. It flowers from August to

November. The fruits are oval berries, red to

dark-purple when ripe (Carolus and Porter,

2004).

(Inflourescense of Syzygium cordatum. Image from

http://www.plantweb.co.za/Plant_Pictures/Syzygium/Syzygium

_cordatum) Accessed 26/05/11.)


The tree is resistant to cold but not frost. It

grows best with a mean annual rainfall of 750 – 1200 mm at an altitude of 0 – 1800 m (Orwa

et al., 2009).

The umdoni tree is one southern Africa’s fastest growing trees (up to 1m/year) and has a

rather aggressive root system. The tree is best grown from seed. For better germination pre-

treat seed with a pre-emergence fungicide, this will prevent seedlings from dampening off

before emerging above the soil. Sow seed in a seed tray filled with well-drained soil and

cover seeds with a thin layer of soil. Water well and keep in a well-ventilated area. Once

seed has germinated, feed seedlings with an organic liquid fertiliser. Pot seedlings into

individual plant bags or pots (Orwa et al., 2009).

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantqrs/syzygcord.htm

http://www.plantweb.co.za/Plant_Pictures/Syzygium/Syzygium_cordatum

http://www.plantweb.co.za/Plant_Pictures/Syzygium/Syzygium_cordatum


As its common name suggests, this is a water-loving tree, so it is best planted in full sun

near a stream or river bank or any damp area (Coates, 1983).

Uses and cultural aspects

This tree is known for its many uses. The fleshy fruit is slightly acid in flavour and is eaten by

children, monkeys, bush-babies and birds. The berries are also used to sometimes make an

alcoholic drink. The powdered bark is used as a fish poison. In central Africa the tree is

known as a remedy for stomach ache and diarrhoea. It is also used to treat respiratory

ailments and tuberculosis (Carolus and Porter, 2004).

MONKEY ORANGE

Scientific name: Strychnos cocculoides (Baker).

Common names: Monkey orange (English);

Zulu names: umKwakwa, umNconjwa

Family: Loganiceae

(Monkey orange fruits. Image from

http://www.bidorbuy.co.za/item/16837865/Strychnos_spinosa_Tr

ee_Seeds_Spiny_Monkey_OrangeGreen_Monkey_Orange_Indig

enous_Fruit.html)

Background and description

Monkey orange is the fruit of the tree Strychnos cocculoides (Baker). It is a small tree up to 5

m tall with spreading branches and a rounded crown. It is usually covered in spines over

1cm in length. The branches have longitudinal corky ridges. The bark is creamy-brown,

cracked or fissured, with raised flakes, and is corky. The leaves tend to be rounded or heart-

shaped at the base (ICUC, 2004).

The flowers vary in colour and may be anything from white, pale green, cream or yellow and

appear in short dense bunches at the end of the branches. The fruit is round and about 7 cm

in diameter with a hard shell. The seeds are embedded in the pulp. The fruit is usually dark

green and white speckled when unripe, becoming yellow or orange when ripe. Fruits are

available for harvesting from October to December (dry season). There is often a mixture of

mature and immature fruits on the same tree (Mwamba and Peiler, 2006).

The monkey orange tree is restricted to Central and Southern Africa, where it grows in a

wide range of soils. It is a semi-deciduous species, which drops its leaves in the dry season.

However, unlike other indigenous fruit trees, it does not break its dormancy until the rain

comes (FAO, 1983).


It grows in semi-arid areas with rainfall as low as 600 mm for example, on the fringes of the

Kalahari Desert, to the sub humid tropics up to 1200mm. It is drought tolerant and starts

http://www.bidorbuy.co.za/item/16837865/Strychnos_spinosa_Tree_Seeds_Spiny_Monkey_OrangeGreen_Monkey_Orange_Indigenous_Fruit.html




fruiting between 4 – 5 years. A mature tree may yield from 300 to 400 fruits per tree/ per

year and it does not normally

experience off years. Even in

drought years, high fruit yields

have been recorded (ICUC,

2004).

(Monkey orange tree with unripe fruit.

Image from http://www.bidorbuy.co.za)

The monkey orange tree is

commonly grown from seed. The

seeds can be collected and

cleaned, removing all traces of

the pulp, from ripe fruits. The

seeds will germinate without any pre-treatment; however, soaking in hot water for 24 to 48

hours will improve germination. The seed should be sown at a depth of 2 – 3 cm in pots or

seedbeds. Germination should occur in two to four weeks. Seed viability is high within 6

months of extraction from the fruit, after this time, it sharply declines. Vegetative propagation

using grafting has been successful for the development of true to type clones. The tree

coppices well when pollarded. Seedlings or saplings transplanted in the field require

protection from fire. Weeds should be cleared regularly, until the trees are established

(Mateke, 1998).

Uses and importance

The monkey orange fruit has a sweet, brown, jelly-like flesh surrounding the seeds. It is rich

in crude protein, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium and has moderate amounts of vitamin

C (Mwamba and Peiler, 2006).

Monkey orange is a multipurpose tree. The fruit is rich in sugars, essential vitamins,

minerals, oils and proteins. Traditionally it is eaten raw or made into jam, juice and a variety

of wines. The jam has good keeping qualities and is preferred to other indigenous fruits

(ICUC, 2004).

The hard shells of the fruit are also used in craft, as containers and are made into

percussion instruments. The tree produces a hard wood with straight bore, which is good for

construction. The soft, white, pliable wood is very tough and is used to make tool handles

and building materials. The fruit is also used as a soap for washing clothes. The fruit can be

mixed with sugar or honey for the treatment of coughs and can also be used in the

preparation of eardrops. Fresh leaves pounded into a paste are used to treat sores. Chewing

of the root is reported to help in the treatment eczema and a root decoction can be taken as

a drink for curing gonorrhoea (Ruffo et al., 2002).

The fresh leaves are useful as botanical remedies in the garden and are crushed and

soaked in water, the drained liquid is used as a spray for vegetables to repel insects such as

aphids and scales (Mwamba and Peiler, 2006).

http://www.bidorbuy.co.za/


WILD APRICOT

Scientific name: Ancylobotrys capensis (Oliv.)

Pichon

Common names: rock milk apricot, wild apricot,

dwarf wild apricot, wild peach

Zulu name: umdongwe

Family: Flacourtiaceae

Wild apricot fruits. Image from

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons


Wild apricot occurs naturally in northern KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, Limpopo

Province, North-West Province and southeastern Botswana. The wild apricot is a

characteristic species of dry bush in rocky situations and grows in grassland and bushveld

(Schmidt et al., 2002).

