To Make a Desert Bloom: To Make a Desert Bloom: Exploring Israel’s Exploring Israel’s

Experience in Combating Experience in Combating DesertificationDesertification

Alon Tal, Ben Gurion UniversityAlon Tal, Ben Gurion University

Israel: Land of Steep GradientsIsrael: Land of Steep Gradients

Tiny in size (22,145 km2) Tiny in size (22,145 km2)

Climate: short, cool rainy winter, Climate: short, cool rainy winter, long, hot dry summers. long, hot dry summers.

North/south rain gradient (700-30 North/south rain gradient (700-30 mm) mm)

Evapotranspiration increase (1200-Evapotranspiration increase (1200-2800)2800)

A west-east ecoclimatic gradient A west-east ecoclimatic gradient

Elevation gradient of 1200 m above Elevation gradient of 1200 m above sea level (to 400 m below sea level)sea level (to 400 m below sea level)

Drylands Indexhumiddry sub-humidsemi-aridHyper-aridHyper-arid

Mark Twain: Innocents Abroad, Mark Twain: Innocents Abroad, 18671867

On general Galilee landscape:On general Galilee landscape: "as bald and unthrilling a "as bald and unthrilling a panorama as any land can afford perhaps was spread out panorama as any land can afford perhaps was spread out before us." before us."

On Local agriculture:On Local agriculture: "Here were evidences of cultivation - a "Here were evidences of cultivation - a rare sight in this country- an acre or two of rich soil studded rare sight in this country- an acre or two of rich soil studded with last season's dead corn-stalks of the thickness of your with last season's dead corn-stalks of the thickness of your thumb and very wide apart. But in such a land it was a thumb and very wide apart. But in such a land it was a thrilling spectacle.“thrilling spectacle.“

On the effects of overgrazing :On the effects of overgrazing : "Close to it was a stream and "Close to it was a stream and on its banks a great head of curious looking Syrian goats and on its banks a great head of curious looking Syrian goats and sheep were gratefully eating gravel. I do not state this as a sheep were gratefully eating gravel. I do not state this as a petrified fact - I only suppose they were eating gravel petrified fact - I only suppose they were eating gravel because there did not appear to be anything else for them to because there did not appear to be anything else for them to eat”eat”

Twain, ctd.Twain, ctd.

On absence of forestsOn absence of forests : "There is no timber of any : "There is no timber of any consequence in Palestine - none at all to waste upon consequence in Palestine - none at all to waste upon fires - and neither are there any mines of coal. fires - and neither are there any mines of coal.

[[Description of the Judean Description of the Judean hills:hills: " "There was hardly a There was hardly a tree or a shrub tree or a shrub anywhere. Even the anywhere. Even the olive and the cactus, olive and the cactus, those fast friends of a those fast friends of a worthless soil had worthless soil had almost deserted the almost deserted the country. No landscape country. No landscape exists that is more exists that is more tiresome to the eye than tiresome to the eye than that which bounds the that which bounds the approaches to approaches to Jerusalem." Jerusalem."

Observations of a Soil Observations of a Soil ScientistScientist1938: 1938: "Here before our eyes the remarkable red "Here before our eyes the remarkable red

earth soil of Palestine was being ripped from the earth soil of Palestine was being ripped from the slopes and swept into the blue of the slopes and swept into the blue of the Mediterranean to a dirty brown as far as the eye Mediterranean to a dirty brown as far as the eye could see. We could well understand how many could see. We could well understand how many centuries this type of erosion had wasted the centuries this type of erosion had wasted the neglected lands. It is estimated that over three neglected lands. It is estimated that over three feet of soil has been swept from the uplands of feet of soil has been swept from the uplands of Palestine after the breakdown of terrace Palestine after the breakdown of terrace agriculture”agriculture” Walter Clay Lowedermilk, Walter Clay Lowedermilk, Palestine - Land of Promise, New York: Palestine - Land of Promise, New York: Harper and Brothers, Harper and Brothers, 19441944

Historic Climatic FactorsHistoric Climatic FactorsHypothesized: main winds bringing loess to Negev desert Hypothesized: main winds bringing loess to Negev desert prior to the Holocene came from the Sahara, (Evenari prior to the Holocene came from the Sahara, (Evenari et et alal.1982). .1982).

