Evaluation vs. Management

Dr. Syed Amir IqbalResource Person

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementDuring the birth of the missile and space programs, companies estimated that the divorce rate among project managers and project engineers was probably twice the national average in US.Project Managing Vs. EvaluationProject Management:Once the Project has been selected, we start managing itManagement is accomplished in 5 process: Initiating, Planning, Executing, Monitoring & Control and ClosingAs the lifecycle of the project starts we start managing itA number of Org. define its body of knowledgeProject Evaluation:Help in making decision about which project to do & why.Accomplished before the project can be managedMathematical tech. for finding the best alternative2Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject or Capital ExpenditureInvolves a current outlay of funds in the expectation of a stream of benefits extending far into the future.In accounting perspective, Capital Exp. is an exp. that is shown as an Asset on the balance sheet.The field of Project Evaluation and Feasibility Analysis has the following fundamental issues:Capital Investment Importance and difficultiesTypes of Capital InvestmentsPhases of Capital BudgetingLevels of Decision MakingFacets of Project AnalysisFeasibility Study3Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management3This asset (Capex) is depreciated over its life, except in the case of a non-dep. item e.g. Land.In Accounting Persp., outlays on R&D, advertising, and recondition of plant may be treated as revenue exp. Even though they are expected to generate a stream of benefits in future and therefore, qualify for being capex.

rameez.khalid@neduet.edu.pkCapital BudgetingCapital budgeting is a complex process that may be divided into six broad phases.Phases:4Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management4Bold Arrow: Main SequenceDashed Arrow: the phases are not related in a simple, sequential manner. Instead there are several feedback loops reflecting the iterative nature of he process.rameez.khalid@neduet.edu.pkProject AnalysisThe important facets of project analysis are:

5

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management5Fin Analysis: whether the pjt will be financially viable; from where the funds will be acquired; how they will be used; Eco Analysis: also referred to as social cost benefit analysis; concerns with the larger social point of view. rameez.khalid@neduet.edu.pkProject Screening ModelsDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementDuring the birth of the missile and space programs, companies estimated that the divorce rate among project managers and project engineers was probably twice the national average in US.Project SelectionScreening models help managers pick winners from a pool of projects. Screening models are numeric or nonnumeric and should have:

RealismCapabilityFlexibilityEase of useCost effectivenessComparability

7Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementSouder3 identifies five important issues that managers should consider when evaluatingscreening models:7rameez.khalid@neduet.edu.pkScreening & Selection IssuesRisk unpredictability to the firmCommercial market potentialInternal operating changes in firm opsAdditional image, patent, fit, etc.

All models only partially reflect reality and have both objective and subjective factors imbedded 8Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Screening ApproachesChecklistSimple scoring modelsAnalytic hierarchy processProfile modelsFinancial models9Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management

Project Management Growth

Dr. Syed Amir IqbalResource PersonDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management10Project ManagementGeneral systems theory implies the creation of a management technique that is able to cut across many organizational disciplines;finance, manufacturing, engineering, marketing,and so onwhile still carrying out the functions of management. This technique has come to be called systems management, project management, or matrix management.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management1111

Project Management1940-85Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Management EvolutionDuring 1940s, several line managers were responsible for the projects.Failure was blamed to the line managers in action.Customers were not have single point of contact.Filtering of information wasted time for both customer and contractors.During cold war, the defense arms development were performed under the umbrella of project managers (solely responsible and accountable for success or failure of a project.B52 Bomber, Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, and the Polaris Submarine, even jet fighters and tanks developed under the project management teams.13Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management13Project Management EvolutionBy 1970 and early 1980s, more companies departed from informal project management and restructured to formalize the project management process.14Are the jobs complexIf any of the question answered yes, formal PM is necessaryAre there dynamic environmental considerations?Are the constraints tight?Are there several activities to be integrated?Are there several functional boundaries to be crossed?