Wild apricot is an evergreen, multi-stemmed, densely branched, scrambling shrub, 1 – 2 m

high, or it can become a lean, inter-twining climber onto other vegetation, then reaching

heights of up to 5 m. The young branches and growth points are covered with soft, reddish

brown hairs. The bark is reddish brown to

greyish brown. All parts of the plant contain

milky, rubbery latex (Codd, 1963).

The leaves are leathery, dark green above and

pale. The flowers are large and sweetly

scented. They are pinkish to reddish orange to

white on the outside and brilliant white on the

inside (Leistner, 2000).

Flowers of wild apricot. Image from

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/ancylobcap.htm

The fruit are rounded to pear-shaped, 35-50 mm in diameter. They are dark green to lime-

green when young, turning yellow to orange as they mature. Inside are numerous seeds,

varying from round to almost bean-like and embedded in the sweet-sour pulp. The fruit

resembles the apricot in colour but the taste is certainly different. The flesh is tasty and

slightly sour, especially close to the seed (Leistner, 2000).


The wild apricot plant should be protected from frost in the cold months while young. An

established plant is rather frost-tolerant and will easily re-sprout from the underground parts

(Schmidt et al., 2002).

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/ancylobcap.htm

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Landolphia_capensis04.jpg


Plants are normally propagated from fresh, clean seed collected from January to February

when the fruit are ripening. It’s important to make sure that seeds are clean before planting

them directly into acidic leaf compost. They usually germinate quickly but can take as long

as three months. Young plants can be transplanted into well-drained soil in a semi-shaded

situation. The branches like sun but the roots have to be kept cool-in nature they are

sheltered form the heat of the sun below rocks. These plants are extremely slow growers, so

if you decide to plant this species you have to be very patient (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000).

Uses and importance

Wild apricot fruit are edible, with a refreshing, tangy flavour. They can be eaten either fresh

or fried. The fruit makes a good brandy, jelly or jam and vinegar. The milky latex from

members of this genus has been used as a source of good quality rubber (Fabian and

Germishuizen, 1997).

RAISIN BUSH

Scientific name: Grewia bicolor A.Juss

Common names: white raisin, bastard brandy

bush, false brandy bush, two-coloured grewia

Zulu name: umHlabampunzi

Family: Tiliaceae

(Fruits of Grewia bicolour. Image from

http://www.fedupshirt.com/)


Grewia bicolor is usually a many-stemmed shrub, occasionally small tree up to 7 m in height;

bark dark grey, deeply fissured and peeling away in strips in older specimens, grey to

reddish-grey, and smooth when young (Coates-Palgrave, 1988).

Leaves have a dull dark green above, almost silvery white with fine hairs below. The flowers

are yellow and are 1.5 cm in diameter. Fruits are reddish-brown when mature, edible,

sweetish but astringent. They are often parasitised and develop a shaggy appearance.


Grewia bicolor grows best at an altitude of 800 – 2000 m. A mean annual rainfall of 400 –

900 mm is required and the plant grows best in rich, shallow sandy soils (Vogt, 1995).

Raisin bush is normally propagated from seeds but can also be propagated from cuttings. A

suitable pre-treatment is to soak the seeds in cold water for 12 hours. Fruit collected at end

of rains, beginning of dry season. Regeneration is normally through seedlings and root

suckers. Germination is good but sporadic; completed after 6 weeks (Tietema et al., 1992).

http://www.fedupshirt.com/


(Grewia bicolor plant with flowers in full

bloom. Image from

http://www.olifantsreserve.co.za/)

Uses and Importance

The fruit of raisin bush is edible.

The taste can be described as

sweetish but also astringent.

The pulp is eaten fresh or dried

and juice is drunk fresh. A

mixture of the fruit is used to

coat leather bottles containing

new butter to improve flavour. Livestock and game browse on the fresh or dried leaves and

young stems. It is favoured more by sheep and goats than by horses, donkeys and cattle.

Nutritional value of leaves is average to good but varies according to age. Fruit is also

suitable for use as forage.

Bark fibres can be stripped and used for string, rope and cordage. The wood can used for

walking sticks and canes, tool handles, weapons, hut frames and nomadic tent posts, and

picture frames. The fruit of G. bicolor can also be fermented into beer and distilled into liquor

(Bekele-Tesemma et al., 1993).

Grewia bicolor has many medicinal uses as well. The roots and leaves are used in the

treatment of pain in the inter-costal area. Roots are used as a remedy for chest complaints

and colds, for gonorrhoea and female fertility. Fruit is taken for strength and the bark is used

for curing boils and sores, inflammation of the intestines, syphilis, and as a vermifuge,

diuretic and laxative (Booth and Wickens, 1988).

Ashes of leaves or leaves themselves are used as a soap substitute for washing clothes.

NUM-NUM

Scientific name: Carissa bispinosa L. Desf. Ex

Brenan

Common name: Num-num

Zulu name: Amantungulu

Family: Apocynaceae


Carissa bispinosa is found in the woodlands

from the south western parts of the Western

Cape along the coastal areas right through the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal into Gauteng

and the Northern provinces (Bester, 2004).

http://www.olifantsreserve.co.za/


This species is often a dense bush or rambling shrub in wooded spots or scrub. Occasionally

it can be tree-like growing up to 5 m tall. It is evergreen and has branches that exhibit a

repeated forked pattern. The plants contain a milky sap and the branches are often hairy.

The leaves are glossy dark green above and paler below, with short, thorn-like tips (heart-

shaped tapering to a sharp point). The flowers are small, white or tinged pink, with a long,

slender corolla tube, sweetly scented and clustered at the tips of twigs (Coates-Palgrave,

2002).

The fruit are small, ovoid, edible, red berries.

The whole fruit, including the seed, is edible

and although the skin is slightly milky, it has

a delicious flavour. It is not uncommon to

find fruit and flowers on the same plant.

Carissa bispinosa plant. Image from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carissa.


The num-num plant is best suited to grow in

warmer areas such as parts of the interior and coastal plains. Young plants need to be

sheltered from cold for the first years as a precaution. The plants need moderate watering

and grow in semi-shade to full sun. Plants are moderately drought-resistant but rather frost-

tender (Joffe, 1993).

