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What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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TOPIC: What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language? References: Harvard Pages: 56 Words: 14000
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language?
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What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Abstract English is one of the most popular languages and in over a century the way English
has been perceived around the globe has changed and will continue changing with its
aggressive expansion of use (Llurda, 2004). Widdowson (1994) also pointed out
language researchers and even language teachers are becoming more accepting of the
fact that the new English adopters are using English as a 2nd spoken language and not
as native of mother tongue and yet they are adopting a notion natives speakers are no
more the exclusive owners of the language. The research aims to understand the
challenges for Non-Native Speaker teachers who are teaching English as an
international language to cope with the evolving nature of the English and the
demanding students. Also the research aims at taking a closer look at the literature in
the evolution of English as an international language and its impact on teachers. The
findings of the research are as follows;
1) The research found that the nature of English lanague is too dynamic and thus
this would need special effort and knowledge sharing for the teachers to keep
up-to-date.
2) The second most important challenges is the pronunciation problem. The
pronunciation problem leads to students having to relearn or in many cases
even cause confusions in communications. This has led to student being
frustrated and there is increasing pressure on teachers to be able to overcome
these problems.
3) The non-native english teachers who were interviewed clearly demonstrated
very low self esteem. This was due to the lack of being able to keep up with
the changing standards.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT 3
CHAPTER 1 6
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 6
1.1 INTRODUCTION 6 1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 6 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 7 1.4 RESEARCH RATIONALE AND RESEARCH QUESTION 9 1.4 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVE 9 1.5 RESEARCH STRUCTURE 10
CHAPTER 2 12
LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 INTRODUCTION 12 2.2 ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE 12 2.3 THE IMPACT OF EIL ON LANGUAGE TEACHING 14 2.4 THE ROLE OF NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS IN EIL TEACHING 17 2.5 ADVANTAGES OF NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS IN EIL TEACHING 18 2.6 PROBLEM OF PRONUNCIATION FOR NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS IN EIL TEACHING 20 2.7 CONCLUSION 23
CHAPTER 3 25
METHODOLOGY 25
3.1 INTRODUCTION 25 3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 25 3.3 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES, AND RESEARCH APPROACH 25 3.4 RESEARCH APPROACH AND RESEARCH STRATEGY 27 3.5 QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT AND SAMPLING 28 3.6 PILOT 30 3.7 DATA COLLECTION 30 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION 30 3.8 CONTENT ANALYSIS 32 3.9 RELIABILITY, VALIDITY AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATION 33 3.10 SAMPLE 34 3.11 CONCLUSION 35
CHAPTER 4 36
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36
4.1 INTRODUCTION 36 4.2 RESULTS 36 4.3 LIMITED RESOURCES 39 4.4 LINGUISTIC DEFICIT 41 4.5 LOW SELF-ESTEEM 44 4.6 POSITIVES 45
CHAPTER 5 47
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS 47
5.1 INTRODUCTION 47 5.2 CONCLUSION 47 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 48 5.4 LIMITATIONS 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY 50
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Chapter 1
Introduction and Background
1.1 Introduction The aim of this chapter is to introduce readers to the topic under investigation. The
chapter achieves the same by presenting a detailed background of the topic under
review. The background is then followed by the research question, which aims at
understanding a pragmatic challenge that will be faced in the area. This section is then
followed by the aims and objectives of the research thus making clear the rationale
behind the research. The final section of this chapter will present the structure of the
paper.
1.2 Backgroundof the study In the present era there are several reasons why English has been recognized an
international language, in this regard, knowledge of this language is approximately a
requirement for professional success. It is International language as an extensive use
in language as a foreign language or as second language, i. e as an international
communication language it is exemplifies the description with English as the mostly
speaking language in the international community. In a recent study author (2005)
comments that the term "international language" can explain in several prospective.
Besides its original meaning of artificial language, an International language may
have been formerly a regional language at a time class becomes the most widely
spoken or global communication vehicle.
English is one of the most popular languages and in over a century the way English
has been perceived around the globe has changed and will continue changing with its
aggressive expansion of use (Llurda, 2004). Widdowson (1994) also pointed out
language researchers and even language teachers are becoming more accepting of the
fact that the new English adopters are using English as a 2nd spoken language and not
as native of mother tongue and yet they are adopting a notion natives speakers are no
more the exclusive owners of the language. This notion of shared ownership is thus
followed by the expectation to have a say in matters that will affects the language.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Two words that have gained popularity, which are an indication of the evolving
nature of English on a global stage, are the term World English in the literature and
English as an International Language (EIL) (Eoyang 1999).
Llurda (2004) claims that there are very strong positive economic effects of the liberal
approach of English which has allowed incorporating its vocabulary and sty updated,
an approach which was recently also adopted by Japanese. To the claims and
counterclaims of English being Lingua Franca Edwards (2001) “[l]anguages of ‘wider
communication’ have no special linguistic capabilities to recommend them; they are
simply the varieties of those who have power and prestige” (p11). Seidlhofer (2001)
on the other hand is a strong supporter of labelling English and calling it Lingua
Franca but extending on the Idea Modiano (1999) suggest that the focus should be on
English as a language of communication and hence concentrates on the idea of EIL.
There is much disagreement regarding English being a Lingua franca with claims on
each side but that topic is beyond the scope of this research, yet it’s an indication of
increasing popularity of English on global platform. The rationale for this research is
thus explained in the next section.
1.3 Statement of Problem There are many challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an
International Language. One of the major challenges for them is pronunciation. The
sound is the smallest element of language. However, in the current language sounds
always act in combination with each other. A listener hears no separate sounds, but a
sound stream. The basic idea of an alphabetic script is a sign for each sound.
Unfortunately, there is no language with a sound character relation of one to one, that
is to say that there is a letter for each sound and each letter designates a tone.
Numerous compromises, complications and traditions make the spelling rules of
language complicated or even impossible to make a conclusive system. Language
Scientists distinguish between phonology and phonetics. The phonology is concerned
with the meaning of distinctive sounds, called phonemes. Each language has its own
phonological system, i.e., its own system of meaning of distinctive sounds. Phonology
is not concerned with the concrete realizations and all variants of each phoneme.
Every man can get used to different accents, as a listener that is so that actually fall
outside the known him phoneme boundaries.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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In natural language learning what applies in the beginning is the sound, which is
recognized as a phoneme, thereby hears at one point a letter. Reading aloud is an art
that not everyone mastered as well. It has to do with reading, in the sense that you can
only read if you understand what you read correctly. The sound, or linguistic said the
phoneme, may be the smallest element of language, a sound seldom comes alone. As
mentioned above, the current language is characterized by the fact that sounds always
occur in words. Within those words and sounds between words influence each other.
A common symptom is assimilation.
It is important for students to confront spontaneous spoken language early. There is a
tendency when listening material to use. In the basement of texts read Important and
understandable reasons are the desire to dispense the variety of languages. Desire to
clear articulation and not too high a rate of speech but the transition to real
spontaneous spoken language should be. The standard of pronunciation defined one
does not need to hear from which region the speaker is (no dialectal features). English
is the clearest case of a language that is very much used as a lingua franca, so by non -
native speakers. Thus, there are many variations: English with a French accent, with a
German accent, with a Spanish accent, with a Dutch accent etc. It is important to
confront a range of diverse accents and articulations in the target language, of course,
after a cautious start with the more standard (or at least neutral) variants.
The perfect native pronunciation is not feasible for most students - quite apart from
the question of what that perfect native pronunciation actually is. There are teachers
that a Swiss ruling by the German - for example, a pupil or student with family or
other relationships in Switzerland - or French with a Walloon accent find no or less
acceptable. It was not so long ago that an American accent is not found in English or
was not even accepted. Even though it is usually unattainable perfection, in education
even after the initial worthwhile period, some students will be able to pick up the
teacher uses the target language as the official language and listening texts. But a
large group may benefit from specific feedback, even in higher classes, if only
because they are consciously or unconsciously conform to no particular accent -free
German / English / French / ... that they hear from their peers.
Especially pronunciation field arises the phenomenon that students have inhibitions to
' cheat ', i.e. to leave their mother -language accent apart. Behind it is a fear of being
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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"abnormal" to behave similar to a fear to dress in a way that deviates from the ' norm'
is too strong for their feelings as valid among their peers. One of the possible tactics
to get over to help them is to present figures with whom they can and want to identify.
