ToltecsToltecs

Who were the Toltecs?Who were the Toltecs?TulaTula

Toltec Sphere of Influence Toltec Sphere of Influence Fall of Tula and the ToltecsFall of Tula and the Toltecs

Tolteca-Chichimeca & NonoalcaTolteca-Chichimeca & NonoalcaPopulated by two groups Populated by two groups

Tolteca-Chichimeca Tolteca-Chichimeca probably original Nahuatl-speakers who founded probably original Nahuatl-speakers who founded

Toltec stateToltec statereported to have come from north reported to have come from north leader was Mixcoatl ("Cloud Serpent" = Milky Way) leader was Mixcoatl ("Cloud Serpent" = Milky Way)

reported to have settled at a place in the Valley of Mexico reported to have settled at a place in the Valley of Mexico called Colhuacan called Colhuacan

son and heir was Tolpitzin, later identified with son and heir was Tolpitzin, later identified with Quetzalcoatl Quetzalcoatl

described as having fair skin and black beard described as having fair skin and black beard Ce Acatl Tolpitzin, born at TepoztlÝn, Morelos in AD 935 Ce Acatl Tolpitzin, born at TepoztlÝn, Morelos in AD 935

or 947or 947 searched for and buried deceased father's remains searched for and buried deceased father's remains moved Toltec capital to Tula in AD 968 moved Toltec capital to Tula in AD 968

NonoalcaNonoalca

Referred to as highly civilized leaders, priests, Referred to as highly civilized leaders, priests, merchants, and craftsmen (bearers of the Mesoamerican merchants, and craftsmen (bearers of the Mesoamerican tradition) tradition)

Davies sees them as coming possibly from Gulf Coast Davies sees them as coming possibly from Gulf Coast region of Veracruz and Tabasco, or they may have come region of Veracruz and Tabasco, or they may have come from Teotihuacan from Teotihuacan

Diehl believes they probably included upper and middle Diehl believes they probably included upper and middle classes from Teotihuacan, Monte Alban, Xochicalco, El classes from Teotihuacan, Monte Alban, Xochicalco, El Tajin, and other centers who were forced to search out Tajin, and other centers who were forced to search out new lives when home communities declinednew lives when home communities declined

suggests migration played a major role in formation of suggests migration played a major role in formation of Toltec civilization Toltec civilization

Toltec economyToltec economy Agriculture Agriculture

Sahagun's* informants told him Toltecs had ears of corn that could Sahagun's* informants told him Toltecs had ears of corn that could hardly be carried in one's arms, cotton in all different colors (from hardly be carried in one's arms, cotton in all different colors (from bright red to green, blue, and violet) bright red to green, blue, and violet)

maize was the basic food source maize was the basic food source supplemented with beans, chili peppers, amaranth, squashes, and supplemented with beans, chili peppers, amaranth, squashes, and

maguey maguey medicinal plants and drugs also grown medicinal plants and drugs also grown farming in milpas and household gardens farming in milpas and household gardens earth worked with stone or wooden hoes earth worked with stone or wooden hoes planting with wooden digging sticks planting with wooden digging sticks polycropping common (beans and squash with maize) polycropping common (beans and squash with maize)

Irrigation was essential Irrigation was essential Tlaloc was probably a critical deity Tlaloc was probably a critical deity hillside terraces built to trap water and silt for agriculture hillside terraces built to trap water and silt for agriculture intensification technique which was probably a response to intensification technique which was probably a response to

population pressure population pressure

*Sahagun was a Spanish missionary, born in Sahagun, Leon, late in the 15th century; died in Mexico, 23 October, 1590.

