tools and techniques of data collection_first year presentation
TRANSCRIPT
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TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OFDATACOLLECTION
Shilpi Mishra Sharma, PGDHM 14th Bathch, 2010,
IIHMR, Jaipur
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TYPE OF RESEARCH METHODS
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Quantitative
Qualitative
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Distinction Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Methods
Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Provide depth of understanding
Ask why?
Study motivations/intentions/reasons
Are subjective
Enable discovery
Are exploratory
Allow insight into behaviour trends
and so on Interpret
Measure level of confidence
Ask "How many ?" "How often ?
Study action/manifested behaviour
Are objective
Provide proof
Are definite
Measure level of actions, trends
and so on Describe
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QUALITATIVE DATACOLLECTION
TECHNIQUES
Focus Group Discussions
Participant Observation
Key Informant Interviews
Case Studies
Projective Techniques
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PARTICIPATORY RAPID TECHNIQUES
Mapping; SocialMapping, BodyMapping,
ParticipatoryMapping
Seasonal Calendar
Venn/Institutional Diagram Pie Chart/ Histogram
Daily Routine Diagram
Flow/causal Diagram
Time Trends
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QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Methods of Survey/ information collection
Tool - Questionnaire/ Interview Schedule
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METHODS OF SURVEY/INFORMATION
COLLECTION
Self Administered -
y Postal
y Electronic
Advantage -More useful in sensitive issues
Disadvantage - Dropout or non-response is much
higher
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SELF ADMINISTERED - POSTAL
This method has a low cost.
Survey participants can choose to remain
anonymous.
It is not labour intensive.
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SELF ADMINISTERED - ELECTRONIC
This method has a low cost, and on most surveyscosts nothing for the participants and little forthe surveyors.
Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly.
Survey participants can choose to remainanonymous.
It is not labour intensive.
Questions can be more detailed, as opposed to the
limits of paper or telephones. This method works well if your survey contains
several branching questions.
Sample may "self select" and thus not berepresentative of the population.
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METHODS OF SURVEY/INFORMATION
COLLECTION - INTERVIEW
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INTERVIEW - TELEPHONE
Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly.
Rapport with respondents
High response rate
Be careful that your sampling frame (i.e., whereyou get the phone numbers from) doesn't skew
your sample.
y For example - if you select the phone numbers from a
phone book, you are necessarily excluding people who
only have a mobile phone, those who requested an
unpublished phone number, and individuals who
have recently moved to the area because none of
these people will be in the book.
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TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
Highly Structured
Open Ended
The in-depth interview
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TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Contingency questions - A question that is
answered only if the respondent gives a
particular response to a previous question. This
avoids asking questions of people that do not
apply to them
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TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Closed ended questions - Respondentsanswers are limited to a fixed set of responses.Most scales are closed ended. Other types ofclosed ended questions include:
y Yes/no questions - The respondent answers with ayes or a no.
y Multiple choice - The respondent has several optionfrom which to choose.
y Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a
continuum (example : rate the appearance of theproduct on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being themost preferred appearance). Examples of types ofscales include the Likert scale, semantic differentialscale, and rank-order scale
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ADVANTAGES OF CLOSED ENDED
QUESTIONS
Time saving
Easy comparison of responses of
y different groups
y Same group over different period of time
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RISK OF CLOSED QUESTIONS
Possible answers might be disclosed to the
respondents might introduce bias
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EXAMPLES OF CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS
Do you get along with your supervisor?
Is that a photograph of your children?
Are you leaving right at 5:00 today?
Are you awake?
