TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques1.1. Statistical Process Control (SPC) Statistical Process Control (SPC) 2.2. Acceptance SamplingAcceptance Sampling3.3. ReliabilityReliability4.4. Design of Experiments (DOE)Design of Experiments (DOE)5.5. Taguchi’s Quality EngineeringTaguchi’s Quality Engineering6.6. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)7.7. Quality Function Deployment (QFD)Quality Function Deployment (QFD)8.8. ISO 9000ISO 90009.9. ISO 14000ISO 1400010.10. BenchmarkingBenchmarking11.11. Total Productive MaintenanceTotal Productive Maintenance12.12. Management and Planning ToolsManagement and Planning Tools13.13. Quality by DesignQuality by Design14.14. Information TechnologyInformation Technology

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROLSTATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL• A methodology for monitoring a process to A methodology for monitoring a process to

identify special causes of variation and signal identify special causes of variation and signal the need to take corrective action when the need to take corrective action when appropriate.appropriate.

Procedure in which dataProcedure in which data• Collection of DataCollection of Data – the measurement data from a – the measurement data from a

process is usually collected in small samples.process is usually collected in small samples.• Organization of DataOrganization of Data – the data is organized in – the data is organized in

tables, charts, and/or graphs.tables, charts, and/or graphs.• Analysis of DataAnalysis of Data – Average values are calculated and – Average values are calculated and

the spread of the data is determined.the spread of the data is determined.• Interpretation of DataInterpretation of Data – the graphs and charts are – the graphs and charts are

interpreted to determine if the process is acceptable interpreted to determine if the process is acceptable ((first checkfirst check: the process is in statistical control, : the process is in statistical control, second checksecond check: product meets the specifications).: product meets the specifications).

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROLSTATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

Process Inspection

Repair or Rework

Shipment

Scrap or Waste

Process Shipment

Inspected withSPC

Analyze

Improve

Detection Detection ModelModel

Prevention Prevention ModelModel

SPC GoalsSPC Goals1.1. Minimize production costsMinimize production costs: accomplished: accomplished with “with “make make

it right the first timeit right the first time” program, can eliminate costs ” program, can eliminate costs associated with making, finding, and repairing or associated with making, finding, and repairing or scrapping substandard products. scrapping substandard products.

2.2. Attain a consistency of products that will meet Attain a consistency of products that will meet production specifications and customer expectations.production specifications and customer expectations.

3.3. Create opportunities for all members of the Create opportunities for all members of the organization to contribute to quality improvement.organization to contribute to quality improvement.

4.4. Help both management and employee make Help both management and employee make economically sound decisions about actions affecting economically sound decisions about actions affecting the process.the process.

Basic Tools for SPCBasic Tools for SPC1. Pareto Chart 1. Pareto Chart 5. Scatter Diagram5. Scatter Diagram2.2. Cause-and-Effect Diagram Cause-and-Effect Diagram 6. Histogram6. Histogram3. Check Sheet3. Check Sheet 7. Control Chart7. Control Chart4. Process Flow Diagram4. Process Flow Diagram

PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESSPROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

Identify & Select Problem

Analyze Causes

Potential Solution

Select &Plan Solution

Implement Solution

EvaluateSolution

-Brainstorm-Define the Problem-Priorities-Set Boundaries-Flowchart

-Causes & Effect Diagram-Collect Data-Pareto-Histogram-Process Capability-Re-priorities

-Brainstorm-Benchmarking-Priorities

-Select Top Solution-Force Field Analysis-Solution Effect Diagram-Cost/Benefit Analysis-Implementation Plan-Ensure ‘Buy In’

-Project Management-Maintain Commitment-Ongoing Review

-Monitor Result-Control-Apply Elsewhere?-Start Again

PARETO DIAGRAMPARETO DIAGRAM

• A graph that ranks data classification in descending A graph that ranks data classification in descending order from left to right.order from left to right.

