to live amongst the dead: an ethnographic exploration of mass graves in cambodia caroline
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Bennett, Caroline (2015) To Live Amongst the Dead: an Ethnographic Exploration of Mass Gravesin Cambodia. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis, University of Kent,.
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Toliveamongstthedead:anethnographicexplorationofmassgravesinCambodia
CarolineBennett
PhDinSocialAnthropology
September2015
94,989words
SchoolofAnthropologyandConservationUniversityofKent
CanterburyKent,UK
2
Abstract
Thisthesisusesmassgravesasalensthroughwhichtoexaminehowpeoplein
contemporaryCambodiausetheKhmerRougeperiod(1975–1979)to
reconstituteandre-imaginetheworldtheylivein.Basedonsixteenmonthsof
multisitedethnographicfieldwork,thisthesiswillarguethattheKhmerRouge
regimewasacriticalevent(Das1997)inCambodianlife,andassuchhastriggered
are-shapingofrelationshipsbetweenlocalandthenational,andthenationaland
theglobal,leadingtonewformsofsocialandcommunitylifeandactioninpost
KhmerRougeCambodia.Asphysicalmarkersofviolenceandpoliticalinstability,
massgravesareinherentlypoliticalandarticulatethesere-imaginationsonthe
state,community,andindividuallevel.TheCambodianstateexercisesand
legitimatesitsauthoritybyconstructingmodernhistoryinreferencetoanarrative
ofliberationfromtheKhmerRouge,andthe‘innocentsuffering’ofCambodiaand
itspeople,whilelocalcommunitiesuseBuddhismandanimismtonarrateand
conceptualisetheperiod,bringingitintoexpectedandunderstandableevents
withinKhmerBuddhistcosmology.Theseapproachesarenotnecessarilyin
oppositiontooneanother,butratherrepresenttheoverlappingpluralityof
connectionswithmassgraves.
Thisthesisprovidesauniqueexplorationofsocialrelationshipstomassgravesin
Cambodiacontributingtodebateswithintheanthropologyofpolitics,violence
andcollectivememorybyexamininghowmomentsofnationalmassviolencere-
shapethestateandrelationshipswithinit,andhowdestructiveperiodsof
violencenonethelesscreatenewfieldsfortheimaginationofthepolitical,the
religious,andthesocial.ItalsocontributestotheemergingfieldofCambodian
ethnographythatcombineslocalconsiderationswithwidernationalandgeo-
politicaldiscoursesandhowtheseareplayedoutatthelocallevel.
Allworkinthisthesis,andallphotographspresented,aremyown,exceptwhere
otherwisestated.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 3
Acknowledgements
ThisPhDwassupportedbyfundingfromtheEconomicandSocialResearch
CouncilSoutheastDoctoralTrainingCentre(grantnumberES/J500148/1),for
whichIamverygrateful.
ThankyoutomysupervisorsGlennBowmanandMikePoltorak,tomythirdpanel
memberJudithBovensiepen,andtothoseintheSchoolofAnthropologyand
ConservationattheUniversityofKentwhotookextratimeoutoftheir
enormouslybusyschedulestohelpandsupportmethroughoutthisprocess,in
particularDavidHenig,butalsoDanielaPelusoandMiguelAlexiades.
ToalltheKhmercommunitiesIvisited,workedandlivedin,inparticularthe
peopleofChoeungEkGenocidalCenter,KohSop,andPhnomGrahom-bygiving
generouslyofyourtimeandstoriesyougavemethisthesisforwhichIcannot
expressenoughgratitude.Andforthosewhohelpedmakeitpossible,in
particularMinaBuiJonesandJeanLucandSerenaTemman,thankyou.Iam
eternallygratefultomyresearchassistants-UmSompoah,ResPhasy,Sann
Kalyan,ButhSereibunnwath,andToemSavorn;withoutyouIcouldneverhave
navigatedKhmerlife.AndthankyoutothemanyCambodianscholarswhotook
interestinmyworkandgavevaluableinputalongtheway,mostespecially
ProfessorDavidChandler,HenriLocard,HelenJarvis,IanHarris,ErikDavis,the
VenerableKhySovanratana,CraigEtcheson,andJamesTyner.Thankyoualsoto
theNordicInstituteofAsianStudiesattheUniversityofCopenhagen,and
DORISEAatDepartmentforSocialandCulturalAnthropology,Universityof
Göttingenfortheirsupport.
MyPhDcolleaguesintheUKandCambodiadeserveaspecialacknowledgement
forkeepingmeontrack,sharingideas,andfortheongoingfunwehavetogether.
PaulChristensen,TallynGray,ColleenMcGinn,MariaPazPeirano,NataliaGarcia
Bonet,andCarinTunåker;thanksforhelpingmesurvive.Ilookforwardtoour
futureworktogether.
Tomyfamily:myparents,brothersandsisters,theirhusbandsandwives,andall
thelittleBennettsandTokgözs:thanksforbeingthere,makingmetakebreaks,
andlisteningtomyrants.
Andfinallytomypartner,SteveHull.Yougotmethroughthis.Thankyou.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 4
TableofContents
Abstract..............................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................3
ListofFigures......................................................................................................7
ListofAbbreviations...........................................................................................8
Terminology .......................................................................................................9
CambodianMaps..............................................................................................10
SectionOne:SettingtheScene .........................................................................11
Introduction .....................................................................................................11TheKhmerRougeandtheirdead ...........................................................................................................14Motivations ....................................................................................................................................................17Literaturereview ..........................................................................................................................................19Theoreticalframework ...............................................................................................................................33Whatisamassgrave? ................................................................................................................................37Thesisoutline.................................................................................................................................................41
Sectionone:settingthescene ............................................................................................................... 41Sectiontwo:diggingupthedead ........................................................................................................ 42Sectionthree:graveconcerns................................................................................................................ 44
Chapterone:Fieldsofdeath,sitesoflife-fieldsitesandmethods ....................46ChoeungEk .....................................................................................................................................................46
Makingthekillingfield ............................................................................................................................. 49AfterDemocraticKampuchea ............................................................................................................... 54ChoeungEktoday....................................................................................................................................... 60ResearchingatChoeungEk .................................................................................................................... 61
KohSop ............................................................................................................................................................66DuringDemocraticKampuchea ............................................................................................................ 68After1979...................................................................................................................................................... 70KohSoptoday .............................................................................................................................................. 73ResearchingatKohSop............................................................................................................................ 76
Othersitesandparticularmethods .......................................................................................................80Myposition ................................................................................................................................................... 82Visualmethods ............................................................................................................................................ 83Interviews ...................................................................................................................................................... 86Languageandtheuseofresearchassistants.................................................................................. 89Anoteonwriting ........................................................................................................................................ 92What’sinaname? ..................................................................................................................................... 93
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 5
SectionTwo:DigginguptheDead.....................................................................95
Chaptertwo:Spiritualremains-caringforthedead .........................................95BuddhismandanimismincontemporaryCambodia.......................................................................97Thegrievousdead .....................................................................................................................................102CareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRouge...................................................................................108
Careforthephysicalremains ..............................................................................................................108Annualritualcare .....................................................................................................................................115
Ritualresilience..........................................................................................................................................120Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................124
Chapterthree:Helpfuldead,frighteningghosts-relationshipsbetweenthelivingandthedead .........................................................................................126Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................128GhostsandspiritsinCambodia ............................................................................................................134Ethnographiccasestudies......................................................................................................................138
Rebuildinglives:thedeadatKohSop ..............................................................................................139Rebuildingthecountry:thedeadatChoeungEk.........................................................................148
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................153Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................161
Chapterfour:Karmaandreincarnationinthekillingfields .............................164Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................166ReincarnationandkarmainKhmerBuddhism ...............................................................................169
Ethnographiccasestudies......................................................................................................................175Reintegratingthenamelessdead ......................................................................................................175Repairingrupturedrelations ................................................................................................................181Thejusticeofkarmaandreincarnation ...........................................................................................185
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................189Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................197
SectionThree:GraveConcerns .......................................................................201
Chapterfive:Pastpresent,presentpast–politicsinCambodia ......................201PoliticsincontemporaryCambodia ....................................................................................................203Raisingthedead:politicalusesofthedeadandtheirgraves....................................................209
Memorialisingviolence,forgettingnames .....................................................................................212Resurginginterest:theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia ...................217Hierarchiesofdeathinthewrittenrecord .....................................................................................221
Violentbodiesandaffectiveremains .................................................................................................223Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................230
Chaptersix:Hauntingthefuture-tourismatChoeungEk...............................234Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................236ChoeungEkinCambodianTourism ....................................................................................................241
Ethnographiccasestudies......................................................................................................................247Displayingdeath,ensuringlife ............................................................................................................248‘Ifweforgetaboutit,historywillbeerased’.................................................................................253Buildingafuturebyusingthepast ....................................................................................................256
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................259Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................267
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 6
Chapterseven:Deadoftoday,ghostsoftomorrow-electionsandthespectralKhmerRouge..................................................................................................270Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................272ElectionsinCambodia–abriefoverview .........................................................................................276EthnographicCaseStudies .....................................................................................................................278
Spiritsofthepast:the‘heroes’ofthenation ................................................................................278Spiritsofthepresent:rallyingagainsttheopposition ...............................................................284Spiritsofthefuture:fearandrumour ..............................................................................................290
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................295Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................305
Conclusion:NowistheTimefortheLiving......................................................308
References......................................................................................................319
Appendixone:DC-CamListofMassGraves ....................................................341
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 7
ListofFigures
Figureone:provincialboundaries(UN2015).........................................................10
Figuretwo:killingfielddistribution(CGP2011) .....................................................10
Figurethree:ChoeungEkstupaanddisplayedremains(source:theauthor)........59
Figurefour:KohSopp’teahkhmouch(source:theauthor) ...................................73
Figurefive:farmatKohSop.Aftertheregimebodiescoveredtheland(source:
theauthor)......................................................................................................75
Figuresix:KhmerRougeremainsandurnsofthepoorattwodifferentpagoda
(source:theauthor)......................................................................................112
Figureseven:depictionofPchumBenhatWatKampongTralach(source:the
author) ..........................................................................................................116
Figureeight:PoTonlestupawithremnantsofChengMengdecorations(souce:
theauthor)....................................................................................................120
Figurenine:NeakTaonthemainroadintoBattambang ....................................135
Figureten:ChoeungEkkillingtree(source:theauthor)......................................246
Figureeleven:humanremainsemergingatChoeungEk(source:theauthor) ....251
Figuretwelve:KhmerRougetourismatPhnomSampeau(source:theauthor)..264
Figurethirteen:KhmerRougere-enactmentatChoeungEkremembranceevent
(souce:theauthor) .......................................................................................281
Figurefourteen:protestorsatrallyagainstKemSokha,June2013(source:the
author) ..........................................................................................................288
Figurefifteen:Protestorslistentospeechesinfrontofthecheddeiofremains
(source:theauthor)......................................................................................290
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 8
ListofAbbreviations
CGDK: CoalitionPartyofDemocraticKampuchea
CNRP: CambodiaNationalRescueParty
CPK: CommunistPartyofKampuchea,colloquiallyknownastheKhmer
Rouge
CPP: CambodianPeoplesParty
DC-Cam: TheDocumentationCentreofCambodia
DK: DemocraticKampuchea(1976–1979)
ECCC: TheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia
(theKhmerRougeTrials/Tribunal)
FUNCINPEC: Front Uni National Pour Un Cambodge Indepéndent, Neutre,
Pacifique,etCoopératif
FUNSK: FrontUniNationalpourleSalutdeKampuchéa(inEnglishUFNSK)
KR: KhmerRouge
NGO: Non-GovernmentalOrganization
PRK: People’sRepublicofKampuchea(1979–1989)
S-21: Security Centre 21, which included Tuol Sleng, Prey Sar and
Takhmaoprisons,andthekillingsiteofChoeungEk(nowadaysS-21
is used almost exclusively to refer to Tuol Sleng Prison in Phnom
Penh)
SOC: StateofCambodia(1989–1993)
UN: UnitedNations
UNTAC: UnitedNationsTransitionalAuthority
US: UnitedStatesofAmerica
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 9
Terminology
Ângkar: ‘TheOrganisation.’ÂngkarwasthetermtheKhmerRougegavetothemselves,andbywhichtheyarestillknownbymanypeople.
aPot: ‘ThePolPots.’ThecolloquialnameusedinCambodiatorefertomembersoftheKhmerRouge.