Words or phrases of a pop star, movie star or sympathetic found peer example of an
interview are probably echoed a bit more lifelike than that of the lecturer or speaker at
an educational medium.
1.4 Research Rationale and Research Question The background of English presented the evolution of the language on the global
platform that indicates the aggressive adoption of it across the globe. This
transformation of English now presents challenges for language teachers and
professions linked to it. These professions need to adapt to the changing standards of
EIL environment and also to its learners. The whole idea might be a subtle change for
native teachers as English though changing is still native to them and adapting is far
easier and hence the focus of this research is Non-Native English speaking teachers.
Thus the research question is as follows:
How the Pronounciation of Non-native speaker teachers affect teaching English as
an International Language?
The research question forms the basis for research aim, which in turns is the stepping
stone to the research objectives which are highlighted in the next section.
1.4 Research aim and Objective From the research question it is clear that the research aims to understand the
challenges for Non-Native Speaker teachers who are teaching English as an
international language to cope with the evolving nature of the English and the
demanding students. Also the research aims at taking a closer look at the literature in
the evolution of English as an international language and its impact on teachers.
Hence to achieve the aim of the research the objectives should be in line with the
aims. The objectives for the current research are broken down as follows:
1) To conduct a thorough literature review of the area of English as an
International Language
2) To understand the problem of pronunciation facing Non-Native English
teachers teaching English as an International Language
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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3) To explore the changing demands of students studying English as an
International Language
First objective will be covered in chapter 2 of Literature Review, which will also help
readers understand the context in which this research is conducted. The next two
objectives will be a part of the research and the outcome of the research will satisfy
these two objectives. The next section now focuses on the structure of this paper.
1.5 Research Structure
This research paper primarily is divided into three different parts. The first part
presents the introduction and background. It also presented the research rationale
followed by the research question, its aims and objectives. The second part is the
literature relevant to the topic. The last section will then focus on research strategy. A
brief introduction to chapter two and chapter three are presented below.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This Chapter reviews articles on English as an International Language taking into
consideration the major effects of going changes on English language teaching. The
Chapter first discusses the concept of English as an International language. It then
proceeds to a discussion of the consequences of rapid expansion of English language,
and its implications for teaching process. Further the role of non-native-speaker
teachers in EIL teaching is discussed, and in particular what challenges face non-
native-speaker teachers in the future. The Chapter ends with a conclusion.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
The aim of this chapter is to present the research strategy for the research. Choosing
correct research method is very vital for the success of the research. This chapter will
first present brief introduction into the two major research philosophies. It then
proceeds to present the two research methodologies associated with the research
philosophies. The next section then presents a brief insight into research design and
how nature of research will impact the research. The next section will then present the
selected methodology and its justification. The final section will then present the
reliability and Validity in the chose method. Apart from this section will also
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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highlight the ethical considerations that are planned in the research.
Chapter 4: Findings and discussion
The aim of this chapter is to present the findings and discussion for the current
research. This Chapter incorporates the key findings of the research, which have been
derived from the data collected during the interviews, and the discussion of the same.
The Chapter consists of four major sections. The first section presents the general
demographic data of the research and highlights the major themes, which have been
derived from the data. The last three sections are dedicated to presenting and
discussion of the highlighted themes. The themes are also discussed in the light of
existing literature, and previous findings. Modiano (1999) argues that expertise in
speaking English is not inherited by birth but by the ability to use the language
correctly, and both native and non-native speakers can possess such ability.
Chapter 5: Conclusions, Recommendations and Limitations
The main aim of this chapter is to present the conclusion of this research based on the
finindings and discussion and critical analysis of the literature. The research aims and
objectives were as follows:
The research aims to understand the challenges for Non-Native Speaker teachers who
are teaching English as an international language to cope with the evolving nature of
the English and the demanding students.
The chapter is broken down into three parts from here. The first part is conclusions
which is followed by recommendations and the last part will highlight the limitations
of the research.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Chapter 2
Literature review
2.1 Introduction
This Chapter reviews an existing literature on English as an International Language
taking into consideration the major effects of going changes on English language
teaching. The Chapter first discusses the concept of English as an International
language. It then proceeds to a discussion of the consequences of rapid expansion of
English language, and its implications for teaching process. Further the role of non-
native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching is discussed. Moreover the Chapter looks into
the advantages of non-native-speaking teachers, and proceeds with the review of the
challenges, which ambush non-native-speaker teachers in the future. The Chapter
ends with a conclusion.
2.2 English as an International Language
The importance of this language is growing day by day as more and more people want
or need to communicate in English the role modern English plays today in life not
only native speakers, but also those for whom English is a L2, is difficult to
underestimate. Nowadays linguists more and more inclined to define English as a
global language (Crystal 1997) since there are more people currently who practice it
as L2 than as a mother tongue (Llurda, 2004). For example, according to Crystal
(2003, pp.67-69) the number of English speakers around the world was 1500 million,
and only 400 million out of them were native English speakers. In fact, students use
English much more frequently with other non-native speakers, as they have far
outnumbered native-speakers (Ozturk & Atay, 2010).
ETS commissioned a study, which was conducted by Major et al. (2002) in which the
authors compared the results on spoken English tests in which the test subjects were
primarily from four different natives i.e. English, Japanese, Spanish and Chinese.
Also the test themselves had different version in which each version has passages
prepared by English speaking teachers from these three non-natives. (Llurda, 2004)
points out that more importantly such a study was conducted and this means shifting
paradigms in the literature world and an acknowledgement that the number of non-
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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native English speakers is growing and the need to take into consideration their voices
and opinions when taking any decisions regarding mainstream English language, it’s
teaching and also its testing.
As such English stopped to be exclusively owned by the native-speakers but became a
communal language, which is also used by non-native speakers (Widdowson, 1994).
With the increased expansion of English globally English language has been
frequently used in the context of World English, English as an International Language
(EIL) and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) (Llurda, 2004). However till date there
has been no consensus found among the scholars regarding the appropriation
correctness of these terms (Eoyang 1999; Modiano 1999; Seidlhofer 2001). Eoyang
(1999) also argues that definition “World Language” can be applied if a language is
universal, and widely comprehensive, whereas “English is far from being a universal
language” (ibid.), nor is it considered to be particularly widely comprehensible;
therefore Eoyang argues that it is the comprehensively that allows it to be called
World Language. Seidlhofer (2001), in line with Modiano (1999) on the contrary
display a greater keenness for the marking English a lingua franca, and contemplate
on the idea of EIL.
In 2002 Brutt-Griffler conducted an investigation aiming to understand where the
development of World English is rooted, and forwarded the idea of language macro
acquisition. In particular she proposed that broad expansion of English Language is a
result of a process of language acquisition by numerous speech groups in the world.
In contrast to Phillipson (1992) who gave the whole credit of English language
penetration to the colonial powers Brutt-Griffler explains the spread of English from
the perspective of the key participants of the process. She denies them to be simply
inert recipients of an expatriate language but considers them to be a dynamic mediator
of language adoption (Brutt-Griffler, 2002). Brutt-Griffler (2002) explains the reasons
of English becoming the favoured language at international level as the willingness of
the colonial communities to learn the language as part of the battle for freedom.
Paradoxically macro acquisition, according to Brutt-Griffler (2002), did not caused
the language extinction but to bilingualism (Llurda, 2004).
In spite of all existing controversy the term EIL is gradually establishes itself as the
applicable to the majority of the present uses of English worldwide, especially in the
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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conditions when non-native speakers networking in English with both native speakers
and other non-native speakers (Llurda, 2004). Though it is still long way to go for
English to become an EIL as such, a comprehensible, and concise language choice, -
some attempts have been already undertaken (Jenkins, 2000; Seidlhofer 2001). For
example, during the discussing the possibility of establishing a progressive common
lingua franca for European Union, the concept of Euro-English has already occurred
(James 2000; Jenkins et al. 2001). Euro-English was proposed as an option to be used
exclusively for international communication within the EU and would be different
from English as it is used in the UK and other English-speaking countries (Llurda,
2004). This suggestion is developing with no any official language planning in place,
making English a de facto most universally used lingua franca within the EU
(Ammon 1994; Ammon and McConnell 2002; Phillipson 2003).
