towards a distinctive body of knowledge for information ... etc.). 2 ... (1999) report that some...

Info Systems J

(2004)

14

313ndash342

copy 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

313

Blackwell Science LtdOxford UKISJInformation Systems Journal1350-1917Blackwell Publishing Ltd 200414

313342

Original Article

Towards a distinctive body of knowledge for Information Systems expertsJ Iivari et al

Towards a distinctive body of knowledge for Information Systems experts coding ISD process knowledge in two IS journals

Juhani Iivari Rudy Hirschheim

dagger

amp Heinz K Klein

Dagger

Department of Information Processing Science University of Oulu 90014 Oulun yliopisto Finland email juhaniiivarioulufi

dagger

Ourso College of Business Administration Louisiana State University Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA email rudylsuedu and

Dagger

Department of MIS Fox School of Business and Management Temple University Philadelphia PA 19122-6083 USA email kleinacmorg

Abstract

This paper introduces the idea of coding a practically relevant body ofknowledge (BoK) in Information Systems (IS) that could have major benefits for thefield In its main part the paper focuses on the question if and how an underlyingbody of action-oriented knowledge for IS experts could be distilled from the ISresearch literature For this purpose the paper identifies five knowledge areas asthe most important parts for an IS expertrsquos BoK Two of these are claimed as dis-tinct areas of competence for IS experts IS application knowledge and IS devel-opment (ISD) process knowledge The paper focuses particularly on ISD processknowledge because it allows the organizing of practically relevant IS knowledge inan action-oriented way The paper presents some evidence for the claim that aconsiderable body of practically relevant IS process knowledge might indeedexist but also notes that it is highly dispersed in the IS literature It then argues thatthe IS research community should take stock of this knowledge and organize it inan action-oriented way Based on results from prior work it proposes a four-levelhierarchical coding scheme for this purpose In order to test the idea of codingaction-oriented knowledge for IS experts the paper reports the results of a codedliterature analysis of ISD research articles published from 1996 to 2000 in twoleading IS journals ndash Information Systems Journal and MIS Quarterly The resultssuggest that ISD approaches form a useful framework for organizing practically rel-evant IS knowledge

Keywords

information system expert competence professionalization

1

INTRODUCTION

It is common for applied disciplines especially established ones to possess a body of knowl-edge (BoK) Applied disciplines such as Medicine Law Engineering and Accounting have

J Iivari et al


Information Systems Journal

14

313ndash342

314

established such a BoK which codifies the accumulated knowledge of the discipline Recentlythe Software Engineering (SE) community proposed a guide for a SE BoK (SWEBOK 2000)But what about the field of Information Systems (IS) Because it is widely accepted that IS isan applied discipline (Keen 1987 Benbasat amp Zmud 1999 Markus 1999) should the field nothave its own BoK There has been ndash at least to us ndash surprisingly little discussion about thenature and feasibility of a practically relevant BoK In this paper we propose that the conceptof a documented BoK supported by IS research is worth investigating in its own right for at leastthree important reasons

First

from a theoretical perspective it could revitalize the past discussion on the lack of a

cumulative tradition

in IS

1

Like other academic disciplines IS has been driven by the dynamicsof its own internal academic traditions In the 40-year or so history of the field significantgrowth can be observed For example with regard to research a pluralism of fundamentalphilosophical perspectives has emerged (ie multiple paradigms) which is accompanied by anever-growing sophistication of research methods The subject matter of IS research has sim-ilarly become rich and diverse Yet this diversity has led some to question whether IS researchhas any real accumulative tradition (Keen 1980 Wand amp Weber 1990 Benbasat amp Zmud1999) Given that pluralism has become the governing principle for most of our newly foundedresearch institutions the idea of cumulatively building on each otherrsquos results must not be sim-ply abandoned but recast in the context of different paradigmatic streams of research whichcan contribute to both the theory and practice of IS Surely if we are all interested in contributingto practice we as a research community have a clear need for crossndashparadigmatic interactionregardless of our philosophical biases The Banville amp Landry (1989) proposition that the com-munity structure of IS research resembles most closely that of a lsquofragmented adhocracyrsquo pointsto both the urgency and difficulties of maintaining a productive debate across the manyresearch subcommunities that have evolved in our field over the years The shared develop-ment of a practically relevant BoK could address one major crisis symptom in the field that isthe fragmentation of IS research (Hirschheim amp Klein 2003) through more boundary-spanningdebates across the fragmented adhocracy Such debates would stimulate the evolution of ter-minology for coding the practically relevant BoK The emerging coding system would tie theconcepts and principles of the relevant BoK to an ongoing practice in which we are all inter-ested regardless of our preferred academic vocabularies It should be noted that such a codingsystem when properly conceived would promote mutual understanding and coherence of thefield while avoiding dogmatic unification Such unification is undesirable because it entails theremoval of one of the pillars of the field ndash pluralism (Hirschheim amp Klein 2003)

1

Benbasat amp Zmud (1999) note the lack of a cumulative tradition as one key problem for the field identifying three reasons

for it First a multiplicity of theoretical frames exists for most phenomena studied in IS Second IS researchersscholars

have been reluctant to build on each otherrsquos work This is partly an outcome of the lack of a shared language Third

because of the proliferation of IS journals it is becoming harder and harder to locate and access the work of others This

paper attempts to promote the cumulative tradition in IS by suggesting a shared language (a coding scheme) for one par-

ticular area of IS expertsrsquo BoK

viz

ISD process knowledge The coding scheme makes it possible to organize findings

from different sources At the same time it respects the multiplicity of theoretical frames (ISD approaches) that can be

applied

Towards a distinctive body of knowledge for Information Systems experts



14

313ndash342

315

Second

a documented BoK is a necessary condition for IS to achieve a recognized statusas an applied discipline and eventually a profession Various definitions of professions allemphasize the existence of a recognized science-based BoK the mastering of which requiresthe combination of academic training with experiential supervised learning (articling medicalinternship etc)

2

As noted above the SE community worked on SE BoK (SWEBOK 2000) asa part of its effort to establish SE as a profession with associated education accreditation cer-tification and licensing practices It is beyond the scope of this paper to attempt to evaluate thedetails of the SWEBOK proposal Even though McConnell amp Tripp (1999) report that somestates in the USA and parts of Canada have started the licensing of professional softwareengineers it is an open question whether the professionalization project will succeed

3

How-ever the specification of the BoK need not be associated so closely with professionalizationand its related politics

Third

the documentation of a practically relevant BoK would be a very valuable resource forteaching regardless of whether one wishes to advocate institutionalized professionalization inthe future or not It would not only help to improve the processes by which practitioners buildand use IS but also improve the quality of IS experts and their clients through better profes-sionally guided education and training The BoK would help to guide the academic communityregarding what it should teach and to whom It could also help textbook writers do a better jobof summarizing IS research in a more meaningful fashion

In order to promote the idea of a BoK this paper has three principal purposes The

first

isto establish a working concept for what we mean by a BoK The

second

is to develop a pre-liminary way of testing whether IS research in principle has produced an

action-oriented BoK

that could inform practice if it was made more accessible By action-oriented knowledge wemean knowledge about alternative action options (eg knowledge of alternative ways of devel-oping IS) and knowledge explicitly linked to the action options for supporting effective action

4

The

third

is to clarify whether such a BoK exists or could exist that is in any way

distinct

toIS What we mean here is that the results of IS research do not just duplicate findings in someof its sister disciplines such as SE This will require us to carefully compare whether ISresearch has produced a BoK that is different from the SE BoK (cf SWEBOK 2000) Becauseof the complexity of these questions we cannot hope to define all aspects of a BoK in this sin-gle paper We expect that the full meaning of the concept of a BoK can only be establishedthrough widespread debate that has at best only recently started

2

Macdonald (1995 p 1) defines professions as lsquooccupations based on advanced or complex or esoteric or arcane

knowledgersquo Zwerman (1999 p 66) identifies the lsquoexclusive command of systematic esoteric BoK as the single most

important defining characteristic of professionalsrsquo and Abbott (1988) notes that lsquoDespite their substantive

differences all agreed that a profession was an occupational group with some special skill Usually this was an

abstract skill one that required extensive training It was not applied in a purely routine fashion but required revised appli-

cation case by casersquo (p 7)

3

Note however that ACM has taken a decision to

oppose

the licensing of software engineers considering it as premature

(Bagert amp Mead 2001) even in the context of safety-critical systems (Knight amp Leveson 2002) We believe that this oppo-

sition is more against the professionalization effort than the concept and content of SWEBOK itself

4

The idea of an action-oriented BoK is discussed in Section 2

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

316

For example according to the IS 2002 Model Curriculum (Gorgone

et al

2002) IS as anacademic discipline encompasses two broad areas (1) acquisition deployment and manage-ment of IT resources and services (the IS function) and (2) development operation and evo-lution of infrastructure and systems for use in organizational processes (system developmentsystem operation and system maintenance) Applying this distinction we shall limit ourselvesto a BoK for the latter that is systems development (but including operation and maintenance)for four reasons

First

we feel that the focus on IS development (ISD) is a good choice to testwhether the development of an action-oriented BoK is feasible because it has the longest his-tory in IS Since its emergence in the 60s (eg Langefors 1966 Rosove 1967 Blumenthal1969) the IS community has developed a considerable body of research literature related toinformation systems

Second

we contend that ISD forms a common theme across differenttypes of systems and related IS specializations

Third

we claim that the core of the work of ISexperts as practitioners is to develop and maintain information systems or to manage theirdevelopment and maintenance

Fourth

we suggest that ISD process knowledge allows one toorganize the practically relevant IS knowledge in an action-oriented way as will be demon-strated in Section 3

In order to indicate the broad focus of research on ISD we shall use lsquoIS expertrsquo or lsquoIS spe-cialistrsquo as general terms to refer to people with a deep understanding of information systemsand their development By lsquoIS developerrsquo we refer to the occupation of people developing infor-mation systems The work of lsquoIS expertsrsquo is not necessarily confined to ISD as they may alsoserve as managers administrators consultants educators and researchers IS experts mayalso work in the development of other computer artifacts such as embedded computer sys-tems which traditionally have not been viewed as information systems Conversely peoplewho are not experts in information systems may also develop information systems which istypically the case with end-user systems development Hence what we are concerned with inthis paper is a BoK that is at least in some aspects research-based and which could improvethe qualifications of IS experts to take effective action In our case we are concerned withactions that IS experts should take when striving to build high quality systems In short we referto this kind of knowledge as an

action-oriented BoK

that could inform practice if it was mademore accessible

In order to address the issues raised above the paper proceeds by answering the followingsix related research questions

What are the knowledge areas making up the body of knowledge for IS experts

As alluded to above there has been something of a parallel development in SE The ACMand IEEE Computer Society have proposed a joint project to define SE as a profession andproduced a guide for a SE BoK (SWEBOK 2000) The SWEBOK proposal notes 10 knowledgeareas software configuration management software construction software design softwareengineering infrastructure software engineering management software engineering processsoftware evaluation and maintenance software quality analysis software requirements anal-ysis and software testing We believe these knowledge areas are insufficient for IS expertsReflecting the broader focus of IS this paper proposes five knowledge areas that make up the




14

313ndash342

317

BoK for IS experts technical knowledge application domain knowledge organizational knowl-edge IS application knowledge and ISD process knowledge These will be explained in moredetail in Section 2