Following five questions help determine whether formal project management is necessary:

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management14Major Problem in Project ManagementProject priorities and competition for talent may interrupt the stability by upsetting the normal business of the functional organization.Long-range planning may suffer as more focus on fulfilling the requirements of temporary projects.Shifting people from the project to project may hinder employees growth and development within their fields of specialization.Delegation of authority to middle management cause them to occupy the power positions. 15Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementJohn Kenneths Imperatives of TechnologyOther than limitation, there are driving forces behind PM;The time span between project initiation and completion appears to be increasing.The capital committed to the project prior to the use of the end item appears to be increasing.As technology increases, the commitment of time and money appears to become inflexible.Technology requires more and more specialized manpower.The inevitable counterpart of specialization in organization.The above five imperatives identify the necessity for more effective planning, scheduling, and control.16Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementFailure to Project ManagementThere was no need for project management.Employees werent informed about how PM works.Executives selected inappropriate projects or project managers for the first few projects.No attempt to explain the effect of the PM organizational structure on the wage and salary administration.Employees were not convinced that executives were in total support of the change (to PM).17Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management

Project Management1985-2010Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementDriving Forces of Project ManagementThere are six driving forces that lead executives to recognize the need for project management:191.Capital projectsLarge capital projects or a multitude of simultaneous projects.2. Customer expectationsSome organizations sell solutions (PM expertise) to the customers rather than products3. CompetitivenessInternal : To do project internally.External : Do project with competitive price, quality.4. Executive understandingOrganizations are quite resistant to change unless driven by the executives5. New product developmentOrganizations that are heavily invested in R&D activities. Small project recover cost of overall R&D.6. Efficiency and effectivenesssmall companies experiencing growing painsDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementUltimate Driving Force to PM20SURVIVALCapital ProjectsCustomer ExpectationsCompetitivenessExecutive UnderstandingNew Product DevelopmentEfficiency and EffectivenessDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementSpeed of Maturity21Speed of MaturityProject-Driven OrganizationsNon-Project-Driven and Hybrid OrganizationsCompetitivenessInternal Efficiencies & EffectivenessSlowFastDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementBenefits of Project ManagementProject management will require more people and add to the overhead costs. Profitability may decrease.Project management will increase the amount of scope changes.Project management creates organizational instability and increases conflicts.

22Project management allows us to accomplish more work in less time and with less people.Profitability will increase.Project management will provide better control of scope changes.

Project management makes the organization more efficient and effective.

Present ViewPast View Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementBenefits of Project ManagementProject management is really eye wash for the customers benefit.Project management will create problems.

Only large projects need project management.Project management will increase quality problems.

23Present ViewPast View Project management will allow us to work closer with our customers.Project management provides a means for problem solving.

All projects will benefit from project management.Project management increases quality.

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementBenefits of Project ManagementProject management will create power and authority problems.Project management focuses on sub-optimization by looking at only the project.Project management delivers products to a customer.The cost of project management may make us noncompetitive.

24Present ViewPast View Project management will reduce the majority of the power struggles.Project management allows people to make good company decisions.

Project management delivers solutions to a customer.Project management will increase our business.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementCost Vs. Benefits25?Cost of Project Management$TimePeggedAdditional Profits from Better Project ManagementHow long itll take to achieve the benefits of PM?This point can be pushed to the left by training and educationDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementResistance to ChangeDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementIndustry ClassificationIn Project-driven companies, project managers were given the responsibility for profit and loss.In the nonproject-driven sectors of the marketplace, corporate survival was based upon products and services. Profitability was identified through marketing and sales.Hybrid organizations are typically nonproject-driven firms with one or two divisions that are project-driven.Organizations can most effectively run on a management by project basis, and thereby achieve the benefits of both a project management organization and a traditional organization.27Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementIndustry Classification28

Very few projectsProfitability from productionLarge brick wallsLong life cycle productsProduct ManagementNon-Project-DrivenProject DrivenPM has P&L responsibilityPM is a recognized professionMultiple career pathsIncome comes from projects

Hybrid

Production driven but with many projects Emphasis on new product develop.Short product life cyclesMarketing-orient.Need for rapid develop. processProgram ManagementProjectManagementPresentPastDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementNew processes supporting project management29

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management29Informal Project ManagementInformal PM is based upon guidelines rather than the policies and procedures that are the basis for formal PM.Effective communications, cooperation, teamwork and trust are absolutely essential for informal PM.As companies become mature in PM, emphasis is on guidelines and checklists (informal PM)Customers have a strong voice in whether formal or informal PM will be used.30Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Managements Maturity & ExcellenceDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Management MaturityMaturity in project management is the implementation of a standard methodology and accompanying processes such that there exists a high likelihood of repeated successes.Maturity implies that the proper foundation of tools, techniques, processes, and even culture, exists.At the closure of project debriefing, senior management looks at key performance indicators, it allows the organization to maximize what it does right and to correct what it did wrong.32Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Management MaturityDefense and Construction Industries are much more advanced in how they manage projects.Maturity models provide the necessary framework to:Analyze and critically evaluate current practicesCompare those against chief competitors or general industry standardDefine a systematic route for improvement33Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementLife Cycle Phases for Project Management Maturity34LineManagementAcceptanceGrowthMaturityEmbryonicExecutiveManagementAcceptanceRecognizeNeedBenefitsApplicationsWhat must be done