DemocraticKampuchea: ThenamegiventoCambodiabytheCommunistPartyofKampucheafrom1976–1979.Althoughitformallyonlyincludesthetimeperiodabove,IusetheterminthisthesistorefertotheentireperiodoftheKhmerRougerule(April17th1975–January7th1979).
Khmer: TheCambodianwordforCambodianlanguage,butalsousedtorefertoallthingsCambodian(i.e.Khmerpeople,Khmerhistoryandsoon).Throughoutthisthesis,KhmerandCambodianareusedinterchangeably.
KhmerRouge: MembersoftheCommunistPartyofKampuchea(CPK).ThenamewasfirstgiventocomradesoftheCPKbytheCambodianHeadofState,KingNorodomSihanouk,butwasquicklyadoptedbytheinternationalcommunityofCambodiaandexportedaspeoplebeganleavingCambodiaintheearly1970s.TheKhmerRougeisoftenusedinterchangeablywithDemocraticKampucheatorefertotheirwholeperiodofrule.
KillingSite: Anareawhereexecutionswereconducted–duringDemocraticKampucheathesewerealwaysconcomitantwithgravesitesandusuallyveryclosetosecuritycentres.Mostcontainmultiplemassgravepitsandlargenumbersofdead.
MassGrave: Sitesinwhichmultiplegravesexist,allresultingfromthepoliciesandpracticesoftheKhmerRougeregime.
SamayaPot: ‘TheTimeofPolPot.’AcolloquialKhmernameforDemocraticKampuchea.
YearZero: 1975,asrenamedbytheKhmerRougetoasserttheirre-inventionofCambodia.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 10
CambodianMaps
Figureone:provincialboundaries(UN2015)
Figuretwo:killingfielddistribution(CGP2011)
11
SectionOne:SettingtheScene
Introduction
Thedead,wedon’tevenknowwheretheywerekilled.Therearesomany
oftheminthecountryside.Everywhere.Uncountable.Nowallwecanseeisa
mountainofbones.
-Ta,onthosekilledbytheKhmerRouge
********
MassgraveslitterCambodia’slandscape.MaterialtracesofthebrutalMaoist
KhmerRougeregimethatruledfrom1975to1979,theyareremaindersofits
violencenowinscribedonthelandscape.No-oneknowsexactlyhowmany
peopledied,norhowmanymassgravesexist,anditisunlikelythatprecise
numberswilleverbedetermined.Withsomanyyearsgoneby,manyofthe
graveshavebeenre-integratedintothelandscape;yearsoffarminghave
destroyedmanybodies;thoseexposedhavedisintegratedorbeenlost;those
lyinginunpopulatedordifficulttoaccessareasmayneverbeuncovered1.Most
authorssettleonafigureof1.7milliondead,andover19,000massgraves,but
therealitycouldbefarmoreextensiveormuchreduced.Whatisclear,however,
isthatthedeathanddevastationcausedbytheregimewasstaggering,andthat
itsimpactcontinues.Asmaterialmarkersoftheregime,massgravesmakevisible
thewaynarrativesoftheKhmerRougeregimearebeingusedtoshape
1Inaddition,theCambodiansoilishighlyacidic,andbodiesarethereforelikelytodecomposemorerapidlythaninotherlocations(BlairandBlair2014).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 12
contemporaryCambodia,providingalensthroughwhichtoexaminehowthe
violenceofthatregimeisnegotiated,andhowtheperiodisbeingusedto‘re-
make’thecountrytoday.
ThisthesisexamineshowpeopleincontemporaryCambodiausetheKhmer
Rougeperiod,andparticularlythespaceofmassgraves,toinformandshapetheir
livestoday.StartingfromKatherineVerdery’s(1996,2000)argumentthatdead
bodiesareinherentlypolitical,Iwillextendthistoincludethespacestheyinhabit
-thelandscapes,gravesandmemorialsinwhichtheylie-examininghowthe
massgravesareusedincontemporarydiscourse(locally,nationallyand
internationally)andthroughthat,howtheatrocitiesoftheKhmerRougeperiod
areexperiencedinthepresent.Thisapproachissupportedbyaconsiderationof
JonathanSpencer’s(2007)conceptof‘thepolitical,’whicharguesthatthereisan
irreduciblypoliticaldimensiontoeverydaylife,particularlyinthere-imagination
oflifeandcommunityafterconflict,andVeenaDas’s(1997)theoryof‘critical
events,’throughwhichIwillexaminehowtheKhmerRougeregimehastriggered
are-shapingofrelationshipsbetweenthelocalandthenational,andthenational
andtheglobal,leadingtonewformsofsocialandcommunitylifeandactionin
postKhmerRougeCambodia.Thisprovokesare-imaginingandredefinitionof
traditionalcategoriesandunderstandingsofsociallife,whichgivesnewwaysof
imaginingandcreatingthestateanditspeople.Asphysicalmarkersofviolence
andpoliticalinstability,massgravesarticulateandmakevisiblethesere-
imaginationsonthestate,community,andindividuallevel.InthisthesisIexplore
thesedifferingpresentations,examininghowalthoughstate,local,andindividual
connectionsandusesofthesitesareintertwined,thedifferingneedsforeach
leadstoapluralityofconnectionswiththegraves.TheCambodianstateexercises
andlegitimatesitsauthoritybyconstructingmodernhistoryinreferencetoa
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 13
narrativeofliberationfromtheKhmerRouge,andthe‘innocentsuffering’of
Cambodiaanditspeople.Contrarytostatepresentationsaboutthelossoflife
duringthisperiod,however,IshowhowmostKhmerhavetodayreintegrated
thosekilledundertheregimethroughencounterswithghostsandspirits,andvia
reincarnation.Encounterswiththemassgravesandtheirdeadmakevisiblehow
everydayCambodianscurrentlynarrateandunderstandtheKhmerRougeregime
intermsofBuddhistcosmology,throughtheuseofconceptssuchas
reincarnationandkarma.
Basedonsixteenmonthsfieldwork,withtwomainfieldsites(ChoeungEk
GenocidalCenter,amassgraveofupto17,000people-nowanationalmemorial
andinternationaltouristsite,andasiteIcallKohSop,thekillingandgravesiteof
upto7,000people-nowaruralfarmingvillage)andwithmulti-sitedresearchat
fifteenothersitesinCambodia,myresearchcontributestodebateswithinthe
anthropologyofpolitics,violenceandcollectivememorybyexamininghow
momentsofnationalmassviolencere-shapethestateandrelationshipswithinit,
andhowdestructiveperiodsofviolencenonethelesscreatenewfieldsforthe
imaginationofthepolitical,thereligious,andthesocial.Italsocontributestothe
emergingfieldofCambodianethnographythatcombineslocalconsiderations
withwidernationalandgeo-politicaldiscoursesandhowtheseareplayedoutat
thelocallevel.
ThisintroductionwillbrieflyintroducetheKhmerRougeregime,beforemoving
ontodiscussmymotivationsforthisproject.Therelevantliteratureonwhichthis
thesisdrawswillbeconsidered,beforemovingontooutlineingreaterdetailthe
overalltheoreticalapproachforthethesis.Iwillexaminewhatconstitutesamass
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 14
graveinCambodia,beforefinallypresentingtheoverallthesisstructureand
chapterdescriptions.
TheKhmerRougeandtheirdead
LetmestartfromamomentthatchangedthecourseofCambodianlife;April
17th,1975.Onthatday,afteryearsoffightingintheforestsandmountainsof
ruralCambodia,theCommunistPartyofCambodia(nicknamedtheKhmerRouge,
acorruptionoftheFrenchKhmersRouges,atitlegiventothembyCambodia’s
formerruler,PrinceNorodomSihanouk)tookcontrolofthecountry.Muchofthe
populationwelcomedthemastheymarchedintothecapitalPhnomPenh
(Chandler2008b)becausetheysignaledapotentialendtoyearsofsufferingand
conflict:decadesofstruggleagainstcolonization;violentcivilstruggles
throughoutthe1960sand70s;LonNol’saggressiveregimefollowingthemilitary
coupthathadoverthrownSihanoukin19702inwhichupto600,000died
(ChomskyandHerman1979);andextensiveUSbombingbetween1965and1973
inwhichover2.7milliontonnesofbombsweredroppedandunknownnumbers
ofCambodianskilled3(OwenandKiernan2006).Theclockwasre-set;theyear
1975wasnowknownasYearZero,andin1976thecountrywasrenamed
DemocraticKampuchea.
TheKhmerRougeregimedevastatedthecountry.TheirMaoistrevolution,aimed
atcreatinganewCambodia-self-sufficientandindependentofexternalpowers-
includedurbanevacuation,collectivization,thedestructionofnearlyallstate
2TheLonNolregimewassponsoredandsupportedbytheU.S,whosentmilitaryaidtothecountryduringitsfiveyearsinpower,includingabombingoffensivefromFebruarytoAugust1973inwhichoverhalfamilliontonnesofmunitionsweredropped(OwenandKiernan2006).
3Togivesomescaletothis,thisismorebombsthantheAlliesdroppedduringtheentireSecond
WorldWar,includingthenuclearbombsatNagaskaiandHiroshima,whichweighed20,000and15,000tonnesrespectively(ibid.:67).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 15
institutions,andcompleterepressionofthepopulation.Followingtheirvictory
theyimmediatelyemptiedthecities,sendingpeopleintothecountrysidetowork
onmassiveprojectsdesignedtobringaboutanidealisedagrariannation4:to
makewayforthistheydisbandedtheoldlife,destroying(thoughnotannihilating)
customaryformsoffamilylife,religion,education,healthcareandlaw.Intheir
placetheyinstalledanewlife:communallivingandeating;forced,arranged
marriages;noreligionorritual;nohealthcare;andeducationthroughwork.
Nobodyknowsexactlyhowmanypeoplediedinthethreeyears,eightmonths
andtwentydaystheKhmerRougeruledCambodia,norhowmanyofthosewho
perishedwereexecutedratherthandyingfromdiseaseorstarvation.Thedeath
tollhasprovokedmuchdebateovertheyears,withestimatesrangingfromthe
mostconservative740,800(Vickery1984),tothemostliberal3.4million
(Heuveline1998).5Mostauthorsnowsettleonafigurearound1.7million(DC-
Cam2012;Guillou2013;Hinton2005;Kiernan2003),reportingittobearound
onethirdofthepopulationatthetime.Becauseofthecontinuinguncertaintyof
thedata,Idonotuseaspecificnumberinthisthesis.Whatiscertainisthatthe
deathtollwashuge,andtheeffectdevastating.
Thebodiesofthosewhoperishedwereburiedorabandonedinmassgraves
acrossthecountry;manythousandsofmassgravesinmanyhundredsof
4SomehavearguedthattheKhmerRougewereanti-progress(Chirot1994,Salter2000),aimingtoreturnCambodiatobelikeAngkor:apre-industrialerabetweenthe9
thand15
thcenturies.
However,whilsttheyusedAngkorasanexample,itwastheirproductionlevelstheywantedtosimulate:AngkorwasCambodia’sgoldenagewhenCambodiawasinfluentialacrosstheregion.TheKhmerRouge,however,wereheavilyindustrialized.AsJamesTyner(2014)argues,theprojectstheyconductedindicatelarge-scaleindustrialisationandextensiveadministration.Intheshortperiodtheyruledtheymanagedtheconstructionofhugedams,extensivecanalsystems,airports,andlarge-scale,meticulouslyplanned,farmingregimes.Not,itwouldseem,aregimewishingtoreturntopre-industrialisation.
5AgoodcritiqueoftheprimaryattemptstocalculatethedeathtollisgivenbyBruceSharp’s
articleCountingHell(Sharp2008).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 16
locations.6Themethodsofdisposalwerevaried:insomelocationstheKhmer
Rougeusedalreadyexitingfeaturessuchascaves,rivers,andwellstodisposeof
thebodies.Insomeareaspitsweredugandcorpsesburied,inotherstheywere
leftscatteredacrossthesurfaceofthefieldsandforestsinwhichtheywerekilled
-itwasthissightthatledjournalistDithPrantocointheterm‘theKillingFields’to
describehisencounteronhisescapeacrossCambodiatoThailand(Schanberg
1985).7Inmostareasthegravesweresimplyameanstodisposeoftheincreasing
numbersofdead,butinsomethedeadwereputtowork:fertilisingricefieldsor
coconutgroves.8WhenVietnaminvadedCambodiainDecember1978toputan
endtotheregime,theyfoundatrailofdeathastheymovedthroughthecountry.