What are the distinctive knowledge areas of IS experts

When contrasted with related disciplines such as Computer Science SE and OrganizationalScience we suggest that two distinctive knowledge areas exist

IS application knowledge

and

ISD process knowledge

which will be elaborated in Section 2 An analysis of the 10 knowledgeareas listed in SWEBOK (2000) shows that they include little if any knowledge aboutapplications

The paper will select ISD process knowledge for a more detailed examination The choicereflects our desire to focus on the action-oriented knowledge implied by ISD process knowl-edge This focus leads to the additional question

What are the distinctive ISD process competencies of IS experts

In Section 22 we contend that the distinctive competence of IS experts lies in their (1)expertise of aligning IT artifacts with the organizational and social context in which the artifactis to be used (2) identifying and specifying the needs of people who are supposed to use thesystem (user requirements construction) (3) organizational implementation and (4) evalua-tionassessment of these artifacts and related changes SWEBOK ndash by large ndash ignores thesecompetences or treats them one-sidedly

In the case ISD process knowledge our interest also lies in how to structure such knowl-edge This leads us to our next research question

How can ISD process knowledge be organized

Section 3 proposes a coding scheme that is based on a comprehensive list of performanceand management processes in ISD (Andersen

et al

1990) ISD approaches (Iivari

et al

19982000ndash2001) are seen to provide alternative and complementary knowledge of how to conductthose processes The approaches provide multiple perspectives to ISD as called for by Ben-basat amp Zmud (1999) allowing the organizing of ISD process knowledge in a coherent mannerwithout forcing unnecessary lsquounificationrsquo (Hirschheim amp Klein 2003)

We pilot test the coding scheme in Section 4 by applying it to the analysis of 118 researcharticles selected from two leading IS journals ndash

Information Systems Journal (ISJ)

and

MISQuarterly (MISQ)

This pilot study allows us to give tentative answers to the following additionalquestion

How are the distinctive ISD competencies of IS experts addressed in the IS researchliterature

Benbasat amp Zmud (1999) point out that it is not enough that a research article addresses arelevant topic its implications should also be implementable They further suggest the need forsynthesizing the existing BoK and stimulating critical thinking Based on these we also attemptto evaluate

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

318

How implementable systematic and insightful is the ISD process knowledge emanating fromthe IS research literature

We will discuss these two latter questions in Section 4

2

INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

BODY

OF

KNOWLEDGE

21 Knowledge areas in information systems development

Articulating what could be the knowledge areas for IS experts is undoubtedly a controversialproposition It has been explored either implicitly or explicitly in numerous IS publications Per-haps the most visible attempts at articulating the knowledge areas for IS are the IS curriculumreports papers and books that have appeared over the past 30 years (cf ACM 1968 1979Nunamaker

et al

1982 Buckingham

et al

1987 Couger 1973 Gorgone

et al

1994 Couger

et al

1997 Gorgone

et al

2002) The most recent ones (Couger

et al

1997 Gorgone

et al

2002) suggest an IS BoK consisting of three major subject areas Information Technology Orga-nizational and Management Concepts and Theory and Development of Systems These are fur-ther divided into 29 sub-areas and into more than 400 knowledge elements (Davis

et al

1997)

5

Even though detailed these proposals for undergraduate level IS programs naturally focuson basic subject areas that an IS student should know and basic skills that he or she shouldmaster We see that an IS BoK is broader and deeper than the ones articulated in those cur-riculum proposals They also fail to identify and focus on distinctive knowledge areas of ISexperts For example about half of the detailed knowledge elements in the ISrsquo97 BoK concernInformation Technology Another weakness is that the curriculum proposals consider the knowl-edge areas without a clear conceptualization of the ontological domains to which they refer

In the following we propose five knowledge areas in the IS BoK founding them on five onto-logical domains depicted in Figure 1 The ontological domains are reified social constructionsthat exist independently of any individual perceptions of them

6

They represent the underlyingsocial constructions embodying ISD and concomitantly the intersubjective knowledge aboutthem The first three knowledge areas are adapted from Freeman (1987) who distinguishes

technology knowledge application domain knowledge

and

systems development processknowledge

Technology knowledge

refers to knowledge associated with understanding thetypes of hardware and software available and how and where they might be applied

Applica-tion domain knowledge

refers to knowledge about the application domain for which an infor-mation sytem is built For example in the case accounting information systems the applicationdomain knowledge relates to accounting concepts and principles

Systems development pro-

5

The term lsquoknowledge elementrsquo is misleading in the sense that lsquoknowledge elementsrsquo in ISrsquo97 are detailed subject areas for

pigeonholing detailed knowledge rather than knowledge elements of the IS BoK themselves This does not preclude one

from considering the classification of hierarchy of the three subject areas 29 sub-areas and more than 400 sub-sub-areas

to be part and parcel of the IS BoK

6

We refrain here from grounding these distinctions in the philosophical literature on alternative ontologies in the social sci-

ences but are most influenced by Habermasrsquos (1984) three world ontologies




14

313ndash342

319

cess knowledge

refers to the tools techniques methods approaches and principles used insystems development

To these three Jones amp Walsham (1992) would add a fourth

organizational knowledge

which they see as distinct from application domain knowledge Organizational knowledge isknowledge lsquoabout the social and economic processes in the organizational contexts in whichthe IS is to be developed and usedrsquo An important part of organizational knowledge is the workprocesses in the organizational context to be supported by the IS (cf Kuutti 1991 Alter 2001)These four types of knowledge appear to miss the knowledge of IS application systems There-fore we add a fifth category


This is the knowledge about typical ITapplications their structure functionality behavior and use in a given application domain Itincludes the knowledge of possibilities to support activities in the intra- and interorganizationalcontext by IS applications in a specific application domain To sum up we posit five knowledgeareas which correspond to five socially constructed ontological domains technical knowledgeapplication domain knowledge organizational knowledge IS application knowledge and ISDprocess knowledge

We do not assume that the five knowledge areas are completely independent but rather thateach area logically practically and historically can draw on more than one domain to createnew meanings For example one cannot meaningfully talk about the ISD process without someknowledge of IS applications nor about an IS application without some knowledge of an appli-cation domain From a practical viewpoint no IS application (eg a computer-based accountingcontrol system) could be developed without drawing on the inner four ontological domains (ISDprocess IS applications technology and applications domains) However systems develop-ment experts could differ dramatically in the degree to which they are able bring to bear knowl-edge about the organizational ontological domain with likely consequences for systemssuccess (Vitalari 1985 Mathiassen amp Purao 2002) During their historical evolution the fiveknowledge areas all have influenced each other For example the intra- and interorganizational

Figure 1

Illustration of the five ontological domains

Domain of Intra- and Inter-organizational Context

Domain of ISDevelopment

Processes

Domain of ISAppli-cations

Application Domains

TechnologyDomain

Produces

Implements Informs about

IS Developers Users

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320

context (eg globalization) and the application domain knowledge (eg business domains vsscientific-computing domains) all have influenced lsquotechnologyrsquo in Figure 1 (eg globalization ondata communication networks application domains on programming languages such asCOBOL and FORTRAN) Similarly technology has influenced the intra- and interorganizationalcontext knowledge (eg globalization and virtual and network organizations) Despite theseinterdependencies the ontological foundation of the five knowledge areas is relatively speak-ing the most stable conceptual foundation of the proposed knowledge categorization

To illustrate the knowledge areas and their differences Table 1 takes a specialized applica-tion area ndash oil exploration


embodies knowledge of typical IS appli-cations One application type of oil exploration is an information system that comprisesgeoscientific data about the oil fields to be explored In this case the

application domain knowl-edge

includes the geology geophysics and geochemistry of the oil fields This knowledge of thefield is quite different from the intraorganizational knowledge procedures of oil explorationeven though the raw data is produced by the oil exploration procedures (drilling chemical anal-yses etc)


refers to the technology that can be used to implement theIS application ndash computer hardware operating systems and other systems software data basepackages and other middleware etc

IS development process knowledge

covers knowledge of alternative ways of developing theIS application This can take place in-house this can be outsourced or this can be done usingapplication packages (such as ROCKWAREtrade httpwwwrockwarecom)

Organizational knowledge

refers to the business and work processes supported (lsquoauto-matedrsquo or lsquoinformatedrsquo) by the application (by the oil fieldrsquos information system) as well as otherorganizational processes such as organizational politics associated with the IS application andits development The organizational domain also covers human beings as actors (the usersdevelopers managers) involved in ISD and use Depending on the application domain someof the human beings may also belong as objects to the application domain (as in the case ofthe payroll system) Note that the organizational knowledge is not confined to the intraorga-nizational sphere but also covers interorganizational issues recognizing for example thatsome IS developers and users may reside outside the confines of the formal organization (eggovernment agencies who monitor oil exploration activity)

For some types of applications the differences between the five knowledge areas are quiteanalytical and not always so clear For example in managerial accounting it may be difficult to

Table 1

An example of the knowledge types for oil exploration in an oil company

Technology knowledge Computers operating systems peripherals telecommunication and security systems to

be used in the implementation of all application software for analysing data from oil

exploration activities

IS application knowledge Possible functionalities of application software used to record and model oil field data

Application domain knowledge The geology geophysics and geochemistry of potential oil fields

Organizational knowledge Oil exploration procedures the general organizational policies governing the oil

exploration performance monitoring rules organizational reporting structures

organizational politicsISD process knowledge In-house or outsourced application-package-based development (eg ROCKWAREtrade)




14

313ndash342

321

separate the application domain knowledge of accounting concepts and principles from theintraorganizational context knowledge of accounting work practices Nevertheless the distinc-tion does have practical relevance as can be seen through reusable domain models (Prieto-Diaz amp Arango 1991 Krueger 1992) and application packages (Sawyer 2000) Typically theapplication domain knowledge is not very organization-specific (cf organizational knowledge)because the same central concepts and principles of the application domain (eg geoscientificconcepts in the case of oil fields) can be identified in many organizations for example all com-panies engaging in oil exploration This lsquogeneralityrsquo of application domain knowledge naturallyexplains the success of generic application packages (such as ROCKWAREtrade) The integratedEnterprise Resource Planning application packages also remind us that an IS application maycover a number of application domains such as accounting production control HR customerrelationship management etc

When compared with the three knowledge areas in ICrsquo97 (Couger

et al

1997) it is clear thatapplication domain knowledge is missing in the ICrsquo97 list

7

In view of the variety of the appli-cation domains of IS this is understandable because it is impossible to teach the concepts ofall application domains On the other hand it is significant to keep in mind that applicationdomain knowledge has been found to be critical in software development (Curtis

et al

1988)Bacon amp Fitzgerald (2001) propose an alternative framework for the field of IS comprising

five interrelated areas Information and Communication Technology People and OrganizationIS Development Acquisition and Support Operations and Network Management and Infor-mation for Knowledge Work Customer Satisfaction and Business Performance

The first twocorrespond closely to the technical knowledge and organizational knowledge of our frameworkOur ISD process knowledge largely covers the next two areas Our IS application knowledgein the sense of application types is included in the IS Development Acquisition and Supportarea and e-commerce in the Information and Communication Technology area Applicationknowledge can be interpreted to be included in People and Organization area (especially typesof usage or industry) The area of lsquoInformation for Knowledge Work Customer Satisfaction andBusiness Performancersquo in Bacon amp Fitzgerald (2001) is an amalgam of several aspects Theseaspects are the nature of data information and knowledge (generic knowledge about IS appli-cations) use in organizations (organizational knowledge) humanndashcomputer interface (ISapplication knowledge) information relevance value and cost (ISD process knowledge ISevaluation) data quality (ISD process knowledge IS evaluation) knowledge management andorganizational learning (organizational knowledge)

