1.1 What Is Culture? - Material and Nonmaterial Culture What Is Culture? Culture can be defined as the language, norms, values, beliefs, and more that, together, form a people's way of life. It is a combination of elements that affect how people think, how they act, and what they own. American culture, for instance, includes everything just mentioned. It also includes our history, architecture, accepted behavior, and so much more. Culture is an essential part of being human. No one is completely without it; in fact, an individual can be part of many cultures and subcultures. For example, someone who lives in the U.S. could be part of the national culture in addition to the distinct culture of the South, a religious community, a heritage group, and more. Material Vs. Nonmaterial Culture Material culture includes all the physical things that people create and attach meaning to. Clothing, food, tools, and architecture are examples of material culture that most people would think of. Natural objects and materials (rock, dirt, trees, etc.) aren't considered to be part of material culture. However, how people view natural objects and how they use them are. Nonmaterial culture includes creations and abstract ideas that are not embodied in physical objects. In other words, any intangible products created and shared between the members of a culture over time are aspects of their nonmaterial culture. Social roles, rules, ethics, and beliefs are just some examples. All of them are crucial guides for members of a culture to use to know how to behave in their society and interpret the world. Culture Vs. Nation Vs. Society The word culture is often used as a synonym for nation and society, but they aren't the same thing. A nation is a territory with designated borders. A nation can be found on a map. A society is a population in which people interact and share common interests. A society can be found in a nation. Culture, on the other hand, is a people's shared way of living. Culture can be found in a society, and it can also be shared between societies. Lesson Summary In summary, culture can be defined as the language, norms, values, beliefs, and more that, together, form a people's way of life. It is an essential part of being human. Although there are many elements and aspects of culture, they can all be categorized as either material or nonmaterial culture. Material culture includes all of the physical things that people create and attach meaning to. Nonmaterial culture includes creations and abstract ideas that are not embodied in physical objects. The word culture is often used as a synonym for nation and society, but they aren't the same thing. A nation is a territory with designated borders. A society is a population in which people interact and share common interests. Culture, on the other hand, is a people's shared way of living. It can be found in a society, and it can also be shared between societies. Elements of Culture: Explanation of the Major Elements That Define Culture Culture combines many elements to create a unique way of living for different people. Elements Of Culture Culture is a huge topic of study for sociologists. Culture exists anywhere humans exist, and no two cultures are exactly the same. We've started talking about culture in another lesson and discussed its combination of elements that, together, form a people's unique way of life. In this lesson, we are going to take a closer look at those elements, specifically symbols, language, values, and norms. These elements look different across cultures, and many change with time as a society evolves. Symbols The first element that exists in every culture is a variety of symbols. A symbol is anything that is used to stand for something else. People who share a culture often attach a specific meaning to an object, gesture, sound, or image. For example, a cross is a significant symbol to Christians. It is not simply two pieces of wood attached to each other, nor is it just an old object of torture and execution. To Christians, it represents the basis of their entire religion, and they have great reverence for the symbol. Language The second element present in every culture is a language. Language is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people. This includes full languages as we usually think of them, such as English, Spanish, French, etc. But it also includes body language, slang, and common phrases that are unique to certain groups of people. For example, even though English is spoken fluently in both America and Britain, we have slang and phrases that mean different things. American French fries are British chips, American cookies are British biscuits, and so on. Another example of how cultural languages differ beyond vocabulary is the fact that eye contact represents different meanings in different cultures. In America, eye contact suggests that you are paying attention and are interested in what a person has to say. In other cultures, eye contact may be considered rude and to be a challenge of authority. Values Another cultural element is a system of values, which are culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable. Members of the culture use the shared system of values to decide what is good and what is bad. For example, in America, we are individualistic - we encourage competition and emphasize personal achievement. A person who accepts a promotion in our culture is praised for their individual hard work and talent. But our values are in stark contrast with the collectivistic values of other cultures, where collaboration is encouraged, and a person's success is only as good as their contributions to the group. The same person that is offered a promotion who lives in a collectivistic culture would consult with his family before accepting to ensure that it would be the most beneficial to the group as a whole. Types Of Norms The last element of culture we'll discuss in this lesson is a collection of norms. Norms are culturally defined expectations of behavior. They are guidelines we use to determine how we should behave in any given situation and what would be considered inappropriate behavior. For example, we know that we should stand in line to use the restroom without even thinking about our behavior. If someone cuts in front of us, we are certainly irritated - if not angry - that the other person has not followed the norms of our culture. Norms vary in their perceived importance and in the way that others react to their violation. Some norms are turned into formal rules and laws, while others are simply unwritten rules of etiquette for everyday behavior. These unwritten rules can typically be categorized as either folkways or mores. Folkways are norms that dictate appropriate behavior for routine or casual interaction. In our culture, boys wear pants instead of skirts, and we all know not to pick our nose in public. These are casual rules for behavior; although we may think that people who violate them are weird or rude, we don't think they should be imprisoned for their behavior. On the other hand, mores are norms that dictate morally right or wrong behavior. These are rules for behavior that are so important that they usually don't even get written down because they go without saying. Using loud profanity at a funeral is a fairly mild example. More serious mores are considered taboo, and people who violate them are considered unfit for society. For example, there are no formal laws against cannibalism in the United States, yet those who participate in cannibalism violate such an important norm that they are punished and severely ostracized from society. Lesson Summary In summary, some of the common elements that make up individual cultures are symbols, language, values, and norms. A symbol is anything that is used to stand for something else. People who share a culture often attach a specific meaning to an object, gesture, sound, or image. Language is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people. This includes not only fully spoken or written languages but also body language, slang, and common phrases that are unique to certain cultures. Values are culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable. Members of the culture use the shared system of values to decide what is good and what is bad. Similarly, norms are culturally defined expectations of behavior. They are guidelines we use to determine how we should behave in any given situation and what would be considered inappropriate behavior. Cultural Subsets: High Culture, Popular Culture, Subculture, Counterculture & Multiculturalism In this lesson, we identify several categories of cultures that can exist within a large culture. We define and discuss subcultures, high culture versus popular culture, and countercultures. We also discuss the view of multiculturalism in the U.S.