• Other possible data classifications are Other possible data classifications are quality areasquality areas, , inventoryinventory, , maintenancemaintenance, , safetysafety, etc. , etc.

• Sometimes necessary to combine some of the useful Sometimes necessary to combine some of the useful many into one classification called many into one classification called OtherOther and and labeled labeled OO in the figure. When the other category is in the figure. When the other category is use, it is use, it is always on the far rightalways on the far right..

• Used to Used to identify vital few that needs attentionidentify vital few that needs attention and and can compare ‘before’ and ‘after’ improvement effect can compare ‘before’ and ‘after’ improvement effect using Pareto.using Pareto.

• Pareto used to Pareto used to identify ‘vital few’ from 2 typesidentify ‘vital few’ from 2 types;;1. 1. PhenomenonPhenomenon is concern with undesirable results, is concern with undesirable results,

examples:examples:- - QualityQuality: defects, failures, warranty claims, rework : defects, failures, warranty claims, rework itemsitems- - DeliveryDelivery: late part delivery, stock shortages, poor : late part delivery, stock shortages, poor supplierssuppliers- - SafetySafety: accident types, breakdowns: accident types, breakdowns- - CostCost: amount of monetary loss, expenses: amount of monetary loss, expenses

2.2. CausesCauses is concern with causes in the process – to is concern with causes in the process – to find major causes of problemfind major causes of problem- - OperatorOperator: group, age, experience, individuals: group, age, experience, individuals- - MachinesMachines: types, brands, models: types, brands, models- - Raw MaterialRaw Material: batch, suppliers, lots, type: batch, suppliers, lots, type- - MethodMethod: different method : different method

• Different between Pareto and Histogram it’s Different between Pareto and Histogram it’s horizontal scalehorizontal scale of of Pareto is categoricalPareto is categorical, whereas the , whereas the scale for the scale for the histogram is numericalhistogram is numerical

Constructing a Pareto DiagramConstructing a Pareto Diagram1. Determine problem to be studied and method of collecting 1. Determine problem to be studied and method of collecting

datadata

2.2. Design data check sheet for data collection. Decide time Design data check sheet for data collection. Decide time period (e.g. 2 days study, 2 weeks, etc.)period (e.g. 2 days study, 2 weeks, etc.)

3.3. Collect data, fill in tally (check) mark and calculate totalsCollect data, fill in tally (check) mark and calculate totals

4.4. Make Pareto Summary Form. List individual items total, Make Pareto Summary Form. List individual items total, calculate;calculate;

- cumulative total- cumulative total

- percentage of total- percentage of total

- cumulative percentage- cumulative percentage

5.5. Draw two vertical axis.Draw two vertical axis.

- Left side: Mark from 0 to overall total- Left side: Mark from 0 to overall total

- Right side: Mark from 0 to 100%- Right side: Mark from 0 to 100%

- Label axis (e.g. no. of rejects)- Label axis (e.g. no. of rejects)

- Draw horizontal axis: Divide according to number of item- Draw horizontal axis: Divide according to number of item

classifiedclassified

Rank in decreasing order. Place others item last

6. Draw bars for each classification. Label each item 6. Draw bars for each classification. Label each item under the horizontal axisunder the horizontal axis

7.7. Draw the cumulative curve (line). Write cumulative Draw the cumulative curve (line). Write cumulative percentage at RHS of bar (if needed). Connect the percentage at RHS of bar (if needed). Connect the lineslines

8. Title graph, write source of data, the process, place 8. Title graph, write source of data, the process, place of investigation, total samples (data) collected and of investigation, total samples (data) collected and other infoother info

DEFECT DETECTEDDEFECT DETECTED NUMBER OF REJECTNUMBER OF REJECT

White SpotWhite Spot 55

No Clean-UpNo Clean-Up 11

Handling DamageHandling Damage 1818

OthersOthers 33

Grinder GritGrinder Grit 22

Centerless LinesCenterless Lines 99

Defect Data for Strut Rod Defect Data for Strut Rod RejectsRejects

PARETO DIAGRAMPARETO DIAGRAM

CAUSE-and-EFFECT CAUSE-and-EFFECT DIAGRAMDIAGRAM

• A picture composed of lines and symbols designed to A picture composed of lines and symbols designed to represent a meaningful relationship between an represent a meaningful relationship between an effect and its causes.effect and its causes.