2.3 The Impact of EIL on Language Teaching
The consequences of rapid expansion of English language, and its conversion from
being the mother tong just for few countries into the international language brought a
considerable amount of changes in the field of language teaching.
Currently people are learning English not only with the aim to pass exams and tests,
but also with the expectations to be employed in the world, and work within diverse
social groups (Hinkel, 2012). Therefor teachers have to take into the consideration the
future perspective of their students, and in particular they have now to adapt to new
requirements of the learners.
As a result of novel learning objectives the legacy of native English teachers as a
model for language teaching has been questioned. For example Cook (1999) suggests
that native speaker is no longer remains a model for language teaching since they
became an integrated part of a larger language speakers community. Modiano (1999)
argues that expertise in speaking English is not inherited by birth but by the ability to
use the language correctly, and both native and non-native speakers can possess such
ability.
There have been a considerable amount of proposals done to integrate the new
interpretations of EIL into language teaching process, and particularly accentuate the
necessity to draw on the earlier comprehension of the language learner through
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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utilizing their knowledge of their own language and culture. For example, McKay
(2000, 2003) proposes dedicating time and attentiveness during the lecture to the
students’ own culture so that to empower them and allow sharing their own culture
with other English speakers.
However, taking into consideration increased global mobilization, and that young
professionals concern with their educational and professional opportunities
considerably increased proficiency in the culture of language speakers are likely to
provide them with the competitive advantage which several years ago might seem
preposterous (Hinkel, 2012). As such, in addition to the linguistic elements of a
foreign language, modern teachers have to focus on practical cultural aspects and set
new objective of teaching social and interactional norms (Hinkel, 2012).
Similarly, Dendrinos (2001) argues that English lessons for native speakers, and
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) must give students an opportunity to move
easily from their L1 to the L2 and vice versa. She believes that since the learners of
EIL will not use English as their only one communication language, during the
lessons they should be given an opportunity to practice interpreting and reporting
skills, and not to focus on a monolingual communicative scenarios. This is in line
with Widdowson’s hypothesis that language legitimacy is more than pure
reproduction of native-speaker utilization, as “the language that is authentic for
native speaker users cannot possibly be authentic for learners” (Widdowson 1998,
p.711).
Kachru (1992) stated “what is needed is a shift of two types: a paradigm shift in
research and teaching, and an understanding of the sociolinguistic reality of the uses
and users of English” (p. 362). Even the general idea of communicative proficiency
has been questioned in the conditions of the latest situation of EIL (Alptekin 2002).
Teaching second language takes place in different contexts and realities are not
always the same. There are some contexts in which the second language teaching is
not accepted by students or by parents, others where there are sufficient teaching
materials for teach this language, others where it should be second language is taught
as first, etc.:
“Only by producing instructional materials that emphasize diversity both within and
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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across cultures can one perhaps avoid presenting English meanings in fragmented
and trivialized ways, where communicative functions are conceived as simple speech
acts realized through specific structures, and where situational content generally
portrays an idealized image of the English-speaking culture. It is perhaps time to rid
the ELT field of its educational vision and practices based on a utopian notion of
communicative competence involving idealized native speaker norms in both
language and culture” (p. 60).
The basic objectives, proposed by Seelye have been revised and studied by different
researchers; basically they remained to be the centre of the attention of most
pedagogy in language, culture, and cross-cultural communication (Hinkel, 2012).
English courses are those in specialty which the content and objectives of the course
are determined by the needs specific to a particular group of students. From the 60s,
the growing need for many students to learn English with specific goals did emerge
with such force teaching English. The original goals of teaching culture as an
integrated part of foreign language learning were proposed by Ned Seelye (1988).
Although As far as basic principles are concerned, there is no reason to suppose that
the process of student learning English specialty is different from that required in
general English courses. The goals specify the key abilities, which learners have to
develop (Table 1).
Table 1: Key Abilities Learners of Foreign Languages have to Develop1
1.
Understanding that, in all societies, people display culturally-conditioned behaviours
2. Comprehension that, in all languages, social variables such as age, sex, social role, and social status define how people communicate
3. Awareness that, in all societies, people exhibit stylized language usage and behaviour in typical situations
4. Awareness of the cultural meanings given to words and phrases in foreign language
5. Ability to assess and improve generalizations and stereotypes regarding the
1 Source (Hinkel, 2012).
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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foreign language culture grounded on real-life evidence and experience
6. Skills for investigating different culture, in particular how to find, systematize, and assess new information about the new culture
7. Intellectual curiosity about the foreign culture, vision, respect, and other positive attitudes toward the media culture
2.4 The role of non-native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching
The consequences of rapid expansion of English language bought considerable
changes in the field of language teaching and language testing (Llurda, 2004). For
example in the study conducted by Major et al. (2002) which compared the grades on
the Test of Spoken English attained by speakers of four different languages: English,
Japanese, Chinese, and Spanish using four different types of the test revealed that
study with different native languages might have produced dissimilar results. The
research also suggests that the speech of non-native English speakers might have
phonological features that either benefit or cause difficulty for listeners. In spite of the
fat that the results of the Major et al. (2002) cannot be decisive, the latent effects of
this study are reflective.
The role of non-native speakers in language teaching has been received a considerable
amount of attention from scholars (e.g Medgyes, 1994, Braine 1999, Phillipson, 1992,
Rajagopalan, 1999). Specifically, Medgyes (1994) and Braine (1999) claim that non-
native speakers play a significant positive role in teaching English as a second
language. Llurda (2004) believes that with the aggregating establishment of English
as the international lingua franca, non-native speakers will be in best mediators to
chief their students through EIL. Teachers of EIL should integrate teaching materials
and activities with both local and international content that are well-known and
appropriate to language learners (Alptekin 2002). In addition non-native speakers
have gone through the experience of becoming bilingual and communicating using
different languages. As such, non-native-speaker teachers intrinsically possess better
expertise to guide the language-learning process. Nonetheless, an old native-speaker
framework remains to be a powerful stereotype that only British or American norms
have to be kept on and native speakers are considered the perfect teachers.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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A study conducted by Llurda and Huguet (2003) in Catalonia revealed that Catalan
teachers still focus more on teaching British culture, rather than any other European
countries during the English lessons. Similarly University departments in Russia are
dedicating more attention to British and American cultures and literatures than to
other English speaking countries. At the same time it has been argued that English
language classes in different countries do not have to focus on the entirely original
English speaking culture. In particular McKay (2000) argues that students may need
to use English so that to tell about their own culture, literature, and traditions to
foreigners, and therefore they need to be taught to do so.
2.5 Advantages of non-native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching
Medgyes (1994) in his research identifyied six major points of advantage Non-Native-
Speaker Teachers have against Native-speakers one (Table 2).
Table 2: Advantages of Non-Native-Speaker Teachers2
1
Provide a better learner model
2 Teach learning-learning strategies more effectively
3 Supply more information about the English language
4 Better anticipate and prevent language difficulties
5 More sensitive towards the students
6 Benefit from their ability to use the student’s mother tongue.
Let’s now have a closer look at each of them.
1. According to Medgyes (1994), a language teacher sets two types of models in
front of the students: a language model and a learner model. Further Medgyes
(1994) claims that non-native speaking teachers are able to set a better learners
model, while native-speaking teachers are better at setting a language model.
2Source (Medgyes, 1994: p.436)
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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2. Wenden and Rubin (1987) define learning stratagies as particular actions
which are used to simplify the learning and recollection of one or several
elements of competence (cited in Medgyes, 1994). Medges (1994) believes
that simplification of a process does not only mean finding an easier learning
method, but to find a method that will be faster, mor pleasurable, more self-
directed, more effective, and able to be transferred to different situations. As
such Medgyes (1994) suggests that non-native speaking teachers are more
strategy conscious, and thus they are more succsessful in finding a more
appropriate learning strategy for the learners.
3. A language teacher’s expertise comprises thre major elements: language
proficiency, language awareness, and pedagogic skills (Medgyes, 1994). Due
to the fact that non-native-spealing teachers went through the learnong phase
themselves they possess better knowledge about the English language, and
while native-speaking teachers have better feeling of what is correct and what
is not correct in the way the language is used, non-native speaking teachers
has better knowledge of the potential difficulties in language learning.