Hunting and Gathering SocietiesFor most of human history, our ancestors have lived in hunting and gathering societies. For about 5 million years, this type of society was the dominant form of social organization. Only 10,000 to 12,000 years ago did other types of societies start to appear. In other words, for 99.75% of hominid history, humans have been hunters and gatherers.There are still hunting and gathering societies today, but they are rapidly disappearing, displaced by more complex societies. There are today only about 250,000 people living in such societies, that is, 0.001% of the worlds population.Hunting and gathering societies are still found among the Aborigines of Australia, the Bushmen of Southwestern Africa, and the Pygmies of Central Africa.One can find such societies also in the Amazonian rainforest region. But there too, there subsistence is threatened by commercial interests involved in clearing the rainforest for a variety of business, be it tim ber trade or land clearing for cattle raising. Subsistence TechnologyObviously, the main mode of subsistence of these societies is through the hunting of games (or fishing, for societies living near coastal or Arctic areas) and the gathering of naturally growing plants, fruits, and vegetables. The subsistence technology is very rudimentary, consisting mostly of spears, bows and arrows, digging sticks and small traps, all of those made of bone, wood and stones. Because hunting and gathering are the main activities for members of these societies, they are almost completely dependent upon whatever game and plants are already available in the environment for their survival. Replacing Members and Caring for the YoungHunting and gathering societies tend to be small, averaging between 25 and 60 members. A lifestyle based on food extraction from the environment rather than food production cannot sustain a very large population. These societies tend to be nomadic, that is, without permanent settlements. After a while, food extraction depletes the resources available in the societys surrounding. Once an area has been relatively exploited, the group then has to move to find new sources of subsistence.Population size is also relatively small because the number of births usually matches the number of deaths and fertility the number of children a woman has tends to be low for several reasons. Low levels of body fat, prolonged nursing and nomadism through the increased risk of miscarriage decrease womens fertility. Social and cultural considerations also play a part in low fertility. Abortion and infanticide tend to be widespread in such societies: it would be difficult for a woman nursing a young child for several years to have another baby to care for, especially when a group is constantly on the move, carrying all their possessions. And for all the members of the group, accidents and disease are common causes of death. As a result of all these factors, population growth tends to be very low.Another defining characteristic of hunting and gathering societies is the prevalence of the family and kinship structure as the basic institution. Most institutional functions we identified earlier as basic individual and societal needs are fulfilled by the family or kinship. In a hunting and gathering society, every individual has ties to the other members of the group. The family structure of hunting and gathering societies can include both nuclear parents and their unmarried children and extended families where other relatives, beyond just parents and children, are included. Among the family structure relatively common in such societies are (a) limited polygyny, where one husband has 2 or 3 wives, (b) exogamy, where one marries outside of ones group in order to foster alliances with neighboring communities, (c) wife lending, as a means of settling conflicts between groups. Teaching New MembersIn hunting and gathering societies, there is no formal educational system. Children are raised into the way of life of the group through informal training and observation of adults activities. Because resources are often scarce, children are soon expected to contribute to the group within the limits of their abilities. Although children do not go through formal education, their growing up is marked by rites of passage or initiations that usually mark their transition to adulthood. This lack of formal education also correlates with valuing childrens independence and self-reliance as more useful qualities for a nomadic and uncertain lifestyle. Producing and Distributing GoodsHunters and gatherers do not produce food. They collect what is already available in their surroundings and this constitutes the major economic activity. There is therefore a limited division of labor and limited distribution of statuses and roles. Division of labor is usually based on gender and age. In most hunting and gathering societies, men hunt and women gather. This division of labor relates to prolonged nursing and differential levels of speed and skills. Similarly, children and elders are expected to contribute to the group according to their abilities, for instance, by gathering firewood.Usually, most of the food that a group gets is based on gathering rather than hunting. However, the product of the hunt is considered more prestigious than the product of gathering. As a result, although mostly egalitarian, such societies do value mens work more than womens. It may be that meat is more valued because it is scarce, harder and more dangerous to obtain and requiring more skills than plant gathering. Good hunting skills are therefore a source of prestige. Apart from these simple aspects of division of labor, there is limited structured inequality in hunting and gathering societies.The major mode of food distribution is sharing. Different members of the groups and different families commonly share what they are able to gather and especially what they hunt. Because meat is rare, it is expected that lucky hunters of the day share their kill. This emphasis of sharing as widespread norm benefits the group as a whole: if a man kills game one day and shares it, then, he can expect to receive meat from other men on the days when he is not successful. This cooperation ensures the survival of the group as a whole. Such a value placed on cooperation goes against the common sense idea that human beings are naturally competitive and selfish. The most basic human economic system was based on cooperation and sharing.This characteristic is also related to the fact that there is no opportunity to accumulate wealth: whatever is killed or gathered is disposable, so, food surplus cannot be created. And because the group is nomadic and members have to carry their possessions from place to place, there is also little opportunity to accumulate private property. Preserving Order and Cooperation Within SocietySince hunting and gathering societies tend not to develop complex political systems. After all, there is little wealth or power to distribute among the members. There are no formal rulers but sometimes, a skilled hunter may accumulate prestige and become big man or great man. Such a title confers a few privileges but no extensive power over other members. In such societies, collective decision making is made over group meeting and by consensus. Similarly, social control is exercised informally, either through blood revenge, where the victim punishes the offender, or banishment. Maintaining a Sense of Purpose and CooperationLike all human societies, hunting and gathering communities have struggled with the need to explain the world around them and events for which there are no easy answers: people do get sick and die, but what causes illness? Why are there good hunting days and bad hunting days? Because these societies had limited amounts of knowledge to rely on, they developed their own system of explanation. This resulted in the rise of a religious form known as animism: the belief that spirits inhabit all natural elements, that they interfere with human affairs, and that they can be manipulated to a certain extent by individuals with specific skills, called Shamans or medicine men. This spiritual aspect of hunting and gathering life has been made famous by cave paintings excavated in different parts of the world, as well as sculpture and other artistic forms.