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TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Open ended questions - No options or predefinedcategories are suggested. The respondent supplies theirown answer without being constrained by a fixed set ofpossible responses. Examples of types of open endedquestions include:y
Completely unstructured - For example, What is youropinion of questionnaires?
y Word association - Words are presented and the respondentmentions the first word that comes to mind.
y Sentence completion - Respondents complete an incompletesentence. For example, The most important consideration inmy decision to buy a new house is . . .
y
Story completion - Respondents complete an incompletestory.
y Picture completion - Respondents fill in an emptyconversation balloon.
y Thematic apperception test - Respondents explain apicture or make up a story about what they think is happeningin the picture
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ADVANTAGES OF COMPLETELY OPEN
ENDED QUESTIONS
Allows to probe more deeply
New issues might be explored
Information provided might be useful as an
example Possibility of different interpretations
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RISK OF OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS
Focus might be loosed
Less information might be collected
Analysis time consuming
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PARTIALLY CATEGORIZED QUESTIONS
If one has others category
Advantages
y Quick recoding of answers
y Easy analysis
Risks
y Loss of a lot of interesting and valuable information
y Interviews might try to get the response from thecategories
y Interviewer might only receive one answer
y Interviewer might introduce the possible answer
y Very little space provided for recording the response
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EXAMPLES OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
Tell me about your relationship with your
supervisor.
How do you see your future?
Tell me about the children in this photograph. What is the purpose of government?
Why did you choose that answer?
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QUESTION SEQUENCE
Questions should flow logically from one to the next.
The researcher must ensure that the answer to aquestion is not influenced by previous questions.
Questions should flow from the more general to themore specific.
Questions should flow from the least sensitive to themost sensitive.
Questions should flow from factual and behaviouralquestions to attitudinal and opinion questions.
Questions should flow from unaided to aided
questions. According to the three stage theory (also called the
sandwich theory), initial questions should bescreening and rapport questions. Then in the secondstage you ask all the product specific questions. In thelast stage you ask demographic questions
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ART OF ASKING QUESTIONS
Opening Remarks
Establishing Rapport
Neutrality of Interviewers
Closing the interview General guidelines about interview
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
Knowing about
y how (and whether) one will use the results of
research before one start.
y for example, the results won't influence your decision
or you can't afford to implement the findings or the
cost of the research outweighs its usefulness, then
save your time and money; don't bother doing the
research.
The research objectives and frame of reference
should be defined beforehand, including the
questionnaire's context of time, budget,
manpower, intrusion and privacy.
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
The topics should fit the respondents frame ofreference.
y Their background may affect their interpretation ofthe questions.
y Respondents should have enough information orexpertise to answer the questions truthfully.
The type of scale or index to be used shall bedetermined.
The level of measurement Important for
Analysis The types of questions (closed, multiple-choice,
open) should fit the statistical data analysistechniques available and your goals.
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
Questions and prepared responses to choose fromshould be neutral as to intended outcome. A biasedquestion or questionnaire encourages respondents toanswer one way rather than another. Even questionswithout bias may leave respondents with
expectations. The order or natural grouping of questions is often
relevant. Prior previous questions may bias laterquestions.
The wording should be kept simple: no technical orspecialized words.
The meaning should be clear. Ambiguous words,equivocal sentence structures and negatives maycause misunderstanding, possibly invalidatingquestionnaire results. Double negatives should bereworded as positives.
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
Care should be taken to ask one question at a
time.
The list of possible responses should be
collectively exhaustive.y One might include other specify----------------
The possible responses should also be mutually
exclusive.
y for example in both the married category and the
single category - there may be need for separate
questions on marital status and living situation.
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
Conversational writing style
Sequencing of the questions
Correct skipping pattern
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
Presentation of the questions on the page (or
computer screen) and use of white space, colors,
pictures, charts, or other graphics may affect
respondent's interest or distract from the
questions.
Numbering of questions may be helpful.
Clear, detailed instructions for the interviewers
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SCALING TECHNIQUES
The basic principle of scaling is a part of
everyday life.
When one meets people for the first time we try
to build up a picture of them: we developimpressions of their friendliness, intelligence,
trustworthiness and so forth.
These impressions rarely rely on one piece of
information but are a composite picture based on
a number of clues.
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SCALING TECHNIQUES
Differential Scales
Summated Scales
y Likert Scale
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LIKERT SCALE
scale most frequently used in the study of
attitudes follows the pattern devised by Rensis
Likert (1932) and is referred to as a Likert type
scale.
In fact, most scales currently used in social
science research are Likert-type scales.
In such a scale, the respondents are asked to
respond to each item in terms of several degrees
of agreement or disagreement:
for example, (1) strongly approve. (2) approve, (3)
undecided, (4) disapprove, (5) strongly
disapprove.