Carissa bispinosa flowers from October to March and produces edible berries from March to

October. They can also be used as ornamental plants in an informal border. The trees

should be planted in light, well-drained soil with the addition of plenty of compost. The plants

should be spaced approximately a metre apart to form an impenetrable hedge. It can be

lightly pruned to keep it neat (Bester, 2004).

Carissa bispinosa can easily be cultivated from seed. They thrive near the coast or in

gardens inland where winters are mild. They can be grown in gardens that have moderate

frost, but the rate of growth is much slower in areas where winters are cold (Glen, 2002).

Uses and importance

Num-nums form a focal point with their ornamental foliage, flowers and fruit. Natural

environments with frequent fire regimes result in low-growing forms. These plants have

cultivation potential for use as borders in formal gardens. This species can also be used to

provide neat hedges in parking areas (Fabian and Germishuizen, 1997).

Traditionally, the plants are not only used for the edible fruit but the berries are also used to

make jams and jellies. The local people use the roots to treat toothache (Van Wyk and

Gericke, 2000).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carissa


KEI APPLE

Scientific names: Dovyalis caffra Warb

Common names: Kei apple

Zulu name(s): umqokolo

Family: Salicaceae

(Kei Apple fruits hanging on tree. Image from

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantcd/dovycaf.htm)

Background and description

Dovylis caffra is an evergreen fruit tree or shrub that grows in valley bushveld, dry areas,

wooded grassland, on forest edges, from Eastern Cape through KwaZulu-Natal to

Swaziland, into Limpopo (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000).


The Kei apple tree is normally propagated by seeds, though layering can also be done.

Seeds germinate readily when fresh and seedlings begin to bear in 4 or 5 years. For fruit

production it is necessary to space plants no less than 3.5 – 4.5 m apart. For hedges, plants

can be spaced 0.9 – 1.5 m apart (Morton, 1987).

There should be 1 male for every 20 or 30 females.

However, certain female trees have borne profusely in

the absence of male pollinators. The hedge must be

trimmed twice a year. If neglected and allowed to

become leggy, it can be cut to the ground and given a

new start. Weeding should not be a problem, for the kei

apple exhibits allelopathy, that is, its roots excrete

growth inhibitors which prevent the occurrence of other

plants in its vicinity. Investigators in Egypt have

demonstrated that the roots, stem and fruit, but not the

leaves and branches, possess antibiotic properties

(Germishuizen et al., 2006.

(Flowers of the Kei Apple. Image from

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantcd/dovycaf.htm)

The Kei-apple is easily propagated from seed. The fruits

must be ripe before they are collected. The seed must be cleaned and dried in a shady spot

before planting. They should then be sown in seedling trays filled with river sand or seedling

mix. The seeds must be pressed down into the sand until they are level with the surface of

the sand and then covered with a layer of fine sand. The Kei-apple can also be propagated

from hardwood cuttings as long as they are treated with root-stimulating hormone before

planting. It also has a good growth rate of about 600 mm per year (Joffe, 1993).

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantcd/dovycaf.htm

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantcd/dovycaf.htm


Uses and importance

Dovyalis caffra can be cultivated as a border, screen or used to form an impenetrable hedge

around a garden to keep unwanted animals and people out. It will grow well in either full sun

or light shade and will also need regular trimming in order to maintain a good hedge. The

leaves are used as fodder (bulk feed for livestock). The fruits are edible and make excellent

jam (Dharani, 2002).

MARULA

Scientific names: Sclerocarya birrea

Common names: Marula

Zulu name: UmGanu

Family: Anacardiaceae


The distribution of the marula throughout Africa has

followed the Bantu in their migrations, as it has been

an important item in their diet since time immemorial.

This species is native to the following countries: South

Africa, Malawi, Namibia, Niger, Botswana, Gambia,

Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sudan, Swaziland, the

Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya,

Tanzania (including Zanzibar), Angola and Uganda

(Hall, 2002).

The marula tree is found widely distributed in many South African game parks and in the

rural areas of Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga. It is more

dominant in Phalaborwa in the Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga. As a prolific fruit bearer,

one single tree can produce up to 500 kg of fruit per year. Average crop yields are about 30

kg per tree, although large trees can bear heavily, up to 70 000 fruit on a single tree

(Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2010).

The marula is a medium to large tree, usually 9 m tall, but it can grow up to 18 m. It is single-

stemmed, with a dense, spreading crown and deciduous foliage. The old stems are silver-

grey in colour and fairly smooth. The bark peels off in disc-shaped flakes, giving the trunk a

mottled appearance. The interior bark is red or pink with darker stripes. The leaves are

petiole and occur in three to eight opposite pairs of leaflets and a terminal one, 30–100 ×

15–40 mm toothed margins. The leaves have sharply pointed leaflets (Coates Palgrave,

2002).

Flowers are arranged in a bunch, 5 to 8 cm long. Female and male flowers are separated,

whether on the same tree or on different trees. The small flowers are pinkish-red in colour.

The plum-sized fruit is thick, very juicy and aromatic. When ripe, the fruit has a light yellow

skin, with white, succulent flesh and a strong, distinctive and turpentine flavour. The stone is


walnut-sized and has a thick wall; the flesh clings onto its brown stone and is very fibrous

and juicy. The ripe fruit has a characteristic turpentine flavour. Inside the woody stone are

two to three oblong kernels. Each kernel is protected by a small bony “lid”, which becomes

detached when the stone is cracked. The most important parts are the fruit, nuts, bark,

leaves and stem (Coates Palgrave, 2002).

Climatic Requirements and Cultivation

The marula tree is highly sensitive to frost and grows best in frost-free areas under warm

conditions. It is adapted to dry and hot weather conditions (Storrs, 1995). The tree occurs

naturally and is usually rain-fed. It is found in arid and semi-arid areas with summer rainfall

varying from 250 to 1 000 mm. In South Africa the plant is best suited to the 250 to 800 mm

rainfall zone. It is an indigenous tree adapted to poor soils. It occurs naturally in various

types of woodland, on sandy soil or, occasionally, on sandy loams (Leakey, 1997).

The marula tree can easily be

propagated by seed. It can also

be propagated by cuttings and

grafting. Vegetative propagation

is essential for reproduction of

plant material so that the

offspring will contain the exact

characteristics of the parent

material with regard to

genotype and health status.