Theyquicklyputthephysicalevidenceofthedevastationoftheregimetowork,
collectingthedeadthatlayonthesurface,diggingupothers,anderecting
memorialsdisplayingthedead.Localpeople,meanwhile,lootedthegraves
searchingforvaluables.Beyondtheseinitialdisturbances,however,themajority
ofthegraveshaveneverbeenexcavated,andthedeadremainintheground
6Estimatesexistbutarewidelyvariableforthenumberofgravesandkillingsitesacross
Cambodia.EvenoverallfiguresgivenbyresearchersandreportsfromtheDocumentationCenterofCambodia(DC-Cam)/CambodianGenocideProgramatYaleUniversity(CGP),whichmappedthegravesinatenyearproject,donotagree.CGP(2012)lists309killingsites,CraigEtcheson(oneofthefoundersoftheproject)reports432(2005:111),whilsttheinventoryofmassgravesproducedbyDC-Cam,lastupdatedin2008,lists390locations(DC-Cam2005).Thesameappliestonumberofmassgravepits:CGPlistsanestimated19,000,CraigEtcheson20,492,andtheDC-Caminventorydoesnotactuallyprovideatotalfigure,becauseatsomesitesthenumberswereinestimable,althoughthewebsitehostingthelistreports19,733.
7Thistermissoevocativeoftheextentofviolentkilling,anddisregardofthedeadthatitisnow
usedcontemporaneouslyandretrospectivelytodescribegenocideandcrimesagainsthumanityinlocationsandeventsacrosstheglobe,includingBiafra(Oguibe1998),SriLanka(Arunatilake,JayasuriyaandKelegama2001),Indonesia(Lemelson2009),andIraq(Scheer2006)tonamebutafew.
8Theadvantagesofhavingdecomposingbodiesinthesoilwerenotedlongafterthedownfallof
DemocraticKampuchea.OnchattingabouttheexperienceoflivingontopofgravesinthevillagewhereIworked,OmYayandOmSreylaughedaboutthebenefitsithadgiven:‘[theland]becameluckierbecause[it]isveryfertile:whateverwegrew,allwasgood.’Atanothersiteafarmer,whosericefieldlayacrossseveralburialpits,lamentedthatnowhehadtobuyfertilizer,whichisexpensive,whereasinthepastthericegrewwellbecauseofthe‘natural’fertilizerinthesoil(thehumanremains).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 17
acrossCambodia.Thegraveshavebeenreturnedtoeverydaylivingspace:
houses,farms,markets,shops,androads,allbuiltontopofmassgraves.Very
fewmemorialsexist;thosebuiltundertheVietnameseadministrationhave
largelybeenneglected,andthefewnewonesthatexistaremostlyfundedby
internationallybackedNGOSorhigh-rankingbusinesspeopleandgovernment
officials.Thisthesisexaminesthesemassgravesandrelationshipstothedead
thatliewithinthem.
BythetimeIgottoCambodiain2012,theDemocraticKampucheawas33years
behindus,andtheKhmerRougeregime,althoughstillpresentintheimaginaryof
Cambodia,hadnotbeenactivefor15years.Theirviolence,however,remainsto
date,notleastinthenumbersofthosewhodiedduringtheregime;notoncedidI
meetanyonewhohadnotlostone,ifnotseveral,membersoftheirfamily,
friendsandcolleagues.Eventhosebornaftertheregimeweresubjecttothe
rupturesinkinnetworksthatthedeathofnearlyathirdofthepopulationcauses.
Theviolenceanditseffectshowever,nolongerrage;theyaresporadic,episodic,
andrelatedtospecificprovocations,asthisthesiswillshow.
Motivations
Peoplehaveoftenaskedmewhatbroughtmetothisresearch.Whygraves,and
massonesatthat?Ihavenopersonalknowledgecomparabletothatexperienced
bymyinformantswholivedthroughtheKhmerRougeregimeandthetroubled
yearsthatenvelopedit,orthatcomparestothestructuralandsymbolicviolence
sufferedbymanyKhmerpeopleincontemporaryCambodia.Ihave,however,
beenamidstmassdeathandmassgravesformanyyears.PriortomyPhDI
workedasaforensicanthropologistspecialisingintheidentificationofhuman
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 18
remainsfrommassgraves,firstinBosnia-Herzegovinawithremainsofthe
Srebrenicamassacreof1995,andtheninIraqongravesresultingfromSaddam
Hussein’sBa’athistregime.Itwasthislatterpositionthatbroughtmetothis
thesis.MyexperiencesinIraqledtoquestiontheethicsandefficacyof
internationalinterventions,andtheuseandmanipulationofmassgravesinthe
geo-politicalsphereandintheformationofstates.Thispracticalworkwiththe
graves,whichIhadenteredwide-eyedandidealistic,completewithethno-centric
notionsofjusticeandhealing,ledmetoquestionwhatmassgravesare:whothey
serveandforwhatpurpose.Itbecameclearthatthegravesandthedeadbelong
tothosewhoclaimthemtheloudest,whichvariesonthepoliticsoftheday.
InBosnia-HerzegovinagraveswereinitiallyunearthedtofindevidenceforICTY–
theInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheFormerYugoslavia.Thesebodieswere
usedtoprovideevidenceofviolencebutnot,initially,identified.Foryearsafter
thetribunaltheyremainedstackedinbodybagswithnofurtherattention.
Familieswereseekingtheirmissing,however,andovertheyears,pressurebuilt
untilidentification,notevidence,becametheorderoftheday.Butlikeallbodies
resultingfromviolenceordisaster,thesebodiesremainedsitesofpoliticalpower;
theirunearthingasymbolofsolidarity,butalsoasignifier(andsometimesa
catalyst)ofongoingtension.InIraqthegraveswereunearthedbythenew
government,trainedbyUSfundedaidprogrammes.Eachsoughtevidenceof
atrocitiestovalidatetheirposition;thecoalition’s‘intervention;’thenew
government’ssuccession.Bothweresupportedbyongoingmediapresentations
oftheterrorofSaddamHussein.
IwenttoCambodiatryingtocomparethewaygraveswereviewedandtreated
theretomyexperiencesofgravesinBosnia-HerzegovinaandIraq.Whydidmost
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 19
gravesremainunearthedinCambodia?Didfamiliesseektheremainsoftheirlost
kin?Ifnot,whynot?Howwasitthatthesesites,whichinlivingmemorysaw
suchatrocitiesandholditsresults,fromwhichskeletalremainsstillemerge,have
apparentlybecomebenign?These,andmanymorequestionsbesides,ledmeto
Cambodiaanditsgraves;Iwantedtoaddress,aswell,widerquestionsabout
massgravesandtheiruseinpolitics.Ifoundmanysimilaritiesbetweentheuses
ofthegravesinCambodiaandelsewhere:inthepoliticalappropriationofsites;in
theuseoftheanonymousdeadinnarrativemanipulation;intheaestheticsof
deaththatareusedforvariouspoliticalendeavours.ButIalsofoundmany
differences,akeyonebeinghowthedeadareinvolvedinthelivesoftheliving
andtheplacethatsocio-religiouspracticesenabledthenarrationofthepastin
thepresent.
Literaturereview
Therelevantliteratureforeachchapterisreviewedthere;however,inorderto
situatethethesiswithinthewideracademy,thissectionprovidesabriefoverview
ofanthropologicalliteratureonmassgraves,massdeath,andCambodia.
Massgraveslendthemselvestoapoliticalconsideration,particularlythose
resultingfromconflictandviolence.Theresultofpoliticalaction,theyarealso
opentopoliticalmanipulationandtheharnessingforpoliticalendsoncetheir
constructioniscomplete.However,untilrecentlytheirconsiderationwithin
academicliteraturehasmostlyconcentratedonthepracticalaspectsoftheir
investigation;howtoovercomeparticulardifficultiespresentedbythemand
approachestoinvestigationandidentificationindifferentcontexts(forexample
AdamsandByrd2008;BlauandUbelaker2008;Coxetal.2007;Cox2003;Komar
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 20
andBuikstra2007).Thispracticalfocuspayslittleattentiontothesocio-cultural
aspectsofmassgraves,despitetheircapacitytoactashighlypoliticizedlocations
ofsocialmemory,as‘powerfulreservoir[s]oftraumaticmemory’(Denich1994:
367),aslocationsofidentityformationandconsolidation(ParkerPearson1999),
aspotentialsitesofconflictandtensionstagnation(Bax1997),orproducersof
socialrelations(FerrandizandBaer2008).
Workthathasstartedtoemergeonmassgravesinthesocio-culturalliterature
primarilycentresontheirunearthingandtheirrelationshipto‘themissing.’The
missingofCyprus,PaulSantCassia(2005)asserts,epitomiseatime-oldthemein
Westernliteratureandculture:theunburieddead(bothliterallyand
metaphorically)whoseliminalstatusleavesthemopenforpoliticisationand
contestedcontrolbetweenthestateandtheindividual;and,ultimately,by
researchers,astheytrytoapproachanunderstandingoftheirrealities,because
everypersonis‘engagedinthetheatricsandsecretsofpower’and‘weare
inevitablycomplicitintherealitieswearetryingtodescribe’(2005:224–225).
Butratherthananoppositionbetweenthedehumanised,collectivegazeofthe
state,andthepersonalandindividualgazeofthecommunity,controlofthedead
maybedonebyboth(Verdery1999,2002).Moderntechnologycanunitethe
two,andbringtheglobalintothemixaswell.WhenconsideringtheuseofDNA-
technologyintheidentificationofthemissingfromSrebrenica’s1995massacre
SarahWagner(2008)showsthatthefateofthemissingisanegotiationbetween
individuals,communities,andthestate,anditsadministration,thoughcontested,
maybeunifying.Identifyingthedeadsendsthemhometotheirkin.Italso,
however,bringsthemback‘intotheembraceofthestate’(ibid:255),whilst
simultaneouslyprovidingtheopportunityfor‘socialreconstruction’byWestern
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 21
governments(ibid:8);asiteatwhichtheycanrebuildpost-conflictBalkans.9DNA,
Wagnerwrites,offersatechnologyofrepair,butonly,shepointsout,forthose
deemedworthyofsuch;thosewithlives(orratherdeaths)worthknowingfor
politicalends(biopoliticsforthedead;thosewithgrievablelives(Butler2010)).
ThemissinginSpain,Jerez-FarránandAmago(2010:1)assertare‘living
mementoesofthepowerofthedeadtospeakbeyondlanguageastheymutely
remindthenationofthecrimesperpetrated.’Throughthedead,andtheir
graves,theSpanishcivilwarintrudesonthepresent,andtheirexhumationsbreak
the‘screenofsilence[that]hassurroundedSpain’smassgraves’(ibid:307).But
thissilence,LaylaRenshawcontends(2011:31)isapact,notaconspiracyas
Jerez-FarránandAmagosuggest;itis‘bothaself-andmutuallyenforced
conditionofcensorshipacrossthepoliticalspectrum.’Thedeadandtheirgraves
materialisethepastinthepresent,butthismaterialisationisshapedbythe
indicesofthedeadbeforetheyareexposed.Thisbearsmuchresonancewith
contemporaryCambodia,andIappreciatethewayRenshawengageswiththe
differentframesofreferencethatcollideatexcavation.Butsheessentialises
traumaandnormalisesitastheaffectiveresultofencounterswithFranco's
regime,aswellasassumingthenecessityofindividualidentification10.Shealso
assertsthattheorganisationexhumingthedead,theAHRM11,doesnothavea
coherentapproachtothepoliticalcontentofcommemorationbecausethey
9And(IalwaysfeltwhenIwasthere)theunearthingofgravesandidentificationofremains,paidformostlybywesterngovernments,providedameansbywhichtheycouldsymbolicallyatonefortheneglectofthatsmallenclaveofSrebrenica,aneglectwhichledtotheexecutionofnearly9,000menandboys;therapeofhundredsofwomen.
10Whenolderpeoplesheinterviewedtoldhertheyfeltnoneedforindividualidentificationor
burialbeyondthecollectiveshecomments‘theexplanatorymeetingandthereburialceremonyseemedhighlyeffectiveinovercomingthisresistancetothenecessityofindividualisingthebody’(Renshaw2011:128,myitalics).
11AsociaciónparalaRecuperacióndelaMemoriaHistorica.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 22
devolveittothefamilies(ibid:231),overlookingthatthisinitselfisapolitical
manoeuvre,onethatlegitimateskinoverstateastheownersofthedead.