Horticultural and Pastoral SocietiesThe period between 12,000 and 7,000 years ago marks the end of the hunting and gathering era and the emergence of the era of horticultural and pastoral societies. Although this shift is referred to as the first social revolution, it was actually gradual and unfolded over thousands of years. However, the changes were so deep in the major areas of social life that this shift truly was revolutionary.According to Lenski and Nolan, research now shows that hunters and gatherers did not simply decide one day to abandon their traditional lifestyle to become horticulturalists and pastoralists. Hunting and gathering societies had belief systems and structures that made them resistant to change. A more likely explanation is that they were compelled to do so for several reasons: (a) population growth, (b) environmental change, and (c) change in technology. As population grows, more food is needed to sustain the group. Consequently, hunting and gathering societies became more efficient in weapon technology which resulted in the accelerating extermination of game. At the same period, the global warming that marked the end of the last ice age provoked a rise in ocean levels and a corresponding shrinking in available land.Those societies that lived in dry and mountainous areas with low rainfall turned to pastoralism, the domestication of herd of animals for food. Those that lived in areas with more rainfall turned to horticulturalism, that is, the cultivation of gardens for food using hand tools, such as hoes. Pastoral societies remained nomadic whereas horticultural societies established permanent settlements.A good example of a contemporary horticultural and pastoral society are the Masai people, who live mostly in Kenya. Below is a video the author shot. The Masai live without electricity. In order to cook and heat, they need fire and this is how they get it, the old-fashioned way. Subsistence TechnologyHorticulturalism involves slash and burn cultivation. When groups settled in an area, they would clear the land by burning the existing vegetation using the resulting ash as fertilizer. Once the nutrients in the ash are consumed and the land loses its fertility, it would be abandoned to wild vegetation and people would establish a new garden. The major tools for this are the hoe and the digging stick. The first region to adopt this mode of subsistence was a Middle Eastern area called the Fertile Crescent, an area spreading from Jordan to Iraq.Pastoral societies are also called herding societies. They rely on the domestication of animals present in the environment for food. These societies tend to remain nomadic to find grazing land for their herds. The major pastoral societies are still found in the Sahara desert, among the Tuareg people. Replacing Member and Caring for the YoungThe switch from a hunting and gathering lifestyle to a horticultural or pastoral economy had far-reaching consequences. Human societies were no longer dependent upon whatever food sources were available in the environment. Human beings, from now on, were producing it with greater efficiency. The result was the production of a food surplus. The first consequence of the availability of a food surplus is the increase in population size. Horticultural societies support hundreds of people. As people enjoy greater food security, fertility increases and mortality in general and infant mortality in particular decrease. Consequently, population grows. Additionally, living in permanent settlements means that women do not have to wait for a child to be autonomous before having another one. And as life expectancy increases, so does a womans average number of reproductive years. Teaching New MembersIn horticultural and pastoral societies, the family and kinship group remain central but they tend to be more complex than in hunting and gathering societies. Because of the population growth, extended family networks grow larger and constitute clans. Kinship still fulfills most of the basic social and human needs. The concept of kin is also extended to include dead ancestors who come to take the place of spirits as supernatural forces intervening in the affairs of the living. Producing and Distributing GoodsAs the food supply becomes more secure, the economic structure is radically transformed since not everyone needs to be involved in this activity. This allows individuals to get involved in economic activities not related to food production, such as crafts, jewelry, pottery, weaving, and religious functions. As food production increases, so does specialization.In horticultural societies, women are largely responsible for food production. Men are usually in charge of clearing the land but women do the planting and harvesting. As a result, men have more time to be involved in non-food related activities.There are also economic consequences to living in permanent settlements: it becomes possible for people to accumulate material possessions, small, such as decorative items, or large, such as pottery. This flourishing of material objects also results in the development of trade and private property to be defended against potential theft.Finally, this increase in material goods and food production generates greater inequalities. Some families will get better crops than others, and therefore greater wealth which leads to greater power and prestige. This accumulated wealth can be passed onto the next generations, contributing to a reproduction of inequalities. With this comes the practice of marriage for economic interest: because women contribute so greatly to food production, they are a valuable asset that can be exchanged into marriage for a bride price goods that the grooms family has to provide to the brides family in exchange for their daughter thereby creating ties between the families. Preserving Order and Cooperation within SocietyPolitical governance remains simple. Power is usually exercised by clan leaders whose influence is based greater wealth. A significant difference between hunting and gathering societies and horticultural and pastoral societies is the more extensive presence of warfare in the latter. It seems that warfare, waged by men released from food production activities, becomes a substitute for hunting but it also serves other functions.Warfare serves as population control through direct loss of life as well as female infanticide. Clans may practice infanticide on their own girls in order to be able to devote more resources to raising boys to become warriors. Warfare also serves to acquire more land for a clan thereby increasing that clans power and prestige. This is accompanied by the added benefit of using captives as slaves to work the land. Slavery tends to be widespread in horticultural and pastoral societies. Maintaining a Sense of Purpose and CooperationAs was the case for hunting and gathering societies, purpose and cooperation are promoted through religion and spirituality. However, horticultural and pastoral societies give rise to specific types of religion. Horticultural societies believe in ancestor worship dead relatives that still exercise influence over their descendents affairs. This may be due to the fact that, in permanent settlements, the dead are buried nearby and therefore remembered more strongly by their relatives.Pastoral societies developed beliefs systems based on gods or God conceived as a shepherd guiding his flock; in either cases, the divinity also takes an active part in the life of believers. The major monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam were all religions of pastoral societies.