(Marula tree with unripe fruits. Image from

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and

Fisheries, 2010)

The marula tree is a prolific seed bearer and matured fruit falls when still green and turns

yellow on the ground. Marula is very easy to grow from seeds, provided these are treated in

the right way. Seed should be collected from fallen, ripened fruit and be soaked overnight in

warm water before sowing. After soaking, place the seeds on damp, fluffy peat moss at room

temperature for about a week or two (Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,

2010).

The seeds should be planted directly into a black nursery bag filled with river sand and keep

in the shade until seedling appears. The root grows quickly and as long as the weather is

warm, the sprouted seed may be planted. Insert the root into the soil and just barely cover

the seed. Do not allow it to get too wet or too cold, use a fungicide, and if the weather is

cold, bring it inside (Venter and Venter, 1996).


Marula can also be propagated by means of shoot cuttings. The best time for taking cuttings

is from September to March when the trees are actively growing. Any type of actively

growing wood can be utilised as long as actively growing leaves are present. Cuttings of

about 10 to 15 cm in diameter, 2 m in length are planted at a depth of 1 m (Roodt 1988).

Marula is a fast-growing plant and fairly drought-resistant, reaching 3.5 m in eight years on

the 600 mm mean annual rainfall. The quantity of fertiliser used depends on the age of the

tree, its health and bearing. Nursery medium recommendations are a 3:1:1 or 1:1:1 mixture

of course sand and manure and well-drained, sandy loam. The trees produce flowers from

September to November and bear fruit from January to March. In the middle of the rainy

season (February to March) the marula fruit begins to drop from the trees in large quantities.

The ripe fruit is normally collected from the ground by hand. Any fruit that is picked off the

tree will be rejected to ensure the sustainability of the product (Department of Agriculture,

Forestry and Fisheries, 2010).

Uses and Importance

The marula fruit is commonly used to make alcoholic beverages (amarula). The ripe fruit is

also edible. Marula has a truly delicious nut which can be eaten raw or roasted and is rich in

protein (28 %) and oil. The good-tasting oil is used for cooking and for products such as

preservatives. Jelly, juice, salad dressing and jam can be made from the fruit (Nagy et al.,

1991).

The skin can be processed into glue, soap, ointment, achar and vinegar. Cattle and wildlife

eat the fruit and the leaves on the trees as well as on the ground. The leaves are nutritious

and will contribute to a healthy diet for livestock. During extended drought periods when

there is no grass the marula leaves serve as a fodder bank for livestock. The wood is used

to make furniture and, to a lesser extent, panelling. It is also a popular wood for carvings and

household articles. The bark can also be used to make a light-brown dye. The marula tree

gives excellent shade in garden parks and streets (Leakey, 1997).

References

Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil

Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).

Bester, S.P. 2004. Carissa bispinosa L. Desf. Ex Brenan. National Herbariun, Pretoria.

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantcd/carisbispin.htm. Accessed 31/05/11.

Booth, F.E.M. and Wickens, G.E. 1988. Non-timber uses of selected arid zone trees and shrubs in

Africa. FAO Conservation Guide. No. 19. Rome.

Carolus, B. and Porter, H. 2004. Syzygium cordatum Hochst.ex C.Krauss. South African National

Biodiversity Institute. www.plantzafrica.com. Accessed on 26/05/11.

Coates, K. 1983. Trees of Southern Africa, second edition, Struik Publishers, Cape Town.

Coates-Palgrave K. 1988. Trees of southern Africa. C.S. Struik Publishers Cape Town.

Coates-Palgrave, M. 2002. Keith Coates Palgrave Trees of southern Africa, edn 3. Struik, Cape

Town.

Coates Palgrave, K. 2002. Trees of southern Africa, 3rd edition. Cape Town: Struik. 959 pages.

Codd, L.E. 1963. Apocynaceae. Flora of southern Africa 26. Botanical Research Institute, Pretoria.

Dharani, N. 2002. Field guide to common trees and shrubs of East Africa. Struik, Cape Town.

http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantcd/carisbispin.htm

http://www.plantzafrica.com/


FAO. 1983 Food and Fruit Bearing Forest Species – Examples from East Africa. Forestry Paper,

44/1.

Fabian, A. & Germishuizen, G. 1997. Wild flowers of northern South Africa. Fernwood Press,

Vlaeberg, Cape Town.

Germishuizen, G., Meyer, N.L., Steenkamp, Y. and Keith, M. (eds) 2006. A Checklist of South African

plants. Southern African Botanical Diversity Network Report No. 41. SABONET, Pretoria.

Glen, H.F. 2002. Cultivated plants of southern Africa. Jacana, Johannesburg.

Hall, J.B., 2002. Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hoschst. Record from Protabase.

http://www.Krugerpark.co.za/africa marula.html

International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC). 2004. Fruits for the future: Monkey Orange.

Factsheet No. 9; 2 pages.

Joffe, P. 1993. The gardener's guide to South African plants. Tafelberg, Cape Town.

Leakey, R.R.B. 1997. Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees. Institute of Terrestrial

Ecology. Scotland, UK.

Leistner, O.A. (ed.). 2000. Seed plants of southern Africa: families and genera. Strelitzia 10. National

Botanical Institute, Pretoria.

Mateke, S.M. 1998. Questions and Answers about how to grow Magorogorwane (Wild orange – S.

cocculoides) Veld Product Research and Development, Gaborone, Botswana. p18

Morton, J. 1987. Kei Apple. In: Fruits of warm climates pages. 315 – 319. Miami, Florida.

Mwamba, C. and Peiler, E. 2006. Monkey Orange, Strychnos cocculoides, Field Manual for Extension

Workers and Farmers, SCUC, Southampton, UK.

Nagy S, Shaw PE, Wardowski WF (eds.). 1991. Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin: composition,

properties and uses. Florida Science Source, Inc. Lake Alfred, Florida.

Storrs AEG. 1995. Know your trees: some common trees found in Zambia. Regional Soil

Conservation Unit (RSCU).

Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R., Jamnadass, R. and Simons, A. 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree

reference and selection guide version 4.0 (http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/).

Accessed on 26/05/11.

Palmer, E. and Norah, P. 1972, Trees of Southern Africa, A.A Balkema, Cape Town.

Ruffo C.K., Birnie A., Tengnas B. (eds.). 2002. Edible wild plants of Tanzania. RELMA Technical

handbook series 27. Nairobi, Kenya: Regional land Management Unit (RELMA), Swedish

International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). p 766

Schmidt, E., Lötter, M. and McCleland, W. 2002. Trees and shrubs of Mpumalanga and Kruger

National Park. Jacana, Johannesburg.