8

22 Distinctive knowledge of IS experts

About half of the detailed knowledge elements in the ISrsquo97 BoK concern Information Technol-ogy This leads to the question of whether an IS BoK specification should reflect more those

7

Some application knowledge is included in one of the 12 sub-areas of Theory and Development of Systems (sub-area

Systems Development for Specific Types of Information Systems)

8

Other lsquoframeworksrsquo suggesting knowledge areas for the field can be found in Barki

et al

rsquos (1988) keyword classification

Swanson amp Ramillerrsquos (1993) study of what IS researchers write about and Culnanrsquos (1986 1987) co-citation analyses

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322

competence areas that are distinct for IS If so this leads to the additional question lsquoWhat isthe distinctive knowledge of IS experts

rsquo

It cannot be in the technical knowledge where expertsin Computer Science and SE are likely stronger Neither can it be in the application domainknowledge where people working in the application domain are likely more knowledgeable Itis the same situation with organizational knowledge The only remaining candidates are

ISapplication knowledge

and


Even though we suggest these two as dis-tinctive knowledge areas for IS experts we do not deny the significance of the remaining threein ISD On the contrary there can be no doubt about the importance of technical knowledgeand there is also ample evidence about the significance of application domain knowledge (Cur-tis

et al

1988) and organizational knowledge (Vitalari 1985 Mathiassen amp Purao 2002) How-ever the latter two are not

distinctive

for ISD expertsIn the following we will focus only on ISD process knowledge for two reasons First we

believe that the core of the work of IS experts as practitioners is to develop and maintain infor-mation systems or to manage their development and maintenance Second we suggest thatISD process knowledge allows the organizing of practically relevant IS knowledge in an action-oriented way as will be demonstrated in Section 3 Therefore much of the application knowl-edge could and should be linked with the ISD process in order to make it action-oriented Thisis why this paper takes the viewpoint that ISD process knowledge is central

9

Referring to ISD process knowledge we have previously (Iivari

et al

2001) claimed that thedistinctive competence of IS experts lies in their (1) expertise of

aligning IT artifacts

with theorganizational and social context in which the artifact is to be used (2) identifying and spec-ifying the needs of people who are supposed to use the system (

user requirements construc-tion

) (3) the

organizational implementation

and (4)

evaluationassessment

of these artifactsand related changes

10

We use the notion IT artifacts instead of traditional IS because manysoftware artifacts which are not considered traditional IS comprise more and more featuresthat resemble IS Consider for example an embedded computer system in a mobile telephoneAs the functionality of these systems expands the embedded software not only implementssome of the necessary functions of the telephone in contrast to hardware implementation butthe software provides a number of auxiliary services to users of the mobile phone The use-fulness of these auxiliary services can be assessed only against usersrsquo needs

1

The alignment of IS plans with organizational objectives ndash or more recently the converse ndashhas consistently been reported among the key concerns of IS managers and business exec-utives (eg Brancheau et al 1996) This is despite the concerns of Reich amp Benbasat (2000)

9To take an analogy with the medical profession we see the development and maintenance as the core of the work of IS

experts as the diagnosis and treatment of patients is the core of physicians To continue the analogy a physician may have

knowledge of a human being (and its organs) as biological physiological chemical psychological phenomena (applica-

tion knowledge) If he is not (effectively) able to link these knowledge constituents to the diagnosis and treatment of

patients (process knowledge) he is not able to apply the former knowledge in his work Hence action-oriented process

knowledge is critical10We make a distinction between the first two because organizational alignment and user requirements construction may

be quite distinct activities for example in an ISD project involving business process redesign or re-engineering


copy 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Information Systems Journal 14 313ndash342

323

who suggest that there is no comprehensive model for this lsquoalignmentrsquo construct It is beyondthe scope of this paper to discuss the concept in detail Our only point is that we interpret align-ment differently To us it reflects the lsquofitrsquo of an IT artifact (see Iivari 1992) an information systemor a software product with the organizational and social context of its use rather than the lsquofitrsquobetween IS plans and organizational objectives From our perspective the alignment of an ITartifact and its social context is usually a continuing process rather than a one-time decision asillustrated by Majchrzak et al (2000) Our major interest here lies in the process of aligningThere is a rich body of literature within IS that addresses the issue of making an informationsystem lsquofitrsquo its organizational and social context (Iivari et al 1998) Moreover one can observethat the issue of IS alignment is ignored in the SE tradition2 Requirements construction continues to be the major bottleneck in ISD It is of courseone of the knowledge areas in SWEBOK (2000) It is beyond the scope of this paper to explorehow requirements construction is understood in various communities We only wish to empha-size the richness of approaches to requirements construction identifiable in the IS and SEcommunities (Jayaratna 1994 Jirotka amp Goguen 1994 Iivari amp Hirschheim 1996 Kotonya ampSommerville 1998)3 Organizational implementation refers to the implementation research tradition in IS Theproblem of organizational implementation is totally neglected in SWEBOK despite the factthat organizational implementation is often problematic (Alter amp Ginzberg 1978 Keen 1981Swanson 1988)4 Evaluationassessment of IT artifacts refers to the formal and informal evaluation of infor-mation technology artifacts andor IS projects This too is largely ignored in SWEBOK eventhough it is an area richly explored by the IS field (Bjoslashrn-Andersen amp Davis 1988 Delone ampMcLean 1992 Farbey et al 1993 Smithson amp Hirschheim 1998)

The above working definitions support our contention that the distinctive feature of ISD meth-ods and approaches when compared with SE methods is that they handle or at least recog-nize the organizational alignment process We identified a number of ISD approaches andtraditions with their numerous method instances that explicitly or implicitly address the orga-nizational alignment of IS (Iivari et al 1998) We therefore conclude that ISD approaches andmethods provide an action-oriented framework for condensing and packaging the IS commu-nityrsquos collective understanding of organizational alignment (as defined above) and require-ments construction

3 A CODING SCHEME FOR ISD PROCESS KNOWLEDGE

31 A framework for ISD process knowledge

The extensive IS literature suggests that the IS community during its 40 years or so of historyhas developed a considerable BoK concerning the process of ISD Much of this knowledgeconcerns ISD methods techniques tools and approaches On the other hand one wouldexpect that IS research has also distilled more substantive recommendations concerning the

J Iivari et al


324

ISD process These findings typically concern specific aspects that should be taken into con-sideration when building an IS The following are three simple examples (a) lsquoWhen marketingIT and when considering its effects managers should consider the gender of their users noless than their ethnicityrsquo (Gefen amp Straub 1997) (b) lsquoTrainers may wish to emphasize use-fulness issues for men while offering women a more balanced analysis that includes produc-tivity aspects process issues and testimonials from peers and superiorsrsquo (Venkatesh amp Morris2000) (c) lsquoCTs should be designed to allow changes in any initial coordination protocols as theteamrsquos relationships and understandings evolversquo (Majchrzak et al 2000)

One obvious problem of taking stock of the existing ISD process knowledge is a properknowledge representation scheme The simple textual representation of the BoK as in SWE-BOK (2000) may not be the best way of illustrating the complexity of the BoK The represen-tation problem is more acute in IS because of the very large number of ISD methods Eventhough the variety of ISD methods may be condensed into a more reasonable number of ISDapproaches it is clear that one cannot expect one canonical ISD approach in IS One reasonis the variety of information systems to be developed On the other hand it is also clear thatdifferent ISD approaches also share many features Therefore in the following two subsectionswe will outline a two dimensional framework for ISD process knowledge representation Onedimension consists of a list of ISD performance and management processes (Andersen et al1990) The other dimension consists of the hierarchy of ISD techniques methods approachesand paradigms taken from Iivari et al (2000ndash2001) and briefly summarized in subsection 33Our rationale is based on the idea that ISD techniques methods and approaches provide moreor less comprehensive support for the process of ISD11

The purpose of this section is to sketch some basic ideas suggesting how an inventory ofISD process knowledge could be extracted from the IS literature and documented in a conciseand precise format The framework will be pilot tested in Section 4

32 ISD processes

Andersen et al (1990) proposes a method-independent view of the ISD process that distin-guishes product-oriented and process-oriented views of systems development They call theproduct-oriented view lsquosystems development performancersquo and the process-oriented view lsquosys-tems development managementrsquo Based on this distinction Table 2 lists a number of ISD per-formance processes and ISD management processes The initial list of ISD performance andmanagement processes derived from the extant literature was modified based on the results ofour analysis which is described in Section 4 Admittedly the list is incomplete

As most of the processes in Table 2 are sufficiently self-explanatory we will only discussthose that may require some explanation Supplier management refers to the selection con-tracting cooperation and other relationships with possible vendors of required hardware andor software possible subcontractors responsible of the outsourced development of some parts

11Of course this is only a working assumption acceptable for a pilot study to demonstrate the concept of a codable BoK

For a truly practically relevant BoK only those ISD techniques methods approaches and paradigms should be included

for which there is some corroborating evidence that they are indeed judged useful by knowledgeable practitioners



325

of the system and possible consultants providing knowledge and expertise required in the ISDprocess Methodology management refers to the selection tailoring use and evaluation ofappropriate tools techniques methods approaches and paradigms in the ISD process Per-formance management includes scheduling and budgeting ISD performance and ISD man-agement processes controlling that they are performed according to schedules and budgetsand in the case of deviations taking corrective actions

33 ISD approaches

Elsewhere (Iivari et al 2000ndash2001) we introduced a four-tiered framework for ISD processknowledge It distinguishes ISD techniques methods approaches and paradigms Paradigmsrelate to the basic philosophical assumptions that guide our interpretation of reality Approachesembody a set of related features that drive interpretations and actions in ISD They are inter-preted as a class of specific ISD methods that share a number of common features Methodswithin an approach share similar goals guiding principles fundamental concepts and principlesof the ISD process (Iivari et al 1998) The fundamental concepts of an approach may empha-size processes (such as Structured Analysis and Design) data (Information Modeling) objects(Object-Oriented) and others alike Principles of the ISD process cover alternative processmodels such as the liner waterfall prototyping evolutionary development spiral models etc

An ISD method is interpreted as an organized collection of concepts techniques beliefs val-ues and normative principles supported by material resources A technique consists of a well-defined sequence of elementary operations that more or less guarantee the achievement ofcertain outcomes if executed correctly The framework includes an inheritance structure inwhich each ISD approach inherits the paradigmatic assumptions of the paradigm it representsSimilarly each ISD method inherits the features of the ISD approach (including its goals guid-ing principles and beliefs fundamental concepts and principles of the ISD process) and theparadigmatic assumptions of the paradigm it represents indirectly through the ISD approach to

Table 2 ISD processes

ISD performance processes ISD management processes

Organizational alignment Project organizing

Requirements construction Supplier management

User interface design People management

Architectural design Methodology management

Database design Risk management

Software design Performance management

Design of user support systems (eg HELP) Software configuration management

Design of system controls and monitors Quality assurance

IS testing

IS implementation and acceptance

IS evaluation

(IS use)IS maintenance and evolution

J Iivari et al


326

which it belongs In sum paradigms may be concretized into approaches and approaches intomethods with constituent techniques Techniques are the most detailed and elementary itemsof process knowledge They can be incorporated into more than just one ISD method Figure 2illustrates the resultant structure