Agricultural Societies5000 years ago started a very fertile period of innovation in human history. The large number of innovation again radically changed most aspects of human life and societies throughout the world. Subsistence TechnologyThe innovation in subsistence technology with the greatest impact on the organization of societies was the plow. Unlike the hoe or the digging stick, the plow is able to control the growth of weeds and to maintain and renew the fertility of the soil. Settlements become permanent since soil nutrients do not get depleted, as they would in a horticultural system. The use of the plow also made cultivation possible on different types of soil. And with the harnessing of animal power, cultivation became possible on much larger areas, thereby producing agriculture, that is, the cultivation of fields (as opposed to gardens). Using oxen or cattle to pull the plow allowed for greater food surplus. The discovery of irrigation techniques also contributed to greater productivity by making it possible to extract several crops during the year.The production of a food surplus had far-reaching consequences for the rest of society and triggered further innovation beyond food production. For instance, the invention of the wheel that could be attached to wagons improved transportation technology so that it became easier to get the food surplus to urban areas. The invention of writing and number allowed careful record keeping of harvest quantities. The discovery and mastery of various metals gave birth to money which replaced the bartering system in favor of monetary trade.And as the food surplus increased greatly, societies became larger, even more complex and differentiated. Agrarian societies were the societies of the great Empires (such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Greece, and Rome) whose architectural and cultural accomplishments we still admire today.For instance, the map on the left (source) shows the Roman Empire at the peak of its expansion. Romans controlled significant parts of Europe, almost all of North Africa and the Western part of Asia.Maintaining this Empire required not only military forces but a state bureaucracy to ensure compliance with Roman rule. It also required a legal code that defined the rights of citizens and non-citizens living under Roman rule. Replacing Member and Caring for the YoungThe most direct result of great food productivity is the dramatic increase in population size, increase in numbers of communities as well as the development of urban centers which became the first identifiable large cities unified under a single political authority or ruler. Such empires had populations numbering in millions.Because of the dominance of agriculture and the greater availability of food, both urban and rural families had an interest in large family size, especially families with sons. Children became valued because they were a source of cheap labor, as well as old age insurance (especially for peasants living in poverty). Religious values came to regard large numbers of children as a sign of Gods favor. All these reasons for favoring large families are still present today in traditional societies in Africa.However, if agrarian societies numbered in millions, it is also an effect of territorial expansion, and not simply because of high fertility because mortality was also extremely high, and infant mortality especially so. In years of bad crops, for instance, infanticide and abandonment were common. Also, those very large cities had no sanitation systems proper. As a result, epidemics the Black Plague being an extreme case were commonplace and life expectancy short. Teaching New MembersIn agrarian societies, the vast majority of the population is still composed of peasants, children work alongside adults in gender-differentiated tasks. Men and boys are generally in charge of plowing and care of the animals whereas women and girls are in charge of weeding and seeds, as well as domestic chores. In urban areas, because of the greater specialization, some formal training in different crafts, in the form of apprenticeships, becomes widespread. Producing and Distributing GoodsWith a greater food surplus, agrarian reached levels of economic complexity, social differentiation and specialization, and inequality never achieved before. One of the most important innovations is the emerging use of standardized means of exchange that paved the way for metal currencies. The rising use of money stimulates trade and comes to replace the traditional bartering system. In a bartering system, if your neighbor has something you need, you try to find something he needs and you make a fair exchange or roughly equivalent value. If your neighbor has nothing you need, you simply dont engage in bartering with him. The use of money greatly expands trade because now, you and your neighbor do not need to have something that other wants in order to do business. Money can be exchanged. In addition, the notion of fair exchange is replaced with the notion of profit.Now that more people can be involved in non-food producing activities, the amount of goods and services available for purchase increases dramatically, along with a new class of people whose task it is to acquire good not for their own use but to sell to others: the merchant class.Such merchants, in turn, rely on another class to actually manufacture the goods they intend to sell: artisans. Artisans are specialized craftsmen who sell their products to merchants who then put them on the market. Artisans themselves then need skilled and unskilled laborers for the different tasks involved in manufacturing goods.In the rural areas, a feudal system develops. Feudalism is an agrarian system where a small minority of the population own most of the land and landless peasants have to work the land in exchange for a small share of the harvest. This landowning agrarian elite also employs a sizable number of domestic servants and a new class of professional entertainers (gladiators, for instance).Dramatic inequalities exist between the rulers and the elite on the one hand, and the large masses of peasants at the bottom of the social ladder. However, agrarian societies are also more complex and a wide range of new classes are created to fulfill different economic functions between these extremes of wealth and poverty.Agrarian societies also mark the degradation of the status of women. Since men are now in charge of plowing and animals, that is, the tasks that are central to food production, womens tasks take secondary status. In all the different classes, women become means of forging alliances between families and kinship networks as wealth is passed from fathers to sons. Preserving Order and Cooperation within SocietyPolitically, the agrarian era marks the beginning of a structured organization managing collective affairs: the state. When territories and population become so large and diverse as a result of conquests, the need emerges for some degree of political integration under a single political authority. The emergence of a governing class marks the relative decline of kinship ties. Indeed, most agrarian societies are ruled by hereditary kings or emperors whose titles are passed to their heirs.Large-scale conquest and warfare cannot rely on private militia. Agrarian rulers create professional armies, thereby creating a military class in society. These armies are used both against foreign and internal threats.Once a territory has been expanded or conquered, its administration is turned over to bureaucrats to manage civil affairs, such as payment of taxation and tribute to the ruler, as well as administration of justice. Indeed, agrarian societies give rise to the first formal codes of law and the corresponding legal occupations.The major political characteristic of agrarian societies is what Lenski and Nolan (2004) call the proprietary theory of the state: rulers of agrarian societies do not manage their empire for the common good or in the name of the public interest, but as a piece of property they own and can do with as they please. Maintaining a Sense of Purpose and CooperationIf agrarian societies are so unequal and exploitative for the vast majority of the population, why do people put up with this state of affairs? Why do peasants turn most of the food surplus they produce over to indifferent and contemptuous elite? They do so because these societies also provide a moral system of justification of the gross inequalities anchored in religious ideology. Most rulers are religiously defined as ruling by divine right such as the European monarchies or as gods themselves such as the Egyptian Pharaohs. Their wealth, power and privileges are therefore part of a divine design and ordering of the world. Any challenge to the organization of societies, especially its unequal class structure, is a challenge to God or the gods.Such an ideology is actively promoted by a rising clergy and priestly class that rely on the generosity of rulers. In agrarian societies, religion becomes a powerful and universal force. Gods are no longer local deities or ancestors but omnipotent entities that control what goes on in the whole world and regulate human moral conduct, as in Christianity and Islam. The priestly class also contributes to the exploitation of the peasant class by requiring tributes, constructions of temples, and labor in order to properly serve God.

Industrial SocietiesThe three different types of societies we have examined so far are referred to as preindustrial societies. In all of them, the main source of energy was human or animal muscle which inherently placed limits on productivity. It is the discovery and use of alternate sources of energy that would spark the next social revolution: the Industrial Revolution. With industrial societies, we see the emergence of societies we, in the West, are familiar with. Indeed, most of our contemporary lifestyle has its roots in technological and societal innovations brought about by industrialization.The essence of industrial society was powerfully captured by Charlie Chaplin, in his movie, Modern Times:

Subsistence TechnologyIt is indeed the harnessing of new energy sources that marked the next leap in subsistence technology that is at the heart of the Industrial Revolution. This Revolution started in Great Britain around the 1750s with the use of the steam engine and fuel to power industrial machinery. When applied to subsistence production, fuel-powered machinery transformed agrarian production into agribusiness: farming becomes less the business of slam to medium family farms and more the business of very large agricultural companies that need a very small workforce.At the same time, emerging industries such as steel, automobile, and textile, have increased needs for an abundant workforce driven by a more complex division of labor in the productive economy. The illustration below (source) represents scientific management or Taylorism. Rather than one skilled individual completing all the steps of the production process, the engineer Frederick Taylor conducted time-motion studies in which he timed how long each step took, then assigned each simple step to an individual worker. Since the steps are simple, they do not require specific skills (see the Modern Times clip above) and can be reproduced many times over per hour, leading to higher production:

