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The Evolution of Quality Management
Total Quality Management – TQM Dr.-Ing. George Power
The Evolution of Quality Management
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Mass Inspection
Quality Control (Acceptance Sampling)
Quality Assurance
Total Quality Control
Company- wide Quality Control
Evolution of Quality Management
Mass Inspection Inspecting
Salvaging
Sorting
Grading
Rectifying
Rejecting
Quality Control Quality manuals
Product testing using SQC
Basic quality planning
Quality Assurance Emphasis on prevention
Proactive approach using SPC
Advance quality planning
Total Quality Control All aspects of quality of inputs
Testing equipment
Control on processes
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Mass Inspection
Quality Control (Acceptance Sampling)
Quality Assurance
Total Quality Control
Company- wide Quality Control
Evolution of Quality Management (cont’d)
Company-wide Quality Control Measured in all functions
connected with production: R&D
Design
Engineering
Purchasing
Operations, etc.
Total Quality Management Measured in all aspects of
business
Top management commitment
Continuous improvement
Involvement & participation of employees
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Mass Inspection
Quality Control (Acceptance Sampling)
Quality Assurance
Total Quality Control
Company- wide Quality Control
Scope of different quality concepts
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Total Quality Management
Quality Assurance
Quality Control
Inspection
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Evolution of quality concepts Im
pro
vem
en
t in
pro
du
ct q
ual
ity
1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Inspection
Statistical Process Control
Statistical sampling
Improved designs
Quality through design
Integrated design and
manufacturing
Old concept of quality: Inspect for quality after production
New concept of quality: Build quality into the process. Identify and correct causes of
quality problems
Organizational quality focus
Customer-driven quality focus
Focus on profit and production quotas
Quality “Gurus” and their contribution
Name Main Contribution
Dr. Walter A. Shewhart • Contributed to understanding of process variability • Developed concept of statistical control charts
Dr. W. Edwards Deming • Stressed management’s responsibility for quality • Developed “14 points” to guide companies in quality
improvement
Dr. Joseph M. Juran • Defined quality as “fitness for use” • Developed concept of cost of quality
Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum • Introduced concept of total quality control
Dr. Philip B. Crosby • Coined phrase “quality is free” • Introduced concept of zero defects
Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa • Developed cause-and-effect diagrams • Identified concept of internal customer
Dr. Genichi Taguchi • Focused on product design quality • Developed loss function
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Walter A. Shewhart (1891 – 1967)
Often referred to as the “grandfather of quality control”
Worked as a statistician at Bell Labs during the 1920s and 1930s
Studied randomness and recognized that variability existed in all manufacturing processes
Developed quality control charts that are used to identify if the variability in the process is random or due to an assignable cause (operator, equipment, tools, etc.)
Also stressed that eliminating variability improves quality
His work created the foundation of today’s Statistical Process Control.
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W. Edwards Deming (1900 – 1993)
Known as the “father of quality control”
Statistics professor at New York University in the 1940s
After Word War II he assisted many Japanese companies in improving quality
In recognition of his work, the Japanese established in 1951 the Deming Prize
Only 30 years later American companies began adopting Deming’s philosophy
He outlined his notions of quality in his famous 14 points
Deming stressed that quality problems are caused mainly by processes and systems, including poor management.
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Deming’s “System of Profound Knowledge”
Appreciation of a system: Understanding the overall processes involving suppliers, producers, and customers (or recipients) of goods and services;
Knowledge of variation: The range and causes of variation in quality, and use of statistical sampling in measurements;
Theory of knowledge: The concepts explaining knowledge and the limits of what can be known;
Knowledge of psychology: Concepts of human nature.
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Deming’s key principles (“14 Points”)
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1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim to become competitive and stay in business, and to provide jobs.
2. Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management must awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for change.
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for massive inspection by building quality into the product in the first place.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, minimize total cost. Move towards a single supplier for any one item, on a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust.
5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people and machines and gadgets to do a better job. Supervision of management is in need of overhaul, as well as supervision of production workers.
Deming’s “14 Points” (cont’d)
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8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company.
9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales, and production must work as a team, to foresee problems of production and in use that may be encountered with the product or service.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. The bulk of causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the work force.
11. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership. Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership.
12. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker, people in management and in engineering of his right to pride of workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be changed from sheer numbers to quality. Abolish the “annual or merit rating and management by objective.”
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The transformation is everybody's job.
Deming’s “Seven Deadly Diseases of Management”
1. Lack of constancy of purpose
2. Emphasis on short-term profits
3. Evaluation by performance, merit rating, or annual review of performance
4. Mobility of management
5. Running a company on visible figures alone
6. Excessive medical costs
7. Excessive costs of warranty, fueled by lawyers who work for contingency fees
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“A Lesser Category of Obstacles”
Neglecting long-range planning
Relying on technology to solve problems
Seeking examples to follow rather than developing solutions
Excuses, such as "our problems are different"
Obsolescence in school that management skill can be taught in classes
Reliance on quality control departments rather than management, supervisors, managers of purchasing, and production workers
Placing blame on workforces who are only responsible for 15% of mistakes where the system desired by management is responsible for 85% of the unintended consequences
Relying on quality inspection rather than improving product quality.