Mathiassen (1981) points out that each systems development method has a more or lesslimited area of application Generalizing this idea we divide ISD approaches into applicationarea-independent and application area-dependent The application area-dependentapproaches are confined to a special application area such as transaction processing systemsdecision support systems groupware systems interorganizational systems etc The applica-tion area-independent approaches on the other hand are general in the sense that they arenot confined to any special application category but are applicable to any application area Inour previous works (Iivari 1991 Iivari et al 1998) we identified 11 ISD approaches 10 ofwhich (ie Structured Analysis amp Design Information Modeling Socio-Technical Design Info-logical ObjectndashOriented Interactionist Speech Act-based Soft Systems Methodology Pro-fessional Work Practice and Trade Unionist) are application area-independent ISD approachesThe Decision Support Systems approach was the only application area-dependent ISDapproach identified in Iivari et al (1998 2000ndash2001) It was recognized that the list of ISDapproaches identified in these papers was not exhaustive As emphasized in Iivari et al (2000ndash2001) the framework is dynamic allowing the incorporation of new methods and approachesFor example Figure 2 includes (for illustration purposes) two more recent ISD (or softwaredevelopment) approaches open source development (Feller amp Fitzgerald 2002) and agiledevelopment (Abrahamsson et al 2003) with associated methods such as XP (Beck 2000)and DSDM (Stapleton 1997) in the case of the agile approach12 Based on our literature anal-ysis in Section 4 we will also extend the framework to comprise the development of groupwaresystems interorganizational information systems knowledge management support systemsand geographical information systems to name just a few

We believe that our framework of ISD paradigms approaches methods and techniques is anISD knowledge representation scheme that allows us to classify and understand the myriad ISDmethods proposed in the literature As described in Iivari et al (2001) the framework is alsodynamic allowing easy incorporation of new methods and approaches This is important as vonKrogh amp Roos (1996) propose scalability as a significant property of an effective knowledgecoding structure The resultant knowledge structure should resemble a classification tree thatallows us to make finer and finer distinctions The framework in Figure 2 allows for a gradualconcretization of ISD process knowledge Paradigms may be concretized into approaches andapproaches into methods with constituent techniques On the other hand our framework formsonly a skeleton for action-oriented ISD process knowledge It can however be supplementedwith a number of other components of ISD process knowledge These may include referencesto facts (eg about the applicability of a specific technique or method to a specific problemto be associated with the respective technique or method in Figure 2) case histories (eg

12According to Abrahamsson et al (2003) Rapid Application Development (RAD) can be considered an antecedent of the

Agile approach if not an agile method as such



327

Figure 2 Hierarchy of ISD paradigms approaches methods and techniques

A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques

Relationships BetweenTechniquesDetailed ISD Process

GoalsGuding PrinciplesFundamental ConceptsPrinciples of the ISD Process

Detailed ConceptsNotations

Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328

successful cases of an application of specific methods and approaches to be associated witha particular method or approach in Figure 2) theories (underlying techniques methodsapproaches and paradigms) comparisons of ISD techniques methods approaches andparadigms (to be associated with the classes of lsquoISD techniquesrsquo lsquoISD methodsrsquo lsquoISDapproachesrsquo and lsquoISD paradigmsrsquo in Figure 2 depending on the units of comparison) As anexample consider the case of failed ISD projects Even though published cases of failed ISDprojects do exist they have not been systematically catalogued to the best of our knowledgeTheir linking with the existing knowledge structure of paradigms approaches methods andtechniques might yield important new insights that could help us avoid repeating similar prob-lems in the future (those who do not know the errors of the past are condemned to repeat themas Satayana might say)

34 The coding scheme

The resultant coding scheme of ISD process knowledge forms a hierarchy of concepts as illus-trated in Figure 3 ISD process knowledge is interpreted to concern ISD performance and man-agement processes summarized in Table 2 ISD approaches in Figure 3 as a conceptcorrespond to ISD approaches in Figure 2 The exact list of ISD approaches identified in theanalysis of articles in ISJ and MISQ are listed in Tables 3 and 4 ISD approaches (with theirassociated methods and techniques) are viewed to provide knowledge (tools techniques rec-ommendations ideas etc) to conduct or guide those processes The knowledge provided bydifferent approaches may be complementary (eg Structured Analysis and Design vs Socio-Technical Design) alternative (eg Structured Analysis and Design vs Object-Oriented Anal-ysis and Design) or conflicting

The framework focuses only on the level of ISD approaches in Figure 2 There are two rea-sons for this First we believe that the concept of lsquoISD approachesrsquo makes it possible to con-dense the myriad of ISD methods (over 1000 according to Jayaratna (1994) and Avison ampFitzgerald (1995)) to a meaningful number (20ndash30 estimated by Iivari et al 1998) Second theunderlying paradigms of different ISD approaches have been analysed in a number of earlierpublications (Hirschheim amp Klein 1989 Iivari 1991 Hirschheim et al 1995 Iivari et al 19982000ndash2001) It is unnecessary to repeat these analyses in this paper

One should note that any BoK should not be static This is particularly true in the case of ISwhere new application areas may require new ISD approaches Therefore we do not proposethe coding scheme of Figure 3 as a fixed structure rather it can be extended and revised whenour understanding of ISD process knowledge advances Moreover new ISD approaches maybe inserted in the framework and the list of ISD performance and management processes sup-ported by ISD approaches may similarly be revised

4 A PILOT STUDY OF CODING ISD PROCESS KNOWLEDGE

This section outlines a pilot study for a body of ISD process knowledge extraction as a pre-liminarily lsquoproof of conceptrsquo test that our framework for ISD process knowledge is viable and



329

Figure 3 The coding scheme

ISD Process Knowledge

ISD Processes (Table 2)

ISD Approaches(Figure 2)

Provide alternative and com-plementary knowledge toconduct ISD processes

ISD PerformanceProcesses

ISD ManagementProcesses

Application Area- independent

Application Area- dependent

Organizational AlignmentRequirements ConstructionhellipIS MaintenanceEvolution (Table 3 and 4)

Project OrganizingSupplier ManagementhellipQuality Assurance (Table 3 and 4)

Structured AnalysisObject-oriented hellipSoft Systems (Table 3 and 4)

Decision Support Systems Groupware ApplicationshellipInterorganizationalInformation Systems

(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology

does in fact manifest itself in the IS research literature We conducted a pilot study to take stockof ISD process knowledge in the articles published in ISJ and MISQ between 1996 and 2000These two journals were chosen to represent the suspected differences between Europeanand North American journals We selected the years 1996ndash2000 for this pilot literature surveyand analysis simply because we felt 5 years was a reasonable base to test the workability ofour coding scheme and to draw some preliminary conclusions We decided to focus on thepractical implications of the articles in ISJ and MISQ from the viewpoint of ISD

Because of our focus we excluded articles that discuss research methods in IS articles on themanagement of an IS department or function (which we interpreted to be organizational knowl-edge) and so on We looked at each full article in MISQ and ISJ to determine if there was any-thing in the article that related to ISD process knowledge If so we included it in our sample to beanalysed This procedure led to a lsquosamplersquo of 61 articles from ISJ and 57 articles from MISQ

To simplify the analysis and the representation of the results we mapped the articles into atwo-dimensional table where ISD performance and management processes (see Table 2) con-stituted the rows and ISD approaches (see Iivari et al 2000ndash2001) the columns13 During the13As a special column we included lsquoGeneralrsquo to refer to ISD process knowledge that is not specific to any ISD approach or

type of a system to be developed It is knowledge associated with lsquoISD approachesrsquo in Figure 2 assuming that it is at least

potentially common to all specific ISD approaches

J Iivari et al


330

analysis we inductively inserted new candidates for ISD approaches (or more likely families ofISD approaches) such as Business Process ReengineeringRedesign Groupware SystemsEnd User Computing Systems Knowledge Management Systems and Inter-OrganizationalInformation Systems We did this without any formal detailed analysis of the goals guiding prin-ciples fundamental concepts and principles of the ISD process of these candidate ISDapproaches (see Iivari et al 1998) Yet we felt comfortable that these candidate ISDapproaches would fit within the four-tiered framework

The idea behind the analysis was to focus on the practical implications of the articles fromthe viewpoint of ISD However it turned out that the articles in ISJ reported such implicationsrather weakly Therefore in the case of ISJ we decided simply to map the articles after a lsquoholis-ticrsquo reading in the resultant framework to test its usefulness Table 3 summarizes the results interms of number of references addressing ISD performance and management processes fromthe viewpoint of the identified ISD approaches14

Table 3 shows that ISJ is quite rich in the variety of ISD approaches discussed In additionto the category lsquoGeneralrsquo we identified 14 specific ISD approaches These are Business Pro-cess Reengineering (BPR) Structured Analysis and Design (SASD) Information Modeling(IM) Object-Oriented (OO) Socio-Technical Design (STD) Soft Systems Methodology (SSM)Decision Support Systems (DSS) Groupware (GW) Speech ActLanguage Action-based (SALA) End User Computing (EUC) Knowledge Based Systems (KBS) Inter-organizational Infor-mation Systems (IOS) Critical Social Theory-based (CST) and Intranets

Articles in MISQ on the other hand described their practical implications relatively well Inaddition to the practical implications reported by the authors of the MISQ articles we alsomade use of the executive overviews of the articles Appendix A presents some examples ofhow we coded the articles

Table 4 summarizes the results in terms of the number of references addressing ISD per-formance and management processes from the viewpoint of the identified ISD approaches Itshows that MISQ is more limited in the number of ISD approaches discussed (we identifiedonly seven approaches) Much of the research published in MISQ seems to be more lsquogeneralrsquoin the sense that it is not specific to any ISD development approach or type of system to bedeveloped On the other hand MISQ is richer in addressing the diversity of ISD processes

5 DISCUSSION

At the outset this paper set six research questions

1 What are the knowledge areas of the BoK for IS experts2 What are distinctive knowledge areas of IS experts3 What are the distinctive ISD process competencies of IS experts

14Because same reference may be included in several cells in Table 3 the sum of numbers in Table 3 is greater than 61

(the number of ISJ articles analysed)



331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332

4 How can ISD process knowledge be organized5 How are the distinctive ISD competencies of IS experts addressed in the IS researchliterature6 How implementable systematic and insightful is the ISD process knowledge absorbablefrom the IS research literature

The paper proposes five knowledge areas technical knowledge application domain knowl-edge organizational knowledge IS application knowledge and ISD process knowledge Aftercontrasting them with the sister and reference disciplines of IS two of these ndash IS applicationknowledge and ISD process knowledge ndash were identified as distinctive The subsequent anal-ysis was focused on ISD process knowledge emphasizing its practical relevance as action-oriented knowledge In the case of ISD process knowledge the paper identified four distinctiveISD competences of IS experts expertise of organizational aligning IT artifacts user require-ments construction organizational implementation and evaluationassessment of these arti-facts and related changes

The paper also proposed a coding scheme that is based on a comprehensive list of perfor-mance and management processes in ISD (Andersen et al 1990) and ISD approaches (Iivariet al 1998 2000ndash2001) ISD processes were seen to provide alternative and complementaryknowledge of how to conduct those processes The pilot study comprising 61 articles from ISJand 57 articles from MISQ shows that the knowledge representation framework for ISD