As a result, industrialization involves a massive transfer of population from the rural areas to the cities. And because agriculture becomes a form of industrial production, it is possible for a very small agricultural workforce to support and predominantly urban and industrial societies. Replacing Members and Caring for the YoungIf urban living conditions for the working class were initially appalling with high death rates due to infectious disease, the increase in scientific, biological and medical knowledge progressively extended longevity. As death rates gradually declined and birth rates remained high, a population explosion resulted. However, throughout the 20th century, thanks to more reliable methods of contraception, birthrates started to drop. Additionally, for urban families, there were fewer incentives to have large families as women started to work outside the home and as child labor became illegal.Although still a main function of the family, caring for the young became the business of other social institutions as well: the government would progressively oversee the wellbeing of children; the educational system would take care of formal schooling. This contributed to an undermining of the traditional authority of the family. Teaching New MembersAn industrial economy needs an educated workforce. Progressively, all industrial nations institute formal systems of schooling, elementary, secondary, and universities. By the beginning of the 20th century, most industrial countries have some form of compulsory education. The educational system therefore becomes a major social institution at the expense of the family. Producing and Distributing GoodsIndustrial economies are distinct from previous economic systems in several other characteristics: Economic production shifts from labor-intensive production that uses a lot of labor power, workers or animals to capital-intensive production that needs a lot of initial investment in machinery and technology. The family shifts from a unit of economic production to a unit of economic consumption. In order to improve their standard of living, workers start organizing labor unions to defend their collective rights.The most dramatic change in the economic structure is the rise of an economic system never seen before: capitalism. Hunting and gathering societies system of production was a subsistence economy, where self-sufficiency was the goal. Agrarian societies system of production was a command economy where the ruling elite made the economic choices and enjoyed the wealth generated by the economic surplus. Industrial societies system of production is private, and based on a market economy where producers are free to exchange their goods and services and prices are set by supply and demand.However, it is important to note that industrialized countries never had a truly market economy. By the end of the 19th century, most industrialized nations had put in place welfare systems and ways of redistributing wealth in a less unequal fashion and to alleviate some of the harshest effects of capitalism on the working class. Social inequality does remain a problem along gender and racial lines with the persistence of wage gaps. Preserving Order and Cooperation within SocietyOn the political front, industrialization brought about two major changes: democracy and the nation-state. As industrialization makes farming a less profitable activity and land a less valuable asset, traditional elite lose both economic and political power. Industrialists and merchants become the major beneficiaries of the new system. This new elite reject hereditary and monarchical power. As a result, in most European countries, the 19th century is the century of revolutions where monarchies get overthrown and replaced with democratic regimes and political rulers are ideally supposed to exercise power on behalf of and for the benefit of society as a whole.Of course, early democracies were democracies in name only since significant categories of people first, poor men, then women and people of color were excluded from basic political rights. On most western European countries, full democratic participation is only achieved after World War II, and in the United States, one would have to wait for the Civil Rights in the 1960s for African Americans to enjoy full citizenship rights. The very concept of citizen is born of industrialization and this democratic trend. In the agrarian era, common people were subjects. The concept of citizen implies membership in a nation-state that guarantees certain rights (political, civil and social) and imposes certain duties (such as respect for the law, taxation, and possible draft).According to Lenski and Nolan, the rise of these two political changes were brought about by industrialization but also by other causes as well: Protestant rejection of the Churchs authority and hierarchy; Increase in literacy and standard of living which renders people more politically active and demanding; Urbanization also makes people more politically sophisticated, as opposed to rural areas where people tend to lack such sophistication and tend to follow traditional authorities; The rise of the mass media (initially, in the form of cheap daily newspapers) which increased the general level of political awareness. Of course, the rise of the mass media also produced the first media mogul who could control how much and what kind of information people were exposed to, as brilliantly illustrated by Orson Welles movie Citizen Kane. (See video below)Industrialization also means the growth of government alongside the growth of corporations. Industrial societies are territorially large and comprise tens of millions of people. There are therefore the social and economic that only a government can take care of such as sanitation, roadways, transportation infrastructure, and education. Maintaining a Sense of Purpose and CooperationAccording to Lenski and Nolan, industrialization also gave rise to new ideologies that influenced society. Although religion remains a strong institution, several new secular ideologies emerge that challenge religious and supernatural worldviews: Republicanism the rejection of the hereditary character of monarchies and of the proprietary view of the state; Capitalism the promotion of market economy as outlines by Adam Smiths An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776; Socialism in its democratic form, it promotes the reform of the economic system toward more equality; in its revolutionary form, promoted by Karl Marx, it promotes the overthrow of the capitalist system; Nationalism a view that shifts sources of loyalty and identity from the clan or the tribe to the larger nation; it is also referred to as patriotism; Pragmatism a philosophical view that is non-political and just prescribes that we do what works and reject what does not; Hedonism a view that emphasizes the pursuit of pleasure.What is distinctive about all these secular ideologies is that they all assume that human beings (not God, or gods, or ancestors, or spirits) are in control of individual and collective destinies. As a result, modern and industrial societies are more receptive and even encouraging of rejecting of traditions, change and innovation through the application of scientific knowledge and use of technology.

Post-Industrial SocietiesAccording to sociologist Daniel Bell (1973), postindustrial or information societies have emerged in the past three decades in the United States, Western Europe and Japan and represent the latest social revolution. Since postindustrial societies are still developing, it is hard to describe them along the same lines we have reviewed the previous societal type.However, we can outline the basic structure of such societies. Economic production is no longer based on industrialism and the mass production of manufactured goods. Rather postindustrial societies are based on the production, storage, and use of information which is why the post-industrial economy is often also called the Information Age, humorously and midly criticized in the comics below.This decline in industrial economy is accompanied by the rise of a service economy, such as banking and financial services, law, education, and health care. In a service economy, people sell their knowledge and expertise to others. Because postindustrial societies and their occupational structure are based on knowledge, education, especially higher education, maintains a key institutional role.Computer technology becomes an essential component of practically every aspect of peoples lives and the social structure as a whole.Communication technologies, such as the World Wide Web, emails as well as satellite communications, have expanded dramatically, connecting people throughout the world. Just as the Industrial Revolution gave rise to the nation-state, such technologies gave birth to the Global Village.Of course, other forms of production (agriculture and manufacturing) do not disappear but we now witness a global division of labor where different regions of the world engage in different forms of production (fruits from the Caribbean area, electronic manufacturing from Southeast Asia, high tech software from Silicon Valley).Politically, we witness the decline of the nation-state and the rise of global institutions, such as the United Nations, the World Bank, and the World Trade Organization, and of a global civil society through multiple Non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International or Greenpeace.

1.2 Processes of Change

All Cultures are inherently predisposed to change and, at the same time, to resist change. There are dynamic processes operating that encourage the acceptance of new ideas andthings while there are others that encourage changeless stability. It is likely that social and psychological chaos would result if there were not the conservative forces resisting change.There are three general sources of influence or pressure that are responsible for both change and resistance to it:1. forces at work within a society

2.contact between societies

3.changes in the natural environment

Within a society, processes leading to change include invention and culture loss. Inventions may be either technological or ideological. The latter includes such things as the invention of algebra and calculus or the creation of a representative parliament as a replacement for rule by royal decree. Technological inventions include new tools, energy sources, and transportation methods as well as more frivolous and ephemeral things such as style of dress and bodily adornment.Culture loss is an inevitable result of old cultural patterns being replaced by new ones. For instance, not many Americans today know how to care for a horse. A century ago, this was common knowledge, except in a few large urban centers. Since then, vehicles with internal combustion engines have replaced horses as our primary means of transportation and horse care knowledge lost its importance. As a result, children are rarely taught these skills. Instead, they are trained in the use of the new technologies of automobiles, televisions, stereos, cellular phones, computers, and iPods.Within a society, processes that result in the resistance to change include habit and the integration of culture traits. Older people, in particular, are often reticent to replace their comfortable, long familiar cultural patterns. Habitual behavior provides emotional security in a threatening world of change. Religion also often provides strong moral justification and support for maintaining traditional ways. In theearly 21stcentury, thisisespecially true of nationsmostlyguided by Islamic Law, such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