4. Based on the previous position Medgyes (1994) further suggests that non-
native-speaking teachers have a deeper insight in what language difficulties
are. It is easier for them to spot the trublesome places where a student can
possibly trip, and thus to avoid grammatical problems.
5. The next point which Medgyes (1994) highlights as non-native-speaking
teachers advantage s their sensitive attitude towards the students. Thus
Medgyes (1994) identifies several areas where non-native-speaking teachers
displayed the higher level of sensitivity than their native-speaking colleagues.
In particular non-native-speaking teachers are considered to be more
responsive towards the student’s real needs based on their cultural, personal
and background needs Learners must, sooner or later find themselves in
situations where they are forced to use proper English as an official speech in
a conference, or academic research. These situations require the correct
direction as well as shape. These two linguistic components are interdependent
relationship. Second of all, non-native-speaking teachers are likely to set more
realistic objectives in front of the students, rather than their native-speaking
colleagues. Third of all, non-native-speaking teachers are stricter, and are
ready to assign more homework for the students if needed.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
20
6. Finaly, Medgyes (1994) points out the ability to use a student’s mother tongue
as the advantage of non-native-speaking teachers, which their native-speaking
colleagues do not possess. After 1990 when the use of mother-tongue during
the English lessons was legitimized. Native language has been accepted as a
powerful teaching and learning tool (Medgyes, 1994), thus providing non-
native-speaking teachers with additional advantage against their counterparts.
Nonetheless in spite all listed and obvious advantages listed above non-native-
speaking teachers have to face challenges teaching English as a foreign language,
which are discussed in the next section.
2.6 Problem of Pronunciation for non-native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching Due to the escalating demands in English learning the majority of the teachers who
teach English as a foreign language are non-native speakers (Moussu & Llurda,
2008). In particular Canagarajah (2005) argues that 80% of the English teachers in the
world are non-native speakers.
Up to the date in most of the countries English language teachers are perceived as
“ambassadors” of “English culture”, when they not only teach students a foreign
language but also familiarize them with the country’s social peculiarities, ideologies,
culture and traditions. The teachers are more focused on a romanticized form of
British culture, values, and society, deeply rooted in old stereotypes. Indeed many
Non-native speaker (NNS) teachers seem not be aware of the novel language
perceptions and still stuck in the old native-speaker governed framework in which
only British or American standards have to be followed (Ozturk & Atay, 2010).
The challenge of non-native-speaker teachers is so-called problem of linguistic
deficits in the area of vocabulary, oral fluency and pronunciation (Ozturk & Atay,
2010: p. 135). Even in spite of the qualities possessed by the non-native-speaker
teachers (Medgyes, 1994), which give them a competitive edge over the native-
speakers who do not help narrowing the gap between the native and nonnative
professionals. Medgyes (1994) believes that the linguistic deficits are one of the
reasons native-speaking teachers and non-native speaking teachers have different
approach towards the error correction issue. In particular, native-speaking teachers
perceive language, as a mean to obtain some communication goal, whereas for non-
native-speaking teachers English is primarily a school subject, which has to be learnt,
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
21
and therefore they pursue more “heavy-handed” approach.
In the history of foreign language teaching the importance given to pronunciation has
varied greatly from the method of grammar and translation. The native accent was
during this time the target. After the abandonment of audio-lingual method,
pronunciation experienced periods of forgetfulness. Still, the important thing now is
to communicate in English Language, so the target has become intelligibility and not
the native accent, considering this as an unrealistic and unnecessary goal for most
learners of English Language (Jenkins, 2000; 2002). As a result, foreign accent
tolerated not normally hinder communication or a direct relationship (Derwing &
Munro, 2005). All this has led authors such as Levis (2005) asserts that the history of
pronunciation has been a story "in extremes". The truth is that, at present, the teaching
of pronunciation suffers basically two things, i.e. excessive dependence of the written
language and the fact that the "Cinderella" of teaching communicative foreign
language.
On the one hand, it is true that the teaching of English Language has undergone major
changes in the last thirty years. Studies in linguistics, psycholinguistics, pragma-
linguistics, discourse analysis, etc. have brought a number of ideas that have
prompted an educational renewal was reflected in the development of the
communicative approach, the first to establish learning objectives aimed at oral and
written communication skills. In this communicative approach and on the recent task-
based approach, is given a priori as important to oral skills as written. However,
despite the improvements that has involved the application and the good long-term
results that continue to be used in written language as a support in teaching oral
language. Thus, the results obtained in teaching based on the communicative
approach are being better at reading and writing skills.
In the years pronunciation begins to appear in English manuals in attempts of teaching
pronunciation through the communicative approach, while still relying in varying
extent in written texts and, in some cases, continue to use the phonetic alphabet
(Taylor, 1993; Seidlhofer, 2001). However, teaching pronunciation remains
unattended in English Language and do not receive adequate treatment. The job is
usually made of communicative approach neglects the phonetic dimension of
communication. Furthermore, this emphasizes that although there is some interest in
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
22
the pronunciation of segments, it does not take into account their integration in
speech. For it is the intonation of first phonetic phenomenon that is the listener and
disregard supposed a contradiction with the communicative goals of education?
Teachers do not know how to integrate the teaching of pronunciation in the
communicative approach or the most recent task-based approach. On one hand, lack
of material, is one of the issues since integration of pronunciation has not been
proposed in many manuals. Furthermore, existing manuals barely pay attention to the
teaching of pronunciation and when they do not untie phonetic pronunciation
correction and based on the known "Listen and repeat", that is, in hearing and
imitation. The levels of pronunciation that has to describe the students in earlier
grades six but a section on pronunciation targets is not included.
The relationship between spelling and sound presented the phonological function of
stress, the stress patterns of the words and the relationship between sentence modality
and intonation pattern. Thus, their integration in the communicative class is
impossible as teaching pronunciation is often presented as an annex or appendix with
no relation to the development, content and focus of the classes. So, very limited work
is done to prevent the use of behavioural methods and resources that have already
been overcome in other areas of education.
Due to the marginalized status of pronunciation that many English as a Secondary
Language (ESL) teachers have no formal training to teach it, as it is clear from the
studies of Burges and Spencer (2000 ) and Breitkreutz et al (2002). MacDonald
(2002) cites several studies in Australia and notes that many teachers do not teach
pronunciation because they lack confidence, skills and knowledge. Derwing & Munro
(2005) note that, accordingly, in most cases, students even receive any instruction or
focuses directly on traits regardless of influence on intelligibility. Also, many
materials have been designed pronunciation regardless of the findings in research on
pronunciation. The lack of inconsistency and multiple deficiencies in the activities of
good English pronunciation manuals used to help students of English as foreign
language.
To avoid these negative results Derwing & Munro (2005) point out the important
instructors have opportunities to learn about pedagogy of pronunciation and that this
preparation is justified by the findings in the research, like other aspects of language,
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
23
which do receive greater care courses and preparation materials for teachers.
Ultimately they conclude that teachers should be prepared to critically evaluate
materials and curriculum based on empirical research, in order to meet the wishes of
many students who see teaching pronunciation a priority (Derwing, 2003). But the
marginalization of the study of pronunciation is given in the field of applied
linguistics. Since Levis (1999) noted that the present international research is almost
completely divorced from modern language teaching and is rarely re-elected in
teaching materials. Derwing & Munro (2005) argue that many studies are also
engaged in the pronunciation of the English Language than other aspects of language
such as grammar or vocabulary, despite the increased interest by teachers in
pronunciation. Thus, according to these authors, it cannot resolve many of the
difficulties faced by the instructors.
As a result of this situation, instructional materials and practices of teachers are still
influenced by common sense and intuition, not having some direction (Derwing &
Munro, 2005; Levis, 2005) and even many teachers are reluctant to teach
pronunciation. For them, the problem would be resolved if the applied researchers
studying linguistic responsibility will be taken and interpret technical research for
educational specialists and incorporated relevant findings in teacher training materials
and books of student text. The results of research in basic and applied phonetics
should be accounted in the design of the pronunciation exercises methods and
complementary materials. Consequently, after everything said, it can be said that the
pronunciation is clearly being the unfinished business of communicative foreign
language teaching.