Table 4 The number of references in MISQ articles 1996ndash2000

Process General BPR DSSEIS GW EUC KMSKBS IOS GIS S

Organizational alignment 3 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 18

Requirements construction 2 1 1 2 1 2 9

User interface design 2 1 3

Architectural design 0

Database design 1 1 2

Software design 1 1

Design of user support system 2 1 1 1 5

Design of system controls and monitors 2 1 3

IS testing 1 1

IS implementation and acceptance 1 2 3 6 1 2 1 16

IS evaluation 3 1 2 1 2 1 10

IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12

IS maintenance and evolution 2 2 1 5

Project organizing 7 2 9

Supplier management 0

People management 10 1 1 12

Method management 3 2 5

Risk management 6 1 7

Performance management 3 2 1 6

Software configuration management 0Quality assurance 2 2



333

process knowledge based on ISD performance and management processes and ISDapproaches is a rich one allowing us to map much of the practical implications of current ISresearch and to represent it in a compact yet understandable way15 Even though not analysedin the paper this supports our assumption that a hierarchy of techniques methodsapproaches and paradigms combined with specific ISD performance and management pro-cesses might provide a convenient knowledge representation framework for ISD processknowledge This is true not only for ISD methodology knowledge but also for its associatedsubstantive knowledge

The pilot study also provides support for our conjecture that organizational aligning IT arti-facts user requirements construction organizational implementation and IS evaluationassessment form distinctive ISD competencies of IS experts Organizational alignment wasmost addressed in both journals (27 hits in ISJ and 18 in MISQ) Requirements constructionwas the third most popular in ISJ (19 hits) but considerably less in MISQ (9 hits) IS imple-mentation and acceptance was the second most popular in MISQ (16 hits) and fourth mostpopular in ISJ (11 hits) IS evaluation was the fifth most addressed topic in MISQ and sharedsixth in ISJ even though the number of hits in both journals was considerably lower than in thecase of the previous three competencies (four hits in ISJ and 10 in MISQ) On the other handTables 3 and 4 suggest weak attention to user interface design architectural design databasedesign and software design Of course one could argue that there are special journals thatfocus on these issues and hence they should not be dealt with in ISJ or MISQ At the sametime as far as ISJ and MISQ represent IS journals more generally this neglect of centraldesign issues is worrisome because it may create among practitioners an impression of lowpractical relevance of IS research

The pilot study also makes it possible to identify differences in the profiles of the two journalsISJ clearly displays a wider array of ISD approaches (14 approaches) than MISQ (7approaches) All seven approaches in MISQ except GIS are covered by ISJ It is an openresearch question whether this difference in the variety of ISD approaches can be attributed todifferences in the European and North American IS research traditions On the other handMISQ seems to cover slightly more ISD processes (ISJ has four processes with nine or morehits whereas MISQ has seven)

Our final research question was how implementable systematic and insightful ISD processknowledge was in the two journals Whilst it is difficult to make a generalized statement on thispoint the recommendations appearing in the MISQ articles do seem to be implementable thatis prescribed in a manner that could be put to use (Benbasat amp Zmud 1999) But the samecannot be said regarding systematicity Coding the MISQ and ISJ articles leads to the impres-sion that the practical implications are somewhat fragmented It is difficult to see cumulativetrends in them Even though the fragmentation may partly be an outcome of our detailed ana-lytical framework it is consistent with earlier assessment of the IS discipline (Banville amp Landry

15We can imagine the development of a hypertext-based repository system that allows rich linking of the knowledge com-

ponents and elements It is however beyond the scope of the present paper to discuss the structure of this knowledge

repository in more detail

J Iivari et al


334

1989) One reason for the fragmentation may be that the existing research appears not to bedriven by lsquoholesrsquo in our understanding of the practical implications Instead the practical impli-cations are typically reported mostly as afterthoughts of the research Thus we advocate asystematic analysis of the practical implications of all IS research This might help to identifythe lsquoholesrsquo and direct future research to answer the practically relevant questions identified (ieto lsquofill the holesrsquo) In the case of insightfulness we expected to find a stronger and more sys-tematic body of practical implications from the IS research articles but our impression is oneof disappointment There is a distinct lack of substantive practical implications ndash no sensationof lsquoahaarsquo when reading them This leads us to wonder whether IS researchers have beenunnecessarily modest in drawing practical implications from their work or whether theirresearch has emphasized more rigor over relevance Whatever the reason we believe this tobe a major problem for the field

6 CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL COMMENTS

This paper has attempted to establish a foundation for a building a cumulative IS BoK In linewith Benbasat amp Zmud (1999) we see this as essential for an applied discipline such as IS Weinterpret BoK quite broadly in that it is knowledge of the relevant phenomena associated withsome activity such as IS development It comprises facts rules techniques case histories(cases) stories (and narratives) theories hypotheses philosophies metaphors etc (Iivari ampLinger 1999) By knowledge we refer to lsquoa set of organized statements of facts or ideaspresenting a reasoned judgment or an experimental result which is transmitted to othersthrough some communication medium or in some systematic formrsquo (Bell 1976 p 175)

We do not expect that the IS BoK will ever be as systematic as in the natural sciences med-icine or engineering Despite the limitations caused by the nature of IS as a behavioural ratherthan a purely technical discipline we see the progress towards a more systematic BoK as areasonable objective especially if the alternative objective is to do nothing to systematize ISresearch findings

The most significant contribution of this paper is a proposal for how a more systematic BoKcould be built to promote the practical relevance of IS research The paper advocates anaction-oriented organization of BoK to support the development and maintenance of IS andtheir management The paper proposed that the framework of ISD paradigms ISDapproaches ISD methods and ISD techniques might provide a skeleton for organizing the find-ings of IS research in an action-oriented way so that the findings are linked to IS and theirdevelopment maintenance and management processes ISD approaches were viewed ascentral in this coding as a means to condense ISD process knowledge in a reasonable numberof approaches when compared with ISD methods At the same time ISD approaches allow fora diversity of ISD research

The coding scheme was pilot tested at the level of approaches by coding 118 articles fromISJ and MISQ using a two-dimensional framework that on the one hand consisted of a set ofIS performance and management processes and on the other hand ISD approaches The pilot



335

test offered promising results suggesting that the coding scheme is worthy of continued andwider experimentation At the same time the results showed some interesting differencesbetween two leading European and North-American journals

The paper has a number of research implications that can be crystallized into four points

1 The body of knowledge of IS experts should be specified and documentedThis paper proposed five knowledge areas technical knowledge application domain knowl-

edge organizational knowledge application knowledge and ISD process knowledgeAlthough this paper has specifically focused on ISD process knowledge claiming that ISD pro-cess knowledge provides a natural way to organize the ISD BoK in an action-oriented way thisdoes not mean the other four knowledge areas are somehow less important Indeed the fiveknowledge areas taken together explain the variety of ISD approaches identified in Section 4(another major factor is the alternative paradigmatic assumptions of different ISD approachescf Hirschheim et al 1995 Iivari et al 1998) Some of the approaches primarily reflect theorganizational domain of IS (most notably STD and BPR) some the application domain (IMmost notably) some the technology domain (OO most notably) and many approaches reflectthe type of application (DSSEIS Groupware KMSKBS IOS GIS) The multitude of ISDapproaches and methods additionally complicates the formulation of an ISD process BoK

In order to pilot test the coding scheme and to obtain a first impression of the existing ISDprocess knowledge the paper analysed the articles published in ISJ and MISQ between 1996and 2000 focusing especially on the practical implications reported in the articles Despite itslimitations the detailed analysis of the practical implications reported in MISQ casts doubtabout the existence of a considerable body of ISD process knowledge relevant to practitionersndash especially scientifically validated knowledge This may provide an explanation for lsquoThe dwin-dling interest by industry practitioners in research published in ldquotop-tierrdquo IS journalsrsquo noted bythe panel on lsquoIS Research Relevance Revisited Subtle Accomplishment Unfulfilled Promiseor Serial Hypocrisyrsquo and subsequently published in CAIS (Kock et al 2002)2 The distinctive competence areas of IS experts should be identified

This paper proposed two distinctive competency areas of IS experts IS application knowl-edge and ISD process knowledge Although the paper does not discuss in any detail the areaof IS application knowledge this does not mean to imply that this area is unimportant IndeedIS application knowledge is critical to the success of systems development However in thispaper we focus on IS process knowledge which we posit contains competencies of (1) orga-nizational alignment of IT artifacts (2) user requirements construction (3) organizational imple-mentation of IT artifacts and related organizational changes and (4) evaluation of IT artifactsand related changes The pilot analysis of articles in ISJ and MISQ provided some evidenceabout the existence of these distinctive knowledge areas Despite the fact that these compe-tencies should neither be seen as firm nor exhaustive they are our attempt at starting a dis-cussion within the IS community to identify what these distinctive competencies are We believethat such a discussion is critical to forming a professional identity within the IS community3 Future research should be directed to strengthen the applicability of the body ofknowledge especially in the core competence areas of IS

J Iivari et al


336

The survey of articles published in ISJ and MISQ showed that the practical implications ofIS research are modest at best Even though the analysis showed to some extent that existingIS research reflects the proposed distinctive areas some of them were quite weaklyaddressed and there was also considerable variation between the two journals Therefore wesuggest that the practical relevance of IS research needs to be emphasized more and researchon the distinctive competence areas encouraged (ie IS application and ISD process knowl-edge) This conclusion points in a similar direction to Benbasat amp Zmudrsquos (2003) call for focus-ing on the IT artifact and its immediate nomological net but is less limited for two reasonsFirst it avoids the positivistic model-building connotations of Benbasat amp Zmud (2003) Sec-ond it is broader as it also recognizes the importance of work procedures (cf Alter 2001)hence the nomological net that could be constructed around our two distinctive competenceareas would be more inclusive

The distinctive competencies of IS experts help advance the identity of IS as a disciplineamong its fragmented membership Institutions like the Association for Information Systems(AIS) International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS) etc need a shared world viewthat is flexible and built from the ground up They need to draw on a community that sharesmeaningful visions and stands for more than a coalition of loosely aligned interest groups yetengages in vigorous pluralistic debates

On the other hand the weak attention to such central ISD issues as user interface designarchitectural design database design and software design even though not distinctive to ISin the two IS journals is also worrisome from the viewpoint of the practical image of IS There-fore we suggest that IS journals should also garner and publish papers in these areas hope-fully papers that reflect an IS perspective to these design areas4 The body of knowledge should be organized in an action-oriented way using a richand dynamic knowledge representation framework that allows one to recognize thediversity of systems to be developed the variety of methods and approaches of theirdevelopment and the evolution of ISD process knowledge

The paper suggested that ISD process knowledge provides a natural way to organize the ISBoK in an action-oriented way The framework should also comprise ISD methodology knowl-edge (such as ISD techniques methods and approaches) and related facts cases theoriescomparisons and practical implications The paper proposed that the four-tiered framework ofISD paradigms approaches methods and techniques might provide such a knowledge rep-resentation scheme Our review of the IS research published in two well-recognized IS journaslprovides some evidence that the framework might form a rich action-oriented representationscheme for ISD process knowledge The framework is also dynamic (Iivari et al 2000ndash2001)allowing flexible assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge as ISD process knowl-edge evolves

As noted above our analysis of the current IS literature was very limited It obviously can beextended to cover a wider variety of the IS literature and a longer time period One could con-sider other sources in addition to research articles including textbooks practitioner articlesand books research monographs consulting reports etc This paper has consciously empha-sized research-based sources of BoK for two reasons First when talking about BoK we wish