The fact that cultural institutions are integrated and often interdependent is a major source of resistance to change. For instance, in thesecond half of the20th century, rapidly changing roles ofNorthAmericanand Europeanwomenwereresisted by many men because it inevitably resultedin changes in their roles as well. Male and female roles do not exist independent of each other. This sort of integration of cultural traits inevitably slows down and modifies cultural changes. Needless to say, it is a source of frustration for both those who want to change and those who do not.The processes leading to change that occur as a result of contact between societies are1.diffusion

2.acculturation

3.transculturation

Diffusionis the movement of things and ideas from one culture to another. When diffusion occurs, the form of a trait may move from one society to another but not its original cultural meaning. For instance, when McDonald's first brought their American style hamburgers to Moscow and Beijing, they were accepted as luxury foods for special occasions because they were relatively expensive and exotic. In America, of course, they have a very different meaning--they are ordinary every day fast food items.Acculturationis what happens to an entire culture when alien traits diffuse in on a large scale and substantially replace traditional cultural patterns. After several centuries of relentless pressure from European Americans to adopt their ways, Native American cultures have been largely acculturated. As a result, the vast majority of American Indians now speak English instead of their ancestral language, wear European style clothes, go to school to learn about the world from a European perspective, and see themselves as being a part of the broader American society. As Native American societies continue to acculturate, most are experiencing a corresponding loss of their traditional cultures despite efforts of preservationists in their communities.While acculturation is what happens to an entire culture when alien traits overwhelm it,transculturationis what happens to an individual when he or she moves to another society and adopts its culture. Immigrants who successfully learn the language and accept as their own the cultural patterns of their adopted country have transculturated. In contrast, people who live as socially isolated expatriates in a foreign land for years without desiring or expecting to becomeassimilatedparticipants in the host culture are not transculturating.There is one last process leading to change that occurs as an invention within a society as a result of an idea that diffuses from another. This is stimulus diffusion--a genuine invention that is sparked by an idea from another culture. Anexampleof this occurredabout 1821whena CherokeeIndian named Sequoyahsaw English writing which stimulated him to create a unique writing system for his own people. Part of hissyllable based systemis illustrated below. Note that some letters are similar to English while others are not. To see the entire Cherokee syllabary,click here.It is also likely that ancient Egyptians around 3050 B.C. invented their hieroglyphic writing system after learning about the cuneiform writing system invented by Sumerians in what is today Southern Iraq.There are processes operating in the contact between culturesas wellthat result in resistance to change. These are due to "us versus them" competitive feelings and perceptions.Ethnocentrismalso leads people to reject alien ideas and things as being unnatural and even immoral. These ingroup-outgroup dynamics commonly result in resistance to acculturation and assimilation.

SummationIn order to better grasp the relationship between all of thedifferentmechanisms of change operating within and between societies, it is useful to see them again in summary:

We now understand that thisholisticapproach to understanding culture change must also include consideration of changes in the environment in which a society exists. For instance, environmental degradation of fresh water supplies, arable land, and energy sources historically have resulted in the creation of new inventions, migrations, and even war to acquireessentialresources.AssimilationAssimilation describes the process of social, cultural, and political integration of a minority into a dominant culture and society.KEY POINTS1. Immigrantassimilationis one of the most common forms of assimilation, and is a very complex process.1. Social scientists rely on four primary benchmarks to assess immigrant assimilation:socioeconomicstatus, geographic distribution, secondlanguageattainment, andintermarriage.1. Socioeconomicstatus is defined byeducational attainment,occupation, andincome.Spatial concentrationis defined by geography or residential patterns.1. Language attainment refers to the ability to speak English and the loss of the individual's mother tongue. Intermarriage involvesmarriageacross racial, ethnic, or, occasionally, generational lines.1. Segmented assimilationstatesthat there are three main paths of assimilation for second generation immigrants: some assimilate smoothly, others experience downward assimilation, and others experience rapid economic success while preserving thevaluesof their immigrantcommunity.1. Intermarriage involves marriage across racial, ethnic, or, occasionally, generational lines.