Hunting and gatheringHunting and gathering

Wild seeds included mesquite and Wild seeds included mesquite and chenopodium chenopodium

fruits included cherry-like capulin, fruits included cherry-like capulin, persimmon, and prickly pear persimmon, and prickly pear

turkeys and small dogs were only meat-turkeys and small dogs were only meat-producing domestic animals producing domestic animals

bees were probably raised for honey bees were probably raised for honey wild animals included deer, jackrabbit, wild animals included deer, jackrabbit,

cottontail rabbitcottontail rabbit

Craft productionCraft production "Toltec" came to mean master craftsman or artisan "Toltec" came to mean master craftsman or artisan

Sahagun's informants described "scribes, lapidarians, Sahagun's informants described "scribes, lapidarians, carpenters, stone cutters, masons, feather workers, feather carpenters, stone cutters, masons, feather workers, feather gluers, potters, spinners, and weavers" gluers, potters, spinners, and weavers"

feather work is reported to have been exceptionally good feather work is reported to have been exceptionally good used on shields used on shields

worked turquoise, gold, copper, tin, mica, and lead, together with worked turquoise, gold, copper, tin, mica, and lead, together with green stones, amber, rock crystal (quartz), amethyst, pearls, and green stones, amber, rock crystal (quartz), amethyst, pearls, and opals opals

tecali, often confused with onyx, used for beads, ornaments, tecali, often confused with onyx, used for beads, ornaments, bowls, jars, and other luxury products bowls, jars, and other luxury products

bowls made by polishing and coring bowls made by polishing and coring obsidian obsidian

controlled Pachuca obsidian mines controlled Pachuca obsidian mines prized above all other obsidian by Mesoamericans prized above all other obsidian by Mesoamericans used-up cores found all over city, not just in workshop zone used-up cores found all over city, not just in workshop zone suggests cores were produced for trade suggests cores were produced for trade Diehl suggests 2000 craftsmen Diehl suggests 2000 craftsmen

Artifacts: PotteryArtifacts: Pottery

Duck effigy bowlBrazier with skulls

Pipes

Papagayo polychrome bowl http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltecs-dishware.htm

Artifacts: Stone CarvingsArtifacts: Stone Carvings

Jaguar statueFigurines

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltec-standing-figurines.htm

AtlantesAtlantes

Altar support from the  Temple of Quetzalcoatl

Rear view of the  altar support

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-atlantes.htm

CommerceCommerce Diehl believes there was a Toltec "pochteca" (specialized Diehl believes there was a Toltec "pochteca" (specialized

merchant group) merchant group) trade wares included Central American polychromes, Plumbate, trade wares included Central American polychromes, Plumbate,

Central Veracruz wares, and Huastec pottery from north Gulf Central Veracruz wares, and Huastec pottery from north Gulf Coast Coast

conspicuously absent was Fine Orange from southern Veracruz, conspicuously absent was Fine Orange from southern Veracruz, Tabasco, and Campeche Tabasco, and Campeche

cacao and quetzal feathers may have come from Guatemala cacao and quetzal feathers may have come from Guatemala northern steppe zones provided turquoise, serpentine, quartz, northern steppe zones provided turquoise, serpentine, quartz,

rock crystal, mica, amethyst, and cinnabar rock crystal, mica, amethyst, and cinnabar also peyote and hallucinogenic mushrooms also peyote and hallucinogenic mushrooms Pacific coast shells indicate commercial ties with Michoacan, Pacific coast shells indicate commercial ties with Michoacan,

Nayarit, and Colima Nayarit, and Colima metal ornaments, especially copper, may also have come from metal ornaments, especially copper, may also have come from

this region this region

ReligionReligion

Tezcaltlipoca - the night and the darkness Tezcaltlipoca - the night and the darkness Tláloc god of the rain and the vegetation Tláloc god of the rain and the vegetation Centéotl god of the corn Centéotl god of the corn ltzpapáloti or butterfly of obsidian ltzpapáloti or butterfly of obsidian Tonatiuh or solar god. Tonatiuh or solar god.