337

to emphasize the quality of the included knowledge so that one can reasonably trust that it isbased on a lsquoreasoned judgment or an experimental resultrsquo (Bell 1976) High quality scientificjournals apply the most stringent quality standards in this respect Second the objective of thepresent paper was to push IS researchers to work in the direction of an increasingly system-atized and cumulative BoK relevant for practitioners

One should also note however that specifying and documenting the existing BoK and orga-nizing it is formidable task It would require a worldwide collaboration of IS researchers AISwould be a natural group to organize such an effort It is unrealistic to expect that it could bedone in one shot rather a more evolutionary strategy of building the IS BoK appears feasibleWe hope that our coding scheme and pilot test will stimulate the IS community to work in thatdirection addressing topics with the prospect of significant practical implications and organiz-ing their findings in an action-oriented way

REFERENCES

Abbott A (1988) The System of Professions An Essay on

the Division of Expert Labor The University of Chicago

Press Chicago

Abrahamsson P Warsta J Siponen MT amp Ronkainen

J (2003) New directions on agile methods comparative

analysis Proceedings of the 25th International Confer-

ence on Software Engineering May 2003 pp 244ndash254

ACM Curriculum Committee on Computer Science (1968)

Curriculum 68 recommendations for the undergraduate

program in computer science Communications of the

ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166

Alter S (2001) Are the fundamental concepts of work sys-

tems mostly about work systems Communications of

the Association of Information Systems 5 1ndash67

Alter S amp Ginzberg MJ (1978) Managing uncertainty in

MIS implementation Sloan Management Review 19

23ndash31

Andersen N Kensing F Lundin J Mathiassen L

Munk-Madsen A Rasbech M amp Sorgaard P (1990)

Professional Systems Development Experience Ideas

and Action Prentice Hall Hemel Hempstead

Avison DE amp Fitzgerald G (1995) Information Systems

Development Methodologies Techniques and Tools

2nd edn McGraw-Hill New York

Bacon CJ amp Fitzgerald B (2001) A systematic frame-

work for the field of information systems The Data Base

for Advances in Information Systems 32 46ndash63

Bagert D amp Mead NR (2001) Software engineering as a

professional discipline Computer Science Education

11 73ndash87

Banville C amp Landry M (1989) Can the field of MIS be

disciplined Communications of the ACM 32 48ndash60

Barki H Rivard S amp Talbot J (1988) An information sys-

tems keyword classification scheme MIS Quarterly 12

299ndash322

Beck K (2000) Extreme Programming Explained

Embrace Change Addison-Wesley Boston

Bell D (1976) The Coming of Post-Industrial Society A

Venture of Social Forecasting Basic Books New York

(First published 1973)

Benbasat I amp Zmud R (1999) Empirical research in infor-

mation systems the practice of relevance MIS Quar-

terly 23 3ndash16

Benbasat I amp Zmud R (2003) The identity crisis within

the IS discipline defining and communicating the disci-

plinersquos core properties MIS Quarterly 27 183ndash194

Bjoslashrn-Andersen N amp Davis GB (eds) (1988) Information

Systems Assessment North-Holland Amsterdam

Blumenthal S (1969) Management Information Systems

A Framework for Planning and Development Prentice

Hall Englewood Cliffs

Brancheau JC Janz BD amp Wetherbe JC (1996) Key

issues in information systems management 1994ndash95

SIM Delphi results MIS Quarterly 20 225ndash242

Broadbent M Weill P amp St Clair S (1999) The

implications of information technology infrastructure for

business process redesign MIS Quarterly 23 159ndash

182

J Iivari et al


338

Buckingham R Hirschheim R Land F amp Tully C

(1987) Information systems curriculum a basis for

course design In Information Systems Education Rec-

ommendations and Implementation Buckingham R

Hirschheim R Land F amp Tully C (eds) pp 14ndash133

Cambridge University Press Cambridge

Carlson PJ amp Davis GB (1998) In investigation of

media selection among directors and managers from

lsquoselfrsquo to lsquoothersrsquo orientation MIS Quarterly 22 335ndash

362

Choudhury V amp Sampler JL (1997) Information speci-

ficity and environmental scanning MIS Quarterly 21

25ndash53

Cooper BR (2000) Information technology development

creativity a case study of attempted radical change MIS

Quarterly 24 245ndash276

Couger JD (1973) Curriculum recommendations for

undergraduate programs in information systems Com-

munications of the ACM 16 727ndash749

Couger JD Davis G Feinstein DL Gorgone JT amp

Longenecker HE (1997) ISrsquo97 model curriculum and

guidelines for undergraduate degree programs in infor-

mation systems Data Base 26 1ndash94

Culnan M (1986) The intellectual development of man-

agement information systems 1972ndash1982 a co-citation

analysis Management Science 32 156ndash172

Culnan M (1987) Mapping the intellectual structure of MIS

1980ndash1985 a co-citation analysis MIS Quarterly 11

341ndash353

Curtis B Krasner H amp Iscoe N (1988) A field study of

the software design process for large systems Commu-

nications of the ACM 31 1268ndash1287

Davis GM Gorgone JT Couger JD Feinstein DL amp

Longenecker HE Jr (1997) ISrsquo97 Model Curriculum

and Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs

in Information Systems Association for Computing

Machinery (ACM) Association for Information Systems

(AIS) Association of Information Technology Profes-

sionals (AITP) (formerly DPMA) [WWW document]