TERMS1. socioeconomic statusOne's social position as determined by income, wealth, occupational prestige, and educational attainment.1. intermarriagea marriage between people belonging to differentgroups, ethnic, religious or otherwise.1. spatial concentrationA measure of how denselyparticularethnic groupsare situated in a geographic location.FULL TEXTAssimilationdescribes the process by which aminorityintegrates socially, culturally, and/or politically into a larger,dominantcultureandsociety. The term assimilation is often used in reference to immigrants andethnic groupssettling in a new land. Immigrants acquire new customs and attitudes through contact and communication with a new society, while they also introduce some of their own cultural traits to that society.Assimilation usually involves a gradual change of varying degree. Full assimilation occurs when new members of a society become indistinguishable from native members.Anygroup(such as astate, immigrantpopulation, or ethnicity) may choose to adopt a different culture for a variety of reasons such as political relevance or perceived advantage. However, a group may also be forced or feel compelled to do so as a result of imperialistic conquest,immigration, or drastic changes in population.Assimilation of ImmigrantsImmigrant assimilation is one of the most common forms of assimilation. It is a complex process through which an immigrant integrates themselves into a new country. Geography professor and human migration specialist William A. V. Clark says that immigrant assimilation is "a way of understanding the social dynamics of American society" and defines it as "the process that occurs spontaneously and often unintended in the course of interaction between majority andminority groups. "Social scientists rely on four benchmarks, initially formulated when studying European immigrants in the U.S., to assess immigrant assimilation:1. Socioeconomicstatusis defined byeducational attainment,occupation, andincome. By measuringsocioeconomicstatus, researchers seek to determine whether immigrants eventually catch up to native-born people in matters of capital.1. Spatial concentrationis defined by geography or residential patterns. The spatial residential model states that increasing socioeconomic attainment, longer residence in the U.S, and higher generational status lead to decreasing residential concentration for aparticularethnic group.1. Languageattainment is defined as the ability to speak English and the loss of the individual's mother tongue. The three-generation model of language assimilation states that the first generation makes some progress in language assimilation but retains primary fluency in their native tongue, while the second generation is bilingual and the third generation speaks only English.1. Intermarriagerefers tomarriageacross racial, ethnic, or, occasionally, generational lines. High rates of intermarriage are considered to be an indication of social integration, as they suggest intimate and profound relations between people of different groups. Intermarriage reduces the ability offamiliesto pass on to their children a consistent ethnic culture and thus is anagentof assimilation.Naturalization and Immigrant AssimilationOther than marriage, citizenship is one of the most significant factors in assimilation. Thus, immigration debates focus not only on the number of immigrants that should be admitted into a country and the processes of incorporation, but also on how citizenship should be extended and to whom. Proponents of immigration often argue that new residents will help to build and enrich Americandemocracy, while opponents counter that theidentityand legitimacy of the nation may be challenged and perhaps even threatened by immigrants. Questions of citizenship in relation toillegal immigrationis a particularly controversial issue and a common source of political tension.New Immigrant Gateways and Immigrant AssimilationThe majority of immigrants have tended to settle intraditionalgateway states such as Florida, New York, California, Illinois, Texas, and Massachusetts, where immigrants find large existing populations of foreign-born people. Recently, however, immigrants have increasingly been settling in areas outside these gateway states.SociologistsMary Waters and Tomas R. Jimenez have suggested that these geographical shifts may change the way researchers assess immigrant assimilation, as immigrants settling in new areas may encounter different experiences than immigrants settling inmoretraditional gateways. Specifically, Waters and Jimenez identify three distinguishing characteristics inmorerecent, less traditional, immigration patterns: less established socialhierarchies, smaller immigrant population size, and different institutional arrangements.Segmented AssimilationThetheoryof segmented assimilation for second generation immigrants is highly researched in the sociological arena. Segmented assimilation, researched by Min Zhou and Alejandro Portes, focuses on the notion that people take different paths in how they adapt to life in the United States. This theory states that there are three main different paths of assimilation for second generation immigrants. Some immigrants assimilate smoothly into the white middleclassof America, others experience downward assimilation, and others experience rapid economic success while preserving thevaluesof their immigrantcommunity.This theory also includes the concept of modes of incorporation, which are the external factors within the host community that affect assimilation. These factors are created by the underlying policies of the government, the strength ofprejudicein the society, and the makeup of coethnic communities within the society. These modes of incorporation affect how a child will assimilate into U.S. society, and determine how vulnerable the child will be towards downward assimilation. Factors that enhance such vulnerability include racialdiscrimination, location, and changes in theeconomythat have made it harder forintergenerational mobility.In addition, differing modes of incorporation make available certainresourcesthat second generation immigrants can use to overcome challenges to the process of assimilation. If the child belongs to a group that has been exempt from the prejudice experienced by most immigrants, such as European immigrants, they will experience a smoother process of assimilation. A second generation immigrant can also make use of established networks in the coethnic community. These networks provide these children with additional resources beyond those offered by the government, such as gateways into well paying jobs in businesses established by the ethnic community. Children of middle class immigrants have a greater likelihood of moving up the social ladder and joining Americanmainstreamsociety than children of lower class immigrants, as they have access to both the resources provided by their parents and to the educational opportunities afforded to the middle class in the U.S.1.4 Cultural Subsets There are many, many different cultures throughout the world. Interestingly, we are all typically part of several cultures at the same time. For example, someone who lives in the U.S. could be part of the national culture, in addition to the distinct culture of the South, a religious community, a heritage group and more. In this lesson, we are going to focus on identifying different subsets or categories of cultures that can exist within a larger one and also discuss how these subsets are viewed. Subcultures A subculture is a unique culture shared by a smaller group of people who are also a part of a larger culture. A larger culture often contains many subcultures, and an individual can be part of several of them. Each subculture has distinct norms and customs that aren't a part of the broader culture in which it is enveloped. Think of the Amish, or bikers, or hippies or Whovians. Each of these groups has unique cultures, yet they all exist within the broad culture of the United States. High Culture Vs. Popular Culture T term high culture is used to describe a subculture shared by the elite in a society. In fact, many associate the word 'culture' with high culture - someone who attends the ballet and collects museum-quality artwork is often considered 'cultured.' High culture isn't considered to be better by sociologists - just interestingly different from popular culture, which is the dominant subculture shared by the majority of a society's population. The elements of popular culture have mass accessibility and appeal. For example, high culture includes expensive restaurants that serve caviar and play classical music. This isn't typically appealing to the bulk of citizens. On the other hand, popular culture includes cheap fast-food restaurants that serve hamburgers and play top 40 pop music. These restaurants are so appealing that they are everywhere you look. Multiculturalism Of course, our entire country does not consist only of high culture and popular culture. It's well known that we have immigrants from many countries who bring their culture with them and make our population quite diverse. It could be said that our national culture is a blend of many cultures. They are like soup ingredients that, once mixed together, contribute to the whole and are difficult to separate from each other. Yet, multiculturalism, which is the view that cultural differences should be respected and celebrated, is on the rise. In contrast to the melting pot metaphor, multiculturalism promotes diversity through the recognition and continued celebration of separate cultures that co-exist peacefully. Rather than creating one culture from aspects of other cultures, multiculturalism focuses on the preservation of separated individual cultural traditions and customs. Counterculture Multiculturalism seems like a welcoming, inclusive sentiment, but the inclusion may not extend to countercultures. A counterculture is a type of subculture, which strongly opposes one or more elements of the dominant culture. In other words, those who share a counterculture reject conventional values or behavioral norms accepted by the majority in a society. For example, polygamists believe in marriage to more than one person. This contradicts the value - and even law - of the dominant American culture. Many people react very negatively to the culture of polygamists and other countercultures as well. Lesson Summary In summary, a subculture is a unique culture shared by a smaller group of people who are also a part of a larger culture. A larger culture often contains many subcultures, and each subculture has distinct norms and customs that aren't a part of the broader culture in which it is enveloped. There are so many subcultures in America that it would be extremely difficult to identify all of them. However, the term high culture is used to describe a subculture shared by the elite in a society. High culture isn't considered to be better by sociologists - just interestingly different from popular culture, which is the dominant subculture shared by the majority of a society's population. The elements of popular culture have mass accessibility and appeal. Perhaps more than any other country, we have a great diversity of people and backgrounds. Multiculturalism is the view that cultural differences should be respected and celebrated. In contrast to the melting pot metaphor, multiculturalism promotes diversity through the recognition and continued celebration of separate cultures that co-exist peacefully. Although that may seem like a welcoming, inclusive sentiment, it may not extend to any counterculture, which is a type of subculture that strongly opposes one or more elements of the dominant culture. 