Butthemissingisaparticularcategoryofperson,definedentirelybyabsence,and
restingonanassumptionthattheycan(andshould)bereturned,bothphysically
andmetaphorically,tothestateandkinfromwhichtheycome.Theyare
‘undead’andthereforeathreat;achallenge;anentityinneedofrepatriation,of
reconciliation,ofreparation.Norarethemissingsilent.Theyare,rather,multi-
vocal.Evenbeforetheyarelocatedandunearthedtheyspeakfortheirkin;their
country;orwhoeverelseclaimsthem:theinternationalorganisationsthat
unearthandrepatriatetheirbodies;thegovernmentsthatfundsearches,
identifications,memorials;otherswhousethemasmetaphorstomaterialise
otherviolencesintheworld.ThedeadinthegravesthatlitterCambodiaarenot,
however,missing.Thoughidentitiesareabsentfromthephysicalremains,and
thoughsomepeoplestilllookfortheir(living)relatives;thesedeadarepresent–
physicallyandimaginatively–ineverydayencountersandpoliticalrealities.They
mayneverdiebecauseofthis.Theyarenotsilent,thoughtheirvoicesmaybe
muffled.AndlikethemissingofSpain,manyaremorealivethandeadthoughfor
differingreasons.
Theanthropologicalrecordshowsushowinmanysocialsystemsthedeadcan
onlybeproperlyre-integratedintothelivesofthelivingthroughstructuredrituals
ofdeathandmourning.VanGennep’s(1960[1908]:160)classicstudyonritesof
passageshowshowthosethatarenotproperlyintegratedbecometheunhappy
dead:troubledandtroublesomeuntiltheycanbeappropriatelyreintegrated.
AcrossmuchofAsiatheunhappydeadbecomemalevolentspirits,causing
misfortune,illnessanddeath(Bertrand2001;Bovensiepen2009;Chouléan1986;
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 23
Dernbach2005;Formoso1996).InareasofEasternEuropevampiresare
consideredtoresultfromsuchdead(duBoulay1982).InpartsofEuro-America
‘theyareapttobecomehauntingghoststrappedonthehumanplane’(Bennett
2014:243).GabrielleSchwab(2010:78)sumsitupinherexplorationoftrans-
generationaltrauma,statingthat:
Thedeadwhoweredeniedtheriteofburial,whodiedanunnaturaldeath,who
committedorwerethevictimofacrime,orwhosufferedanunbearablejustice
comebacktohaunttheliving.
Socialstability,therefore,restsuponappropriatetreatmentofthedead,managed
throughrituals,whichfunctionascatalystsofprocessesthatenablethere-
imaginingofsocialnetworksandre-establishmentofstabilityfollowingthe
rupturethatdeathcauses(Rosaldo1989).However,itisnotonlysocialstability,
butalsothecontinuationoflifethatthemanagementofdeathenables,as
illustratedinBlochandParry’svolumeDeathandtheRegenerationofLife(1982).
Deathisoftenintrinsicallylinkedwithfertility,asBlochandParry’svolumeshows,
butfuneralritualsusedtocontrolthedeadalsocontrolthesymbolisminherentin
thecreationoftheestablishedsocialorder.Deathrupturesthesocialfabricthat
lifeisbasedon,Hertz(1960)asserts(beingoneofthefirsttoarguethatdeathis
notonlybiological,butalsoasocialprocess),andBlochandParryarguethat
thesetearscanonlyberepairedwithsociallysanctionedandappropriaterituals
andmannersofbehaviour.Thesocialcontroloverdeathviamortuaryrituals
bringsitsarbitrarinessintocorrectorderandallowsfor‘rebirth’:notonlyof
peopleandplants,butalsoofsociety.Baddeaththreatensthisorder,notonly
becauseofthepotentialintrusionintothelivesofthelivingbythedead,butalso
becauseofthisthreattolife.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 24
Butwhodealswithdeathswhentheyarenotindividualbutcollectiveandthe
resultofsocietalviolence?Whocanreintegratethemintosociallifeandhowis
thismanaged?Istheirintegrationdependentonunearthingandidentification?
Doestheirdeathwithoutceremonycausesocialunrestwithaneedforreprisal?
HeonikKwon,whohasworkedextensivelyonthelegacyofconflictinKorea
(KwonandChung2014)andVietnam(2006,2008a,2008b),focusesspecificallyon
howpeopleusethephysicalandspiritualremainsofbothto(re)constructlife
afterwards.Hisworkaskssuchquestionsaswhoownsthedeadandwhocan
claimthem?Howdospiritsandghostsallowpeopletonarratetheirsociallives
andaspirations,andthespecifichistoricalperiodsfromwhichtheyderive?Are
spiritualencountersaboutmoralityormemory?
InVietnam,Kwonargues(2006)thereisa‘bi-polarity’ofdeath:amoral
dichotomybetweendifferenttypesofdeathandthedeadthatdiffersbetween
thestate,individuals,andeventransnationalforcesthatareinterestedinthem,
andwhichisthespaceofcontestedvaluesystems.Thiscausesproblemsinthe
post-conflictworld,wheredifferentvoicestrytoclaimtheirauthorityand
ownershipofthedead,whotranscendtheusualboundariesofancestor,ghost
andherobybelongingtoseveralcategories;sometimescontemporaneously;
sometimesatdifferenttimes.Themeaningascribedtothesedead,andthe
modesofacknowledgingthemhaschangedovertime,andremainsflexibletoday.
ThisispartlybecausethedeathssufferedduringtheconflictsinVietnamrequired
arefashioningoftraditionalfamilyritualstobringthedeadintotheembraceof
thehomeandthefamily,andthustheircorrecttime.Understandinghowthese
dead,mostparticularlytheghosts,areencounteredandconceptualisedisintegral
tounderstandingthepoliticalsituationoftheliving,Kwon(2008)asserts,because
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 25
associallysalientbeings,theyareintegraltohowsociallifeisconstructedin
contemporaryVietnam.
InKoreameanwhile,thoseburiedinmassgravesresultingfromSouthKorean
stateviolenceagainstitsownpeople(inanattempttoerasethosedeemed
communistsympathizersorpotentialcollaboratorswithNorthKorea),highlight
howthedead,entwinedbothphysicallyandmetaphorically,unitefamiliesintheir
attemptstorestoretheirmorallegitimacythroughproperreburialasancestors,
andbydoingso,provideameansforthelivingtore-asserttheirownmoral
status,becausetheyarerelatedtothedeadthroughaconsiderationof
‘associativeguilt’(Kwon2015).Constructingcommunalgravesitesand
gravestonestocommemoratethem,Kwonargues(2015:87),isaneffort,
therefore,notonlytowardscareofthedead,butalsointhehopetofurthercivil
andhumanrightsinwidersociety.
Aremassgravesrecordsofaviolentandtraumatichistory(tobothindividualsand
thenation)thatcontinuetohavenegativeeffectsonthepopulationin
contemporarytimes?Discoursesonpainfulmemory,whichhaveheldrecent
fascinationformanyanthropologistsworkinginareasofconflict,violence,human
rightsabuses,ordisaster(Das,KleinmanandLock1997;Dasetal.2000;Dasetal.
2001),mightassumeso.Thisisbecause‘overthelast25years,traumahas
becomeestablishedasauniquewayofappropriatingthetracesofhistoryand
oneofthedominantmodesofrepresentingourrelationshipwiththepast’(Fassin
andRechtman2009:15).Theassumptionthateventssuchaswaranddisaster
arebothindividuallyandcollectivelytraumatic,andthatbothindividualsand
wholesocietiesexperiencingsucheventsareautomaticallyvictims,‘scarred’both
mentallyandphysically,iscentraltothesediscourses.Thesetraumasareargued
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 26
toconnectpeopleandsocietiestoparticularhistories,andprovideparticular
framesforthathistory;and‘victimsoftrauma’havebecome‘thevery
embodimentofourcommonhumanity’(Fassin&Rechtman2009:23):people
whorepresenttheuniversalexperienceofsuffering(LeCapra2001).12The
universalapplicabilityandunderstandingoftheseconceptsis,however,
contestable;recentliterature(forexampleFassin2008;Fassinandd'Halluin2007;
FassinandRechtman2009;Rechtman2000;Rechtman2006;Summerfield1999;
Summerfield2001)showshowtheseconceptsevolvedinparticularsocio-historic
circumstancesofthepastcentury,withinhistoriesofhierarchyandinequality.
Theassumptionsbehindtheirapplicationshouldbeexaminedcarefullybefore
beingappliedoutsidetheEuro-Americanzone,where,Summerfield(2001)
argues,theycanbecomeaformofWesterndomination.
However,thesediscoursesremainstucktomassgravesandtheirinvestigation.
‘Exhumations,’forensicanthropologistWilliamHaglund(2001)wrote,‘reconfirm
thedignityofthevictimsandthevalueofhumanrights.’‘Nottobringthedead
intothesanctuaryoftruth-memory-justiceistoannihilatethemasecondtime’
WilliamBooth(2001:691)agreed.Justicedoesnotnecessarilyequateto
excavation,althoughusuallythisisimplied.Someauthorssuggestjusticeisadded
bytheirexpositionoftheremainsandthedocumentationofexhumations.Dark
istheRoomWhereWeSleep(BourkeandTorres2007)forexample,a
12Contemporaneously,thetermPost-traumaticStressDisorderhasbecomevirtuallysynonymouswithsurvivalincasesofpublicviolenceanddisaster;Summerfield(2001:95)goessofarastoconsiderittobe‘totemic’:inmuchthesamewayasbodieswithinamassgraveareoftenusedasevidenceofhumanrightsatrocities,thediagnosisofPTSDisnowusedasanemblemofinvisible,ongoingdamagetothesocialfabric.ThisisillustratedbystudiessuchasBreslau(2000)onglobaliseddiscoursesofsufferinginJapanfollowingtheKobeearthquakeof1995,whereascarcityofPTSDdiagnoseswerearguedbypsychologicalprofessionalstoindicateapsychologicallyimmaturecultureratherthanadifferenceinculturalunderstandingsandapplicationsofpsychiatry,andDeJongetal.(2000)whosestudyofadultsinFreetown,SierraLeone,diagnosedanastonishing99%oftheirsampleof245randomlyselectedadultstohavePTSD.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 27
collaborationbetweenanthropologyandphotography(thephotography
documentingtheprocessofexcavation,theanthropologycollectingoralhistories
fromrelativesandfriends)seeksjusticebymakingvisibleSpanishmassgraves
andthevoicestheycontain.TheGraves(Peress,StoverandGoldstone1998)
doesthesamefortheunearthingofremainsatVukovarandSrebrenica:theresult
ofconflict,andgeopoliticalactionandinactionintheBalkans.Photographsof
twistedcorpsesandshatteredpeopleinterspersedwithquotesthatshowthe
devastationspeak,apparently,inthenameofjustice:‘Forgettingisunthinkable’
Peressetal.write(1998:328)because‘itwouldbeadishonor[sic]tothedead
andtheirmemory.’
Butwhoclassifieswhathonourandmemoryare?Doesexhibitingtheir
photographsandotherevidenceofatrocities(suchasthehumanremainsthat
theyresultedin)achieveanythingbeyondvoyeurism?InrelationtoCambodia,
MichelleCaswell(2014),RachelHughes(2008),andSusanLinfield(2010)claim
thatthephotographicexhibitionsofthosetorturedandsentencedtoexecution
duringtheKhmerRougeregimeatTuolSlengmuseuminPhnomPenh,andthe
remainsdisplayedatChoeungEk,achievefarmore.Thosevisitingthem,Caswell
argues,becomewitnessestothehorrorandsuffering.Peopleattendingsuch
displays,Hughes(2008:327)asserts,areableto‘participateinglobal
humanitarianism’.By‘witnessing’Linfield(2010)writes,weprovidejusticetothe
dead,totheirfamilies,totheirnations.ButtheseclaimsareManicheanandfull
ofpowerandprivilege.Severalauthorscritiqueregimesthatusethedeadto
legitimatetheirrule,orasmodesofpropagandatomaterialiseparticular
narratives(Caplan2007;Guyer2009;O'Sullivan2001),butdosuchdepictionsof
thedeadintextnotdothesame?