Tlaloc god of rainTlaloc god of rain

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltec-tlaloc.htm

Politics - "The Toltec State"Politics - "The Toltec State" Precise definitions of borders impossible Precise definitions of borders impossible

included much of central Mexico and adjacent areas to the north included much of central Mexico and adjacent areas to the north Hidalgo, Basin of Mexico, Valley of Toluca, parts of Baja and Hidalgo, Basin of Mexico, Valley of Toluca, parts of Baja and

Morelos Morelos most of northern boundary coincided with limits of effective most of northern boundary coincided with limits of effective

agriculture agriculture Motivation for empire building was "free" wealth in the Motivation for empire building was "free" wealth in the

form of tribute form of tribute Matricula de Tributos, an Aztec document, gives us an Matricula de Tributos, an Aztec document, gives us an

idea of the types of tribute received idea of the types of tribute received Emphasis on three types of goods Emphasis on three types of goods

food food maize, beans, chilis, amaranth, chian, and animals maize, beans, chilis, amaranth, chian, and animals

textiles textiles goods of cotton and maguey fiber, cotton goods probably reserved for goods of cotton and maguey fiber, cotton goods probably reserved for

the elite the elite exotic luxury goods exotic luxury goods

feathers, animal skins, minearal, semi-precious stones, and other items feathers, animal skins, minearal, semi-precious stones, and other items such as lumber, pottery, lime, bark paper, honey, and wild animals such as lumber, pottery, lime, bark paper, honey, and wild animals

Important rulers mentioned in Important rulers mentioned in drama of Toltec history drama of Toltec history

Tolpitzin Quetzalcoatl Tolpitzin Quetzalcoatl enthroned as priest and king of Tollan, said to have led his people away from enthroned as priest and king of Tollan, said to have led his people away from

human sacrifice, also had problems: incest with sister when drunk, fled Tula in human sacrifice, also had problems: incest with sister when drunk, fled Tula in shame after run-in with Tezcatlipoca, also struggled with Ihuimecatl and Toltecatl shame after run-in with Tezcatlipoca, also struggled with Ihuimecatl and Toltecatl

Tezcatlipoca ("Smoking Mirror") Tezcatlipoca ("Smoking Mirror") sacrificer, lord of sorcerers, reported as charming and enchanting peoplesacrificer, lord of sorcerers, reported as charming and enchanting people

Kukulcan Kukulcan culture hero reported to have arrived in Maya area ca. AD 986-987culture hero reported to have arrived in Maya area ca. AD 986-987 reported as Mexican conqueror who arrived with companions to subjugate the reported as Mexican conqueror who arrived with companions to subjugate the

country country "Kukulcan" is a translation of "Feathered Serpent" into Yucatec Maya"Kukulcan" is a translation of "Feathered Serpent" into Yucatec Maya said to have ruled Chichen Itza until his death said to have ruled Chichen Itza until his death

Huemac, Huemac, last king of Tula, forced to flee as a result of growing factionalism and last king of Tula, forced to flee as a result of growing factionalism and

encroaching barbarians encroaching barbarians some identify Huemac as Tezcatlipoca, said to have fled around AD 1063 due to some identify Huemac as Tezcatlipoca, said to have fled around AD 1063 due to

droughts, conflicts, and fighting between the Tolteca-Chichimeca and Nonoalca droughts, conflicts, and fighting between the Tolteca-Chichimeca and Nonoalca result in destruction of Tula ca. 1150 result in destruction of Tula ca. 1150

settled in Chapultepec, on western banks of Lake Texcoco dated to 1156 or settled in Chapultepec, on western banks of Lake Texcoco dated to 1156 or 1168 and eventually killed himself 1168 and eventually killed himself

ArchaeologyArchaeology Multi-ethnic group that introduced changes in public and religious Multi-ethnic group that introduced changes in public and religious

architecture and new styles of stone carving and ceramics.architecture and new styles of stone carving and ceramics. Tula buliders did not call themselves Toltecs, but the Aztec used the Tula buliders did not call themselves Toltecs, but the Aztec used the

word to refer to a skilled craftsperson or artisan.word to refer to a skilled craftsperson or artisan. mixture of Nahuatl, Otomi, Nonoalca, Chichimec peoples.mixture of Nahuatl, Otomi, Nonoalca, Chichimec peoples.