No net erosion during this period. No net erosion during this period.

Since Holocene wind directions have changed and loess Since Holocene wind directions have changed and loess arrives in the Negev desert from Saudi Arabia, a far shorter arrives in the Negev desert from Saudi Arabia, a far shorter distance. distance.

Less loess reaches the desert to replace that lost in the Less loess reaches the desert to replace that lost in the floods. This results in net erosion, which is a natural process floods. This results in net erosion, which is a natural process (Avni 1998). (Avni 1998).

Desertification trends: Desertification trends: Conventional ViewConventional View

Prior to State of IsraelPrior to State of Israel

Pollen analysis shows Mediterranean Pollen analysis shows Mediterranean Forests.Forests.

For millennia intensive human utilization of For millennia intensive human utilization of dry subhumid/semiarid parts of current dry subhumid/semiarid parts of current Israel.Israel.

Results are described by travelers:Results are described by travelers:

- Woodlands converted to scrublands. - Woodlands converted to scrublands. - Overgrazing in ranges.- Overgrazing in ranges.

::

Because of low rainfall and hence low Because of low rainfall and hence low primary productivity, regrowth of primary productivity, regrowth of vegetation could not keep pace with its vegetation could not keep pace with its destruction, especially in the presence of destruction, especially in the presence of overgrazing by abundant goats. With the overgrazing by abundant goats. With the tree and grass cover removed, erosion tree and grass cover removed, erosion proceeded and valleys silted up, while proceeded and valleys silted up, while irrigation agriculture in the low-rainfall irrigation agriculture in the low-rainfall environment led to salt accumulation.... environment led to salt accumulation.... Thus, Fertile Crescent and Thus, Fertile Crescent and Eastern Mediterranean societies had the Eastern Mediterranean societies had the misfortune to arise in misfortune to arise in an ecologically fragile an ecologically fragile environment. They environment. They committed ecological committed ecological suicide by destroying suicide by destroying their own resource base.their own resource base.

Jared DiamondJared Diamond

Soil Erosion Map, 1954Soil Erosion Map, 1954

Pre 1948 - ConclusionPre 1948 - Conclusion

““The country was desertified, but the impact The country was desertified, but the impact diminished with aridity. The expression of diminished with aridity. The expression of desertification might have been soil salinization in desertification might have been soil salinization in dry subhumid areas, and definite loss of natural dry subhumid areas, and definite loss of natural vegetation and soil erosion in dry subhumid and vegetation and soil erosion in dry subhumid and some semiarid areas… ecological and hydrological some semiarid areas… ecological and hydrological processes would have been disrupted, the processes would have been disrupted, the provision of ecosystem services have been provision of ecosystem services have been impaired, resulting in an overall gradual decline in impaired, resulting in an overall gradual decline in productivity.productivity. “ “

- Professor Uriel Safriel- Professor Uriel Safriel

19201920 Survey:Survey: only 600 km2 of indigenous woodland only 600 km2 of indigenous woodland and scrubland in dry subhumid regions between and scrubland in dry subhumid regions between present Israel and West Bankpresent Israel and West Bank

Shaar Hagai 1987

1917

The Green ‘Zionist VisionThe Green ‘Zionist Vision’’ ““We have come to our land to build and We have come to our land to build and

to be built up.”to be built up.”

Barren slopes afforested Barren slopes afforested irrigated farming -- Esp. in irrigated farming -- Esp. in

plains/valleys.plains/valleys.