• Used to investigate either a “bad” effect and to take Used to investigate either a “bad” effect and to take action to correct the causes or a “good” effect and to action to correct the causes or a “good” effect and to learn those causes responsible.learn those causes responsible.

• The The effecteffect is the quality characteristics that is the quality characteristics that needs needs improvementimprovement..

• CausesCauses are usually broken down into the are usually broken down into the major major causes of work methods, materials, machines, man’s, causes of work methods, materials, machines, man’s, environment, etc. environment, etc. Each major causes is further Each major causes is further subdivided into numerous minor causes.subdivided into numerous minor causes.

Basic Types of Cause-and-Effect DiagramBasic Types of Cause-and-Effect Diagram1. Cause Enumeration1. Cause Enumeration

-- most commonly used.most commonly used.- generally using five cause category.- generally using five cause category. (Man, Machine, Method, Material, Environment)(Man, Machine, Method, Material, Environment)

2.2. Production Process ClassificationProduction Process Classification- need to write each step of the process.- need to write each step of the process.- assembling, continuous process, etc.- assembling, continuous process, etc.- production processes.- production processes. (e.g. Raw material Cutting Welding (e.g. Raw material Cutting Welding Fitting/Assembling Finishing/Buffing Fitting/Assembling Finishing/Buffing Paint)Paint)- easy to construct, simple to understand.- easy to construct, simple to understand.- applicable to service processes as well.- applicable to service processes as well.

3.3. Dispersion AnalysisDispersion Analysis- different approach in construction of diagram.- different approach in construction of diagram.- each major branch is filled in completely before- each major branch is filled in completely before

starting work on any of the other branches.starting work on any of the other branches.- objective is to analyze the causes of variability or- objective is to analyze the causes of variability or

dispersion.dispersion.• The cause-and-effect diagram has nearly unlimited The cause-and-effect diagram has nearly unlimited

application in research, manufacturing, marketing, application in research, manufacturing, marketing, office operation, etc. office operation, etc.

The diagrams are useful in;The diagrams are useful in;• Analyzing actual condition for the purpose of product Analyzing actual condition for the purpose of product

quality improvement, more efficient use of resource , quality improvement, more efficient use of resource , and reduce costs.and reduce costs.

• Elimination of conditions causing nonconforming Elimination of conditions causing nonconforming product and customer complaints.product and customer complaints.

• Standardization of existing and proposed operations.Standardization of existing and proposed operations.• Education and training of personnel in decision-Education and training of personnel in decision-

making and corrective-action activities.making and corrective-action activities.

Procedure for Making Cause-and-Effect DiagramProcedure for Making Cause-and-Effect Diagram

1. Determine quality characteristic or quality problem to 1. Determine quality characteristic or quality problem to study.study.

2. Determine main factors or primary causes.2. Determine main factors or primary causes.

3. Determine secondary causes which affects primary 3. Determine secondary causes which affects primary causes and also ‘small bones’ which is affecting causes and also ‘small bones’ which is affecting secondary causes.secondary causes.

4. Assign importance level, mark particular factor that 4. Assign importance level, mark particular factor that may have significant effect for solving problem.may have significant effect for solving problem.

5. Write down important information (e.g. date, place, 5. Write down important information (e.g. date, place, members, department, etc.).members, department, etc.).