.
2.7 Conclusion
This chapter presented an overview of the existing literature on English as an
International Language, and in particular what will be the implication for non-native-
speaking teachers due to rapid language globalization. Indeed the rapid technological,
social, and economic changes brought out new perspective to the meaning of the
English language as international mean of communication. Due to such rapid
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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expansion of its popularity the prevailing majority of the teachers who teach English
as foreign students are non-native-speakers. Although non-native-speaking teachers
do possess some particular advantages against their native-speaking colleagues, the
challenges they have to face have to be acknowledged. The Chapter also reviewed
the circumstances of language rapid expansion, and foreign cultures penetration, as
well as the implications for teaching process.
Teaching English when responding to a case of integrative motivation, we have a
situation of English as a second language. This term is used to designate the teaching /
learning of English as the language plays a role important communicative within a
country but it is not the mother tongue or first tongue. We speak here of English as a
medium of communication in educational or judicial systems of those countries, the
language of media (newspapers, radio, television), the language of the official
institutions and as the language of commerce and industry in general. This is the case
of immigrants or minorities in a country whose official language is not considered
within the country.
In addition to the above factors, some teaching methods are considered inappropriate
and unsuccessful are also behind the poor level of the students in English. May
mention the communicative approach applied in other region for many years. This
approach did not succeed in achieving the goals of expected learning due to some
serious constraints that have hindered its implementation. One of the fundamental
principles of the communicative approach is to focus on meaning at the expense of
form. This has resulted in consequences undesirable and made the desired goal more
difficult to achieve. Most students are unable to express themselves correctly whether
orally or in writing. They also have difficulties understanding of authentic texts;
baggage grammar and vocabulary is very limited. These weaknesses are related to the
approach which states that communicative grammar should not be taught explicitly,
because it can be acquired implicitly as one uses the language communicatively.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Chapter 3
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to present the research strategy for the research. This
chapter will first present brief introduction into the two major research methods. It
then proceeds to present the two research methodologies in detail. The next section
then presents a brief insight into research design and how nature of research will
impact the research. The next section will then present the selected methodology and
its justification. The final section will then present the reliability and Validity in the
chose method. Apart from this section will also highlight the ethical considerations
that are planned in the research.
3.2 Research Questions Problem of Pronunciation for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as
an International Language?
Vindicating the role of non-native speakers in language teaching
What is the internal diversity among non-native speakers?
Hence, the present research is grounded on logical relationships and not pure beliefs
(Ghauri and Grønhaug 2005), and the major purpose of the research is to understand
the challenges that non-native teachers are facing in teaching English as an
International Language.
Another important aspect of the research is increasing existing knowledge, which
demands from a researcher to have a clear understanding of the research philosophies,
as they are directly related to new knowledge development.
3.3 Research Philosophies, and Research Approach
Research philosophy (Figure 1) carries essential assumptions regarding the way a
researcher visions the world (Saunders et al., 2010). These assumptions lie in the
heart of the research strategy and the methods, which have been chosen as part of the
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
26
strategy. The choice of research philosophy depends on a question a researcher is
looking to answer. Saunders et al (2010) suggests that in reality a research question
hardly falls precisely into only one philosophical area, and encourage researchers to
be more flexible when selecting a research approach and methods.
Figure 13
In order to answer the research question the researcher has based the present study on
epistemology philosophy, which concerns with the question “what constitutes
acceptable knowledge in a field of study?” (Saunders et al, 2010, p.112). Moreover,
between two available philosophies within the epistemology domain, - positivism and
interpretivism, the author has embraced the interpretivist philosophy. Creswell (2009)
: The research “onion”
Coming back to the questions of the present research:
Problem of Pronunciation for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an
International Language?
?
3Source: Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
27
describes grounded theory as “a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a
general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants”.
Positivism is rooted in the tradition of natural science. Positivists prefer “working
with an observable social reality and that the end product of such research can be law-
like generalizations similar to those produced by the physical and natural scientists”
(Remenyi et al. 1998, p.32). These phenomenons, investigated by the positivists
investigate, as a rule leads to the collection of reliable data. To collect this data
positivists adopt adequate research strategies, which are likely to employ existing
theory to develop hypotheses. These hypotheses are then tested, and confirmed, in
whole or part, or refuted, leading to the further development of theory, which then
may be tested by further research.
Unlike positivism, interpretivism seeks to find out the differences between humans, as
social actors. Positivists have argued that physical sciences cannot be used to theorize
the complex social world of business and hence is similar approach will not be helpful
(Tolman, 1992). Interpretivism also argues that humans will play different role in
different context. These arguments justified how objective approach cannot be taken
on complex social beings like humans. Interpretivism encourages a researcher to
understand differences between individuals as social actors, and focuses on
conducting a research among people rather than objects.
Since the main objects of investigation of the current research are people, and the
author aims to understand what challenges non-native English teachers can facewhile
the current research has taken interpretive stand.
3.4 Research Approach and Research Strategy
The current study is an exploratory study in nature as it aims to find out “what is
happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new
light” (Robson, 2002, p.59). There were two major stages through which the author
has collected the data for the research:
By searching the literature
Interviewing specialists in the field.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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In spite of the fact the research is exploratory in nature, and took an interpretivism
stand, the author has decided to use an inductive approach to conduct the study The
Inductive Method emerged as a natural resource to complement the above procedure.
It happens to be the opposite of what using the Deductive Method; goes from the
particular to the general, suggesting it through individual cases in which the general
principle that governs them is discovered. It is based on experience, observation, in
fact. Their acceptance is that instead of starting from a final conclusion, the researcher
offered the factors underlying generalizations and takes him to induce, is active for
excellence.
The exploratory nature of the study suggested using a grounded theory strategy to
conduct an investigation. The method of grounded theory is the constant comparison,
connoting, as Sandoval, on-going review and compare the captured data in order to
build theory actually says. The method of this trend helps the anthropologist develop
and compare new mental categories and enter notions of space and time, opposition
and contradiction, which may be foreign to traditional thinking. Goulding (2002)
argues that grounded theory strategy is specifically effective for the studies, which
goal is to foresee and justify behaviours. Moreover, unlike positivistic strategies,
grounded theory allows developing and building theory, instead of testing it. In case
of grounded theory the process of data collection begins before the development of an
original theoretical framework (Saunders et al., 2010). Glaser and Strauss (1967) also
argue that grounded theory is the best strategy for a study adhering to the inductive
approach. As such the objectives of this study, which are to understand the challenges
facing Non-Native English teachers teaching English as an International Language,
and to explore the changing demands of students studying English as an International
Language are apt to fit rudimentary objectives of grounded theory as a research
strategy.
3.5 Questionnaire Development and Sampling
The questionnaire for the current research has been developed in four main stages,
which are presented in figure 2.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Figure 2: Stages of Questionnaire Development
When developing the questionnaire the researcher tried to avoid using vague or
negative questions, which could be misinterpreted. Moreover, he author did not
include leading or value-laden questions, which implied a required answer, or might
lead informants to give misinforming answers. The author also avoided offensive or
insensitive questions, which could have caused participants’ embarrassment. Finally
the author did not ask for information, which could disclose confidential information
about the informant’s private data. The questionnaires have been developed of two
types: for interviewing teachers, and for interviewing students. The full example of
the questionnaire used in the study is presented in the Appendix 1.
The key participants have been selected by means of a judgmental sampling method,
in particular using purposive sampling technique Sampling is a key element in the
research methodology as it involves selecting a group of items that will be used to
conduct a study. The key informants for the current study were non-native English
teachers, and students learning English as a foreign language This sampling technique
is appropriate when the population is already divided into groups that more accurately
reflects the characteristics of the population and allows comparisons between strata
formed. Conducting semi-structured interviews enabled the author to obtain a deeper
insight into the participant’s attitudes and experiences regarding the challenges for
non-native-speaking teachers might face nowadays when teaching English as a
foreign language. The technique is as follows: the population is divided into groups or
clusters, and then randomly selects some of these groups, arguing that each is
representative of the population and then a random sample of each is taken groups
that have been selected. Purposive sampling enabled the researcher to employ his own
judgment during the selection process of the most suitable cases in order to answer
the research question and to meet research aims and objectives (Saunders et al.,
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
30
2010).