Southern exigencySouthern exigency

"Along with the records of decay in the Holy Land "Along with the records of decay in the Holy Land we found a thorough going effort to restore the we found a thorough going effort to restore the ancient fertility of the long-neglected soil. This ancient fertility of the long-neglected soil. This effort is the most remarkable we have seen while effort is the most remarkable we have seen while studying land use in twenty-four countries. It is studying land use in twenty-four countries. It is being made by Jewish settlers who fled to being made by Jewish settlers who fled to Palestine from the hatreds and persecutions of Palestine from the hatreds and persecutions of Europe. We Europe. We were astonished to find about were astonished to find about three three hundred colonies defying great hundred colonies defying great

hardships and applying the hardships and applying the principles principles of co-operation and soil of co-operation and soil conservation to conservation to the old Land of Israel..... the old Land of Israel..... here in one here in one corner of the vast Near East, corner of the vast Near East, thorough thorough

going work is in progress to rebuild the going work is in progress to rebuild the fertility of land instead of condemning fertility of land instead of condemning it by neglect to further destruction and it by neglect to further destruction and decay.“ decay.“ (W. C. Lowdermilk, 1944)(W. C. Lowdermilk, 1944)

Israeli Policies to Combat Israeli Policies to Combat DesertificationDesertification

1.1. Irrigated AgricultureIrrigated Agriculture

2.2. Water Management Water Management

3.3. Control of GrazingControl of Grazing

4.4. AfforestationAfforestation

II

Jewish Settlement in semi-arid zoneJewish Settlement in semi-arid zone

Typical Impact of Cropland ConversionTypical Impact of Cropland Conversion

Transformation of rangeland: Transformation of rangeland: a “driver of desertification”a “driver of desertification”

(removal of vegetation cover (removal of vegetation cover and breakage of biogenic crust and breakage of biogenic crust through plowing.)through plowing.)

- When land not tilled during - When land not tilled during non-rainy season wind erosion non-rainy season wind erosion rains generate physical crust rains generate physical crust

- intensifies run-off/erosion. - intensifies run-off/erosion.

Rangeland Transformation in IsraelRangeland Transformation in IsraelIn Israel - most rangelands In Israel - most rangelands transformation involved irrigation.transformation involved irrigation.

Soil is rarely uncovered forSoil is rarely uncovered forextended periods.extended periods.

Typically, sufficient water Typically, sufficient water available for soil drainageavailable for soil drainage

Utilization of transported Utilization of transported water = no local drawdown water = no local drawdown

Practices also increase infiltration, Practices also increase infiltration, reduce surface run-off /erosion reduce surface run-off /erosion (e.g. mulching, ridges and dyke (e.g. mulching, ridges and dyke furrows tillage, to increase furrows tillage, to increase infiltration rates)infiltration rates)

Rangeland transformation not Rangeland transformation not associated with intensified associated with intensified desertificationdesertification. .

Can be argued that irrigated Can be argued that irrigated agriculture of semiarid region not only agriculture of semiarid region not only averts desertification risks but also averts desertification risks but also ameliorates local climate.ameliorates local climate.

Protected agricultureProtected agricultureBased on greenhouses – Based on greenhouses –

Especially in hyper-arid zonesEspecially in hyper-arid zones

Evapotranspiration minimized.Evapotranspiration minimized.

Cooling in summers /warmingCooling in summers /warmingon winter nights required.on winter nights required.

Drip irrigation makes Drip irrigation makes it feasible.it feasible.

SustainabilitySustainabilityAgricultural production in drylands Agricultural production in drylands

greenhouses: greenhouses: intensive, high water/soil space-use intensive, high water/soil space-use efficiencies.efficiencies.

Pressure on soil resources of Israel -- avertedPressure on soil resources of Israel -- averted

Requires constant diversification & investmentRequires constant diversification & investmentin research, extension services. in research, extension services.

Diversification necessary toDiversification necessary tomeet competition in world meet competition in world

markets. markets.

But is it sustainableBut is it sustainable??

Does today’s agriculture expose land to Does today’s agriculture expose land to desertification that will appear later? desertification that will appear later?

““30 years ago the amount of land and water used by 30 years ago the amount of land and water used by Israeli agriculture contributed to around 50% of Israeli agriculture contributed to around 50% of productivity…. during the last decade, land and water productivity…. during the last decade, land and water contributed to only 4% of productivity, and 96% of it contributed to only 4% of productivity, and 96% of it can be attributed to agrotechnologies, research, can be attributed to agrotechnologies, research, extension, and mechanization, etc (Pohoryles 1999). extension, and mechanization, etc (Pohoryles 1999).