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 28
ArecentpublicationworthyofconsiderationisFerrándizandRobben’s(2015)
editedvolumeNecropolitics:massgravesandexhumationsintheAgeofHuman
Rights.Thisbookexploresthepoliticalandsocialimplicationsofmassgrave
investigation,coveringexhumationsfromLatinAmerica,Asia,andEurope.InChile
andArgentina,Robben(2015)argues,exhumationsperform‘counter-visuality’–in
uncoveringthedisappearedtheynotonlyreturnidentitiestothemissing,identities
stolenbythestate,butindoingsoexposethevisualityoflifeanddeath
manipulatedbyeachauthoritariansovereignty’snecropoliticalandterritorial
power.Ferrándiz(2015:115)conceivesofa‘transnationaldignifyingroute’of
commemoration,createdthroughtheinteractionofdifferentpeopleatexcavations
inSpain:relatives,publicauthorities,andinternationalagenciesareinvolved,
enablingthecreationofsocialrelationsandnetworksofsupportthatrelatestothe
globalexpansionofhumanrightsdiscoursesandpractice.
Theeffectofviolentconflictlingersfordecades,SarahWagnerwrites,and‘binds
generationsindegreesofgrief’(2015:134).Communalburialscomplicatefamilial
obligations,whichmustbere-imaginedintheaftermathofwar.InKoreaKwon
(2015)argues,thesere-imaginedlinksperformcivilandhumanrights(seeabove).
Theyalsoenableresistancetohegemonicsilence(StefatosandKovras2015),anda
potentialavenueforreconciliation(Rojas-Perez2015).However,onceexhumed,
humanremainsresultingfromconflictoftenstillbelongtothestateandareusedin
assertionofpoliticalrule,aswellasstrugglestomanagememory.Lesley(2015)
exploresthisinrelationtoCambodiaandRwanda,arguingthatthedisplayof
remainsinbothlocations,andindividual’sincorporationofstatenarrativesrelated
tothisdisplaysattemptstobuildnationalnarratives,andthusstability,wheresocial
lifewasruptured.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 29
Theseapproachestomassgravesandthemassdeadprovidemuchfoodfor
thought,however,noneseemedentirelyappropriateasameanstoapproachthose
inCambodia.TheKhmerpeopleIencountereddidnotpresentthemselvesas
victimsoftrauma.TheKhmerRougeperiodwasseenasaterriblehistory,butas
onebelongingtoaparticulartimeandcontext,exceptwhereitisusefullyharnessed
inthepresentoritsmemoryprovokedbysomeevent.Thegravesarenottraumatic
spaces,northeremainstheycontainentitiesofhorror(thoughtheyareof
violence).
Althoughthegravesweresubjecttoanextensivemappingprojectbythe
CambodianGenocideProjectwithDC-Cam(Etcheson2000;DC-Cam2005;CGP
2010)(themethodologyandfindingsofwhicharedeeplyflawed13),themapping
wasinordertocollateevidenceoftheextentofDemocraticKampuchea’sviolence,
anduntilrecentlythemassgraveshavereceivedrelativelyscantotherattention.
13Estimatesofnumberofgravepitsandnumberofvictimsreliedonwitnessreporting,dependingonmemoryandestimatedfigures,someover20yearsaftertheevent.ReportswerecorroboratedbyotherscompiledduringthePRK(largelyconsideredinaccurate–peopleweredoublecountedandintheirambitionofprovinggenocidalmassacres,over-reportingwascommon(FawthropandJarvis2004))orbyvisitstothesiteswhenresearcherslookedatthesiteandguestimatednumberofpitsandbodieswithinthem.Notallsiteswerevisited:somefiguresreliedonlyonwitnessstatements,whichweretakenasfact.Notesttrenchesweredugtoconfirmthepresenceofhumanremains.Eachresearchtriplastedonlyafewdaysduringwhichseveralsiteswerevisited,leavinglittletimeforindepthresearch.Researcherspresumeduniformitytothegravesthatevidencedoesnotsupport.Theprojectomittedmanygraves,includingthosecreatedbefore1975andafter1979,gravesfromhospitals,andgravesofcontemporarypoliticalvalue.Notalldistrictsweremapped.Somesitesappearonregionalreportsbutnotonthefinalreport.Thefinalreportduplicatesothers.Reportsbyresearchersaboutthefindingsdonotagreewithoneanotheronnumberofpitsordead(CGP2011;DC-Cam2012;Etcheson2000,2005).Aquickglanceatwitnessstatementsshowsthegeneralnatureoftheirestimates:‘hetestifiedthatoneeveningat7:00pmhewatchedas20thousandpeopleweretied,shackled,andcarriedaway…HesaidthevictimshadbeentoldthattheywerebeingcarriedtoThailandbutinfacttheywerealltakentobekilled.So,thesiteofkillingatChamkarKhnol,WatChamkarKhnolwaspresumedtocontainmorethan20,000victims(approximately25,000);’‘Thepitsfarfromthehumpcouldnotbecountedbecausetherearetoomanytocount.Itisestimatedthattherearefrom500to1,000pits.’Onegravewasreportedasbeing200mlong;anothersiteapparentlyexecutedmorethan500,000people(13%oftheKhmerpopulationatthetime).Despitetheseissues,somehowCraigEtchesondeterminedtheoutrageouslypreciseestimationof1,112,829victimsofexecutionand20,492massgravepits(Etcheson2005).Totryandclearupsomeoftheissueswiththedata,Irequestedaccesstotheoriginalreports,butwastoldtheycouldnotbefound,ormaybenolongerexisted,andtheonlyinformationremainingfromtheseextensivetripsaretheshortsummariesavailableonline.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 30
AnexceptioninanthropologyisAnneYvonneGuillou,whohaspublishedseveral
articlesaboutboth(Guillou2012a,2012b,2013),andIwillreturntoherworkinthe
appropriatechapters.However,toapproachthegravesfromonlyan
anthropologicalperspectiveissomewhatlimiting,particularlyasthemajorityof
workcomesfromoutsidethediscipline.TuolSlengandChoeungEkhavereceiveda
greatdealofliteraryattention,thoughprimarilyfromtheirpositionsashistorical
archivesandtouristsites(Chandler2008c;Ledgerwood1997;Violi2012;Williams
2004;Bickford2009;Sion2011;Hughes2005).Thepositionofthesetwositesas
touristdestinations(chaptersix)aswellasmemorialsitesinactiveusebythestate,
makesthemattractivesitesforresearch,however,thisfocusedattentionhasthe
effectofrenderinginvisibleothermassgraveandkillingsites,particularlythosethat
providecontestationstothestate-sponsorednarrativesthesetwositesperform.
Tyneretal.(2012)addressthegapincoveragebyexaminingtwounmarkedsites:
SreLieumassgraveatKohSlaDam,andtheKampongChhnangAirfield.Thatpaper
isanextensionofotherworkbyJamesTyner(2012a;2012b),whoexaminesthe
politicaluseofspaceincontrollingimaginedandpresentednarrativesoftheKhmer
RougeinCambodia,arguingthatmemoryandknowledgeoftheregimeistightly
controlledbythecurrentgovernmentanditsinternationalsupporters,partly
throughselectivenationalmemorialisationofspecificmassgravesacrosstheentire
country.
ThelackofsocialconsiderationofthegravesisnotextendedtotheKhmerRouge
regimeitself.TheCambodianGenocideProject(2010),theworkofChandler(1999;
2008),Etcheson(2005),Hinton(1996;1998;2005;2011),Kiernan(2003;2006;
2007;2008),Locard(1993,2004),Vickery(1984),andothersbesides,seeknotonly
tomaptheeventsandoutcomesofthegenocide,butalsotoofferexplanationsof
thedynamicsandparticularcircumstancesthatenabledthedeathstooccur.These
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 31
worksprovidecomprehensivedebatestothecausesoftheregimeandlifeduringit,
however,Tegelberg(2009:496)arguesthatthiscausesasimplisticrenderingof
Khmersubjectsasvictimsorperpetratorsoftheperiod,ratherthanacknowledging
thecomplexityofthesituationandwithlittlefocusuntilrecentlyoncontemporary
Cambodia,lackingarenarrativesgivingvoicetopeople’severydaylives,whichhas
thedirecteffectofrenderingtheseinvisible(Guillou2013;Tegelberg2009).
Thisevolves,primarily,fromthescarcityofethnographicstudiesofCambodia.Prior
totheconflictfewanthropologistsworkedinCambodia,andeventoday,the
numberislimited14.OneexceptionisMayEbihara(1968),whosedoctoralthesis,
Svay:AKhmerVillageinCambodia,isheldasanexemplarofruralKhmer
ethnography.15Alsoresearchingtherebefore1975wasFrenchethnologistFrancois
Bizot,whoworkedontheruralpracticeofBuddhism16(1973,1976,1981)and
Porée-Maspero(1962)whostudiedritualpracticeandtraditionacrossthecountry.
AftertheexpulsionofforeignersfromCambodiabytheKhmerRougein1975,
anthropologistsdidnotreturntoCambodiauntilthe1990s.Atthattimeinterest
largelyfocusedontheregimeanditsaffects.AlexanderLabanHinton(2005)
workedwithKhmerRougeperpetrators,askingWhyDidTheyKill?andhas
continuedhisworkovertheyearsfocusingonviolenceandgenocidebytheregime
(Hinton1998,2002,2008,2011).EbiharareturnedtoCambodiawithherstudent
JudyLedgerwood,andexaminedtheimpactoftheregimeonthevillageshehad
14AsIundertookfieldworkinCambodiaonlytwootherstudentscamefromanthropology:TallynGray,whosethesisexplorestransitionaljustice(2014),andPaulChristensenwhoprovidesarareexceptioninKhmerethnography:hisresearchcentresonthesocialdynamicsofspiritmediumsandtheirspiritsacrosscontemporaryCambodiawithlittlefocusontheKhmerRouge.
15Ebiharaisoneofthefewscholarstohaveworkedlong-terminCambodiabeforeandaftertheKhmerRouge,andherlaterworkprovidesinterestingcomparativesbecauseofthat.
16In1971whilestudyingBuddhistpracticeinruralCambodia,BizotwasimprisonedbytheKhmer
Rouge.HewastheonlyknownWesternercapturedbytheregimetohavesurvived.FollowingtheKhmerRougeexpulsionofforeignersin1975heleftCambodia,andreturnedonlytotestifyatthetrialofDuchintheECCC.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 32
firstconductedresearch(EbiharaandLedgerwood2002;Ebihara2002).
LedgerwoodcontinuedherinterestinCambodia,givingsomeattentiontothe
regime(LedgerwoodandUn2003;Ledgerwood1997),butalsoexploringwider
anthropologicaltopics,suchasrurallife,ritualandreligion(Ledgerwood1995,
1998,2008).PeggyLeVine(2010)examinedweddingsandbirthsduringDemocratic
Kampuchea,coiningtheterm‘ritualcide’todescribetheKhmerRouge’sattemptsto
destroytheunderlyingsocialandreligioussecurityofthepopulationbydestruction
ofrituals.JohnMarston’sinterestisinreligionandcommunity(Marston2011;
Marston2006),whileAlexandraKentexaminesreligion’splaceintherebuildingof
Cambodiaandthere-establishmentofthe‘moralorder’(Kent2003,2006,2011;
KentandChandler2008).EveZucker(2009,2011,2013)alsobasesherworkinthe
moraleconomy;examiningmoralitiesofremembranceinUplandCambodia.17
BycontinuallyfocusingontheKhmerRouge,thenarrativeofCambodianhistoryis
limitedtothatparticularperiod,obliteratingothereventsandperiods,and
threatening‘erasureofthemorenuanced,multi-facetedculturalnarrativesthat
characterizetheregion’svasthistory’(Tegelberg2009:499).TheKhmerRouge
wasnottheonlyviolentregimetoruleCambodia.AsEricDavis(2008:132)
succinctlynotes:‘warshaveplowedthroughCambodia’slasttwohundred
years….’Despitethis,relativelylittleattentionispaidtoothereras.18This
reificationofthegenocideastheonlyperiodofhistoryworthconsideringnotonly
17
Someattentionhasbeenpaidtoothertopics,butitisrelativelyrareintheanthropologicalsphere.AngChouléanfocusesonspiritsandthespiritworldinCambodiaratherthantheKhmerRouge(1986,1988,1990,2000).OvensenandTrankell(2010)lookedatdoctor-patientrelationships,andmorerecentlyatricefarming.Astimegoeson,othertopicsareemerging.
18Thisispartlyaneffectoftheregime:oncomingtopowerthenationalarchivewasappropriated
bypig-keepers,andthedocumentsandbooksitheldneglectedandmanyruined–usedforfiresandasotherresources.Followingitsdepositionmuchoftheremainingarchivewasmismanaged,sodestroyingmuchofthehistoricalrecord(Clymer1995).DavidChandler’s(2008)AHistoryofCambodia,however,providesacomprehensiveintroductiontoearliereras.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 33
dominatescontemporaryimaginingsofCambodia,butalsoriskscolonizingfuture
definitionsofthecountry.