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Rating the Items.
The next step is to have a group of judges rate
the items. Usually you would use a 1-to-5 rating
scale where: = strongly unfavorable to the concept
= somewhat unfavorable to the concept
= undecided
= somewhat favorable to the concept = strongly favorable to the concept
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Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
1. I feel good about my work on the job.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
2. On the whole, I get along well with others at work.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
3. I am proud of my ability to cope with difficulties at work.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
4. When I feel uncomfortable at work, I know how to handle it.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
5. I can tell that other people at work are glad to have me there.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
6. I know I'll be able to cope with work for as long as I want.
StronglyDisagree
SomewhatDisagree
SomewhatAgree
StronglyAgree
7. I am proud of my relationship with my supervisor at work.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
8. I am confident that I can handle my job without constant
assistance.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
9. I feel like I make a useful contribution at work.
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
10. I can tell that my coworkers respect me.
Example: The Employment Self Esteem ScaleHere's an example of a ten-item Likert Scale that attempts to estimate the level of self esteem a person has
on the job. Notice that this instrument has no center or neutral point -- the respondent has to declare
whether he/she is in agreement or disagreement with the item.
INSTRUCTIONS: Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the
following statements by placing a check mark in the appropriate box.
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QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES
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FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a group discussion of
6-12 persons guided by a facilitator, during which group
members talk freely and spontaneously about a certain
topic.
FGDs are not used to test hypotheses or to produce research
findings that can be generalized
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PURPOSE OF FGD
1.To focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by
exploring in greater depth the problem to be investigated and
its possible causes.
2.To generate new ideas. A group works best to build on the
ideas generated.
3.To formulate appropriate questions for more structured, large-
scale surveys.
4.To supplement information on community knowledge, beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviour already available but are incomplete
or unclear. For example, reasons for low women's participation
in development programme can be understood by a focusgroup discussion among women.
5.To develop appropriate messages for the education programme.
6.To explore controversial topics.
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Purpose Composition Process
Research definition and
refinement
Development of
hypotheses
Generation of
vocabularies
Formulation of questions
for interview schedules
Provision of
supplementary
information on
community beliefs,
perceptions and attitudes
Advance selection by
random sampling or
alternative criteria
Homogeneous withrespect to major social
divisions
Anonymity of
participants
Preferred
Day, time and place
determined in advance
Discussion guidelines
need to be pre-tested
More than one focus
group must be held
Moderator and note-
taker require training
Key Features of the FGD
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Participant Guidelines Role of
Facilitator/Moderator
Role of Note-
taker/Recorder
Focus group runs 90
minutes, tape
recorded with
supplementary notes
Speak clearly, one at a
time
Want everyone's
opinion - no
right/wrong answers
Courage of conviction
Facilitates but does not
dominate discussion
Introduces new issues
for discussion
Monitors participant
involvement andinteraction, encourages
active participation
Keeps conversation
flowing, Maintaining
focus but allowing
for flexibility
Maintains a written
record of the focus
group, including;
Community, date, time
(start and finish) and
place held
Number and descriptionof participants
Major issues covered in
focus group
Group dynamics,
including non- verbalinteraction
Discussion details,
including Speaker
identity - supplements
tape
Back-up to moderator
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SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF FGD
Preparation
y Recruitment of Participants
y Physical Arrangements
y Preparation of FGD Guideline
Conducting the session
y Moderator's Functions
y Recorder's Functions
Number and Duration of Sessions
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SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF FOCUS GROUP
ORGANIZATIONS
Methodological Issues
y Appear to reduce the chance of questions being
misunderstood by respondents, and to reduce socially-
desirable answers
y
The informal atmosphere of the group also shouldencourage participants to express views frankly and freely
y chances of introducing error in focus group research is
particularly high in cases where the interview is conducted
in the indigenous language and then translated.
y A major concern is the validity of conclusions from the
focus group session, where quality of data is so dependent
on the moderator whose individual skills are central to the
quality and quantity of the data obtained.