High productivity may not be exhausting natural High productivity may not be exhausting natural resources nor lead to desertification.resources nor lead to desertification.

Yet - only 3.7% labor force Yet - only 3.7% labor force employed in agriculture, employed in agriculture,

Only 2.5% of GDP. Only 2.5% of GDP.

Water Management StrategyWater Management StrategyWater Carriers:Water Carriers: 1946 – 6 inch pipes -- 1 million m1946 – 6 inch pipes -- 1 million m33 / year / year

1955: Yarkon-Negev (1955: Yarkon-Negev (100 million /year100 million /year ) )1964: National Water (400 million 1964: National Water (400 million

m3/year)m3/year)

Objective:Objective: Agricultural development in Agricultural development in

drylands;drylands; Winter storage and aquifer Winter storage and aquifer

recharge.recharge.

Water Management StrategyWater Management StrategyReservoirs: Reservoirs: KKL constructed KKL constructed 178 reservoirs, largely in 178 reservoirs, largely in

semi-semi- arid and hyperarid regions, provide 125 arid and hyperarid regions, provide 125 million m3million m3/ / year, ( 7% of the total water in Israel’s year, ( 7% of the total water in Israel’s

system)system)

Objective:Objective: To improve quality and quantity of ground water by

replenishing and aquifers.

Impound floodwaters for direct supply to irrigation systems in nearby fields.

Water Management StrategyWater Management StrategyWaste water reuse: Waste water reuse: Effluent reuse: 450 Million MEffluent reuse: 450 Million M33/year/year

65% of effluents (300 M65% of effluents (300 M33) reclaimed for irrigation) reclaimed for irrigation

35% discharged to rivers or sea35% discharged to rivers or sea

By 2010 – Reclaimed Effluents = 50% of all water to By 2010 – Reclaimed Effluents = 50% of all water to AgricultureAgriculture

Objective: Objective: To expand water supply and eliminate hazard.To expand water supply and eliminate hazard.

Overall Agriculture AchievementOverall Agriculture AchievementFood for 7 million peopleFood for 7 million people

irrigated crops (1000s of hectares)

0

50

100

150

200

250

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Source: CentralBureau of Statistics, Israel

Source: Kimhi, 2004

Grazing PoliciesGrazing Policies The Law for Vegetation Protection (Goat Damages) The Law for Vegetation Protection (Goat Damages)

enacted in 1950. (the “Black Goat Law”) enacted in 1950. (the “Black Goat Law”)

Previously: British Mandate prohibit grazing in Previously: British Mandate prohibit grazing in forestsforests

Focus: goats feeding on scrubland; major tree Focus: goats feeding on scrubland; major tree species.species.

Prior to 1948 number of goats Prior to 1948 number of goats estimated at 185,000. estimated at 185,000.

(70,000 sheep (70,000 sheep 14,000 camels in 194314,000 camels in 1943 est.) est.)

Pre-’48 size of Bedouin herds unclearPre-’48 size of Bedouin herds unclear (nomadism not constrained by borders. (nomadism not constrained by borders. No serious inventory.)No serious inventory.)

Bedouin DemographicsBedouin DemographicsUntil 1948 nomadic Bedouin tribes lived in semiarid and arid Until 1948 nomadic Bedouin tribes lived in semiarid and arid

lands. lands.

Population estimates: 65,000 to 103,000 at that time Population estimates: 65,000 to 103,000 at that time (Abu-(Abu-Rabia 1994) Rabia 1994)

Extent of Rangelands: 10,000 km2Extent of Rangelands: 10,000 km2

Economy: sheep, goat and camel herding. Modest farmingEconomy: sheep, goat and camel herding. Modest farming

Seasonal patchwork rainharvested cultivation.Seasonal patchwork rainharvested cultivation.

Dams blocked water and sediment runoff.Dams blocked water and sediment runoff.