1.5 Socialization and Social Isolation: Definition & Case Studies Interestingly, socialization seems to be the process that makes us act human. Here we define socialization and discuss its importance to human development. We also contrast it to social isolation and discuss several case studies regarding what happens when humans don't or can't socialize. Nature Vs. Nurture You have probably heard about a famous debate in psychology and sociology that is known as 'nature vs. nurture.' The question is if human behavior is a product of our genes and evolution or of experience and social contact. The majority of sociologists believe that the answer to this question is likely a combination of both but that nurture plays the most important role in at least our social behavior. So let's talk more about nurture - specifically, about the importance of socialization. Socialization Socialization is a lifelong process during which we learn about social expectations and how to interact with other people. During socialization, we learn about our own culture, including behavioral norms and values that teach us how to fit in to our society. As children, we learn to walk, talk and feed ourselves and also the difference between right and wrong from the people around us. Through socialization, we acquire a personal identity and learn to value our connections with others. This process continues for an entire lifetime. Nearly all of the behavior that we consider to be 'human nature' is actually learned through socialization. For example, it is easy to assume that standards of beauty are the same all over the world. Surely, a woman who Americans 'instinctively' find attractive would also be considered attractive by other cultures, right? Yet there are cultures in which women go to drastic measures to elongate their necks and shrink their feet in order to obtain their cultural standards of beauty, which clearly are not the same as ours. Therefore, beauty may not be instinctive after all, but culturally defined and learned from others. Social Isolation Socialization is such a basic part of our lives that it is easy to overlook its importance. But it is the reason we laugh, cry, talk and do many of the other things we think of as just a part of being human. Socialization doesn't always happen, though, and certainly can't happen in social isolation. This is a state that occurs when someone experiences a complete lack of contact with the social world. We are talking about no communication with humans, no visual sighting of them - no access to society whatsoever. Social isolation would be horribly lonely for someone used to being around people. Imagine what a man would be like if he lived in a city for 30 years and was then stranded completely alone on a deserted island for the rest of his life. But social isolation from the beginning of one's life seems to be just as bad, if not worse. From what sociologists have been able to tell from case studies, individuals who grow up in social isolation have no chance to learn all of the feelings and behaviors we mistakenly believe that we are born with, so although they look human, they don't act human. Socialization Studies An example can be seen in the tragic, well-known case of Anna, an unwanted child of a farmer's daughter. Her mother confined Anna to a dark, windowless room and, although she provided her with enough milk to keep her alive, had no other contact with her. When social workers found Anna, she was five years old and had lived her entire life tied to a chair in that room. She didn't know how to walk, talk or even chew. She was also extremely apathetic and never laughed, cried or had much of a reaction to other people at all. Unfortunately, what happened to Anna is not a solitary instance. There have been many other cases in which children have been found in similar circumstances. Each time, the child seemed almost inhuman because of the lack of socialization. Even studies involving monkeys show us the importance of socialization and the negative effects of social isolation. Harry Harlow conducted a famous experiment in which he split into groups baby monkeys who had been separated from their mothers at birth. Long story short, he discovered that monkeys who were placed in isolation for just six months had a dramatic effect on their development. These monkeys were unable to interact and socialize once exposed to other monkeys - they had never learned how! Lesson Summary In summary, socialization is a lifelong process during which we learn about social expectations and how to interact with other people. Nearly all of the behavior that we consider to be 'human nature' is actually learned through socialization. It is such a basic part of our lives that it's easy to overlook its importance. Yet we see just how important it is when we look at cases of individuals growing up in social isolation, which is a state that occurs when someone experiences a complete lack of contact with the social world. Like Anna and similar human case studies, and the monkeys observed by Harlow, those who grow up in social isolation have no chance to learn all of the feelings and behaviors we mistakenly believe individuals are born with. Agents of Socialization: Family, Schools, Peers and Media The socialization that we receive in childhood has a lasting effect on our ability to interact with others in society. In this lesson, we identify and discuss four of the most influential agents of socialization in childhood: family, school, peers, and media. Socialization How do we learn to interact with other people? Socialization is a lifelong process during which we learn about social expectations and how to interact with other people. Nearly all of the behavior that we consider to be 'human nature' is actually learned through socialization. And it is during socialization that we learn how to walk, talk, and feed ourselves, about behavioral norms that help us fit in to our society, and so much more. Socialization occurs throughout our life, but some of the most important socialization occurs in childhood. So let's talk about the most influential agents of socialization. These are the people or groups responsible for our socialization during childhood - including family, school, peers, and mass media. Family There is no better way to start than to talk about the role of family in our social development, as family is usually considered to be the most important agent of socialization. As infants, we are completely dependent on others to survive. Our parents, or those who play the parent role, are responsible for teaching us to function and care for ourselves. They, along with the rest of our family, also teach us about close relationships, group life, and how to share resources. Additionally, they provide us with our first system of values, norms, and beliefs - a system that is usually a reflection of their own social status, religion, ethnic group, and more. Schools The next important agent of childhood socialization is the school. Of course, the official purpose of school is to transfer subject knowledge and teach life skills, such as following directions and meeting deadlines. But students don't just learn from the academic curriculum prepared by teachers and school administrators. In school, we also learn social skills through our interactions with teachers, staff, and other students. For example, we learn the importance of obeying authority and that, to be successful, we must learn to be quiet, to wait, and sometimes to act interested even when we're not. Alexander, like other children, might even learn things from his teacher that she did not intend to teach. For instance, he might learn that it's best to yell out an answer instead of raising his hand. When he does so, he gets rare attention from the teacher and is hardly ever punished. Peers Another agent of socialization that relates to school is our peer group. Unlike the agents we've already discussed - family and school - peer groups give us an opportunity as children to form relationships with others on our own terms plus learn things without the direction of an adult. Our peers have an incredible amount of influence on us when we're young, so it's understandable that parents worry about the type of friends we choose. Often, we discuss topics and learn behavioral norms from our peers that our parents do not or would not approve of. However, our peers also give us a chance to develop many of the social skills we need as adults. For instance, Alexander will certainly experience moments when his friends' behavior and/or values contradict the norms and values he obtained from his family. He has to learn to decide which norms and values to keep, reject, or use and follow in certain situations. Mass Media The last agent of childhood socialization we're going to discuss in this lesson is mass media, which includes television, Internet, radio, movies, books, and magazines - just to name a few. This is another agent that our parents are understandably concerned about. As with our peers, we often learn things through mass media that our parents would probably rather we didn't. Especially today, children are exposed to a wide variety of content, including violence and sex, which many deem inappropriate. Mass media also seems to reinforce gender and other stereotypes. For example, Alexander loves to watch cartoons, but they perpetuate the idea that men are more important than women. Women are usually portrayed as supporting characters - mothers, girlfriends, or damsels in distress. As a result, Alexander is continually provided with evidence that women are not as brave and intelligent as men. Lesson Summary Socialization occurs throughout our life, but some of the most important socialization occurs in childhood. Four of the most influential agents of socialization during that phase of our lives are the family, school, peers, and mass media. Family is usually considered to be the most important agent of socialization. They not only teach us how to care for ourselves but also give us our first system of values, norms, and beliefs. Schools are agents of socialization that not only teach us subject knowledge and life skills but also social skills through our interactions with teachers, staff, and other students. Another agent of socialization that relates to school is our peer group. Unlike family and school, peer groups give us an opportunity as children to form relationships with others on our own terms plus learn things without the direction of an adult. Our peers give us a chance to develop many of the social skills we need later in life. The last agent we discussed was mass media, which includes television, Internet, books, and more. As with our peers, we often learn things through mass media that our parents would probably rather we didn't, such as violence, sex, and the reinforcement of gender and other stereotypes.