3.6 Pilot
So that to test the designed questionnaire for fitness to use and confirm that the design
meets the aims and objectives of the investigation, and allows answering the research
questions a pilot interview was performed. The pilot interview discovered that
questionnaire needed some improvements in terms of adding some questions, and
correcting the content and the structure of the questionnaire in order to get rid of any
ambiguity in questions. Simple random sampling is used when all elements of the
population are known. Each element of the population has an equal chance of being
chosen to be part of the sample. An enumerative list of items is made. From here a
series of elements comprising the sample is obtained. The process involves working
with a table of random digits or a random generated numbers in a spread sheet and
selecting matching the random number and the order of the list, or using a computer
to select an amount of random elements of a general list that is population.
3.7 Data Collection
The process of data collection for the purpose of the research can be divided into two
main phases: primary data collection, and secondary data collection. Let’s now
discuss each of the phases.
Primary data collection The primary data was collected using a qualitative approach via in-depth semi-
structured interviews. Qualitative methods have both advantages and disadvantages,
which have to be acknowledged when conducting a study (Table X).
Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Qualitative methods of Data Collection
Advantages Disadvantages
Enable a better understanding of an individual’s behaviour, feelings and views
Extremely time consuming thus only a minor sample size can be used in comparison to quantitative methods, which is likely to cause the inaccurateness of the results
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
31
Let novel theories and ideas to be developed
Problematic to determine the results after the comparison of the variables as numerous responses vary
Provide tailored results to the subjects, and enables gaining a more objective opinion
Generalization is difficult
Source: (Bryman and Bell, 2011)
The author has interviewed non-native English teachers, about their experiences of
teaching English as foreign language. The interviews have been conducted with the
teachers teaching English in secondary schools, high schools, and universities in
China, and students who are learning English as a foreign language. The author used a
self-selection sampling to select the participants. The letters of invitation to
participate in the research were sent through or emails to 43 teachers, 15 positive
responses were collected. Therefore following by Guest et al. (2006) suggestion that
if a researcher aims to understand commonalities within a fairly homogenous group,
12 in-depth interviews should suffice, the author interviewed those 15 positively
responded individuals. Each interview lasted from 10 to 15 minutes. The length of the
questionnaire depends on several factors, but primarily on two factors. The first factor
is the amount of information you wish to have the interviewee and how many
questions are necessary to obtain such information. The second is the mode of
administration of the questionnaire. In the first case we must adhere to the objectives
of the investigation, but whether it is deep or very ambitious research, this will
influence the way determinedly chosen application questionnaire. A self-administered
questionnaire or telephone must have, as we shall see in more detail, an extension as
limited as possible (just a few minutes). A questionnaire administered face to face, on
the contrary, may extend its duration to 10 to 15 minutes. In any case the extension of
a questionnaire should not measure by the number of questions you have, but by the
average duration of the interview.
The average duration of the interview can calculate by what is known as Pretest. The
Pretest involves the application of the questionnaire on a small sample population
before beginning fieldwork. The pretest helps us, among other things, to determine
the length of the interview and test the relevance and correctness of the statements
and answers that make up the questionnaire can be corrected before starting to apply
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
32
the lcuestionario on the entire population. The students who are learning English as a
foreign language have been approached by the author personally and asked to
participate in the study. Out of ten approached six agreed to participate in the study.
All the interviews were recorded on a tape recorder and later transcribed.
3.8 Content analysis
In order to assess the interviews the responses from the participants we subjected to
content analysis technique. Content analysis allows a researcher to categorize verbal
or behavioural data, and help to classify, and summarize the data. Content analysis is
a widely used research tool, which is employed to outline the presence of definite
words or concepts within a text. Researchers scrutinize these words, their values and
associations with other concepts, and decode the messages those words communicate.
A step model of analysis is presented in Figure 3
Content Analysis Step Model 4
Figure 3: Content Analysis Step Model
4Adopted from Zhang & Wildemuth., 2009
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
33
3.9 Reliability, Validity and ethical consideration
The consistency of data collection, in other words the validity and reliability of the
data, has been always of great concern among the academia. However the
development of qualitative research methods made researches to rethink the meaning
of reliability and validity. The validity, in general terms, refers to the degree to which
an instrument actually measures the variable being measured. For example, a valid
instrument for measuring intelligence should not measure intelligence and memory. A
test of knowledge of history should measure this and no knowledge of historical
literature. Contrary to quantitative research, where the consistency of the means of
data collection is highly important, qualitative research does not search for consistent
results. Therefore the concept of validity and reliability need to be adapted to
qualitative studies as transferability and dependability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The
content validity refers to the degree to which an instrument reflects a specific domain
of content of what is measured. The degree to which the measurement represents the
measured concept.
Conducting qualitative research researchers often known as the setting in which the
study is conducted. This gives readers an idea, and an opportunity to decide whether
their findings are applicable if used in other settings. This can be attributed to
Transferability of research. The concept of Dependability is concerned with the
readers and the offerings to the reader in the context of accuracy of the information
provided as to be able to make informed decisions. This generally is done by
providing an in depth account of the whole process and the interview including the
analysis. The process of validating a construct is linked with the theory. It is not
possible to conduct construct validation, unless there is a theoretical framework that
supports the variable relative to other variables. Of course, it is not necessary a highly
developed theory, but investigations have shown that the concepts are related.
Ethical considerations are of prime importance for any research. Most researchers
undertake the research with intentions to help but yet researchers have to be careful as
the process involves humans and their personal data in one form or the other. No
participant should face stress, trouble or any kind of problems due to participation and
thus ethical consideration lays out guidelines to ensure this does not happen. Ethical
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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considerations are generally around a couple of known issues which have been listed
below in four categories:
Participant should not be harmed in any way; Participant should be informed and a consent to be taken
Participants privacy should be utmost priority
No deception should be involved.
(Alan Bryman, Emma Bell, 2007, p. 128)
In order to prevent distraction of any listed above a study has to be conducted with the
compliance of three key ethical doctrines:
• Autonomy
• Beneficence
• Justice
Protecting the participants’ identities and conducting the research with compliance of
anonymity and confidentiality achieved the beneficence doctrine. In addition the
participants were well informed that all data obtained during the survey would be
used only for the purpose of current study.
3.10 Sample For the purpose of current research the data have been collected using in-depth semi-
structured interviews with the school/college/university teachers and students
currently attending English course in the UK. Overall 18 people have been
interviewed: 12 teachers and six students. Each interview lasted about 15 to 20
minutes.
The average age of the students interviewed was 23-24 years. All participants were
attending English language courses in UK. Of those asked two attended private
schools and colleges, and the rest learned English in public institutions.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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3.11 Conclusion This chapter describes the research methodology, which has been adhered for the
purpose of current research. Research can be classified as transactional, longitudinal
or trend by the criterion of time. In terms of the objectives of an investigation can be
classified as exploratory, descriptive, correlational or experimental. Research methods
are varied so for example the art of documentary research is useful to describe,
explain, compare, etc. certain issues based on reading and review of various materials
and documents while survey research to analyse stocks based on the study of a
representative sample.
The Chapter begins with the common conceptualization of research philosophies,
explaining the author’s philosophical stand towards the approach, and the choice of
the research strategy. Further on in the Chapter the sampling method and the process
of questionnaire development have been explained.
The next Chapter presents the main findings and the Discussion of the findings.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
4.1 Introduction The aim of this chapter is to present the findings and discussion for the current
research. This Chapter incorporates the key findings of the research, which have been
derived from the data collected during the interviews, and the discussion of the same.
The objective of this research is briefly revisited which is
The three sections are dedicated to presenting and discussion of the highlighted
themes. The themes are also discussed in the light of existing literature, and previous
findings. The use of mother tongue as a teaching technique foreign language is
controversial. The controversy lies mainly in the benefits and the disadvantages of
this method. Among the benefits, one could argue that makes it easy to both the
teacher and the learner. There are words that are still ambiguous whatever
explanations. These words, however, become clear when the students' mother tongue
is employed.
4.2 Results Out of 12 teachers who participated in the research three were high school teachers in
China, seven taught the language in colleges, and two were University professors.