Rainy years, late winter.Rainy years, late winter.

Sustainability: Unclear. Sustainability: Unclear.

Salinization unlikely result from rainfed activity.Salinization unlikely result from rainfed activity.

After war (1950) goat numbers drop to After war (1950) goat numbers drop to 71,000 71,000 (number of Negev Bedouin drops:70,000 to (number of Negev Bedouin drops:70,000 to 12,000)12,000)

Pressure on scrubland reduced.Pressure on scrubland reduced.

1956 - “AUMs” (Animal Units Month) set 1956 - “AUMs” (Animal Units Month) set according to land carrying capacityaccording to land carrying capacity

Eastern Mediterranean woodlands reappear.Eastern Mediterranean woodlands reappear.

Numbers start to “yo yo”Numbers start to “yo yo”- 1973 increased to 115,000 - 1973 increased to 115,000 - 1994 drop to o 70,000 - 1994 drop to o 70,000 - 1998 74,000 in 1998 - 1998 74,000 in 1998

Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts Pervolotsky posits: positive effects of Pervolotsky posits: positive effects of

reduced grazing pressure due to resilience reduced grazing pressure due to resilience of dry subhumid Mediterranean woodland of dry subhumid Mediterranean woodland ecosystems and co-evolution of these ecosystems and co-evolution of these systems with human-induced systems with human-induced disturbances, (i.e., grazing).disturbances, (i.e., grazing).

Little quantitative data about soil Little quantitative data about soil composition.composition.

Recently – controlled grazing program Recently – controlled grazing program with KKL and Nature/Parks Authoritywith KKL and Nature/Parks Authority..

Afforestation PoliciesAfforestation Policies

Amount of lands presently with forests Amount of lands presently with forests

-1606 km2 (7% of Israel ).-1606 km2 (7% of Israel ).

Over 260 million trees planted.Over 260 million trees planted.

(Over 15% of the dry subhumid and (Over 15% of the dry subhumid and semiarid regions of Israel). semiarid regions of Israel).

Additional 360 km2 to be added for Additional 360 km2 to be added for afforestation, 115 in semiarid region.afforestation, 115 in semiarid region.

Afforestation PoliciesAfforestation Policies Initially began as “employment program”Initially began as “employment program”

Later: rehabilitate degraded lands and prevent Later: rehabilitate degraded lands and prevent erosion.erosion.

Planting initially dominated by Aleppo pine Pinus Planting initially dominated by Aleppo pine Pinus halepensis, a circum-Mediterranean species.halepensis, a circum-Mediterranean species.

The “Jerusalem PineThe “Jerusalem Pine”” As pioneering species, grows quickly on As pioneering species, grows quickly on

marginal lands rocky terrain, sleep slopes. marginal lands rocky terrain, sleep slopes. Withstands drought. Withstands drought.

Disadvantages: relatively low longevity, Disadvantages: relatively low longevity, low resistance to certain parasites, low resistance to certain parasites,

flammability.flammability. Since 1980s - Planting diversity in KKL Since 1980s - Planting diversity in KKL

increases. Indigenous species promoted.increases. Indigenous species promoted.

Tabor Oak TreeTabor Oak Tree

Aforestation Policies in DrylandsAforestation Policies in Drylands Since 1950s forests created in semiarid Since 1950s forests created in semiarid

areas, areas,

conventional afforestation techniques. conventional afforestation techniques.

1964 intensification1964 intensification

Afforestation PoliciesAfforestation Policies National Master Plan #22 for Forests and National Master Plan #22 for Forests and

AfforestationAfforestation

Approved in November, 1995 – with 25 year Approved in November, 1995 – with 25 year

horizon.horizon.

Plan sets function, legal status and management Plan sets function, legal status and management practices in existing and future indigenous, practices in existing and future indigenous,

afforested and managed woodlands in Israel.afforested and managed woodlands in Israel.

Aforestation PoliciesAforestation Policies Ex. Yatir forest covers 30 km2 Ex. Yatir forest covers 30 km2 250-300 mm250-300 mm annual rainfall, annual rainfall,

“ “probably most arid periphery of global distribution of Aleppo probably most arid periphery of global distribution of Aleppo pine”.pine”.