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The PDCA cycle
The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle is a four-step management process used in business.
It is also known as the Deming (or Shewhart) circle, cycle or wheel, or Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA).
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The PDCA management process
PLAN
Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected output (the target or goals).
DO
Implement the new processes, often on a small scale if possible, to test possible effects. Collect data for charting and analysis for the following "CHECK" step.
CHECK
Measure the new processes and compare the results (collected in "DO" above) against the expected results (targets or goals from the "PLAN") to ascertain any differences. Charting data can make this much easier to see trends in order to convert the collected data into information needed for the next step "ACT".
ACT
Analyze the differences to determine their cause. Each will be part of either one or more of the P-D-C-A steps. Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement. When a pass through these four steps does not result in the need to improve, refine the scope to which PDCA is applied until there is a plan that involves improvement.
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Joseph M. Juran (1904 – 2008)
20th century management consultant and author remembered as a preacher for quality and quality management
He developed the idea of trilogy:
Quality Planning
Quality Improvement
Quality Control
He stressed that conformance to specifications is necessary but not sufficient requirement of a product
The fitness for use by the consumer of the targeted market segment is an essential requirement in addition to conformance.
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Juran’s Trilogy
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Juran’s 10 Points
1. Build awareness of need and opportunities for improvement
2. Set goals for improvement
3. Organize the overall improvement program
4. Provide the training
5. Solve problems through project methodology
6. Report progress
7. Give recognition
8. Communicate results
9. Keep score
10. Institutionalize the improvement process
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Armand V. Feigenbaum (b. 1922)
Quality control expert and businessman.
He devised the concept of Total Quality Control, later known as Total Quality Management (TQM), as an “effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization to achieve full customer satisfaction."
He also developed the concept of a "hidden" plant—the idea that so much extra work is performed in correcting mistakes that there is effectively a hidden plant within any factory.
Accountability for quality: Because quality is everybody's job, it may become nobody's job—the idea that quality must be actively managed from the highest levels of management.
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Philip B. Crosby (1926 – 2001)
Businessman, consultant and author who contributed to management theory and quality management practices
He initiated the Zero Defects program at the Martin Company Orlando, Florida, plant
Crosby's response to the quality crisis was the principle of “doing it right the first time” (DIRFT). He would also include four major principles:
the definition of quality is conformance to requirements (requirements meaning both the product specifications and the customer's requirements)
the system of quality is prevention
the performance standard is zero defects
the measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance
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Crosby’s quality points
Do it right the first time
Zero Defects
Quality is defined as conformance to requirements, not as 'goodness' or 'elegance'
The system for causing quality is prevention, not appraisal – Quality is Free
The performance standard must be Zero Defects, not “that's close enough”
The measurement of quality is the Price of Non-conformance, not indices.
Cost of quality is only the measure of operational performance
Management commitment
Quality improvement team
Quality measurement
Evaluation of cost of quality
Quality awareness
Corrective action
Establish committee for zero defect planning
Supervisor training
Zero Defect Day
Goal Setting
Error cause removal
Recognition
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Kaoru Ishikawa (1915 – 1989)
Japanese university professor and influential quality management innovator best known for his cause-and-effect diagrams (also Ishikawa or “Fish Bone” diagrams)
Simplified statistical techniques for QC
Stressed the implementation of company-wide quality control, quality circles and shared vision
“Quality does not only mean the quality of product, but also of after sales service, quality of management, the company itself and the human life.”
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Ishikawa’s Cause-and-Effect-Diagram
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Ishikawa’s three sets of causes
8 M’s (in manufacturing)
Machine
Method
Materials
Man Power
Mother Nature
Measurement
Maintenance
Management
8 P’s (in services)
Price
Promotion
Process
Place/Plant
Policies
Procedures
Product (or Service)
4 S’s (in services)
Surroundings
Suppliers
Systems
Skills
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Genichi Taguchi (b. 1924)
Japanese engineer and statistician. From the 1950s onwards, he developed a methodology for applying statistics to improve the quality of manufactured goods.
Key elements of his quality philosophy include:
Loss function, used to measure financial loss to society resulting from poor quality;
The philosophy of off-line quality control, designing products and processes so that they are insensitive (“robust”) to parameters outside the design engineer’s control; and
Innovations in the statistical design of experiments, notably the use of an outer array for factors that are uncontrollable in real life, but are systematically varied in the experiment.
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Taguchi’s Loss Function
A quality product is a product that causes a minimal loss (expressed in money!) to society during it's entire life
The relation between this loss and the technical characteristics is expressed by the loss function
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Traditional and Taguchi’s view of non-conformance