Thismaybeunavoidable;whileitdidnotnecessarilyinvadethemindsofmy
informantsconstantly,theKhmerRougeregimedidruptureCambodia,both
sociallyandphysically.Itwasacriticaleventafterwhichthecountryneedednot
onlyrebuilding,butalsore-imagining.ItiswithinthiscontextthatIapproachthe
regimeanditsconsequencesintheformofmassgravesthroughoutthisthesis,as
explainedbelow.
Theoreticalframework
‘Socialmemoryisshapedandreshapedbythetreatmentofcorpses’Katherine
Verderywrote(1996:233).Thetreatmentofdeadbodiesmakevisiblesocial
relations,politicalhierarchies,religioussystems,andwidercosmological
understandingsofwhatitmeanstobehumaninaparticularplaceataparticular
time.Becauseofthis,Verderyasserts,theirtreatmentmakevisible
transformationsintheworldviewofparticularplaces.Thoughherarguments
relatespecificallytothedead(theircorpsesandtheirspirits),inthisthesisI
extendthisargumenttoincludemassgravesasthespacesthatthedeadinhabit
orareimaginativelylinkedto:spaceswheretheyoncelay;spaceswherethey
werekilled;spaceswheretheyarenowdisplayed.Itisoftenthecasethatspaces
remainneutraluntiltheybecomepoliticallyuseful:itisatthistimethatpeoplere-
forgeaninterestandownershipofthespaceanditscontents.If,asVerdery
(2000)argues,bodiesareinherentlypolitical,thenthespacescontainingthem
becomepoliticalbyproxy.Thiscanbeseenthroughoutthisthesis,asparticular
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 34
attentionordismissalofmassgravesandtheirdeadchangedthroughtime,for
boththestateandlocalcommunities,inrelationtodifferingcontextsandneeds.
Sowhyaredeadbodiessopolitical?Acrosstheglobeandfarbackintimedead
bodieshavebeenusedinpolitics.Theiruseisbasedontwothings:their
physicalityandtheirsilence.Throughboththesecharacteristicstheybecome
powerfulpoliticalsymbols,opentomanipulationandharnessingforparticular
ends.Corpsesarematerialobjects,anditisthismaterialitythatiscentraltotheir
efficacy;‘adeadbodyismeaningfulnotinitselfbutthroughculturallyestablished
relationstodeathandthroughthewayaspecificdeadperson’simportanceis
(variously)construed’(Verdery1999:28).Theirvalueassymbolicentitiesrestson
‘theirambiguity,theirmultivocalityorpolysemy.Remainsareconcrete,yet
protean;theydonothaveasinglemeaningbutareopentomanydifferent
readings’(ibid).Itisthisambiguitythatenablestheirpoliticallives,whichismade
visiblethroughtheirchangingstatusasobjectsofattentioninvariousdifferent
times.WewillseeinthisthesishowinCambodiathetreatmentofthedeadfrom
theKhmerRouge,andthegravesinwhichtheylay,haschangedsincethedemise
oftheregimedependingontherealpolitikofthetime;thatgoesasmuchfor
ordinary,everydayinteractionswiththedeadasstateappropriationsandcareof
theremains.
Butitisnotjusttheirsilencethatinvitestheiruse;itisalsotheirhumanity.
Verderyarguesthattwotypesofdeadbodiesbecomepoliticalsymbols:corpses
ofthefamousandanonymousremains.ThedeadofthemassgravesinCambodia
belongtothesecondcategoryandtheirpowerliesintheirabilitytostandfor
‘entiresocialcategories’(ibid.20)whilstalsobelongingtocertainindividualsand
thereforeparticularnetworksofkinandbelonging.Wherefamouscorpses
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 35
remindpeopleoftheirpreviouspowerandposition,andthereforewhoandwhat
theystoodfor,anonymousremainsrepresentagroup,usuallywrongedinone
wayoranother.Themassdeadandtheirgravesprovidepowerfullocatorsof
socialidentitiesforapluralityofvoices;someofwhichmayagree,somewhich
maybecontested.Whenmassgravesaboundthebodiesthemselvesneednotbe
uncoveredandthespacesthemselvescometostandfortheseabuses.And
althoughtheyareusedforanumberofthings,theycomeinpeople’sminds,to
representone:‘becausetheyhaveasinglenameandasinglebody,theypresent
anillusionofhavingonlyonesignificance’(Verdery1999:29,italicsoriginal).That
significancechangesdependingoncontextandwhoismakinguseofthe
narration;itisoftenasignificancethatvariesbetweenthestateandtheeveryday
people,thoughsometimesthesecollide.
Verderyusespoliticstodescribeactionsbetweensocialactors,withacertainaim
inmind,butthisaim,shecontends,shouldhavea‘public’issue.Politics,she
explains,isnotonlyaboutstatebuildingandnationalism,butalsoaboutkinship,
thedeadandtheliving,andhowthesearemaintainedoralteredtosuitparticular
needs.ThisissimilartoJonathanSpencer’s(2007)conceptof‘thepolitical,’
whicharguesthatthereisanirreduciblypoliticaldimensiontoeverydaylife,
particularlyinthere-imaginationoflifeandcommunityafterconflict.Insuch
scenarios,politicsandcultureareviewedastwoanalyticalperspectives‘ona
singledynamicprocess’(ibid.:17)andtheunboundednatureofthepoliticalis
performativeandexpressiveaswellasinstrumental,andnotonlydestructivebut
alsoproductive(asanexampleSpencerexplainshowwhilstviolenceis
destructive,itopensthespaceforneworchangedstatesofsubjectivityand/or
solidarity(ibid.)).Dead-bodypolitics,Verderywrites,areaboutre-writinghistory
andbydoingthat,re-orderingthemeaningfuluniverse(ibid.:26).Itisherewhere
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 36
KatherineVerdery’sworkcollideswiththatofVeenaDastheoryofcriticalevents,
andprovidestheframeworkforthisthesis.
TheKhmerRougeregimeproducedacataclysmicruptureinCambodianlife.The
worldthatpeoplelivedinbefore,thoughfarfrompeaceful,hadelementsof
routinethatpeopleknewandtrusted.DemocraticKampucheaattemptedtorip
awaythepreviouslifeandstartanewone.Thecountrywasnolongerthatwhich
anyoneknew.ItsnamewaschangedtoDemocraticKampuchea.Theyearwasno
longer1975,butYearZero,asifrestartingthecalendarcouldrestartthenation.
Familiesweretornapart.Law,religionandeducationweredemolishedandthe
normalsocialorderwasreversed:rural,uneducatedpeoplebecametopofthe
hierarchy;thewealthyandeducatedfelltothebottom.Childrenruledover
adults;thepoorovertherich;theuneducatedoverthereligiousandpolitical
leaders.Thoughitsshortlifespanpreventeditscompletesuccess,thefractures
causedbytheKhmerRougeregimeweredevastating,andeveryelementofthe
countryneededrebuilding,asiffromscratch,followingitsfall:politicalstability,
moralorder,socialrelationships.
Criticalevents,Das(1997)contends,createaspaceinwhichworldsarereshaped
andreimagined.Actsofviolence,andtheirsubsequentimaginings,sheargues,
areoftenusedtoillustratethetensionbetweenthestateandthecommunityor
theindividual,wherethestaterepresentstheimpersonalanddehumanisingand
thecommunitythepersonalandhuman.19Thismaybethecase,however,they
arenotnecessarilyopposed,andeachisliabletoshapetheother,particularly
19‘Thetheoriesofcommunityintheliteratureofthesocialsciencesandpoliticalphilosophy’shewrites‘arepremisedupontheideathatthecommunityistherealmofface-to-facerelations.Itisthereforevalorizedasaresourceforchallengingtheimpersonal,dehumanizingstructuresofthemodernstate’(Das1997:17).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 37
followingeventsofnationalimportancesuchasconflictordisaster.Aftersuch
eventsnewmodesofactioncomeintobeingthatredefinetraditionalcategories
andwaysofunderstandingtheworld.Theycreate‘transformationsinspaceby
whichpeople’sliveshavebeenpropelledintonewandunpredictedterrains’(ibid:
5).Theseeventsneednotbeofacataclysmicscale(althoughtheKhmerRouge
regimewasformany,thoughnotall),butthroughtheirdisruptionofexpected
norms,theygivenewagencytodifferentgroupsandpeople,andnewwaysof
conceptualizingpreviouslyexistingones.Bydoingsotheyalterunderstandingsof
thestateandfamily–unitingthemordividingtheminunexpectedways.They
confuseordisruptdefinitionsofpowerandlegitimacyandfromthis,new
formationsofcommunityandcultureemerge(ibid:10–12).
ThecriticaleventofthisthesisistheKhmerRougeregime,andmassgravesand
thedeadtheycontainarethelensthroughwhichIviewthewayitisusedin
contemporaryCambodiatoreconstituteandre-imaginetheworld.Soletusfirst
lookatwhatImeanbyamassgraveinthecaseofCambodia.
Whatisamassgrave?
Forthisthesis,whichdealswiththedeadasmuchaswiththeirspacesofdisposal,I
considerCambodianmassgravesitesfromDemocraticKampucheatobesitesin
whichmultiplegravesarecontainedallresultingfromthepoliciesandpracticesof
theKhmerRougeregime,bothexecutionanddeathbyattrition.Mostoftheseare
commingledgravepits,however,insomelocationsmultiplesingleburialclusters
areincluded.Foreaseofunderstanding,Iusethetermgravetodenoteanyplace
whereacorpsewasdisposedofduringthistime.Thetermkillingsitedenotesan
areawhereexecutionswereconducted–duringDemocraticKampucheathesewere
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 38
alwaysconcomitantwithgravesitesandusuallyveryclosetosecuritycentres20.
Mostcontainmultiplemassgravepitsandlargenumbersofdead.
ThisvariesfromotherdescriptionsinCambodia(andacrosstheworld).Definitions
ofmassgravesvarydependingontheauthor’sinterest:practitioners(suchas
Haglund2002;Mant1987;andSkinner1987)21tendtobasetheirdefinitiononthe
physicalconstitutionofspace-thenumbersofbodiescontainedinonepit,orthe
proximityofbodiestooneanotherforexample.Theoreticallymindedacademics
(forexampleSchmidt2002)focusonthesocio-historicaspectsoftheircreationsuch
asthecauseandmannerofdeathofthosewithin.TheWileyEncyclopediaof
ForensicScienceproposesthatamassgraveshouldcontainfourormorebodies
buriedatthesametime,becausethat‘isconsistentwiththedefinitionofmass
murder’(Connor2012)22.Thecommonthreadofthesedefinitionsisoneburialpit
containingmultiplecorpses,orpartialhumanremainsfrommultipleindividuals.
ThegravesfromDemocraticKampuchea,however,presentmultiplescenarios:
killingsiteswithpitscontainingseveralbodies;locationswherehundreds,ifnot
thousands,ofpeoplewereburiedunceremoniously,butinindividualpits;others
wherenoburialsoccurred,butbodieswerelefttorotorpiledinaheap,orthrown
20TheKhmerRougeranasystemofapproximately200securitycentresdistributedacrossthezonesofDemocraticKampuchea,themostfamousofwhichisS-21:thesuitethatincludedTuolSlengprisonanditskillingsiteChoeungEk.
21Skinner(1987)contendsthatamassgraveshouldcontainsixormoreindividuals;Mant(1987)
suggeststwobodiesareenoughprovidedtheytoucheachother,whilst(Haglund2002)choosesfour.Meanwhile,theUnitedNations,whoseguidelinesmanyorganisationsworkingwithmassgravesfollow,donotusetheterm‘massgrave’,butinsteaddifferentiatebetween‘individual’and‘commingled’burial,withcommingledburialsbeingconstitutedofthreeormoreindividualsburiedtogether.
22Thislastdefinitionpointstooneofthecharacteristicsoftheterm‘massgrave’inmost
circumstances:itimpliesanextrajudicialaspecttoitscreation.Whilstmanymassgravesmaybeofforensic(i.e.medico-legal)interest,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeancriminal:massgraveshavebeenusedthroughouthistoryforofficialburialsaswellasthosecreatedclandestinely.Thiscontinuestodate.FollowingtheAsianTsunamiof2004,manybodiesweretaggedandburiedinmassgravestopreventthousandsofrottingcorpseslyingonthesurfacewhilstidentificationeffortscontinued.Likewisefollowingthe2010earthquakeinHaitiadecisionwasmadetoburythevictimsinmassgravesbecausetheprioritywastodealwiththelivingandrebuildthecountryside(Klauser2012).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 39
inaditchoraholeorawell.AlthoughtheCambodianGenocideProgramofYale
University(whichundertookanextensivemappingprojectofmassgravesacross
Cambodia)definedamassgraveasanyincludingmorethanonebody(Etcheson
2014),Ibelievethesituationneedsamoreinclusivedefinition,tofullyconveythe
extentanddevastationofthegravesinCambodia.