Carnegie Museum of Washington who had been working at Chichen Carnegie Museum of Washington who had been working at Chichen Itza began excavations at Tula, Hidalgo., also University of Missouri Itza began excavations at Tula, Hidalgo., also University of Missouri worked with Mesoamerican groups to conduct work after 1966.worked with Mesoamerican groups to conduct work after 1966. Chronology in the area based largely on ceramics.Chronology in the area based largely on ceramics. Prior to 400 A.D. Tula region was integrated with Teotihuacan, but most Prior to 400 A.D. Tula region was integrated with Teotihuacan, but most

people in the area were farmers and also some Hilltop sites such as people in the area were farmers and also some Hilltop sites such as Mogone.Mogone.

By around 700 A.D. areas such as Tula Chico which is situated north of By around 700 A.D. areas such as Tula Chico which is situated north of the Tula area with civic-ceremonial architecture laid out in a n-s axis.the Tula area with civic-ceremonial architecture laid out in a n-s axis.

Several areas occupied for different reasons and at different times Several areas occupied for different reasons and at different times in Tula.in Tula. Tula Chica, Cerro Mogone, Tula Grande, Tula de Allende, Canal Tula Chica, Cerro Mogone, Tula Grande, Tula de Allende, Canal

Locality, El Corral, Cerro El Cielito, Cerro La Malinche.Locality, El Corral, Cerro El Cielito, Cerro La Malinche.

Early ExcavationsEarly Excavations

Archaeologist Jorge Acosta, primary excavator at Tula, stands next to Pyramid B.

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-excavations.htm

TulaTula

A.D. 900-1200A.D. 900-1200 Development of city north of Teotihuacan.Development of city north of Teotihuacan. Located on the Tula river and near the Lerma Located on the Tula river and near the Lerma

rivers for easy communication with others.rivers for easy communication with others. This new capital was closer to the northern limits This new capital was closer to the northern limits

of agriculture.of agriculture. Toltec history embellished by Aztecs, Spaniards Toltec history embellished by Aztecs, Spaniards

and others after their collapse in 1200 A.D.and others after their collapse in 1200 A.D.

TulaTula Geography Geography

north of Valley of Mexico in southern part of state of Hidalgo north of Valley of Mexico in southern part of state of Hidalgo rivers flow northeast to Rio Moctezuma, then down Sierra Madre rivers flow northeast to Rio Moctezuma, then down Sierra Madre

Oriental into Rio Panuco and Gulf of Mexico Oriental into Rio Panuco and Gulf of Mexico Dry, desertified area Dry, desertified area

hardy scrup and cactus thickets, mesquite, prickly pear, and yucca hardy scrup and cactus thickets, mesquite, prickly pear, and yucca soils are rich, alluvial ones but irrigation necessary for agriculture soils are rich, alluvial ones but irrigation necessary for agriculture high mountains to the east hold clouds away from area and rainy high mountains to the east hold clouds away from area and rainy

season precipitation is insufficient for rainfall agriculture season precipitation is insufficient for rainfall agriculture Tula area has slightly more rain, irrigation water, and arable land Tula area has slightly more rain, irrigation water, and arable land

than rest of region than rest of region

Climate Climate mild, with annual temperatures ranging from 16-19C (60-66F) mild, with annual temperatures ranging from 16-19C (60-66F) monthly temperatures average from 11C (52F) in December to monthly temperatures average from 11C (52F) in December to

38C (100F) in May with frosts frequent in winter 38C (100F) in May with frosts frequent in winter

Tula GrandeTula Grande Just south of Tula Chico, was occupied during the prime phase of Tula 950-Just south of Tula Chico, was occupied during the prime phase of Tula 950-

1150 A.D.1150 A.D. 13 km in area, with a population of 30-60,000 residents.13 km in area, with a population of 30-60,000 residents. craftspeople, trades people, religious leaders, but not farmers.craftspeople, trades people, religious leaders, but not farmers. workshops included manos and metates makers. workshops included manos and metates makers. City laid out on n-s axis.City laid out on n-s axis.

center with double plaza complex, two pyramids, council halls, and a colonnaded center with double plaza complex, two pyramids, council halls, and a colonnaded vestibule.vestibule.