URL httpwwwcisusouthaledufacultyfeinsteinIS97

documentis97_titlehtm

DeLone WH amp McLean ER (1992) Information systems

success the quest for the dependent variable Informa-

tion Systems Research 3 60ndash95

Farbey B Land F amp Targett D (1993) How to Assess

Your IT Investments a Study of Methods and Practice

Butterworth-Heinemann Oxford

Feller J amp Fitzgerald B (2002) Understanding Open

Source Software Development Addison-Wesley

London UK

Freeman P (1987) Software Perspectives The System Is

the Message Addison-Wesley Reading MA

Gefen D amp Straub DW (1997) Gender differences in the

perception and use of E-mail an extension of the tech-

nology acceptance model MIS Quarterly 21 389ndash400

Gorgone JT Couger D Davis GB Feinstein DL

Kasper G amp Longenecker HE Jr (1994) Information

systems 95 Data Base 25 5ndash8

Gorgone JT Davis GB Valacich JS Topi H Fein-

stein DL amp Longenecker HE Jr (2002) IS 2002

Model Curriculum and Guidelines for Undergraduate

Degree Programs in Information Systems Association

for Computing Machinery (ACM) Association For Infor-

mation Systems (AIS) Association for Information Tech-

nology Professionals [WWW document] URL http

wwwacmorgeducationcurriculahtml IS2002

Habermas J (1984) The Theory of Communicative Action

Reason and the Rationalization of Society Vol I (trans-

lated T Mccarthy) Beacon Press Boston

Hirschheim R amp Klein HK (1989) Four paradigms of

information systems development Communications of

the ACM 32 1199ndash1216

Hirschheim R amp Klein HK (2003) Crisis in the IS field A

critical reflection on the state of the discipline Journal of

the Association for Information Systems 4 237ndash293

Hirschheim R Klein HK amp Lyytinen K (1995) Informa-

tion Systems Development and Data Modeling Con-

ceptual and Philosophical Foundations Cambridge

University Press Cambridge UK

Iivari J (1991) A paradigmatic analysis of contemporary

schools of IS development European Journal of Infor-

mation Systems 1 249ndash272

Iivari J (1992) The organizational fit of information sys-

tems Journal of Information Systems 2 3ndash29

Iivari J amp Hirschheim R (1996) Analyzing information

systems development a comparison and analysis of

eight IS development approaches Information Systems

21 551ndash575

Iivari J Hirschheim R amp Klein H (1998) A paradigmatic

analysis contrasting information systems development

approaches and methodologies Information Systems

Research 9 164ndash193

Iivari J Hirschheim R amp Klein H (2000ndash2001) A

dynamic framework for classifying information systems

development methodologies and approaches Journal of

Management Information Systems 17 179ndash218

Iivari J Hirschheim R amp Klein HK (2001) Towards more

professional information systems development ISD as

knowledge work Proceedings of ECIS 2001 the 9th

European Conference on Information Systems ECIS



339

Standing Committee Bled Slovenia June 27ndash29 pp

1025ndash1036

Iivari J amp Linger H (1999) Knowledge work as collabo-

rative work a situated activity theory view Proceedings

of the 32nd Hawaii International Conference on System

Sciences

Jain H Ramamurthy K Ryu H-S amp Yasai-Ardekani M

(1998) Success of data resource management in distrib-

uted environments an empirical investigation MIS


Jayaratna N (1994) Understanding and Evaluating Meth-

odologies NISAD A Systematic Framework McGraw-

Hill Maidenhead

Jirotka M amp Goguen JA (eds) (1994) Requirements

Engineering Social and Technical Issues Academic

Press London

Jones M amp Walsham G (1992) The limits of the knowl-

edge organizational and design knowledge in systems

development In The Impact of Computer Supported

Technologies on Information Systems Development

Kendall KE (ed) pp 195ndash213 Elsevier Science Pub-

lishers BV (North-Holland) Amsterdam

Keen P (1980) MIS research reference disciplines and

cumulative tradition In Proceedings of the First Interna-

tional Conference on Information Systems McLean E

(ed) pp 17ndash31 ICIS Philadelphia PA

Keen P (1981) Information systems and organizational

change Communications of the ACM 24 24ndash33

Keen PGW (1987) MIS research current status trends

and needs In Information Systems Education Recom-

mendations and Implementation Buckingham RA Hir-

schheim RA Land FF amp Tully CJ (eds) pp 1ndash13


Knight JC amp Leveson NG (2002) Should software engi-

neers be licensed Communications of the ACM 45

87ndash90

Kock N Gray P Hoving R Klein H Myers M amp Rock-

art J (2002) IS research relevance revisited subtle

accomplishment unfulfilled promise or serial hypocrisy

Communications of the AIS 8 330ndash346

Kotonya G amp Sommerville I (1998) Requirements Engi-

neering Processes and Techniques John Wiley amp Sons

Chichester UK

von Krogh G amp Roos J (1996) Managing Knowledge

Perspectives on Cooperation and Competition SAGE

Publications London

Krueger CW (1992) Software reuse ACM Computing

Survey 24 131ndash183

Kuutti K (1991) Activity Theory and its applications to infor-

mation systems research and development In Informa-

tion Systems Research Contemporary Approaches and

Emergent Traditions Nissen H-E Klein HK amp Hir-

schheim R (eds) pp 529ndash549 Elsevier Science Pub-

lishers BV (North Holland Amsterdam

Langefors B (1966) Theoretical Analysis of Information

Systems Studentlitteratur Lund Sweden

Lim KL amp Benbasat I (2000) The effect of multimedia on

perceived equivocality and perceived usefulness of infor-

mation systems MIS Quarterly 24 449ndash471

Macdonald KM (1995) The Sociology of the Professions

Sage Publications London

Majchrzak A Rice RE Malhotra A King N amp Ba S

(2000) Technology adaptation the case of a computer-

supported inter-organizational virtual tem MIS Quar-

terly 24 569ndash600

Markus ML (1999) Thinking the unthinkable what hap-

pens if the IS field as we know it goes away In Rethink-

ing MIS Currie W amp Galliers R (eds) pp 175ndash203

Oxford University Press Oxford

Mathiassen L (1981) Systems Development and Systems

Development Method PhD Dissertation DAIMI PB-136

Department of Computer Science Aarhus University

Aarhus Denmark

Mathiassen L amp Purao S (2002) Educating reflective sys-

tem developers Information Systems Journal 12 81ndash

102

McConnell S amp Tripp L (1999) Professional software

engineering fact or fiction IEEE Software 16 13ndash17

Nunamaker J Couger JD amp Davis G (1982) Informa-

tion systems curriculum recommendations for the 80s

Communications of the ACM 25 781ndash805

Pinsonneault A amp Rivard S (1998) Information technol-

ogy and the nature of managerial work from productivity

paradox to the Icarus paradox MIS Quarterly 22 287ndash

311

Prieto-Diaz R amp Arango G (eds) (1991) Domain Analysis

and Software System Modeling IEEE Computer Soci-

ety Press Los Alamitos CA

Reich BH amp Benbasat I (1996) Measuring the linkage

between business and information technology objec-

tives MIS Quarterly 20 55ndash81

Rosove P (ed) (1967) Developing Computer-Based Infor-

mation Systems John Wiley New York

Sawyer S (2000) Packaged software implications of the

differences from custom approaches to software devel-

opment European Journal of Information Systems 9

47ndash58

Smith HJ Milberg SJ amp Burke SJ (1996) Information

privacy measuring individualrsquos concerns about organi-

zational practices MIS Quarterly 20 167ndash196

J Iivari et al


340

Smithson S amp Hirschheim R (1998) Analyzing informa-

tion systems evaluation another look at an old problem

European Journal of Information Systems 7 158ndash174

Stapleton J (1997) Dynamic Systems Development

Method ndash the Method in Practice Addison-Wesley

Reading MA

Swanson EB (1988) Information System Implementa-

tion Bridging the Gap between Design and Utilization

Irwin Homewood IL

Swanson E amp Ramiller N (1993) Information systems

research thematics submissions to a new journal

1987ndash1992 Information Systems Research 4 299ndash

330

SWEBOK (2000) Guide to the Software Engineering Body

of Knowledge A Stone Man Version (Version 06) Feb-

ruary 2000 [WWW document] URL http

wwwswebokorg

Venkatesh V amp Morris MG (2000) Why donrsquot men ever

stop to ask for directions Gender social influence and

their role in technology acceptance and usage behavior

MIS Quarterly 24 115ndash139

Vitalari NP (1985) Knowledge as a basis for expertise in

systems analysis an empirical study MIS Quarterly 9

221ndash241

Wand Y amp Weber R (1990) Toward a theory of the deep

structure of information systems In Proceedings of the

Eleventh International Conference on Information Sys-

tems DeGross J Alavi M amp Oppelland H (eds) pp

61ndash71 ICIS Copenhagen

Zigurs I amp Buckland BK (1998) A theory of tasktech-

nology fit and group support system effectiveness MIS


Zwerman WL (1999) Professionoccupation without a

history IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 21

66ndash70

Biographies

Juhani Iivari is a Professor in Information Systems at the

University of Oulu Finland and the Scientific Head of the

INFWESTIT Postgraduate Education Program of five Finn-

ish Universities in the area of information systems He

received his MSc and PhD degrees from the University of

Oulu He also served as the national coordinator of the

Finnish Doctorate Programme in Information Systems

1993ndash94 Iivari serves in editorial boards of seven journals

His research has broadly focused on theoretical founda-

tions of information systems information systems devel-

opment methodologies and approaches organizational

analysis implementation and acceptance of information

systems and the quality of information systems Iivari has

published in journals such as Australian Journal of Infor-

mation Systems Behavior and Information Technology

Communications of the ACM Data Base European Jour-

nal of Information Systems Information amp Management

Information and Software Technology Information Sys-

tems Information Systems Journal Information Systems

Research Journal of Management Information Systems

Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Com-

merce MIS Quarterly Omega Scandinavian Journal of

Information Systems and others

Rudy Hirschheim is the Ourso Family Distinguished

Professor of Information Systems in the Information Sys-

tems and Decision Sciences Department of Louisiana

State University He previously was the TennecoChase

International Professor of Information Systems in the

Bauer College of Business University of Houston During

his sabbatical in 1996 he was the Sir Walter Scott Distin-

guished Visiting Professor Australian Graduate School of

Management University of New South Wales In 2000 he

was the Ludwig Erhart Distinguished Professor at the Uni-

versity of Bayreuth Bayreuth Germany

He has previously been on the faculties of Templeton

College Oxford and the London School of Economics His

PhD is in Information Systems from the University of Lon-

don He and Richard Boland are the Consulting Editors of

the John Wiley Series in Information Systems He is on the

editorial boards of the journals Information and Organiza-

tion Information Systems Journal Journal of Information

Technology Journal of Strategic Information Systems and

Journal of the Association for Information Systems He is

past VP of Publications for the Association for Information

Systems

Heinz K Klein earned his DiplKfm (equivalent of MBA)

and PhD at the Faculty of Business Administration of the

University of Munich In 1998 he received an honorary

doctorate by the University of Oulu for his academic con-

tributions to the development IS research in Finland and in

2000 the MISQ Best Paper Award for 1999 He is currently

Invited Chair at Salford University and Adjunct Professor at

the School of Management of the State University of New

York at Binghamton where he previously led the IS group

in He has held a variety of research and teaching appoint-

ments at major universities in Germany Canada Finland

Denmark New Zealand and South Africa Well known for

his contributions to the philosophy of IS Research foun-

dations of IS theory and methodologies of information sys-

tems development he has written articles on rationality

and the emancipatory ideal in ISD principles of interpretive



341

field research critical realism and the intellectual founda-

tions of alternative approaches to information systems

development His work has been published in the best jour-

nals of the field such as the MISQ ISR Information and

Organization ISJ CACM JMIS Decision Sciences and

others He also co-authored or edited several research

monographs and international conference proceedings in

IS and serves on the editorial boards of scholarly journals

and the lsquoWiley Series in Information Systemsrsquo His mentor-

ing of doctoral students and junior faculty has produced

several nationally and internationally renowned university

faculty in IS

APPENDIX A

To illustrate how we undertook the coding letus discuss a few examples Table A1 depictsthe beginning of a table coding the practicalimplications of two ISD approaches identifiedin MISQ and general implications which arenot confined to any particular ISD approachWe have a similar table coding the practicalimplications of the remaining five ISDapproaches identified in MISQ

Jain et al (1998) (categorized as OA-GENand DB-GEN) discuss data management indistributed environments In reading theirpaper it is clear that their emphasis is on theorganizational context which we thereforecoded as lsquoOrganizational alignmentrsquo Jainet al (1998) is confined to neither any partic-ular type of systems (except distributed) norany particular ISD approach Because a data-base is a part and parcel of almost any infor-mation system we classify their paper in thecategory lsquoGeneralrsquo At the same time Jainet al (1998) also address database design(DB-GEN) without proposing any specificpractical implications relevant in this context

Lim amp Benbasat (2000) compare text-based and video representations in two taskcontexts analysable vs less- analysabletasks We interpret that their paper is confined

to neither any particular type of systems norany particular ISD approach Therefore it isclassified as lsquoGeneralrsquo More specifically it iscoded as (OA-GEN) because it emphasizesthe alignment between the task and the infor-mation system Therefore it is coded toconcern lsquoOrganizational alignmentrsquo Howeverbecause the two representation forms wereequivalent in terms of verbal information con-tent their paper can also be interpreted toaddress user interfaces (UI-GEN)

The article of Choudhury amp Sampler (1997)(OA-DSS RQ-DSS) is an example of an addi-tional difficulty The article does not explicitlyspecify the nature of systems it has in mindbut addresses environmental scanning invery general terms Because of this focusit is however coded to concern DecisionSupport Systems and Executive InformationSystems The authorsrsquo concern is with thedecision rights on activities to be supported interms of knowledge specificity and time spec-ificity of information Information is high inknowledge specificity if it can be interpretedand used effectively only by individuals pos-sessing specific knowledge and it is high intime specificity if it loses soon its value if notused immediately after it first becomes avail-able (Choudhury amp Sampler 1997) We inter-pret that especially knowledge specificityconcerns the alignment of an information sys-tem (DSSEIS) and its organizational contextKnowledge specificity implies constraints onwho can be users of the knowledge-specificinformation Time specificity on the otherhand imposes requirements to the speed ofthe information system (RQ-DSS) The articlealso includes implications concerning data-base design (DB-DSS) and software design(SW-DSS)

More details of the entire coding processare available upon request from the authors

J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

314

established such a BoK which codifies the accumulated knowledge of the discipline Recentlythe Software Engineering (SE) community proposed a guide for a SE BoK (SWEBOK 2000)But what about the field of Information Systems (IS) Because it is widely accepted that IS isan applied discipline (Keen 1987 Benbasat amp Zmud 1999 Markus 1999) should the field nothave its own BoK There has been ndash at least to us ndash surprisingly little discussion about thenature and feasibility of a practically relevant BoK In this paper we propose that the conceptof a documented BoK supported by IS research is worth investigating in its own right for at leastthree important reasons

First

from a theoretical perspective it could revitalize the past discussion on the lack of a

cumulative tradition

in IS

1

Like other academic disciplines IS has been driven by the dynamicsof its own internal academic traditions In the 40-year or so history of the field significantgrowth can be observed For example with regard to research a pluralism of fundamentalphilosophical perspectives has emerged (ie multiple paradigms) which is accompanied by anever-growing sophistication of research methods The subject matter of IS research has sim-ilarly become rich and diverse Yet this diversity has led some to question whether IS researchhas any real accumulative tradition (Keen 1980 Wand amp Weber 1990 Benbasat amp Zmud1999) Given that pluralism has become the governing principle for most of our newly foundedresearch institutions the idea of cumulatively building on each otherrsquos results must not be sim-ply abandoned but recast in the context of different paradigmatic streams of research whichcan contribute to both the theory and practice of IS Surely if we are all interested in contributingto practice we as a research community have a clear need for crossndashparadigmatic interactionregardless of our philosophical biases The Banville amp Landry (1989) proposition that the com-munity structure of IS research resembles most closely that of a lsquofragmented adhocracyrsquo pointsto both the urgency and difficulties of maintaining a productive debate across the manyresearch subcommunities that have evolved in our field over the years The shared develop-ment of a practically relevant BoK could address one major crisis symptom in the field that isthe fragmentation of IS research (Hirschheim amp Klein 2003) through more boundary-spanningdebates across the fragmented adhocracy Such debates would stimulate the evolution of ter-minology for coding the practically relevant BoK The emerging coding system would tie theconcepts and principles of the relevant BoK to an ongoing practice in which we are all inter-ested regardless of our preferred academic vocabularies It should be noted that such a codingsystem when properly conceived would promote mutual understanding and coherence of thefield while avoiding dogmatic unification Such unification is undesirable because it entails theremoval of one of the pillars of the field ndash pluralism (Hirschheim amp Klein 2003)