EmbryonicVisible executivesupportExecutive understanding of PMProject sponsorshipWillingness to change way of doing business

Exec. Mgmt.AcceptanceLine management supportLine management commitmentLine management educationWillingness to release employees for PM training

Line Mgmt.AcceptanceDevelopment of amethodologyUse of life cycle phasesCommitment to planningMinimization of creeping scopeSelection of a project tracking systemGrowthDevelopment of a management cost/ schedule control systemIntegrating cost and schedule controlDeveloping an educational program to enhance PM skillsMaturityDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementLife Cycle Phases for Project Management Maturity35LineManagementAcceptanceGrowthMaturityEmbryonicExecutiveManagementAcceptanceDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementLife Cycle Phases for Project Management Maturity36ExecutiveManagementAcceptanceLineManagementAcceptanceGrowthMaturityEmbryonicRecognize needRecognize benefitsRecognize applicationsRecognize what must be doneDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementLife Cycle Phases for Project Management Maturity37EmbryonicExecutiveManagementAcceptanceLineManagementAcceptanceGrowthMaturityExecutiveVisible executive supportExecutive understanding of project managementProject sponsorshipWillingness to change way of doing businessManagement AcceptanceDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementLife Cycle Phases for Project Management Maturity38EmbryonicExecutiveManagementAcceptanceGrowthMaturityLine ManagementAcceptanceLine management supportLine management commitmentLine management educationWillingness to release employees for project management trainingDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementLife Cycle Phases for Project Management Maturity39EmbryonicExecutiveManagementAcceptanceLineManagementAcceptanceGrowthMaturityGrowthDevelopment of a methodologyUse of life cycle phasesCommitment to planningMinimization of creeping scopeSelection of a project tracking systemDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementLife Cycle Phases for Project Management Maturity40EmbryonicExecutiveManagementAcceptanceLineManagementAcceptanceGrowthMaturityMaturityDevelopment of a management cost/ schedule control systemIntegrating cost and schedule controlDeveloping an educational program to enhance project management skillsDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementPhases for Project Management Maturity41For each of the following items provide a recommendation for addressing and resolving the issue that will allow an organization to progress toward achieving Project Management Maturity.PhaseIssueRecommendationa) EmbryonicRecognizing the needb) Executive Management AcceptanceExecutive understanding of PMc) Line Management AcceptanceLine Management Supportd) GrowthDevelopment of a PM methodologye) Maturity PhaseDeveloping an educational program to enhance PM skillsDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management4142PhaseIssueRecommendationa) EmbryonicRecognizing the needExplain the benefits of repeatable processes, identify areas for improvement in schedule, cost and requirements managementb) Executive Management AcceptanceExecutive understanding of PMProvide supporting information about project successes and the use of best practicesc) Line Management AcceptanceLine Management SupportObtain and communicate management support to functional managers, explain the benefits of PM, acknowledge the needs of the functional managersd) GrowthDevelopment of a PM methodologyEstablish a PMO, standardize methods, establish enterprise-wide processes, provide PM traininge) Maturity PhaseDeveloping an educational program to enhance PM skillsEstablish PM as a career path, continuous improvement through reviews and feedback, provide training to all levels of employees, maintain management support and visibility, document lessons learnedDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management42Developing Project Management MaturityProject management maturity models: Center for business practicesKerzners project management maturity modelESI Internationals project frameworkSEIs capability maturity model integrationPMIs OPM3: Organizational Project Management Maturity Model43Key Feature of these Maturity Models is the important recognition that: Change does not occur AbruptlyDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementOPM3 ModelThe purpose of this standard is to provide; understanding about organizational project management and to measure their maturity against PM Best Practices.Based on Knowledge, Improvement and Assessment.44

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementOPM3 Model45

Knowledge : Familiarity with the contents of the Standard is essential.Assessment : the organization uses an assessment tool to determine areas of strength and weakness in relation to the body of Best Practices.Improvement : Provides list of incapability in the organization. OPM3 provides guidance in placing these in order of importance, and this sequence forms the basis for any subsequent plans for improvement.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementOPM3 Model Maturity Assessment46

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management46OPM3 Model Maturity Assessment47

The results also generate four charts/graphs showing, based on their responses: 1) the organizations overall position on a continuum of organizational project management maturity, 2) the organizations maturity in terms of each domain, 3) the organizations maturity in terms of each process improvement stage, and 4) a composite view of graphs 2 and 3.