Tietema, T., Merkesdal, E. and Schroten, J. 1992. Seed germination of indigenous trees in Botswana.

Acts Press.

Van Wyk, B. and Gericke, N. 2000. People's plants. A guide to useful plants of South Africa. Briza

Publications, Pretoria.

Venter F, Venter J.A. 1996. Making the most of Indigenous trees. Briza Publications.

Vogt K. 1995. A field guide to the identification, propagation and uses of common trees and shrubs of

dryland Sudan. SOS Sahel International (UK).

http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa%20marula.html

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/

1Seed saving

Seed Saving

ContentsINTRODUCTION TO SEED SAVING.................................................................................... 2

Flowers.............................................................................................................................. 2

Pollination.......................................................................................................................... 3

Examples of pollination for perfect flowers ..................................................................... 3

Examples of pollination for imperfect flowers ................................................................. 4

OPEN POLLINATED AND HYBRID CROPS ........................................................................ 4

How to take control of cross-pollination ............................................................................. 4

Grow them apart: ........................................................................................................... 4

Isolate them in time:....................................................................................................... 4

Cage them: .................................................................................................................... 5

Making an isolation cage................................................................................................ 5

Bagging and Hand Pollination ........................................................................................ 6

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING SEED ..................................................................................... 7

Seed Saving Instructions for specific crops ....................................................................... 7

Plant Isolation Distances Table ...................................................................................... 7

How to know where to find the seed? ................................................................................ 8

Seed heads.................................................................................................................... 8

Seeds in fruit.................................................................................................................. 9

Seeds that are eaten.................................................................................................... 10

CLEANING SEED............................................................................................................... 10

Winnowing....................................................................................................................... 10

Wet cleaning.................................................................................................................... 11

Method:........................................................................................................................ 11

DRYING SEED ................................................................................................................... 12

STORING SEED................................................................................................................. 12

Storage conditions........................................................................................................... 12

Darkness...................................................................................................................... 12

Moisture....................................................................................................................... 12

Temperature ................................................................................................................ 13

PESTS................................................................................................................................ 13

2Seed saving

INTRODUCTION TO SEED SAVINGIn agriculture and gardening, seed saving is the practice of saving seeds or other

reproductive material (e.g. tubers) from open-pollinated vegetables, grain, herbs, and flowers

for use from year to year for annuals and nuts, tree fruits, and berries for perennials and

trees.

Keeping your own seed is central to your independence as a homestead food gardener. You

can choose which varieties and types of crops you like and keep these seeds. You do not

need to go to the shop to buy seed. There are still many varieties of seed that farmers keep

or that you can buy from a shop that you will be able to keep for yourself once you have

grown the crop.

Growing from seed to seed, involves the following process:

• Germinating seeds,

• Transplanting seedlings,

• Looking after selected healthy

plants until they mature, so that

• Their seeds can be collected,

and

• Stored for the following year.

Plants adapt to the environment they are

grown in and produce seeds that carry

those local adaptations, producing

healthier plants that are better able to

cope with the local environment.

There are a few things about how plants work that you need to understand to help you to

successfully keep your own seed. In the sections below we will discuss pollination (self-

pollination and cross- pollination), how pollination happens (pollinators), and how you select

and store seed.

Flowers

Many vegetable species produce flowers with the male part

(anther) and the female part (stigma) in the same flower. These

are called perfect flowers

Right: an eamplxe of a perfect flower where the stigma is

surrounded by the anthers (brinjal)

However, in maize and most varieties of the cucurbit family

(cucumbers, melons, pumpkins, etc.), the anthers and the stigma

are in the same plant but on different flowers. These are called

imperfect flowers.

Right: the male and female flowers of a pumpkin plant cut open

to show the stigma and nathers in different flowers.

3Seed saving

Pollination

Pollination occurs in plants when pollen

from the anthers of the flower is

deposited on the stigma. In some perfect

flowers, selfpollination occurs.

Examples of pollination for perfect

flowers

o Lettuce, tomato, capsicum

(peppers) and okra have the

stigmas so close to the anthers

that the slightest wind movement

can cause the pollen to drop onto the stigma within the same flower. They self-

pollinate, but belonging to the same family they can cross pollinate as well.

Generally, plants that self-pollinate can be grown quite close together (4-200m)

without them crossing with each other. It is still a good idea however, to separate

different varieties of the same plant from each other (e.g. different varieties of

lettuce), as some crossing can still occur -especially

those where pollen is carried by wind. These include

also spinach and beetroot.

o In peas and beans, self-pollination occurs even before

the flower opens.

o Other types of perfect flowers require cross-pollination.

An external pollinator such as an insect is necessary.

Onion, carrot (cross pollinated by wasps and flies),

cabbage, and radish, for example, belong to this type.

This means that all the diffeent varieties in these fmalies

will cross with each other.

Right: A bee cross-pollinating a head of onion flowers.

For example, all brassicas cross pollinate with each other; thus

cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale and brussle sprouts all cross

Then chinese cabbage, turnip, radish and mustard spinach will

all cross as they are in the same family.

Right: A cabbage plant seeding.

Cross-pollinated plants produce more varied offspring that are

better able to cope with a changing environment.

4Seed saving

Examples of pollination for imperfect flowers

Plants with imperfect flowers require wind or insects such as bees to transmit pollen from the

anthers of the male flowers to the stigma of the female flowers.

Maize, for example, is cross-pollinated by wind. Most other grains are also wind pollinated,

including sorghum, millet and imfe. Pollen picked up by the wind can travel very far (many

kilometres) on air currents before coming to a rest.

Cucurbits (pumpkin, melons, gourds and cucumber) are cross-pollinated by bees. Other

examples are paw-paws and asparagus.

OPEN POLLINATED AND HYBRID CROPSVegetable seeds can be saved to sow new crops in the future, but not all seeds are suitable

for saving. Varieties suitable for seed saving include local varieties that have been grown in

one region for a very long time, self-pollinating crops (for example, beans and peas), and

open-pollinated varieties of some cross-pollinating crops (for example, pepper, cucumber

and carrot).

Commercial F1 hybrid varieties are popular among many vegetable growers today.