33% of the informants had five to ten years of working experience, 25% have been
teaching English between ten to 15 years, 17% jointed the profession less than five
years ago, the same amount of those who asked had 15 to 20 years of experience, and
8% have been in the profession for more than 20 years (Figure 4).
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Figure 4: Work Experience
The age ranges of the students to whom informants teach English vary from 6 years
old to 19 years old. Two of those participated in the research worked in private
schools, and the rest 10 were teaching English in public schools, and colleges (Figure
5).
Figure 5:
Figure 5: Public VS Private
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
38
32% of the informants agreed that journals and books are their primary sources of
knowledge update, 29% named the internet, 18% attend special language courses,
13% use networking with local and native-speaking colleagues, and only 8% can
afford travelling to English speaking countries to keep up with the changes, which are
happening in the language (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Sources of Knowledge Update
Out of those asked 67% rated their proficiency in English as “High”, 25% as “Very
High”, and 8% believed that they have a medium proficiency in English. However,
when asked to rate the same in comparison with their native-speaking counterparts,
none of the participants rated their skills as “Very High”, 58% rated themselves as
“High” skilled, and 42% as “Medium” (Figure 7).
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
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Figure 7: Levels of Language Proficiency
None of the students-informants had native-speaking teacher while learning English
in China, and 100% of those asked would choose native-speaking teacher, if they
have such an opportunity. Among the reasons for such a choice the students named:
Reasons Per cent
Higher level of proficiency 100
More plausible, and innovative teaching
methods
83
They don’t have an accent 50
4.3 Limited Resources This section will discuss the most recurring theme of Limited resources. One of the
main findings of this research indicates that most participants have pointed out to the
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
40
limited resources in teaching English as an international language when they
themselves are non-native speakers. In the literature it was pointed out that at present
English has touched such level of internationalization when both native-speaking
communities should learn local changes in the language in the same way as non-
native speaking population. The participants pointed out that there was a serious gap
when it came to the requirement of Pronunciation because of a lack of resources. The
quotes of participants are as follows.
P 1: “I mostly use secondary resources such as books, journals, TV news, internet to
keep myself updated with what is going on in the cultural, and linguistic
sphere….However…these resources are not sufficient nowadays for a teacher of
English to remain the primary source of the knowledge for the student, to remain the
model, if I can say so, mostly because they lack the information about pronunciation
which is one of the primary difficulties of non-native English speaking teachers”
P 2:“In spite of all the fact the nowadays it is much easier to gain the access to the
information, I believe that it was never so problematic for the teachers to keep their
knowledge up to date ….I believe one of the major reasons that even the students can
retrieve the same information, and sometimes even more information from the same
sources ”
P 3 : “I see the main problem for the teachers in the lack of exposure to the natural
language settings, like pronunciation. My point is it is imperative for the teachers
nowadays to have an opportunity to go abroad and interact with their native-speaking
colleagues, to take up some language courses…only this way teachers nowadays can
retain their status as learning models”.
P 4: “I think that teachers are indeed lack of resources to keep themselves updated
regarding what changes are going in the language… It might seem an easy thing, you
know, one can say just open Internet… but in fact teachers need more reliable
resources, and what is more important, they need to update not only their theoretical,
but also practical knowledge, and for this matter networking with native speakers is
imperative. I went to special training in UK last year, and frankly it was first time I
realized all the imperfections I had… take only pronunciation, which I had to improve
and still do”.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
41
This is in line with the assumption made in the literature based on the literature
review where non-native-speaker teachers will face a greater challenge to keep up
with the upcoming changes, and if they fail to do so they are likely to face an
increased pressure from the students, and their parents/guardians. The quotes provide
a direct insight into the same of how non-native speakers are facing increased
pressure due to dynamicity of the language, which needs frequent updating of their
skills to teach English as an international language. Hence one of the biggest
challenges for non-native speaking English teachers to teach English as an
international language is their access to limited resources.
None of the participants who were interviewed mentioned that their ability of being
able to speak the local language had any benefits to overcome any challenges as
mentioned in literature. As McKay (2000, 2003) proposed dedicating time and
attentiveness during the lecture to the students’ own culture so that to empower them
and allow to share their own culture with other English speakers. There was no
evidence found in the interviews where any participant suggested this as being
strength or a useful resource.
Hinkel (2012) points out that in addition to the linguistic elements of a foreign
language, modern teachers have to focus on practical cultural aspects and set new
objective of teaching social and interactional norms. The quotes are as follows.
P 1: “I have a lot of students who come here not just to learn English but to absorb
everything that comes with English. These students are learning English for business
purposes and realize that there culturally difference which one should be careful of.
They do like to utilize every example to learn English in a culturally appropriate way”
As per the literature a language teacher sets two types of models in front of the
students: a language model and a learner model. Further Medgyes (1994) claims that
non-native speaking teachers are able to set a better learners model, while native-
speaking teachers are better at setting a language model (Medgyes, 1994).
4.4 Linguistic Deficit This section refers to the linguistic defect, especially among the teachers, which can
be credited to them` being non-native speakers. Non-native speaking English teachers
as mentioned in the earlier section face a serious lack of resources to keep up with the
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
42
ever-dynamic language of English. This leads to a gap in what is current and what the
teachers know and this is referred to as Linguistic Deficit. Linguistic deficit will cover
deficits in grammar, current use of speech and idioms and phrase whose meanings are
contextual rather than literal. There is also a gap of pronunciations, which teachers
felt was one of the most important factors.
P 4 “You know there were so many times I felt awkward because my English
pronunciation was not right, during my staying in UK, and at the same time I
appreciated my native-speaking colleagues, when they helped me to improve. And
then I also realized that we don’t know, and it even never occurred to us that some
words, even very simple – let’s say like asking the apology, -we never knew which to
use and at what situation, and often were driven by standards of native tongue not
realizing the inappropriateness of it” (Dendrinos, 2001).
In the literature Dendrinos (2001) argues that English lessons for native speakers, and
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) must give students an opportunity to move
easily from their L1 to the L2 and vice versa. She believes that since the learners of
EIL will not use English as their one communication language, during the lessons
they should be given an opportunity to practice the interpreting and reporting skills,
and not to focus on a monolingual communicative scenarios. Such an issue is a
challenge which can impede the teaching ability of non-native English teachers.
Further insight into this is provided by the next quote where the participants
benchmarks non-native speakers of English much below those of native speakers
indicating a lower confidence and self-esteem (will be discussed in next section).
P 7: “Of course my colleagues, and I totally understand that we cannot compete with
the native-speaking teachers in terms of the proficiency in language, we are much
poorer speakers than native-speaking, and our major trouble is pronunciation,
developing as wide vocabulary as natives have, and to use idioms correctly. As a
result our students suffer the same problems”.
The problems of teachers also reflect into students learning capabilities. The quotes
regarding the same are as below.
S1 “I think learning English in China with a Chinese teacher was a complete lots of
time for me. When I came to England and went for the English course I have realized
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
43
that half of the grammar rules we’ve been taught at home, and spent so much time and
effort are not even used here. And then pronunciation I have to face a problem of
relearning”
S2 “When I learned English in China the whole part of phraseological units has been
missed from our syllabus, and when I came to UK I realized that English people use
them a lot in their everyday life. I had a lot of confusion in the beginning because I
couldn’t understand the right meaning of the words. And then the problem with
pronunciation was terrible; I was very upset when people just couldn’t get what I was
saying, and in China I was one of the best students in English class. ”
Medgyes (1994) and Braine (1999) claims that non-native speakers play a significant
positive role in teaching English as a second language. Llurda (2004) believes that
with the aggregating establishment of English as the international lingua franca, non-
native speakers will be in best mediators to chief their students through EIL. From
above quotes it’s very much clear that these claims cannot be substantiated rather
refuted. The presence of Linguistic Deficit with non-native English speakers only
increased the confusion students will face when they are using English practically
(NNS). The rework that students will have to do indicate that it’s a threat to student’s
future as well as leaves a huge gap to be culturally misunderstood.