Figure 1: Cause-and-Effect Diagram

CHECK SHEETCHECK SHEET• To ensure that the data are collected carefully and To ensure that the data are collected carefully and

accurately by operating personnel for process control accurately by operating personnel for process control and problem solvingand problem solving

• Data should be presented in such a form that it can Data should be presented in such a form that it can be quickly and easily used and analyzedbe quickly and easily used and analyzed

• The form of the check sheet is individualized for each The form of the check sheet is individualized for each situation and is designed by the project team situation and is designed by the project team

• Check Sheet used to record data about a processCheck Sheet used to record data about a process• Purpose – easily collect and compile dataPurpose – easily collect and compile data

Types of Check SheetTypes of Check Sheet • Production Process Distribution Check SheetProduction Process Distribution Check Sheet• Defective Item Check SheetDefective Item Check Sheet• Defect Location Check SheetDefect Location Check Sheet• Defect Cause Check SheetDefect Cause Check Sheet

Production Process DistributionProduction Process DistributionCheck SheetCheck Sheet• To study distribution of a To study distribution of a

process characteristics valuesprocess characteristics values• To find variation of a measured To find variation of a measured

itemitem- example: variation in diameter - example: variation in diameter of rubber hoseof rubber hose

• Similar to a histogramSimilar to a histogram• Simple way to classify data Simple way to classify data

exactly at time of collectionexactly at time of collection• Prepared in advance. Symbols Prepared in advance. Symbols

(e.g. X) placed in a box each (e.g. X) placed in a box each time measurement madetime measurement made

• When stratification required on When stratification required on single sheet – use different single sheet – use different colour or symbol/markcolour or symbol/mark

Check Sheet for Production Process Distribution

Defective Item Check SheetDefective Item Check Sheet• To investigate total number To investigate total number

of different types of defects of different types of defects occurringoccurring

• Can give clue to where Can give clue to where improvements needed since improvements needed since it shows type of defect most it shows type of defect most frequentfrequent

• Incorporate stratification into Incorporate stratification into check sheet designcheck sheet design

(e.g. morning shift, evening (e.g. morning shift, evening shift, lines, machines, etc.)shift, lines, machines, etc.)

• Must understand how to Must understand how to record defects. Can have 2 record defects. Can have 2 or more defects in one or more defects in one defective partdefective part Defect Item Check Sheet

Defect Location Check SheetDefect Location Check Sheet• Visual or appearance factors Visual or appearance factors

affecting finishedaffecting finished• e.g. Scratches, dents, dirt e.g. Scratches, dents, dirt

spots, print defectspots, print defect• Need to know location of Need to know location of

occurrenceoccurrence• Defect location – sketch or Defect location – sketch or

expanded view of productexpanded view of product• Mark location to find pattern Mark location to find pattern

of defect occurrence of defect occurrence • Once location known – finding Once location known – finding

causes of defects is easiercauses of defects is easier• e.g. casting blowhole e.g. casting blowhole

positions, paints chipping, positions, paints chipping, dents, etc.dents, etc. Defect Location Check Sheet

Defect Cause Check SheetDefect Cause Check Sheet• Need stratification of data Need stratification of data

to find possible causes of to find possible causes of defectsdefects

• Understand type of defects Understand type of defects and possible causesand possible causes

- which machine ?- which machine ?

- which worker ?- which worker ?

- shift, time, day of week ?- shift, time, day of week ?• Can take countermeasures Can take countermeasures

immediatelyimmediately

Defect Cause Check Sheet

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMPROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM• A schematic diagram that shows the flow of the product or service A schematic diagram that shows the flow of the product or service

as it moves through the various processing stations or operationsas it moves through the various processing stations or operations• It easy to visualize the entire system, identify potential trouble It easy to visualize the entire system, identify potential trouble

spots, and locate control activitiesspots, and locate control activities• Improvements to the process can be accomplished by eliminating Improvements to the process can be accomplished by eliminating

steps, combining steps, or making frequently occurring steps steps, combining steps, or making frequently occurring steps more efficientmore efficient