However, the seed of hybrid fruits should not be saved, because the F1 hybrid seeds were

produced by forcing across between two different parent varieties, taht would not naturally

cross. Seed saved from hybrids will either be sterile or the plants of the next generation may

show wide variation.

You know that a packet contains hybrid seed when the sign on it says:

How to take control of cross-pollination

Any insect or wind pollinated plant will need to be isolated from other varieties of the same

plant to stop them from crossing with each other. Below are four techniques you can try to

achieve purity in your seed.

Grow them apart:

Grow two varieties that cross-pollinate at least 500 m or more apart. This is how far most

insects fly, although bees can fly up to 4 km. Obstacles that deflect wind or insects such as

hedges, buildings and ridges can greatly reduce cross-pollination.

Isolate them in time:

This is possible for crops where all the plants flower at the same time, such as maize and

sunflowers. Crossing can be avoided by growing early, mid- and late season varieties that

shed their pollen at different times.

F1

5Seed saving

Cage them:

Caging is needed for species that flower over a long period of time, such as cabbages,

peppers and chillies. Put cages made of fly or nylon netting over the flower stalks of the

different varieties to exclude all insects. Pollinate

by hand.

Right: caging of individual pepper plants in small

nylon neeting cages.(From Saving your own vegetable

seeds. World Vegetable Centre)

Cage one and then the other variety:

This can be used instead of hand pollinating

varieties that are flowering at the same time, for

varieties that are insect pollinated. Cage one

variety while insects pollinate the second variety.

Then cage the second variety while

insects pollinate the first one. Once

they have been pollinated, both

varieties should be caged until

flowering has stopped.

Right: A vegetable garden for growing

seed with a number of isloation cages

in the garden (from

www.alcoopershomecountry.blogspot.com/pre

serving our seed heritage)

Making an isolation cage

To make a simple isolation cage ideal vegetables, you need some cheap nylon fly-screen or

other netting of 1m by 5m will, four canes or thin stakes, and some string and garden wire.

This gives a cage large enough to cover 3 or 4 plants.

Cut a square piece of screen 1m x 1m to make the top of the

cage, and then fold the remaining strip of fly-screen round and

sew its ends together. The resulting band will be the sides of

the cage. Then sew the top to the sides, making a cube of fly-

screen with the bottom missing.

To put up the cage over your plants, hammer the four canes

into the ground in a square a little smaller than the cage top,

so that they stick up a little less than the height of the cage.

Twist a short piece of wire tightly round the top of each cane,

and then run string in a square around the tops of the canes,

supported by the wires to stop it slipping. Run a second piece

of string around the stakes lower down to stop the sides of the

cage blowing in against the plants. Then slip the cage over

your plants, and weigh it down with earth or rocks.

6Seed saving

Right: Exmple of a simple cage made from nylon.(From

www.realseeds.co.uk)

Right: A pollination cage made from sticks and netting held

down with stones to stops insects form getting in.

Bagging and Hand Pollination

If none of the above isolation techniques are practical for

you, or you want to maintain a high degree of control over which plants pollinate each other,

you can individually hand pollinate flowers or flower heads and enclose them in cloth or

paper bags. This technique works well with large-flowered

plants such as pumpkin or maize.

Bagging is only necessary from the day before the bud

opens until the flower falls off the plant, so the bags do not

need to be long lasting. They must, however, be well

secured to the plant, as the plant is open to cross-pollination

if the bag blows off or becomes unsecured.

Right: Maize flowers or ‘heads are covered iwth paper bags

for hte duration of pollination to ensure pure lines/varieites

(from www.info.seedsavers.org)

Bags must be made of a porous or "breathable" material so

the plant has access to light, air, and water. Paper bags

work in drier climates but may introduce rot or block light in wetter climes.

Right: A porous plastic ‘cloth’ bag held in place by a clothes

peg protects a pumpkin flower. ( From www.realseeds.co.uk)

Hand pollination of cucurbits involves choosing the female

and male flowers to be used for polliantion the day before,

as they start opening. These are then taped closed till the

next morning when pollen from the male flower is

introduced to the female flower.which is closed again to

allow the pollen to fertilize the flower. The tape is left on

until the flower withers and falls off the stem.

This fruit is then tagged for collection of seed.

Right: A femla squash flower taped closed for

pollination ( from www.chickensintheroad. com / hand-

pollinating squash)

http://www.realseeds.co.uk/

http://www.realseeds.co.uk/

http://www.chickensintheroad/

7Seed saving

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING SEED o The seeds should possess the same quality as the variety that was planted. If you

planted a long, purple brinjal, collect seed from a long purple fruit. If the fruit looks

different, the seed will also be different.

o Take out plants with undesirable characteristics before they start flowering. Examples

are slow growers, sick/diseased plants or ones that bolt (start seeding) too early.

o Harvest seed only from strong, good looking plants

o Harvest seeds from plants that perform well under stress, such as extreme weather

conditions, and plants that resist disease or insect attack.

o Harvest seed only from healthy plants. If the leaves or fruit have rotten spots or a

mottled appearance, do not use seeds from these plants. These diseases are carried

in the seed and will appear next time.

o Also do not harvest seeds that have diseases

such as brown blotches or mould growing on

them.

o Do not harvest seed from plants that have

bolted. Bolting is when the plant goes to seed

much quicker than it normally should. It could

be due to stress, such as hot and dry

conditions, but is also in-built. So, if you take

seed from plants that have bolted, you are

selecting for a plant that bolts, or goes to

seed very easily. This is particularly important

for crops such as mustard spinach and

lettuce where you are looking for a prolonged leaf stage.

o Harvest the seed when it is ready. Immature seed will usually not germinate, as it has

not fully formed (if the seed is still green or wet when picked). Over-mature seed tend

to go rotten before you plant them.Do not harvest seed that has been damaged by

insects or in any other way. They can only germinate if they are whole.

Seed Saving Instructions for specific crops

Plant Isolation Distances Table

Plant Isolation Distance PollinatorAmaranth ~1000m wind, insects

Lamb's Quarters ~ 1000m Wind

Bean, Common 0m self

Bean, Lima 0 to 2m self

Cowpea 0 to 2m self

Sorghum 800m self

Maize 800m- 3200 m Wind

Chinese Cabbage ~ 400m Insects

Chinese Mustard ~ 400m Insects

Kale ~ 400m Insects

Mustard ~400 m Insects

Okra 500m or more self, insects

Pumpkin 400m - 800m Insects

You should harvest seed from at least

six (6) plants of each variety or type that

you want to keep. For some crops, such

as onions, you need to keep seed from

at least 20 plants and for crops such as

sunflower and maize you need seed

from 50-100 plants. In multi-coloured

maize you may lose some colours and

insect resistance if too few plants are

used.