This study agrees with Alptekin (2002) who claims that teachers of EIL should
integrate teaching materials and activities with both local and international content
that are well-known and appropriate to language learners. Kramsch (1997) claims that
non- native-speaker teachers are empowered by bilingualism, which allows them to
move fluently from their native language to the foreign one, and as such to maneuver
efficiently across demands of the learning. There is no evidence to support this claim
but there is enough evidence to point out that bilingualism is only useful to make the
environment comfortable for student but it having any significant impact of teaching
skills is completely absent. Also Kramsch (1997) claims that in addition non-native
speakers have gone through the experience of becoming bilingual and communicating
using different languages. This claim was also backed by Llurda (2004), who has
reported that non-native-speaker teachers have a sufficient level of language expertise
to and even have some advantages over native speakers, particularly over those who
speak no other language but English. As such, non-native-speaker teachers
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
44
intrinsically possess better expertise to guide the language-learning process. The very
fact that the teachers who were interviewed benchmarked themselves below native
English speaking teachers shows that they do not credit bilingual ability over a native
English speaking teaching ability.
Thus despite this gap this research finds that for non-native English teachers an old
native-speaker framework remains to be a powerful stereotype that only British or
American norms have to be kept on and native speakers are considered the perfect
teachers.
4.5 Low Self-Esteem The previous section gave a glimpse into the low self-esteem of the non-english
speaking teachers.
P5 “I mean I totally realize that if a student or employer has to choose between non-
native and native-speaking teachers the choice would be done for the favour of the
last. Probably it is fair enough taking into consideration their higher level of
proficiency as well as perfect pronunciation”
P3 “I have no doubts that any of my Chinese colleagues will have to lose in front of
native-speaking teacher. Several years ago I applied for a position in private school,
and in spite of my high qualification here, the role was given to a native-
speakingbecause he has much better pronunciation. Today both students and parents
if given a choice would chose native speaking teachers against local one ”
P8 “If you ask me to rate my proficiency in English I would rate it high, but high is
not very high. Most of my colleagues agree that unfortunately we do not possess
sufficient conversational skills, and have problems with pronunciation. Yes in the
class we are the models for our students, but I know on my own experience that if now
I will have to have a chat with a native speaker I will be stuck, and I will need some
time for adaptation”
P6 “You know what I want to tell you? In this entire race to find a native-speaking
teachers for their children parents don’t understand and realize, that even native-
speakers might make mistakes. Do you know that sometimes non-native speakers
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
45
knows grammar better than even natives? Or do they know that often our students
know grammar better than British kids? No they don’t know, or they don’t want to
know, because they concerned only with their kids to know conversational language.
But this is not what education is. Our goal as teachers not only to teach them
conversational language, but to introduce them to English culture, and literature, and
if they are not happy with this this is question for the authorities who create school
syllabus”.
The low self-esteem of these teachers can be credited to the Linguistic Deficit they
face due to the dynamic nature of the language they teach. This dynamic nature of
language demands the constant updating of the existing knowledge. Also there are
certain factors like prononciation which needs the teachers to retrain not just their
English skills but also they also have to retain their phonetic skills. This is impeded
by the presence of the resources that are available to them. Thus is is like a chain of
events but only in this case it’s a series of challenges these non-native speaking
teachers face.
4.6 Positives While there are drawbacks there some positives for non-native English speaking
teachers. In literature Wenden and Rubin (1987) define learning stratagies as
particular actions which are used to simplify the learning and recollection of one or
several elements of competence (cited in Medgyes, 1994). Medgyes (1994) believes
that simplification of a process does not only mean finding an easier learning method,
but to find a method that will be faster, more pleasurable, more self-directed, more
effective, and able to be transferred to different situations. As such Medgyes (1994)
suggests that non-native speaking teachers are more strategy conscious, and thus they
are more succsessful in finding a more appropriate learning strategy for the learners.
The student participants did mention that there learning process was well structured
and designed for their needs.
The next chapter will present the conclusion, recommendations and limitations.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
46
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
47
Chapter 5
Conclusion, Recommendations and Limitations
5.1 Introduction The main aim of this chapter is to present the conclusion of this research based on the
finindings and discussion and critical analysis of the literature. The chapter is broken
down into three parts from here. The first part is conclusions which is followed by
recommendations and the last part will highlight the limitations of the research.
5.2 Conclusion This section will present the conclusions of the research. The conclusion of the
research will point out three main points, which are the three themes discussed in the
above chapter i.e. Resources Lacking, Linguistic Deficit and Low Self Esteem.
4) The research found that the nature of English lanague is too dynamic and thus
this would need special effort and knowledge sharing for the teachers to keep
up-to-date. This poses a particular challenge for non-native english teachers.
The current scenario observed that non-native english teachers did not have
the resources to keep up with the changes and this led to an below par
performance by these teachers. There is little evidence that the bilingual nature
of teacher can help students but the evidence limits itself to the area of making
the environment conducive. This research could not conclude if strategies
prepared for language learning of native english speaking are better or worse
when compared to those of non native english speaking teachers. The research
also concluded that resource limitations is the most important challenge that
non-native english speaking teachers are facing in the current scaenario and
this particular challenges lead the way for other problems and challenges.
5) The second most important challenges is the Lingiustic deficit. This research
finds evidence that this is one problem that threatens the teachers like none
other. The linguistic deficit like bad pronunciation leads to students having to
relearn or in many cases even cause confusions in communications. This has
led to students being frustrated and there is increasing pressure on teachers to
be able to overcome these problems. This also affects the more of both
teachers and students alike. Due to this particular problems non-native english
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
48
speaking teachers tend to benchmark native english speaking teachers above
themselves. This leads to the third challenge for the non-native english
speaking teachers is that of self-esteem which is discussed next.
6) The non-native english teachers who were interviewed clearly demonstrated
very low self esteem. This was due to the lack of being able to keep up with
the changing standards. This was further pressured by the increasing pressure
from parents and students to be able to keep up with the dynamic international
standards in english. The lower self esteem led to lower performance and thus
students also showed some dissatisfaction with their teachers. Like pointed out
earlier the most important challenges is to overcome the resource lack. The
next section will provide the recommendations.
5.3 Recommendations The aim of this section is to provide the recommendation for the current research
based on the findings.
• Non-native speaking teachers in China do not have sufficient resources to
advance their skills, and keep their knowledge up to date. Therefore it is
necessary to provide them with the opportunity to interact with their native-
speaking colleagues, and regularly advance their proficiency. The opportunity
to travel frequently abroad, and take up professional training courses in
English speaking countries would be one of the most desirable solutions,
since it will also allow the teachers to familiarize themselves with the Anglo
culture practically, and not only theoretically. However it might be to
expensive solution, and thus on-line professional training courses, and social
networking could be a good substitute for travelling.
• Non-native speaking teachers should become aware of their own
pronunciation deficit, and by creating professional unions work towards
improving their skills. Interacting with each other, sharing problems and new
information among the members would help them to advance. Moreover,
distant interacting with the university colleagues from UK, USA, Canada,
Australia can also facilitate them to work on such issues as wrong
pronunciation, and vocabulary deficit.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
49
5.4 Limitations Any practical research will have limitation and this particular research is no exception
either. This research was qualitative in nature and in any qualitative research the
number of participants is not fixed. In ideal case scenario the interviews should be
done till saturation occurs i.e. a point where no new information surface the the
findings start repeating itself. In case of current research the saturation level was not
achieved and the primary reason for that being the limitation on time and resources
available for the research. The process of qualitative interviews, trancsripting and
analysis is a long one further limiting the number of smaples. The next limitation is
students and teachers both were interviewed but the focus was on non-native english
teachers teaching english. Due to this limited focus there was no benchmark for
comparison of the findings from this research against those with native english
teachers and their equivalent students. Due to this a lot in literature which compares
the two cannot be verified or refuted. Also the research took a completely qualitative
approach where as a mixed approach could have provided a lot more valuable data.
To cross reference the findings. The future research in this area can address these
shortcoming and provide a more deeper perspective on the topic.
This claim could not be substantiated as no native speaking teacher was interviewed
but the participants do acknowledge that being a local language teacher students are
much more comfortable but that’s it. There is no indication of better learning models
or language models. To study this angle it will be necessary to interview students and
not teachers. The interview samples of students in current scenario do not satisfy the
necessary norms as current students are sharing experiences of non-native english
speaking teachers but there is no benchmark data collected for an equivalent student
under a native english speaking teachers. The next section will focus on findings on
Linguistic Deficit and discuss the findings against the literature.
What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.
50
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