1

Benbasat amp Zmud (1999) note the lack of a cumulative tradition as one key problem for the field identifying three reasons

for it First a multiplicity of theoretical frames exists for most phenomena studied in IS Second IS researchersscholars

have been reluctant to build on each otherrsquos work This is partly an outcome of the lack of a shared language Third

because of the proliferation of IS journals it is becoming harder and harder to locate and access the work of others This

paper attempts to promote the cumulative tradition in IS by suggesting a shared language (a coding scheme) for one par-

ticular area of IS expertsrsquo BoK

viz

ISD process knowledge The coding scheme makes it possible to organize findings

from different sources At the same time it respects the multiplicity of theoretical frames (ISD approaches) that can be

applied




14

313ndash342

315

Second


2


3


Third



first


second


action-oriented BoK


4

The

third


distinct


2







3


oppose




4


J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

316


et al


First


Second


Third


Fourth



action-oriented BoK








14

313ndash342

317





and









et al


et al




and

MISQuarterly (MISQ)




J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

318



2

INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

BODY

OF

KNOWLEDGE



et al

1982 Buckingham

et al


et al

1994 Couger

et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997)

5



6



and







5





6






14

313ndash342

319

cess knowledge








Figure 1




Processes


Application Domains

TechnologyDomain

Produces


IS Developers Users

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320














Table 1













14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces




14

313ndash342

315

Second


2


3


Third



first


second


action-oriented BoK


4

The

third


distinct


2







3


oppose




4


J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

316


et al


First


Second


Third


Fourth



action-oriented BoK








14

313ndash342

317





and









et al


et al




and

MISQuarterly (MISQ)




J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

318



2

INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

BODY

OF

KNOWLEDGE



et al

1982 Buckingham

et al


et al

1994 Couger

et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997)

5



6



and







5





6






14

313ndash342

319

cess knowledge








Figure 1




Processes


Application Domains

TechnologyDomain

Produces


IS Developers Users

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320














Table 1













14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

316


et al


First


Second


Third


Fourth



action-oriented BoK








14

313ndash342

317





and









et al


et al




and

MISQuarterly (MISQ)




J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

318



2

INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

BODY

OF

KNOWLEDGE



et al

1982 Buckingham

et al


et al

1994 Couger

et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997)

5



6



and







5





6






14

313ndash342

319

cess knowledge








Figure 1




Processes


Application Domains

TechnologyDomain

Produces


IS Developers Users

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320














Table 1













14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces




14

313ndash342

317





and









et al


et al




and

MISQuarterly (MISQ)




J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

318



2

INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

BODY

OF

KNOWLEDGE



et al

1982 Buckingham

et al


et al

1994 Couger

et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997)

5



6



and







5





6






14

313ndash342

319

cess knowledge








Figure 1




Processes


Application Domains

TechnologyDomain

Produces


IS Developers Users

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320














Table 1













14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

318



2

INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

BODY

OF

KNOWLEDGE



et al

1982 Buckingham

et al


et al

1994 Couger

et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997 Gorgone

et al


et al

1997)

5



6



and







5





6






14

313ndash342

319

cess knowledge








Figure 1




Processes


Application Domains

TechnologyDomain

Produces


IS Developers Users

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320














Table 1













14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces




14

313ndash342

319

cess knowledge








Figure 1




Processes


Application Domains

TechnologyDomain

Produces


IS Developers Users

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320














Table 1













14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

320














Table 1













14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces




14

313ndash342

321



et al


7


et al




8



7



8


et al



J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al



14

313ndash342

322


rsquo



and



et al


distinctive



9


et al





) (3) the


and (4)



10


1











323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



323






J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


324




32 ISD processes








325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



325


33 ISD approaches













IS testing


IS evaluation


J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


326








327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



327


A

S

ISD Paradigms

ISD Approaches

ISD Methods

ISD Techniques




Relationship

Social Relativism

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


328










329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



329














(Table 3 and 4)

Methodology






J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


330






5 DISCUSSION







331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



331

Tab

le 3

T

he n

umbe

r of

ref

eren

ces

in I

SJ

artic

les

1996

ndash200

0

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RS

AS

DIM

OO

ST

DS

SM

DS

SG

WS

AL

AE

UC

KB

SIO

SC

ST

Intr

anet

S

Org

aniz

atio

nal a

lignm

ent

62

12

13

24

21

21

27

Req

uire

men

ts c

onst

ruct

ion

55

21

12

11

119

Use

r in

terfa

ce d

esig

n3

25

Arc

hite

ctur

al d

esig

n2

11

4

Dat

abas

e de

sign

11

2

Sof

twar

e de

sign

11

2

Des

ign

of u

ser

supp

ort

syst

em0

Des

ign

of s

yste

m c

ontr

ols

and

mon

itors

0

IS t

estin

g0

IS im

plem

enta

tion

and

acce

ptan

ce3

11

21

11

111

IS e

valu

atio

n2

11

4

IS u

se1

21

4

IS m

aint

enan

ce a

nd e

volu

tion

11

11

4

Pro

ject

org

aniz

ing

11

2

Sup

plie

r m

anag

emen

t0

Peo

ple

man

agem

ent

31

4

Met

hod

man

agem

ent

121

13

11

120

Ris

k m

anag

emen

t0

Per

form

ance

man

agem

ent

33

Sof

twar

e co

nfigu

ratio

n m

anag

emen

t0

Qua

lity

assu

ranc

e0

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


332











Software design 1 1



IS testing 1 1



IS use 1 2 6 2 1 12











333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



333








J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


334









335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



335







J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


336








337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



337



REFERENCES



Press Chicago








ACM 11 151ndash197




ACM 22 147ndash166






23ndash31













11 73ndash87





299ndash322








terly 23 3ndash16















182

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


338










362



25ndash53
















341ndash353





















London UK






































21 551ndash575















339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



339


1025ndash1036




Sciences







Hill Maidenhead



Press London




















87ndash90







Chichester UK



Publications London



























Aarhus Denmark



102









311












47ndash58




J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


340






Reading MA



Irwin Homewood IL




330




wwwswebokorg







221ndash241











66ndash70

Biographies













































Systems



















341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces



341












faculty in IS

APPENDIX A







J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

J Iivari et al


342

Tab

le A

1S

umm

ary

of p

ract

ical

impl

icat

ions

of

MIS

Q a

rtic

les

1996

ndash200

016

Pro

cess

Gen

eral

BP

RD

SS

EIS

Sys

tem

dev

elop

men

t pe

rform

ance

Org

ani-

zatio

nal

alig

nmen

t

OA

-GE

NJa

in e

t al

(199

8)O

ne s

houl

d de

sign

a d

istr

ibut

ed d

atab

ase

so th

at it

is

cong

ruen

t w

ith a

n or

gani

zatio

nal c

onte

xt in

ord

er

real

ize

grea

ter

effe

ctiv

enes

s o

rgan

izat

ions

with

hig

h in

ter-

site

dat

a de

pend

ence

hi

gh c

once

ntra

tion

of I

S

deci

sion

s h

igh

conc

entr

atio

n of

IS

res

ourc

es a

t th

e ce

ntra

l site

and

low

aut

onom

y re

late

d to

dat

a re

sour

ce

man

agem

ent

gran

ted

to lo

cal s

ites

real

ize

grea

ter

degr

ee o

f da

ta r

esou

rce

man

agem

ent

succ

ess

Lim

amp B

enba

sat

(200

0)Fo

r an

alys

able

tas

ks t

hat

invo

lve

wel

l-defi

ned

ob

ject

ive

and

com

puta

tiona

l pro

cedu

res

lean

med

ia

such

as

text

-bas

ed r

epre

sent

atio

n is

suf

ficie

nt F

or

less

ana

lysa

ble

task

s th

at a

re c

hara

cter

ized

by

a la

ck

of o

bjec

tive

rou

tine

or

wel

l-defi

ned

proc

edur

es t

o so

lve

a pr

oble

m

rich

med

ia s

uch

as a

mul

timed

ia

repr

esen

tatio

n is

nee

ded

Sm

ith e

t al

(199

6)Lo

bby

for

orga

niza

tiona

l pol

icie

s w

ith a

tigh

t defi

nitio

n of

lsquonee

d to

kno

wrsquo

for

polic

ies

on lsquoi

nten

ded

usersquo

of

pers

onal

dat

a fo

r pol

icie

s re

stric

ting

outs

ide

shar

ing

of

pers

onal

dat

a a

nd fo

r po

licy

that

lim

its d

ata

colle

ctio

n to

min

imal

leve

ls re

quire

d fo

r bus

ines

s S

ee C

ON

-GE

N

OA

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

Bro

adbe

nt e

t al

(199

9)B

efor

e em

bark

ing

on a

ny fo

rm o

f B

PR

m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

ompl

ete

a bu

sine

ss a

udit

of th

eir

infr

astr

uctu

re c

apab

ilitie

s us

ing

a lis

t of

23

infr

astr

uctu

re s

ervi

ces

OA

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)In

gen

eral

the

dec

isio

n rig

hts

for

activ

ities

th

at r

equi

re h

ighl

y kn

owle

dge-

spec

ific

info

rmat

ion

shou

ld b

e as

sign

ed t

o th

e in

divi

dual

s w

ho p

osse

ss t

he s

peci

fic

know

ledg

e F

or in

form

atio

n th

at is

low

in

know

ledg

e sp

ecifi

city

in u

se b

ut h

igh

in ti

me

spec

ifici

ty

the

deci

sion

rig

hts

shou

ld b

e lo

cate

d cl

ose

to t

he p

oint

of

info

rmat

ion

acqu

isiti

on a

s po

ssib

le

One

opt

ion

for

info

rmat

ion

that

is lo

w in

bot

h tim

e sp

ecifi

city

and

kno

wle

dge

spec

ifici

ty is

to

col

ocat

e th

e de

cisi

on r

ight

s fo

r th

ese

activ

ities

with

thos

e co

mpl

emen

tary

act

iviti

es

that

req

uire

hig

hly

spec

ific

know

ledg

e in

or

der

to m

inim

ize

inte

ract

ivity

coo

rdin

atio

n co

sts

Pin

sonn

eaul

t amp

Riv

ard

(199

8)IT

and

m

anag

eria

l wor

kZ

igur

s amp

Buc

klan

d (1

998)

Task

tech

nolo

gy fi

t in

the

GS

S

Req

uire

men

tsco

nstr

uctio

nR

Q-G

EN

Car

lson

amp D

avis

(19

98)

The

man

ner

of p

rese

ntin

g th

e ad

vant

ages

of

tech

nolo

gy m

ay n

eed

to b

e ta

ilore

d to

the

hier

arch

ical

le

vel o

f th

e tr

aine

eW

hen

trai

ning

or

inst

allin

g co

mm

unic

atio

n sy

stem

s fo

r di

rect

ors

and

exec

utiv

es

RQ

-BP

RC

oope

r (2

000)

Cre

ativ

ity in

req

uire

men

ts a

nd lo

gica

l des

ign

RQ

-DS

SC

houd

hury

amp S

ampl

er (

1997

)T

he u

se o

f aut

omat

ed IS

s fo

r en

viro

nmen

tal

scan

ning

is p

roba

bly

mos

t ap

prop

riate

for

info

rmat

ion

16If

not r

efer

red

to in

the

mai

n te

xt t

he r

efer

ence

s us

ed in

Tab

le A

1 ar

e no

t inc

lude

d in

the

bibl

iogr

aphy

The

rea

der

is a

dvis

ed to

con

sult

the

spec

ific

issu

e of

MIS

Q fo

r bi

b-

liogr

aphi

c de

tails

of

thes

e re

fere

nces

towards a distinctive body of knowledge for information ... etc.). 2 ... (1999) report that some...

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