8Seed saving

Watermelon 400m - 800m Insects

Gourds 400m-800m Insects

Working with isolation distances can be very tricky unless one individual or group grows one

variety of a crop and anther person grows another variety. These distances are good to get

an idea how far you have to be form your neighbours so that what you are growing does not

cross with theirs.

How to know where to find the seed?

Seed heads

Some plants carry pods which contain the seed, like beans and peas. These are called

legumes. They are mostly self pollinating, so you do not

need to be too careful in separating different varieties.

To collect the seeds, allow the pods to mature fully on

the plant until they start to yellow and dry out. In wet

weather, collect the pods individually as they get to this

stage; then spread out somewhere out of the rain with a

good airflow until the pods are fully dry and brittle. Once

they are dry, shell out the beans and dry further out of

the pods. The beans should be dry enough that they

break when you bite on them, rather than leaving a dent.

Store in an airtight container – If they are well dried, and

stored in a cool dark place, the beans will last around 3 years.

If you have problems with weevils eating your seeds, put the sealed container in the freezer

for a week immediately after drying the beans; this will kill any insect eggs before they hatch.

When you take them out, let the container come up to room temperature before opening it,

otherwise the beans will absorb moisture from the air

Leafy crops like lettuce and swiss chard will send out stalks from the

middle of the plant. The flowers and seeds will be produced on these

stalks.

Brassicas (the cabbage family) will first make a head, or compact

leaves. Examples are cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kholrabi, kale,

chinese cabbage and mustard spinach. Then, in the next warm season,

a flower stalk will grow out and seed pods will be produced on these.

Sometimes a deeply cut cross needs to be made across the head to assist the tlak to come

through This can take up to 18 months.

Beans

Lettuce

Beans

9Seed saving

The cabbage family requires bees or other insects to carry pollen between plants. You need

as many plants as possible to collect seed from (at least 6, but up to 20). One plant on its

own will produce hardly any seed. Brassicas can cross with any member of the family. A

cabbage can cross with a cauliflower or a broccoli or chinese cabbage!!! It is important to

isolate different members of the cabbage family to obtain seed.

Root crops like carrots: With this type of root crop, the bulb will

start to go woody and harder and send out a long stem on which

flowers and seed will develop. This will take about 9 months.

Wasps and flies carry pollen from one “umbel” to another or from

one plant to another. Other crops in the Umbelifferae family

(umbrella shaped flowers), behave in a similar way. Examples are

celery, parsley, fennel and parsnips.

Root crops like onions: With this type of root

crop, the flowering stalk develops in the

second warm season, as the crop is biennial.

This stalk is leafless, hard and hollow, and can

grow very tall.

Other plants in this family (Amaryllidaceae) are leeks, shallots, garlic,

spring onions, chives and garlic chives. These plants are pollinated

mostly by bees. Pollination occurs between the little flowers on the

same flower ball and between flowers from one plant to another. Seed

from at least 20 plants needs to be kept to keep the variety strong.

Seeds don't all ripen at the same time and they need to be harvested as

they become ready, as they tend to shatter and are blown away by the

wind.

Leave these seeds on the plant to dry. For those plants where the seed heads shatter and

scatter seeds, you will need to collect them as they dry, rather than waiting until all the seeds

are ready. Examples are lettuce, carrots, parsnips and onions.

Seeds in fruit

Fruit is produced only after the fertilisation of the ovules

has taken place. These ovules develop to produce the

seeds inside the fruit.

Fruit is picked when it is slightly over-ripe. Examples are tomatoes, chillies, capsicums (green peppers), gooseberries and brinjals.

Carrot plant

– flower and

seed head

Onion plant

and seed

head

Chilli

fruit and

seeds

Capsicum

10Seed saving

Tomatoes and capsicums are self pollinating. The other plants in the Solanaceae family like

chillies and brinjals are cross pollinating. If you are growing more than one variety of chilli,

they need to be isolated from each other. Otherwise you may get some HOT surprises!

Pumpkins, melons, gourds and squashes are picked when over-ripe and then left for a few

more weeks for the seed to mature further. There are

many different kinds of pumpkin and melons. All different

kinds of pumpkins will cross with each other, but they will

not cross with melons, cucumbers or marrows which are

all in the same family (Cucurbitaceae). In this family there

is crossing in each species, but not between them. A

cucumber for example will not cross with a pumpkin. The

best (and usually the only0 way to save pumpkins seeds

at a home level is to hand pollinate the fruit.

In this family, plants have both male and female

flowers. The male flowers grow on long thin stems

and open before the female flowers, which grow

on a short stem and have a small swelling at the

base.

Cucumbers and marrows are left on the plants until they are fully mature; cucumbers will go brown and marrows will go yellow (and VERY big!).

Seeds that are eaten

Examples here are maize, beans, peas and sunflowers. These are left on the plants until

they are mature and dry.

How to know when your seed is ready?

o The fruit has a hollow sound and/or is disconnected from the branch. Examples:pumpkins, cucumbers. For these fruits it also helps to leave the seed inside the fruit for several weeks after picking.

o Colour, size and shape of fruit. Examples: tomato and chillis (red), aubergines (purple or yellow). Green peppers need to be left until they go red. They are immature when green!!!

o Shattering of pods. Examples: beans, peas, cowpeas.

o Dryness. Examples: carrots, coriander, lettuce, swiss chard, cabbage (seed head goes brown and dry)

CLEANING SEED

Winnowing

Male and female

flowers on a vine

11Seed saving

Chaff and stems need to be removed from seed, as they can hide insects that can attack

your stored seeds.

o Seeds and chaff are tossed into the air and the chaff is wafted away with a gentle breeze. Elongated flat baskets work well.

o Or put the seeds in a bowl and shake them until the debris floats to the top. Gently blow the chaff away.

o Large quantities of podded seeds (peas, beans) can be placed in a sack and the seeds separated bystomping on the sack or beating it with a stick. The dried empty pods can then be winnowed out.