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PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Involves establishing rapport in a new community
There are five reasons as to why Participant Observation(PO) should be insisted upon in the conduct of a scientificresearch about cultural group:
1. PO is not a method of collecting just qualitative data. In
fact, it is not really a method at all. It is a Strategy, whichfacilitates data collection in the field all kinds of data,both quantitative and qualitative.
2. PO reduces the problem of reactivity among respondents.Lower reactivity means higher validity of data.
3. PO helps you formulate sensible questions in the native
language.4. PO gives you intuitive understanding of what is going on
in a culture, and allows you to speak with confidenceabout the meaning of data.
5. Many research problems cannot be addressed adequatelyby anything except PO.
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IMPORTANT SKILLS REQUIRED TO BECOME
AN EFFICIENT PARTICIPANT OBSERVER
1. learning the native language
2. Building explicit awareness
3. Building memory
4. Maintaining naivete
5. Building writing skills
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Non participant observation:
The observer does not actively participate in the
group activities but observes the group from a
distance and the observer is fully aware that he/she
is entirely apart from the object of observation.
Non-controlled observation:
The observation is done without managing,
organising and directing the normal activities/surroundings by any internal force, it is called non-
controlled observation. This type of observation needs
to be supplemented by structured observation or
schedules of information (see Goode & Hatt, 1952)
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KEY INFORMANTS (KI) INTERVIEW
An important qualitative method, particularly in
areas where the entry has not yet been made
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ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF KI INTERVIEWS
Selection of KI
KI should;
y articulate,
y willing to participate,
y trustworthy andy should have other personal attributes conducive to
conducting detailed interviews.
y Has unique position in the community
Conducting Interviews
y The interview should be characterized by Silent Probe
Phased assertion.
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CASE STUDIES
A fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is
called a life or case history or case study. It
deepens our perception & give us clear insight
into life. Because of its aid in studying behaviour
in specific, precise detail, Burgess termed thecase study method, `the social microscopes'
(Young, 1973)
A case study explores the social process whilestatistical technique reveals the extent & degree
of association
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THE MAJOR CRITERIA FOR LIFE HISTORY
STUDY
Behaviour of an individual must be viewed as a
response to definite social stimulations.
The subject (he/she) must be viewed as a member
of a cultural group/community.
The continuous related character of experience
from childhood through adulthood should be
stressed.
The social situation must be studied to
understand the degree of social pressures, social
participation exercised by the subject
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PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE
In a projective test, an individual supplies
structure to unstructured stimuli in a manner
consistent with the individuals own unique
pattern of conscious and unconscious needs,
fears, desires, impulses, conflicts, and ways ofperceiving and responding
Projective methods were initially used by
psychologists and psychiatrists for the diagnosisand treatment of emotionally disordered patients
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ASSUMPTIONS
The more ambiguous the stimuli, the more
examinees reveal about their personality.
Projection is greater to stimulus material that is
similar to the examinee.
Every response provides meaning for personality
analysis.
There is an unconscious.
Subjects are unaware of what they disclose.
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EXAMPLE - BODYMAPPING
It is a projective technique in which respondentsdraw maps of human body (see Ulinetal, 2002).
This method is useful to study peoplesperceptions about human physiology,
reproductive health issues. It is a comfortable means of expression for those
respondents who feel shy to speak aboutreproduction and sexuality.
In this method respondents are asked to sketchreproductive organs or to label body parts andexplain the functions, researchers thus canidentify gaps that could be addressed throughinterventions.
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IMPORTANCE OF COMBINING DIFFERENT
DATACOLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Mix of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Techniques
Reduction in chances of bias
More comprehensive understaing of study topic
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BIAS IN INFORMATION COLLECTION
Defective Instruments
Observers Bias
Effect of the interview on thr informant
Information Biasy These affect the validity and Reliability of the study
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PRETESTING AND PILOT STUDIES
Pre-test helps in
y evaluating the different questions,
y the language,
y questionnaire format and
y Interview process.
It can also be used to familiarise interviewers with the
questionnaire or schedule.
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IN THE PROCESS OF PRE-TESTING
The questionnaire is checked for clarity and
understanding and the prospective respondents
are informed about the same.