Regarded as a remarkable success of afforestation in Regarded as a remarkable success of afforestation in an area of high desertification exposure and an area of high desertification exposure and

vulnerability. vulnerability.

The Politics of Planting The Politics of Planting

SavanazationSavanazation 1986 - afforestation practice, called 1986 - afforestation practice, called

“Savanazation”, introduced in semi-arid and “Savanazation”, introduced in semi-arid and arid regions, arid regions,

Based on harvesting surface run-off, through whole Based on harvesting surface run-off, through whole watershed management in semiarid regions, within a watershed management in semiarid regions, within a

precipitation range of 150-250 mm.precipitation range of 150-250 mm.

By 1999 23 km2 successfullyBy 1999 23 km2 successfully““savannized”. savannized”.

SavanazationSavanazationContour furrows dug on slopes of watersheds Contour furrows dug on slopes of watersheds

with sandy-loessial soils.with sandy-loessial soils.

Trees planted at density of 100/hecatre. Trees planted at density of 100/hecatre.

Considerable vertical distance between them. Considerable vertical distance between them.

The surface between furrows, The surface between furrows, covered by a biogenic soil crust covered by a biogenic soil crust

- - reduces infiltrationreduces infiltration- generates surface run-off - generates surface run-off - collected/infiltrates and - collected/infiltrates and

stored in furrowsstored in furrows

Savannization - UpsideSavannization - Upside

. . - probably reduces flash floods / soil erosion, - probably reduces flash floods / soil erosion, - increases overall productivity of semiarid soils. - increases overall productivity of semiarid soils.

(pasture)(pasture)- overall plant biodiversity improves- overall plant biodiversity improves

- survival in drought years, better than rainfall - survival in drought years, better than rainfall dependent trees dependent trees

Savannization – DownsideSavannization – Downside

- “Sustainability”, - “Sustainability”, - “aesthetics”, - “aesthetics”,

- hydrological impact debated.- hydrological impact debated.

Impact of Aforestation on SoilImpact of Aforestation on Soil

Precise affect of afforestation/different trees on erosion Precise affect of afforestation/different trees on erosion unclear. unclear.

Generally, deters pastoralists, reduces grazing pressure. Generally, deters pastoralists, reduces grazing pressure.

Shading effect of trees can help rehabilitate indigenous Shading effect of trees can help rehabilitate indigenous vegetation vegetation

(contributes to soil conservation)(contributes to soil conservation)

Improves infiltration of precipitation, soil Improves infiltration of precipitation, soil moisture/recharge. moisture/recharge.

Israeli dry subhumid indigenous woodlands transpire more Israeli dry subhumid indigenous woodlands transpire more soil water than dry subhumid agricultural lands. (Stanhill soil water than dry subhumid agricultural lands. (Stanhill

1993) 1993)

(Effect on precipitation - still unclear.)(Effect on precipitation - still unclear.)

Erosion Control – The Official WordErosion Control – The Official Word ““Ten years later the face of the land has Ten years later the face of the land has

become rejuvenated – its wrinkles smoothed, its become rejuvenated – its wrinkles smoothed, its scars healed, many of its gullies gone. Even, it scars healed, many of its gullies gone. Even, it seems the pallid hue of eroded areas has been seems the pallid hue of eroded areas has been replaced by a healthier color – a darker feritle replaced by a healthier color – a darker feritle soil. In every field, one still discerns traces of soil. In every field, one still discerns traces of the uncontrolled flow of water over the years. the uncontrolled flow of water over the years. But now, with the aid of different erosion But now, with the aid of different erosion control measures, these traces are slowly control measures, these traces are slowly disappearing”disappearing”

Soil Conservation in IsraelSoil Conservation in Israel - 1958 - 1958

\

Is The Israeli Experience Relevant?

Kenyan Greenbelt Movement

Over 30 million trees planted to date.

3,000 local nurseries

Produces jobs.