Wet cleaning

This is used for plants that carry their seeds in moist

flesh or fruit such as tomatoes, melons, pumpkin and

cucumbers.

o Scoop the seeds out into a large container of water and rub vigorously. Pour off the water and place seeds on a flat surface to dry.

o Ferment the seeds of tomatoes and cucumbers. These seeds are encased in the flesh of the fruit and have a slippery jelly around them. This jelly needs to be removed before the seed will germinate. It also rids the seeds of unwanted seed-borne diseases.

Method:

Place the seed in a container. Cover with water. Add one to two table

spoons of sugar and stir until it is dissolved.

Now leave this mixture for 3-5 days (NOT LONGER!!!). A foam or

crust will form showing that the fermentation has occurred and

the jelly has dissolved.

Rinse the seeds with large amounts of water.

Spread them out to dry in a cool

place and store in an airtight

container like a glass jar.

12Seed saving

DRYING SEEDLarge seeds need longer to dry than smaller seeds. A simple test for large seeds (such as

beans) is to try to bite one of the seeds. If no impression is made on the seed (tooth marks)

it is ready.

o You need to dry seeds away from the sun in a dry and breezy, airy place.

o In wet or cold weather, place seed on screens for fly netting and place them high up on racks in a warm room, such as the kitchen.

o Hang up small quantities in paper bags in a breezy spot.

o Lay larger quantities on screens or hang them up in hessian sacks. Do not use plastic bags.

STORING SEEDThe length of time that seed can be

stored depends on:

o The seed type;o The quality of the seed; and

o The storage conditions.

Storage conditions

Darkness

Find a way to keep the seeds in

darkness. Use paper bags, dark

coloured plastic and galls jars and place

them in cupboards. DO NOT place the

seeds on a shelf in clear glass jars.

Moisture

Even if the seeds are dry, if you store

them in a damp environment they will

absorb that moisture/water. This seriously affects how long your seeds will be viable. Mostly

we can only dry our seeds in the air. Do not dry them in the sun, but in a shady place where

the air can move (ventilated). When the weather is very wet with a lot of rain and mist, it will

be difficult to dry seeds, especially the larger ones, like

beans and peas.

The life of seed doubles when the moisture content is

lowered by 1%.

Most seed can be stored for a

period of 3-5 years and remain

viable. Viability is the ability of the

seed to germinate. Your seed may

look perfect, but if it is not viable, it

will not grow!

If you store your seed in hot, light

(sunny) and wet conditions they will

lose their viability very quickly. You

may even not be able to plant them in

the following season. They like cool,

dark and dry conditions to germinate.

13Seed saving

Temperature

Seeds last longer in cold, but not freezing conditions. Choose a cold place such as near a

river, under trees, under the ground or inside a clay jar.

The life of a seed doubles when the storage

temperature is lowered by 5°C.

PESTSStorage weevils, fungi and bacteria shorten the life of

seeds.

o Weevils begin to multiply when the moisture content gets high enough (10% or more). The eggs are laid inside the seed, under the seed coat, and the insects hatch from there.

o Storage fungi/ moulds begin to grow when the moisture content is high enough (around 13% or more) and bacteria start growing around (20% moisture). Mostly we cannot measure the moisture content of our seed. All we can do is keep our seed as dry as possible.

Materials that stop the growth of pests can be used:

o Dry ash: this absorbs moisture inside the container and also prevents the growth andincrease of weevils. Add ½ kilogram ash to 1 kilogram seed.

o Lime: can be used in the same way as dry ash. Mix 15 teaspoons (50 grams) with every kilogram of seed.

o Cooking oil: mix cooking oil with your seeds to prevent increase of weevils. Use only 1teaspoon of oil for every kilogram of seeds.

o Dried and powdered leaves of different aromatic plants: weevils are sensitive to aromatic or strong smelling plants. Try the following:

• CHILLI: mix 4-6 teaspoons of chilli powder with 1 kilogram of seed.

• WORMWOOD (MHLONYANE): Dry and crush the leaves and mix with seed. Use 4-6 teaspoons for every kilogram of seed.

• ALOE: As above.

Store your seeds in dry, clean,

airtight glass jars or other airtight

containers. AND LABEL THEM –

Give them names!! By next year

you will not remember what it was.

Seasonal Calendars

Seasonal calendars for traditional crops were developed with garden participants, 2011.

Project Name: Vukujule Mama (Manguzi - Umhlabuyalingana)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Peanuts 3 months

Cowpeas (big) 5 months

Jugobeans 3 months

Cassava 1 year

Sweet potatoes (white) 3 months

Taro (lomfula) 1 year

Mealies 3 months

Pumpkin 3 months

Amaphila 6 months

Sorghum 6 months

Phokwe 6 months

Cowpeas(ezincane) 3 months

Sweet potatoes (red) 6 months

Sweet potatoes (orange fleshed) 3 months

Beans 3 months

Potatoes

Projects Name: Phaphamani (Big 5, False Bay)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Peanuts3/4 months

Mealies 5 months

Jugobeans3/4 months

Umdumbulu 8 months

Sweet Potatoe 5 months

Izimbumba3/4 months

Beans5/6 months

Projects Name: Thandinhlabathi

(eDumbe)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Sweet Potatoe 3 months

Beans 3 months

Potatoes 3 months

Pumpkins 3 months

Jugobeans 6 months

Projects Name:Sibonangakho(eDumbe)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Jugobeans 2 months

Peanuts 3 months

Beans 2 months

Sweet potatoes3/4 months

Potatoes 4 months

Pumpkins2/3 months

Projects Name:Phumza (Harding)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Potatoes 4 months

Mealies 6 months

Taro 6 months

Beans 4 months

Peanuts 6 months

Jugobeans5/6 months

Projects Name:Thuthukani(Umuziwabantu)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Taro 9 months

Potatoes 3 months

Maize 5 months

Beans 2 months

Pumpkins4/5 months

Sweet potatoe 3 months

Imfe 5 months

Projects Name:Zimiseleni(Msunduzi)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Maize 6 months

Pumpkins 6 months

Beans 3 months

Potatoes4/5 months

Taro 6 months

Jugobeans 6 months

Sweet Potatoe10/12 months

Projects Name: Vukawenze(uMngeni)

Seasonal Calendar

Product

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Harvest Period

Zulu Pumpkin 3 months

Sweet potatoe 6 months

Taro 6 months

Potatoes3/4 months

Maize 3 months

Beans3/4 months

traditional foods - mahlathini.org · during the growing season. below is a table giving an...

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