Flow Chart for Buying a New Car

Flow Chart Symbol Definition

SCATTER DIAGRAMSCATTER DIAGRAM• A simplest way to determine if a A simplest way to determine if a

cause-and-effect relationship exists cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables is to plot a between two variables is to plot a scatter diagramscatter diagram

• Figure shows the relationship Figure shows the relationship between automotive speed and gas between automotive speed and gas mileagemileage

• Automotive speed is independent Automotive speed is independent variable and gas mileage it’s variable and gas mileage it’s dependent, or response, variabledependent, or response, variable

• e.g. cutting speed (independent) e.g. cutting speed (independent) and tool life (dependent), and tool life (dependent), temperature (independent) and temperature (independent) and viscosity (dependent)viscosity (dependent)

• The two variables can beThe two variables can be- a quality characteristics and an - a quality characteristics and an effecteffect- two related quality characteristics- two related quality characteristics- two different factors affecting one - two different factors affecting one

quality characteristicsquality characteristics

(a) - As x increase, y will tend to increase(a) - As x increase, y will tend to increase(b) - As x increase, y will tend to decrease(b) - As x increase, y will tend to decrease(c) - x has no relationship with y(c) - x has no relationship with y(d) and (e) - Possible relationship exist, as x increase y appears(d) and (e) - Possible relationship exist, as x increase y appears

to increase or as x increase y appears to decreaseto increase or as x increase y appears to decrease(f) – have a curvilinear relationship rather than a linear (f) – have a curvilinear relationship rather than a linear

Common Types of Scatter Diagram

HISTOGRAMHISTOGRAM• A bar graph with a measurement scale on one axis and a A bar graph with a measurement scale on one axis and a

frequency or percentage scale on the otherfrequency or percentage scale on the other• The adjacent bars share a common side and all bars are The adjacent bars share a common side and all bars are

of equal widthof equal width• A picture of a frequency distribution and is generally used A picture of a frequency distribution and is generally used

to show the distribution pattern of a large sample of datato show the distribution pattern of a large sample of data

Histogram for Hole Location

CONTROL CHARTSCONTROL CHARTS• Control charts are an outstanding technique for problem Control charts are an outstanding technique for problem

solving and the resulting quality improvementsolving and the resulting quality improvement• Quality improvement occurs in Quality improvement occurs in two situationstwo situations::1. First time using control charts usually the process is unstable. 1. First time using control charts usually the process is unstable.

As assignable causes for out-of-control conditions are identified As assignable causes for out-of-control conditions are identified and corrective action taken, the process becomes stable, with and corrective action taken, the process becomes stable, with a resulting quality improvementa resulting quality improvement

2.2. Concerns the testing or evaluation of ideas. Control charts are Concerns the testing or evaluation of ideas. Control charts are excellent decision makers because the pattern of the plotted excellent decision makers because the pattern of the plotted points will determine if the idea is a good one, poor one, or has points will determine if the idea is a good one, poor one, or has no effect on the processno effect on the process

X-Bar and R charts, showing Quality ImprovementControl Charts (X-Bar and R)

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques

Acceptance SamplingAcceptance Sampling• See Chapters 6See Chapters 6

ReliabilityReliability• See Chapter 7See Chapter 7

Design of Experiments (DOE)Design of Experiments (DOE)• Used to determine those variables in a process that Used to determine those variables in a process that

are critical and their target valuesare critical and their target values• Three approachesThree approaches

- Classical- Classical- Taguchi- Taguchi- Shainin- Shainin

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques

Taguchi’s Quality EngineeringTaguchi’s Quality Engineering• Loss function conceptLoss function concept• Concept of robustnessConcept of robustness

Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)• Combines technology and experience of people to Combines technology and experience of people to

identify failure modes and planning for its identify failure modes and planning for its eliminationelimination

• It is a “before-the-event actionIt is a “before-the-event action• Two types of FMEA-Design and ProcessTwo types of FMEA-Design and Process

