Presented by :Oscar Yustino Carascalao

To sense (Discourse studies)

outline

Sense Properties Stereotypes Sense relation 1 (Identity and similarity) Sense relation 2 (Oppositeness and dissimilarity)

In everyday life, people reach practical agreement on the meaning of almost all the words they use. Thus it evokes the successful communication.

In order to be able to talk meaningfully about anything, it is necessary to agree on the meaning of the words involved.

If not, it will be like this example below:A: ‘I saw something strange in the garden this morning.’B: ‘Oh! What was it?’A: ‘An animal perched on top of the clothes pole.’B: ‘How do you know it was an animal?’A: ‘I saw it. It was a cat.’B: ‘You might have seen a cat, but how can you be sure it was an

animal?’A: ‘Well, of course it was an animal, if it was a cat.’B: ‘I don’t see how that follows.’

The kind of meaning we are talking about is the kind associated with words and sentences by langauge system, not the speaker meaning. It is so-called sense.

The Sense of an expression is the hard core of meaning.

Sense of an expression = sense of properties + Sense relations with other expression

analytic (True)

Synthetic (either true or false)

Contradictory (false)

Example: All the cats are animals (A), that man is human (A) Rifatun is from Sumenep (S), that man is tall (S) This animal is fruit (C),that man is a woman (C)

Practice: Madura is an island A/S Madurese never feels sad A/S No Madurese likes traveling A/S Madura is not a province A/S John killed that bird, which remained alive for many days after

A/S/C Some teachers are patient A/S/C My bag is heavy A/S/C Tyas is a man A/S/C

Exception from the elaboration above is: The figurative use:that man is not a human Imperative: please carry this with you! Interrogative:has he finished the experiment?

A NECESSARY CONDITION on the sense of a predicate is a condition (or criterion) which a thing MUST meet in order to qualify as being correctly described by that predicate.

A SUFFICIENT SET OF CONDITIONS on the sense of a predicate is a set of conditions (or criteria) which, if they are met by a thing, are enough in themselves to GUARANTEE that the predicate correctly describes that thing.

Example: square necessary condition = ‘Four-sided’ ‘Plane figure, four-sided, equal-sided, and containing right angles’ is a

sufficient set of conditions since if anything meets all of these conditions, it is guaranteed to be a square.

‘Four-sided and containing right angles’ is not a sufficient set of conditions for square. Many non-square shapes, such as rectangles and trapezoids, meet these conditions.

‘Three-sided’ is not a necessary condition for square.

One of the best-known arguments (by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein) against the idea that definitions of the meanings of words can be given in the form of sets of necessary and sufficient conditions involves the word game (an amusement or a contest).

STEREOTYPE

The STEREOTYPE of a predicate is a list of the TYPICAL characteristics or features of things to which the predicate may be applied.

The stereotype of cat would be something like: Quadruped, domesticated, either black, or white, or grey, or tortoise-shell, or marmalade in colour, or some combination of these colours, adult specimens about 50 cm long from nose to tip of tail, furry, with sharp retractable claws, etc., etc.

Prototype Stereotypes

One typical thing

a set/ list of characteristics

Particular onewithin the range

a range of possibilities

Explained Explaining

Sense Relations

Similarity Between predicates synonymy and hyponymy Between sentences or propositions paraphrase and entailment

Dissimilarity Between predicates antonymy Between sentences or propositions contradictoriness

Synonymy

Synonymy similar sense between predicates, not between words, cause a word may have many different senses, each distinct sense is a predicate E.g. : hide1 intransitive verb

hide 2 transitive verbhide 3 noun

The examples of synonymy:Adj – adj deep – profoundVerb – adj sleeping – asleepNoun – noun teacher – educator

Hyponymy

Hyponymy the inclusion of the sense of one item in the sense of another

In other word, hyponymy refers to a set or a group of words that are included in a higher term or word; the higher or upper term is called as superordinate, and the lower term is called as hyponymy.vegetable

Carrot cabbages spinach

Red

Scarlet maroon

Paraphrase

Paraphrase sentence which express the same proposition as another sentencee.g:- Tom is always on time is a paraphrase of Tom is never late.- - Some countries have no coastline is a paraphrase of Not all countries

have a coastline.

Entailment

Entailment proposition that follows another propositione.g. :the entailment of Paul is an orphan, can be:Paul does not have a father anymore. Paul does not have a mother anymore. Paul does not have a father and mother anymore.

Antonyms

Binary antonymy if the one predicate is applicable, then the other cannot be, and vice versae.g. : true – false (if a sentence is true, it cannot be false, it cannot be true)

same – different, dead - alive Converseness

same relationship between two things(one order – opposite order)e.g. : parent – children

X is the parent of YY is the child of X

Gradable antonymy they are at opposite ends of a continues scale of values

e.g. : hot – cold long – short

Contradictory it is impossible for them both to be true at the same time and of the same circumstances

e.g. : The beetle is alive. The beetle is dead.

Ambiguous

Cases of ambiguous Words and phrases

Polysemy Homonymy

Sentences Lexical ambiguous Grammatically ambiguous e.g.: old men and women

Polysemy

Polysemy a word has several very closely related sensee.g. :eye human eye

the eye of needle

mouth mouth of a river mouth of an animal

Homonymy

Same in both written and spoken with two or more unrelated meaning.

Bank (of a river) Bank (of financial institution)

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