MuchoftheresearchpreviouslyconductedonthedeadoftheKhmerRouge
concernsitselfwiththeissueof‘violentdeaths:’deathscausedbyexecutionoras
theresultoftorture,ratherthandeathsoccurringfromdiseaseorstarvation.The
underlyingpremiseofthisisthatthesearethedeathsthatprovetheextentofthe
KhmerRouge’shorror.Certainlythethoughtofaregimeexecutingarounda
millionofitsownpopulationishorrifying,butsoistheideathattheywouldcause
thestarvationanddeathfromdiseaseofasmany,ifnotmorepeople.23Theloss
ofthesepeoplewasasmuchapartoftheoveralldevastationofCambodiaas
thoseexecuted,andIconsiderthesedeathstobeevidenceofviolenceaswellas
thosewhoweredeliberatelyexecuted.Thisdifferstopreviousresearch
conductedonthesubject.AsCraigEtcheson,whobeganthemappingprojectof
themassgravesconductedbytheCambodianGenocideProgramandDC-Cam,
informedme(2014,myhighlights):
thepurposeofthemassgravemappingprojectwastoidentifyvictimsof
violence.Thus,ifweidentifiedamassgravethatwasadjacenttoaknownKhmer
Rougehospitalormedicalfacility,thatwouldnotbeincludedinthemassgrave
list,asitwasassumedthatitcontainedvictimsoftheDK’s[sic]hopelessly
23
ScholarsagreethatthemajorityofthosewhoperishedduringtheKhmerRougediedfromdiseaseorstarvation:demographerMarekSliwinskiestimated60%ofthosewhodieddidsofromcausesotherthanexecutionwith49%fromdiseaseorstarvation(Sliwinski1995:82),whilstMiltonOsbournesuggestedexecutionscountforonly31%ofthosewhodied(Etcheson2000).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 40
incompetenthealthcaresystem,ratherthanvictimsofstate-sponsoredviolence
perse.
Whilsttheremaybeaforensicpurposeindifferentiatingthemannerofdeath,
thisseparationofdeathcausedbystarvationordiseasefrom‘violent’deathsis
misleadinginanoverallcontextualisationofthebrutalityoftheregimeandI
considerthosewhodiedfromdiseaseandstarvationasrelevanttomyresearch
asthosewhowereexecutedordiedfromtorture.Violencedoesnotexclusively
denotephysicalattacks;thereisviolenceinthestarvationanddiseasethat
occurredasadirectresultofthepoliciesoftheKhmerRouge-policiesthat
expelledorexecutedthemedicalcorps;policiesthatforciblymovedpeoplefrom
theirhomesanddrovethemmarchingforthousandsofmiles;policiesthat
reducedthedailyamountoffoodperpersontoonecupofwateryricesoup24;
policiesthat,inshort,causedmassivedeath.HelenFein(1997:10)arguesthat
deathsfromdiseaseandstarvationare‘genocidebyattrition’which:
occurswhenagroupisstrippedofitshumanrights,political,civilandeconomic.
Thisleadstodeprivationofconditionsessentialformaintaininghealth,thereby
producingmassdeath.
Inthatcase,thosewhodiedofstarvationordiseasewereasmuchvictimsof
state-sponsoredviolence25asthosetorturedorexecuted.
24Oneinformantdescribeddeathfromstarvationveryvividlytome:‘duringPolPotpeoplebecameweakerandweaker.Itwaslikeanoillampthatwasrunningoutofoilandthelightbecamelessandlessbright.Thenitwasgone.’
25ThroughoutthisthesisIuseJohanGaltung’sclassificationsofviolence(1969;1990):structural,culturalanddirect,wherestructuralisaviolencebywhichsomestructurepreventscertainpeoplesfrommeetingtheirbasicneeds;culturalviolenceiswheredemanourslearnedinchildhoodandthroughoutourupbringingreinforcethesupposedneedforviolence;anddirectviolenceisa(physical/verbal/psychological)inflictionofviolenceonapersonorpersons.InGaltung’stheories,structuralandculturalviolenceleadtodirectviolence,anddirectviolence
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 41
Thesisoutline
Thisfinalsectionoutlinestheorganisationofthethesis.Theoveralltextissplit
intothreesections.Thefirst(theintroductionandchapterone)providesthe
contextforthestudyandtheresearchinwhichIengaged.Sectionstwoandthree
providetheethnographicencounterswithmysubject,dividedintotwomain
conceptualdistinctions:‘thedead’and‘thegraves.’Sectiontwo(chapterstwoto
four)engageswiththedead:exploringtheeverydayinteractionswiththosewho
diedduringtheregimeviaBuddhismandanimism.Thethirdsection(chapters
fivetoseven)analysesnationalandinternationalrelationshipstothedeadand
thegraves,whichareusedtopresentpoliticalsalientnarrativesoftheregime
thatdirectactiontoparticularends.Thefinalchapter,NowistheTimeforthe
Living,bringsallthedifferentelementstogether,drawingthethesistoits
conclusion.
Sectionone:settingthescene
Thisintroductionhasprovidedacontexttotheresearchaswellasitsaimsand
motivations.Itsituatesthethesistheoreticallyandprovidesaframeworkfrom
whichtoapproachtheethnographicmaterialencountered.
Buttheseencountersarenotself-contained,andtheirintricacieslieinthe
complexitiesofthepastfromwhichtheyhaveemerged.Throughthe
introductionofmymainfieldsites(ChoeungEkGenocidalCenter,closetoPhnom
Penh,andanislandIcallKohSopintheBassacRiver),chapteroneofferssome
reinforcestheothers.Thesetheoriessuggestthatviolencecanbeembeddedwithinthelocal,national,regionalandevenglobalsocialstructuresthatsocietiesandtheirpopulationsinhabit,meaningthatsystematicviolencecanbeboththebehaviouralresponsetoconflictanditscause.Iconsiderpolitical,economic,bureaucraticandinstitutionalviolencetobeformsofstructuralviolence,whichmayresultinactionsofdirectviolence.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 42
historicalcontexttothemassgraves,introducinghowtheyweremade
(metaphoricallyandphysically);whotheyhouse(d);theirunearthinginthe1980s;
andsubsequenttreatment.Byintroducingthegravesatthesesitesitsituatesthe
ethnographicanddiscursiveaspectsofthethesis.Thischapteralsodiscussesthe
methodsused,andconsiderstheethicsinvolvedintacklingthecomplexsubject
ofmassgravesincontemporaryCambodia.
Sectiontwo:diggingupthedead
ChaptertwooutlinesthespecificitiesofBuddhismandanimisminCambodia,
examininghowthesewereaffected(ornot)bytheKhmerRougeregime,andthe
importanceofparticularaspectsoftheirpracticetorelationshipstothedead,
particularlyfuneraryritualsandannualceremoniessuchasNewYear,Cheng
Meng,andPchumBenh.Thischapterprovidesthefoundationforchaptersfour
andfive,exploringwhatitisaboutKhmerBuddhismandanimismthatenables
peopletodrawonthemtodaytounderstandandnarratetheKhmerRouge
periodandreintegratethedeadwithincontemporarysociety.
Thoughrelationstothedeadaremanagedinspecificreligiousandsocialcontexts,
chapterthreeexploreshowtheserelationshipscantransformovertime
dependingonthesocialandpoliticalstatusofthelivingandthecountry.Ghosts
andspiritsarenotimaginarybeingsinCambodia,butsocialbeingsthatinhabit
theworldalongsidetheliving,interactinginwaysthatshaperelationshipstothe
past.FollowingHeonikKwon’s(2008)thesisthatghostscanbecentralto
understandingexperiencesoftheliving,particularlythewaysociallivesofthe
deadmirrorpoliticallivesoftheliving,thischapterexploresthechangingstatusof
thedeadfromDemocraticKampuchea,illustratingtheirtransitionfrom
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 43
frightenedandfrighteningentitiesofhaunting,tobenevolentalliesinthe
reconstructionofpost-DKCambodia,topowerlessbeingswhohavesincediedor
lefttheareawheretheywerekilled.BycomparingrelationshipsatChoeungEk
andKohSopitwillshowthattheirsupportandinteractionsarelocallysituated;in
KohSoptheinteractionsarelocalandindividual;atChoeungEktheyarenational
andcollective.
Movingonfromrelationswiththedead,chapterfourexploreshowthemass
deathcausedbytheKhmerRougeregimeisnarratedusingtheBuddhistconcepts
ofreincarnationandkarma.Formanyofmyinformants,thislifeissimplyoneofa
cycleoflivesleading(eventually)tonirvana(Pali:nibbana).UsingLambek’s
(2013)conceptofthecontinuousanddiscontinuouspersonthatconnects
historicalperiodsaswellaspersons,IarguethattheBuddhistconceptsofkarma
andreincarnationaremeansbywhichmanyKhmerpeoplecometounderstand
andnarratethe‘tragedyofCambodianhistory’(Chandler1993),andinsodoing,
tonormaliseandintegratemassdeathintoanexpectedaspectoflifeand
cosmology.DeathsfromtheKhmerRougeperiodareoftenexplained,through
karma,asresultantofmisdeedsinapreviouslife,andthemajorityofthosewho
diedarealreadyconsideredtohavebeenreborn.Inthisway,theviolenceofthe
regimeisincorporatedintotoday’slife,andratherthanbeingremindersof
terribleviolence,thegravesitresultedincanbeintegratedintoeverydayliving
space.Theexplorationofkarmaandreincarnationinthiswayallowsforan
explorationbeyondmemory,tothesocialincorporationofthedeadinto
contemporaryCambodia.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 44
Sectionthree:graveconcerns
Sectionthreemovesawayfromeverydayencounterswiththedeadtoexamine
extra-ordinaryrelationshipswiththem;specificallythroughthetheatreofpolitics
incontemporaryCambodiaandtheinternationalencounterswiththemandtheir
gravesencouragedbytourism.
Chapterfiveintroducesthepoliticalsphere,describinghowtherulingparty(the
CambodianPeople’sParty)cametopower,andtheirveryparticularrelationship
totheKhmerRougeregime.Thischapterlaysthefoundationsforchapterssix
andseven,exploringwhatitisaboutthegravesandtheirdeadthatenablethem
tobeusedpoliticallyandhowthisaffectsthecreationandmaintenanceof
collectivenarrativesoftheregimeanditsdemise.Itdoesthisbyexamininghow
thegraveshavebeenmemorialisedsince1979,andthevariousmachinationsthat
haveinfluencedwhichsitesreceiveattentionandwhicharerenderedinvisible.
Bydoingthis,itwillshowhowthegravesandtheirdeadhavebeenusedinthe
creationofthenew,post-KhmerRouge,Cambodianstate,andhowthishas
changedintheyearssinceliberation.
AnintegralpartofCambodia’snationalstrategyistheencouragementoftourism
asamodeofdevelopment.ChaptersixusesSchwenkel’s(2006)conceptof
recombinanthistory(wherethemeaningofhistoricalsitesarenegotiatedand
reconstitutedinglobalspheresofimaginationforeconomicprosperity)toshow
howthematerialityofdeathatChoeungEk(preservedmassgravepitsandthe
displayofhumanremains)isexploitedtoappealtothetouristappetiteforsitesof
violence,inordertoimproveeconomicprosperityandsocialdevelopment,aswell
astofuturepeaceandstabilitybyconnectingittoawiderglobalnetwork.By
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 45
comingtothesite,touristsareconsideredtoengageinreciprocalrelationships
withCambodia,supportingitwhilstbenefittingfromit.Consequentlywhilstthe
transformationsinherentinsuchcommodificationsalterandadjustcollective
narrationsofthepast,theydothisinanticipationofthefuture.