After this is established, interviewer can ask the
respondent what came to his mind when the
question was put forward.
Respondent's answer helps the researcher in
understanding whether the question evokes what
it was supposed to evoke or not. If it does not, then the wording of the question
ought to change. In this way, confusing words
and phrases can be avoided.
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IN THE PROCESS OF PRE-TESTING
When a respondent hesitates to answer or is unable tounderstand a question, additional questions intended toovercome hesitancy or misunderstanding help in modifyingthe questionnaire.
The researcher who developed the questionnaire shouldhimself/herself conduct some of the pre-test interviews as ithelps in evaluating the responses and determining whetherchanges should be made or not. Pre-testing should also beconducted in a population, which is very similar to thestudy population.
Twenty-five to fifty pre-test interviews are usuallysufficient to check the quality of the questionnaire.
However, their number depends upon the purpose andavailability of time and money. If pre-test is used fortraining the interviewers, then more interviews, can beconducted. The data obtained from the pre-test are not tobe included in the final study.
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PILOT SURVEY
A series of small pre-tests can be conducted on
the isolated problems of the design, and after
establishing a broad plan of enquiry, it may take
the form of a pilot survey, "a small replica of the
main survey - a dress rehearsal".
-Moser and Kalton
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THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE-TESTS AND
PILOT SURVEYS LIES IN -
Determining the adequacy of the for a study samplingframe : High hospital records are to be used, pre-test maybe done to see their completeness, adequacy, up-to-dateness and convenience in obtaining such records.
Finding variability within the population, which isimportant to know for determining the sample design andsize : If the variability is more, a bigger sample would berequired, but if the variability is not much, even a smallersample will be adequate.
Estimating the non-response rates : Through pilot surveysone can estimate the refusal and non-contact rate andaccordingly decide upon the appropriate technique of datacollection. One can also evaluate the strain on andefficiency of interviewers.
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THE VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT/TOOL
Basic questions must be asked about any
measuring instrument
y What does it measure?
y Are the data it provides relevant to the characteristic
in which one is interested?
y Do the differences in scores represent the differences
on the characteristic one is trying to measure, or do
they reflect also the influence of other factors?
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WAYS TO EVALUATE THE VALIDITY OF THE
INSTRUMENT
Face Validity
Concurrent Validity
Predictive Validity
Construct Validity
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FACEVALIDITY
Face validity is evaluated by a group of judges, sometimesexperts, who read or look at a measuring technique anddecide whether in their opinion it measures what its namesuggests.
Evaluating the face validity is a subjective process, but we
could calculate the validity figures by computing theamount of agreement between judges.
The higher the percent who says it measures what it claimsto measure, the higher the face validity.
Every instrument must pass the face validity test eitherformally or informally.
Every researcher who chooses an instrument is a judgewho has decided that the test measures the concept he orshe wishes to study. Without such minimal face validity, aninstrument would not be used.
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CONCURRENTVALIDITY
Concurrent validity is the ability of a measuringinstrument to distinguish between individuals whoare known to differ.
Thus, if a scale were being devised for the purpose ofmeasuring religiosity, the questions could be tested byadministering them to one group known to bereligious, to be active in religious activities andotherwise to give evidence of high religiosity. T
hese answers would then be compared with thosefrom a group known not to be very religious and also
known to oppose religious behaviour in other ways. Ifthe test failed to discriminate between the twogroups, it could not be considered to measurereligiosity with validity.
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PREDICTIVEVALIDITY
Predictive validity is the ability of a measuring
instrument to identify future differences.
For instance, the predictive validity of a scale
measuring attitude towards birth control is the
ability of the scale to identify who will eventually
adopt contraception and who will not practise
contraception.
Predictive validity is an evaluation of a measure's
practical worth in foreseeing the future.
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CONSTRUCTVALIDITY
Construct validity is an evaluation of the extent
to which an instrument measures the theoretical
construct the investigator wishes to measure.
Unlike face validity, construct validity requires
more than expert opinion. It requires a
demonstration that the construct in question
exists, that it is distinct from other constructs,
and that the instrument measures that
particular construct and no other.
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