1234Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementPM Maturity Generic Model48Low MaturityAd hoc process, no common language, little supportModerate MaturityDefined practices, training programs, organizational supportHigh MaturityInstitutionalized, seeks continuous improvementDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Management ExcellenceOrganizations excellent in project management are those that create the environment in which there exists a continuous stream of successfully managed projects and where success is measured by what is in the best interest of both the company and the project.49Excellence goes well beyond maturity.

Project must have maturity to achieve excellence.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Management Excellence50

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Management Failure51Executives who always make the right decision are not making enough decisions. Likewise, organizations in which all projects are completed successfully are not taking enough risks and are not working on enough projects.It is unrealistic to believe that all projects will be completed successfully. Some people contend that the only true project failures are the ones from which nothing is learned.Failure can be viewed as success if the failure is identified early enough so that the resources can be reassigned to other more opportunistic activities.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Management Failure52Executives who always make the right decision are not making enough decisions. Likewise, organizations in which all projects are completed successfully are not taking enough risks and are not working on enough projects.It is unrealistic to believe that all projects will be completed successfully. Some people contend that the only true project failures are the ones from which nothing is learned.Failure can be viewed as success if the failure is identified early enough so that the resources can be reassigned to other more opportunistic activities.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementAssignment # 1 - Guidelines53Prepare group of 4 students.Assignment will be in proper report form (not more than 10 pages)Select any of these project management maturity model.Center for business practicesKerzners project management maturity modelESI Internationals project frameworkSEIs capability maturity model integrationPMIs OPM3: Organizational Project Management Maturity ModelRegister your group with title to CR.Not more than 2 groups can take same titles.Groups with similar title has to make sure, not to present the exactly same contents.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementAssignment # 1 - Contents54Explain background and working of selected maturity model.Compare the similarities and dissimilarities of selected model with any other model.Apply the selected model on your organization, asses the strength and weaknesses.Date of submission 27th February, 2014.Report should contain the references from where the model or data has been taken.Plagiarism can not be tolerated.Late submission is not allowed.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life CycleDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProduct Life Cycle56A project life cycle is the series of phases that a project passes through from its initiation to its closure.The phases can be broken down by functional or partial objectives, intermediate results or deliverables, specific milestones within the overall scope of work, or financial availability. Phases are generally time bounded, with a start and ending or control point.Every project has a definite start and a definite end, the specific deliverables and activities that take place in between will vary widely with the project.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementGeneric Life Cycle57All projects can be mapped to the following generic life cycle structureStarting the project,Organizing and preparing,Carrying out the project work, andClosing the project.The project life cycle is independent from the life cycle of the product produced by or modified by the project.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementGeneric Life Cycle58

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementGeneric Life Cycle59

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Phases60A project phase is a collection of logically related project activities that culminates in the completion of one or more deliverables.Project phases are used when the nature of the work to be performed is unique to a portion of the project, and are typically linked to the development of a specific major deliverable.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementCharacteristics of Phases61The work has a distinct focus that differs from any other phase.Achieving the primary deliverable or objective of the phase requires controls or processes unique to the phase or its activities.The closure of a phase ends with some form of transfer or hand-off of the work product produced as the phase deliverable.This phase end represents a natural point to reassess the activities underway and to change or terminate the project if necessary. This point may be referred to as a stage gate, milestone, phase review, phase gate or kill point.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementPhase to Phase Relationship62Sequential relationship. In a sequential relationship, a phase starts only when the previous phase is complete.The step-by-step nature of this approach reduces uncertainty, but may eliminate options for reducing the overall schedule.

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementPhase to Phase Relationship63Overlapping relationship. In an overlapping relationship, a phase starts prior to completion of the previous one. May require additional resources to allow work to be done in parallel, May increase risk, and can result in rework if a subsequent phase progresses before accurate information is available from the previous phase.