two ballcourts, much of this built on large single platform 10-15 meters in height.two ballcourts, much of this built on large single platform 10-15 meters in height. Building C was the most impressive but was destroyed.Building C was the most impressive but was destroyed. Building B is the Temple to Quetzalcoatl.Building B is the Temple to Quetzalcoatl. stone sculpture is largely made of columns, pillars, relief panels, and atlantids stone sculpture is largely made of columns, pillars, relief panels, and atlantids

which are figures of men used to support roofs or altars.which are figures of men used to support roofs or altars. a new feature known as a serpent wall which does not surround the temple but is a new feature known as a serpent wall which does not surround the temple but is

free standing along the north.free standing along the north. also depictions of Patolli playing which is a game of chance played by many also depictions of Patolli playing which is a game of chance played by many

mesoamerican groups and is similar to modern Parchessi.mesoamerican groups and is similar to modern Parchessi. chacmool figures as well.chacmool figures as well.

1. North Ball Court 2. Coatepantli 3. Palace of Quetzalcoatl 4. Palace of the Columns 5. Vestibule 6. Temple of

Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli 7. Mound C 8. Tzompantli 9. South Ball Court

Tula BallcourtsTula Ballcourts

Ballcourt 1 Ballcourt 2

Stone (found in the center of the ballcourt) possibly connected with the scoring or ritual  of the game 

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/ballcourt-no2.htm

Palace of the Columns Palace of the Columns

Temple of TlahuizcalpantecuhtliTemple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli(Temple of the Morning Star)(Temple of the Morning Star)

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-temple.htm

Atlantes Atlantes

Atlantean warrior columns on the summit of Pyramid B, Tula Grande.  All are made of basalt and are over fifteen feet tall.

Pyramid B: Temple of Quetzalcoatl Pyramid B: Temple of Quetzalcoatl

Chacmool

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltecs1.htm

Recreation of what the temple would Recreation of what the temple would have looked like in the past.have looked like in the past.

Pyramid C Pyramid C

Talud-tablero

Drainage inRear of pyramid

http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-2.htm

Coatepantli Coatepantli

On the inner side of this is a well preserved frieze depicting a rather grisly scene of a long line of snakes swallowing skeletal people, who are thought to be warriors.

Detail of the Coatepantli, which depicts a band of serpents devouring a skeletal form

Palace of Quetzalcoatl    Palace of Quetzalcoatl   

Toltec Sphere of InfluenceToltec Sphere of Influence

Sphere vs. EmpireSphere vs. Empire Not really a major empire like Teotihuacan or some other sites.Not really a major empire like Teotihuacan or some other sites. It never had a well-defined boundary and nothing to indicate It never had a well-defined boundary and nothing to indicate

centralized control.centralized control. TradeTrade

Must have been an important influence on their wealth, Must have been an important influence on their wealth, organization and management.organization and management.

Toltec artifacts have a wide but uneven distribution.Toltec artifacts have a wide but uneven distribution. much art has militaristic displays, but no coercion or conquest much art has militaristic displays, but no coercion or conquest

has been discovered archaeologically.has been discovered archaeologically. Artifacts found at sites such as Casas Grandes to the north, Artifacts found at sites such as Casas Grandes to the north,

sites to the west, and Veracruz.sites to the west, and Veracruz. Received items such as gold from the south.Received items such as gold from the south.

Fall of Tula and the ToltecsFall of Tula and the Toltecs

Sahagun's version: Sahagun's version: Epic conflict between Tezcatlipoca and Epic conflict between Tezcatlipoca and

Quetzalcoatl Quetzalcoatl latter represented by priest or ruler Ce Acatl latter represented by priest or ruler Ce Acatl

Tolpitzin Quetzalcoatl Tolpitzin Quetzalcoatl may have shared sovereignty with Huemac may have shared sovereignty with Huemac Tezcalipoca is said to have created so much Tezcalipoca is said to have created so much

misfortune that the Toltecs perished or fled misfortune that the Toltecs perished or fled Tula Tula