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques

Quality Function Deployment (QFD)Quality Function Deployment (QFD)• Ensures accurate deployment of the “voice-of-the-Ensures accurate deployment of the “voice-of-the-

customer”customer”• Answers the following questions:Answers the following questions:

- What do customers want?- What do customers want?- Are all wants equally important?- Are all wants equally important?- Will delivering perceived needs yield a competitive- Will delivering perceived needs yield a competitive

advantage?advantage?- How can we change the product, service or - How can we change the product, service or process?process?- How does an engineering decision affect customer- How does an engineering decision affect customer

perception?perception?- Does an engineering change affect other technical- Does an engineering change affect other technical

descriptors?descriptors?- What is the relationship to parts deployment, - What is the relationship to parts deployment,

process planning, and production planning?process planning, and production planning?

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and TechniquesISO stands for International Organization for Standards.ISO stands for International Organization for Standards.

The 9000 series is a standardized Quality ManagementThe 9000 series is a standardized Quality Management

System (QMS). It consist in three standardsSystem (QMS). It consist in three standards• ISO 9000 covers fundamentals and vocabularyISO 9000 covers fundamentals and vocabulary• ISO 9001 is the requirementsISO 9001 is the requirements• ISO 9004 provides guidance for performance ISO 9004 provides guidance for performance

improvement improvement

• Benchmarking Benchmarking is a new way of doing business that is a new way of doing business that was developed by Xerox in 1979. The idea is to find was developed by Xerox in 1979. The idea is to find another company that is doing a particular process another company that is doing a particular process better than your company, and then, using that better than your company, and then, using that information to improve the process.information to improve the process.

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques

• Total Productive MaintenanceTotal Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a technique (TPM) is a technique that utilizes the entire work force to obtain the that utilizes the entire work force to obtain the optimum use of equipment.optimum use of equipment.

• The technical skills in TPM are: daily equipment The technical skills in TPM are: daily equipment checking, machine inspection, fine-tuning checking, machine inspection, fine-tuning machinery, lubrication, trouble-shooting, and repair.machinery, lubrication, trouble-shooting, and repair.

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and TechniquesManagement and Planning Tools (Chapter 8):Management and Planning Tools (Chapter 8):

1.1. Affinity diagram Affinity diagram

2.2. Interrelationship diagramInterrelationship diagram

3.3. Tree diagramTree diagram

4.4. Prioritization matricesPrioritization matrices

5.5. Matrix diagramMatrix diagram

6.6. Process decision program chartProcess decision program chart

7.7. Activity network diagramActivity network diagram

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques

• Quality by DesignQuality by Design is the practice of using a is the practice of using a multidisciplinary team to conduct product or service multidisciplinary team to conduct product or service conception, design, and production planning at one conception, design, and production planning at one time. time.

• The major benefits are faster product development, The major benefits are faster product development, shorter time to market, better quality, less work-in-shorter time to market, better quality, less work-in-process, fewer engineering change orders, and process, fewer engineering change orders, and increased productivityincreased productivity

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques

Product LiabilityProduct Liability

Consumers are initiating lawsuits in record numbers as Consumers are initiating lawsuits in record numbers as aa

result of injury, death, and property damage from faultyresult of injury, death, and property damage from faulty

product or service design of faulty workmanship.product or service design of faulty workmanship.

Reasons for injuries:Reasons for injuries:• Behavior or knowledge of a userBehavior or knowledge of a user• Environment where the product is usedEnvironment where the product is used• Whether or not the factory has designed and the Whether or not the factory has designed and the

product using safety analysis and quality controlproduct using safety analysis and quality control

TQM-Tools and TechniquesTQM-Tools and Techniques

• Information TechnologyInformation Technology is defined as computer is defined as computer technology (either hardware or software) for technology (either hardware or software) for processing and storing information, as well as processing and storing information, as well as communications technology for transmitting communications technology for transmitting information.information.