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management1-Predictive Life-cycle64Also known as fully plan-driven, are ones in which the project scope, and the time and cost required to deliver that scope, are determined as early in the project life cycle as practically possible.These projects proceed through a series of sequential or overlapping phases, with each phase generally focusing on a subset of project activities and project management processes.Predictive life cycles are generally preferred when the product to be delivered is well understood, there is a substantial base of industry practice, or where a product is required to be delivered in full to have value to stakeholder groups.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management1-Predictive Life-cycle65

For example,Construction of buildingSoftware developmentPower plant installationDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management2-Iterative and Incremental Life Cycles66Iterations develop the product through a series of repeated cycles, while increments successively add to the functionality of the product.During an iteration, activities from all Project Management Process Groups will be performed. At the end of each iteration, a deliverable or set of deliverables will be completed. Future iterations may enhance those deliverables or create new ones.Each iteration incrementally builds the deliverables until theexit criteria for the phase are met, allowing the project team to incorporate feedback.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management2-Iterative and Incremental Life Cycles67Iterative and incremental life cycles are generally preferred;When an organization needs to manage changing objectives and scope, To reduce the complexity of a project, or When the partial delivery of a product is beneficial and provides value for one or more stakeholder groups without impact to the final deliverable or set of deliverables.Large and complex projects are frequently executed in an iterative fashion to reduce risk.For exampleImplementation of new standards in an organization culture.Development of new product and its response.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management3-Adaptive Life Cycles68Adaptive life cycles (also known as change-driven or agile methods) are intended to respond to high levels of change and ongoing stakeholder involvement.Adaptive methods are also iterative and incremental, but differ in that iterations are very rapid (usually with a duration of 2 to 4 weeks) and are fixed in time and cost.The overall scope of the project will be decomposed into a set of requirements and work to be performed, sometimes referred to as a product backlog.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management3-Adaptive Life Cycles69Adaptive methods are generally preferred;When dealing with a rapidly changing environment, when requirements and scope are difficult to define in advance, and when it is possible to define small incremental improvements that will deliver value to stakeholders.For example,Implementation of advanced electronic products,Design of new passenger and jet planes.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProduct Life Cycle70General phases of Product Life-CycleResearch and developmentMarket introductionGrowthMaturityDeteriorationDeath

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle71Today, there is no agreement among industries, or even companies within same industry, about life-cycle phases of a project. This is understandable because of the complexity and diversity of projects.The life-cycle phases of a project include:ConceptualPlanningTestingImplementationClosureDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management

Project Life Cycle72Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle 731. Conceptual PhasePreliminary evaluation of an idea.Analysis of risk and the resulting impact on company resources.The conceptual phase also includes a first cut at the feasibility of the effort.2. Planning PhaseIdentification of the resources required.Establishment of realistic time, cost, and performance parameters.Initial preparation of documentation.Bidding decision and development of the total bid package.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle 743. Testing PhaseIs predominantly a testing and final standardization effort.Almost all documentation must be completed in this phase.

4. Implementation PhaseIntegrates the projects product or services into the existing organization.For product development project, product life-cycle phases of market introduction, growth, maturity, and a portion of deterioration.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle 755. Closure PhaseThe reallocation of resources.The closure phase evaluates the efforts of the total system and serves as input to the conceptual phases for new projects and systems.This final phase also has an impact on other ongoing projects with regard to identifying priorities.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle 765. Closure PhaseThe reallocation of resources.The closure phase evaluates the efforts of the total system and serves as input to the conceptual phases for new projects and systems.This final phase also has an impact on other ongoing projects with regard to identifying priorities.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle 77

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle Phase Definition of Different Industries78

Different organizations have, different life cycle phase, even they are in the same industry. It is due to the complexity and diversity of projects.Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle of Computer Programming79 ResourcesUtilizedRESOURCES/EFFORTTIMECONCEPTUAL PHASEDEFINITION AND DESIGN PHASEPLANNING PHASEIMPLEMENTATIONPHASECONVERSIONOR TERMINATIONPHASEDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementProject Life Cycle of Construction80

Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementEffects of Project Life Cycles81ConceptualizationPlanningExecutionTerminationUncertaintyClient InterestProject StakeCreativityResourcesDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project ManagementResistance to Project Management82Business Unit/EntityReasons for resistanceResponses or actions that will minimize resistancea) SalesPotential loss of power & position with the customer. Credit given to the PMb) MarketingPotential for the PM to become associated with the marketing function. Customer has more contact with the project manager. Fear of loss of credit for sales.c) Finance and AccountingDevelopment of independent accounting systems, loss of control.d) ProcurementBypassing of the established processese) Human ResourcesPotential additional workload, new job description, more training requirementsf) ManufacturingPotential loss of experienced resources to the projectg) EngineeringMay not agree with the methodology, may not support the planning process, may perceive project mgt. as overheadDr. Syed Amir Iqbal Project Management