Quetzalcoatl fled to Gulf Coast Quetzalcoatl fled to Gulf Coast Huemac fled to Chapultepec Huemac fled to Chapultepec

Fall of Tula and the ToltecsFall of Tula and the Toltecs Davies scenario Davies scenario

northern frontier shifted southward through time, opening Tula to northern frontier shifted southward through time, opening Tula to attack ca. 1120 attack ca. 1120

caused some Toltecs to migrate into lands claimed by Cholula caused some Toltecs to migrate into lands claimed by Cholula immigrants from northern frontier turned on their hosts and immigrants from northern frontier turned on their hosts and

assisted Cholula with help agains Toltec invaders assisted Cholula with help agains Toltec invaders group of northerners, led by Mixcoatl, settled in Basin of Mexico group of northerners, led by Mixcoatl, settled in Basin of Mexico

after helping Cholulans after helping Cholulans Mixcoatl's sone Ce Acatl Topiltzin gained control of Tula in AD Mixcoatl's sone Ce Acatl Topiltzin gained control of Tula in AD

1166 1166 conflicts arose with Tula-born faction led by Huemac conflicts arose with Tula-born faction led by Huemac increased pressures from Huastecs and Chichimecs led to increased pressures from Huastecs and Chichimecs led to

stress and downfall of both men stress and downfall of both men

Problems were both Internal and Problems were both Internal and ExternalExternal

Agriculture Agriculture agriculture was especially sensitive to drought agriculture was especially sensitive to drought problem became critical with population growth problem became critical with population growth Tula may have become overpopulated by 1100 Tula may have become overpopulated by 1100 climate change and decrease in precipitation may have caused climate change and decrease in precipitation may have caused

many years of famine many years of famine historical accounts contain many references to food problems historical accounts contain many references to food problems

ConflictsConflicts often coupled with stories of conflicts and battles over land, often coupled with stories of conflicts and battles over land,

famine may have coincided with period of greatest influx of famine may have coincided with period of greatest influx of population population

Social integration Social integration problems of multi-ethnicity problems of multi-ethnicity continual flow of migrants into the city caused strains continual flow of migrants into the city caused strains migrants may have been toughened and warlike migrants may have been toughened and warlike

Archaeological evidenceArchaeological evidence

Evidence for fire and destruction found in Evidence for fire and destruction found in every building every building

Not clear that all of it took place at once Not clear that all of it took place at once Canal Locality houses appear to have Canal Locality houses appear to have

been abandoned by 1100 on the basis of been abandoned by 1100 on the basis of radiocarbon dates radiocarbon dates

Urban peripheries appear to have been Urban peripheries appear to have been abandoned before central core abandoned before central core

Toltec LegacyToltec Legacy Slowly, a few city states rose up to dominate their Slowly, a few city states rose up to dominate their

neighbors, but no real successor to the Toltec power neighbors, but no real successor to the Toltec power emerged during this period. emerged during this period.

The Kings of Culhuacan, as described in their "Annales de The Kings of Culhuacan, as described in their "Annales de Culhuacan" had some limited power, claiming descent from Culhuacan" had some limited power, claiming descent from the legendary Toltecs. the legendary Toltecs.

But every other dynasty (Quiche, Itza, Mixtec, Chichimec) But every other dynasty (Quiche, Itza, Mixtec, Chichimec) did the same. did the same.

Claiming to be a descendent of the Toltec Kings was Claiming to be a descendent of the Toltec Kings was routine; even if many of the earliest rulers after the fall of routine; even if many of the earliest rulers after the fall of Tula were in all likelihood truly related to the nobles of the Tula were in all likelihood truly related to the nobles of the Mixcoatl/Topiltzin/Huemac era, most of the succeeding Mixcoatl/Topiltzin/Huemac era, most of the succeeding generations of petty rulers were not. generations of petty rulers were not.

History, however, is written by the victors, and the victors in History, however, is written by the victors, and the victors in the incessant warfare of the post-Toltec era were eager to the incessant warfare of the post-Toltec era were eager to associate themselves with the once glorious Toltecs. associate themselves with the once glorious Toltecs.