Chaptersevenbringsusbacktocriticaleventsbyexaminingthe2013general
elections.UsingDerrida’s(1994)conceptofhauntology(wherespectersof
particularpastsinhabitthepresentandshapethefuture)thischapterarguesthat
althoughcontemporarypoliticsisformedinoppositiontotheKhmerRouge
regime,withthemainpartiesclaimingtoexorciseitfromCambodia,itre-enacts
thesphereofpoliticalviolenceanddistrustbywhichtheyruled.Themain
politicalpartiesrevitalisetheterroroftheKhmerRougeintheircampaigningand
maintainitssymbolicpowerbydoingso.Theactivehusbandryofthesespirits,
madeviablethroughdirectandstructuralviolenceinCambodia(andatelection
timesthroughtheuseofparticularmassgravememorials),notonlyreminds
peopleoftheregimebutalsorevivesitsexistenceasaviablethreat,andinso
doing,consolidatesthepoliticalpowerandhegemonyoftherulingparty.
Theconcludingchapter,NowistheTimefortheLiving,bringstogetherthe
differentnarrativesofeachchapter.Itreturnstomyinitialthesis:thattheKhmer
RougeregimewasacriticaleventinCambodia’spastthathasleadtoare-
imaginingandredefinitionoftraditionalcategoriesandunderstandingsofsocial
life,whichmassgravesarticulateandmakevisibleonindividual,localandstate
levels.Itwillargue,however,thatwhilestateandindividualarticulationsmay
appeartobeinoppositiontoeachother,theyareintrinsicallylinked,and
encounterswiththesespacesthusmakevisibletheoverlappingpluralityof
connectionswithmassgraves.
46
Chapterone:Fieldsofdeath,sitesoflife-fieldsitesandmethods
Thoughthisfieldworkwasconductedacrossmanysites,twoprimarylocations
formedthebasisofthework.Thischapterintroducesthesefieldsites,putting
themintohistoricalcontextoftheKhmerRougeperiodandtheerassurrounding
it.IndoingsoitintroducesthemassgravesofCambodia-theircreation,the
bodieswithinthemand,briefly,someoftheirtreatmentsafterthedemiseofthe
regime.Researchmethodsthatwereparticulartoeachsitearealsodiscussed,as
wellasoverallmethodologicalconsiderations.
ChoeungEk
17kilometresfromtheurbansprawlofCambodia’scapitalcityPhnomPenh,
downdusty,pot-holedroads,pastnewlybuiltgarmentfactoriesandemptyfields
boundedbyfences,andnexttothestinkingmunicipaldump,liesChoeungEk
GenocidalCenter.Unlikeitsname,thesiteispeaceful.Thesoundofchildren
fromthenearbyschoolflowsthroughthetreesandflowersthatpuncturethe
landscape.Dogsandchickensroamaroundthesite,searchingforfoodand
attention.Andeveryday,hundredsofpeoplecomethroughthegatesto
encounteritshorrors.IcametoChoeungEkbecauseofitspast–akillingsiteof
morethan14,000people,butalsobecauseofitspresent–ahighlyvisitedtourist
destinationandnationalmemorial.ChoeungEkishometothemost
internationallyfamous‘killingfield’ofCambodiaanduntilMarch2015,whenTuol
Slengprisoninaugurateditsmemorial,theonlyofficialnationalmemorialtothe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 47
KhmerRougeperiodinCambodia.DuringtheDemocraticKampucheaperiod,the
sitewasbothakillingandburialsite,mostlyofprisonersfromTuolSlengprisonin
centralPhnomPenh:aprisonusedprimarilyasatortureandretentioncentrefor
KhmerRougecadreandtheirfamilies(Chandler1999:139).
Butletusfirstreturntoitspast.BeforeDemocraticKampuchea,ChoeungEkwas
apeacefulplace.Sittingatthejunctionofthreevillages,thesitewasborderedby
ricefieldsandanorchardoflongantreesbelongingtoalocallandowner,whose
relativesstillliveinthearea.Asmalllaketotheeastfloodedintherainyseason,
mergingwiththelargerlakesbehindittoformamassiveareaofwetland,filling
thepaddies,andbringingfishandwaterplantssuchasmorningglory(trawkoon),
whichlocalpeopleharvestedtoeatandsell.
Thesettingwastranquil,andafengshuiexpertassessedthesiteandpronounced
itanideallocationforthedead:ifburiedtheretheywouldbehappyandhelp
theirfamilies:‘itwassaidtobeagoodplacewherethechildrenwoulddowell[in
theirfuturebusinesses]’YayChan,anelderlywomanwhosefamilyhaslivedinthe
villagebehindChoeungEkforgenerations,toldme.26Thesitewasperfect:
tranquilcountryside,withenoughspaceforconcretegravesthatcouldbe
elaboratelydecoratedduringtheannualChinesegrave-sweepingfestivalofCheng
Meng.OneofthevillageshadanumberofChinese-Khmerfamiliesand,even
beforeCambodiagainedindependencefromFrancein1953,thesitewasusedas
aChinesecemetery.WhentheKhmerRougetookover,rowsofChinese-Khmer
wereburiedthere.
26EvenbeforetheChinesecamethedeadinhabitedthearea:thesitehasbeenusedasaburialsitesincetheIronAge(Latinis2011).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 48
TheremnantsofmanyChinesegravescanstillbeseenatthesite,juttingthrough
theedgesofthemassgravepits,thoughfewpeoplenoticethemastheywalk
aroundthesite,immersedintheaudiotourthatguidestheirsightandsenses,or
directedbytourguideswhopointoutonlyoneortwogravesthatcannotbe
obscuredonthepatharoundthesite.Thesite,andliteraturewrittenonChoeung
Ekclaimsit‘usedtobeaChinesegraveyard.’Inrealityitstillis:whilstmost
familiesmovedtheirdeadinthe1980s27,afewlocalfamilieslefttheirrelatives
wheretheylay.TheycontinuetopracticetheannualChengMengfestival(see
chaptertwo)andareloathtomovetheirgraves;theirrelativesarehappyhere;
thegravesaresafeandpeoplevisitthem.BongChann(whosefatherisburiedat
ChoeungEk)explainedthatthedeadshowtheirappreciationbyhelpingkeep
theirrelativesinworkandfreefromseriousillness:
Heiswithhisgroupofpeople.Ifeelluckythatweburiedhimdownthere.…It’sa
touristsite-it’sahappyplaceforhim;therearealotofvisitors.It’snottoo
quietforhim.He’sbeenhereforalongtime.He’sbeenhappyandhashelped
usbehappyandrich.
Thesitewasquiet,andlifeinthevillagesarounditwassteady.Aswasusualfor
Khmervillages,manyoftheinhabitantswererelated(Ebihara1968)and
marriagesbetweenthevillageswererelativelycommon.Whilstafewpeople
travelledtoworkinnearbyPhnomPenh,mostlyasconstructionworkers,most
nevertravelledfarfromhome.Dayswerespentworking;freetimevisiting
other’shomes.‘Mostlywewerefarmersandfishermen’TaTa,anelderlyman
27Storiesvariedastowhytheyweremoved.Afewpeopletoldmetherelativeshadmovedthemintheinitialyearsafterliberationbecausethesitewaschaoticandtheydidnotwantthemtobeinvolvedwiththemassdead,however,theChinese-KhmerfamiliesIinterviewedwhostillhavetheirrelativesgravesthereconsideredthemselvesluckythatthegravesoftheirrelativeswereontheoutskirtsofthesitebecausetheyhadnotbeentoldtomovethemasothershad.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 49
fromthevillage,toldme.Duringthecivilconflictsofthelate1960sandearly
1970sthesiteanditssurroundingsremainedrelativelypeaceful.Wetlandand
Chinesegraveyardshadlittleinteresttoanyofthefightingpartiesatthetime.
Makingthekillingfield
EveninthefirstfewmonthsofDemocraticKampuchea,ChoeungEkandthe
villagesarounditremainedquiet.AlthoughputtoworkforÂngkar(‘the
organisation’astheKhmerRougecalledthemselves),atfirstpeopleremainedin
theirhomeswiththeirfamiliesbecause,beingaruralsite,itwasalready
contributingtoÂngkar’sagrarianideal.In1976,however,everythingchanged.
FromthebeginningoftheKhmerRougerevolutioninApril1975,highprofile
prisonersoftheregimewereimprisonedinavillainPhnomPenhbelongingtoan
uncleofPrinceSihanouk28.Other‘enemiesoftheparty’weredetainedandkilled
atTakhmaomentalhealthhospitalinKandalprovince,whichwasturnedintoa
prisonundertheleadershipofInLon(nommedeguerre,ComradeNath).In
October1975,undertheordersofSonSen,KaingGuekEav(ComradeDuch),
movedfromTakhmaoprisontobecomecommandantatTuolSlengPrison(partof
28NorodomSihanoukwasacontroversialpoliticalfigure.Kingfrom1941to1955,andagainfrom1993–2004,heledCambodia’sindependencefromFrancein1953.In1955heabdicatedandwaselectedPrimeMinister;whentheKingdiedin1960hepassedalawdeclaringhimselfHeadofState.In1970hewasoverthrowninacoupledbyGeneralLonNol.Between1970and1991,andafterhissecondabdicationin2004,SihanoukmostlylivedinexileinChinaandNorthKorea,apartfromabriefre-entrytoCambodiaduringDemocraticKampuchea.In1975SihanoukwasdeclaredHeadofStateforDemocraticKampuchea;heresignedin1976andwasputunderhousearrest.Fiveofhischildrenwereexecutedduringtheregime,andafterbeingdeportedin1979SihanoukdenouncedtheKhmerRougeattheUNSecurityCouncil.However,in1982,inoppositiontotheVietnamese-backedPRK,heenteredacoalitionwiththem,formingtheCambodianGovernmentDemocraticParty(theCGDP).TheCGDPretainedCambodia’sseatintheUNuntil1993.Followingelectionsin1993SihanoukwasonceagaindeclaredHeadofState,andwasKinguntilheabdicatedin2004.HediedinChinain2012andhisbodywasreturnedtoCambodiashortlyafterwards.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 50
theS-21securityfacility29)incentralPhnomPenh.Fromthenon,allnew
prisonersoftheareabecametheresponsibilityofDuchatTuolSleng.30Nath
remainedatTakhmao.DuchtookoverfullcommandofS-21inMarch1976and
inJune1976alltheprisonersatTahkhmaowereexecuted,andburiedinthelands
aroundthehospital31.
TuolSlengwastobecomeDemocraticKampuchea’smostnotoriousprison,
thoughbynomeansitslargest.Itsdistinctionlayinthetypeofprisonersheld
there–initiallyhighprofileprisonersandthosedeemedparticularlydangerousto
therevolution(monks,doctors,intellectuals),thenasparanoiastartedtospread
throughtheregimeitbecamethemainprisonusedforKhmerRougecadreand
theirfamilies.FewpeoplesurvivedTuolSleng;onceapersonarrivedtheywere
alreadycondemned.‘Ifsomeonecametoprison,theyhadtobekilled,’Duchtold
mewhenIinterviewedhiminKandalprovincialprison,whereheisservingalife
sentenceforhisroleascommandantoftheprison.‘Itwasthepoliticalpathway
oftheKhmerRouge;wehadtodestroytheenemy.’DavidChandler(1999:6),a
historianwhohaswrittenextensivelyontheprison,explained:
Torturedorthreatenedwithtorture,fewprisonersmaintainedtheirinnocence
forlong.Consideredguiltyfromthemomenttheyarrived—thetraditional
Cambodianphraseforprisoner,neakthos,translatesliterallyas“guiltyperson”—
29S-21includedPreySarandTuolSlengprisonsinPhnomPenh,ChoeungEkkillingsite17kmaway,andTakhmaoprisonandkillingsite,inKandalprovince.
30Duchwasalreadyanexperiencedcommandant:between1970and1973heranM-13,asecurityofficeinKampongSpeuprovince,whereheperfectedhistortureandinterrogationtechniques.FrenchethnologistFrancoisBizotwascapturedandheldthere,alongwithhisKhmerresearchassistantswhowerelaterkilled.HisbookTheGate(2004)isacompellingaccountofthatexperienceandtheinitialstagesoftheKhmerRougeregime.
31Whenthehospitalwasreturnedtoitsformerfunctionin1977,Duchreturnedandunearthed,thenburnt,allthebodies.‘Asahospital,itshouldbeahospital’hetoldme.‘Itdidn'tneedthosebodies.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 51
thousandsofthesemenandwomenwereexpectedtoconfesstheirguiltin
writingbeforetheyweretakenofftobekilled.
ManywerekilledatTuolSlengitself,particularlyintheearlydays,however,as
purgesofKhmerRougecadreincreased,itquicklyfilled,andbytheendof1976a
separatekillinglocationbecamenecessary.‘Idon’tknowwhenwestartedkilling
atChoeungEk,butitwasearly’Duchsaid.‘[Comrade]Ho32tooktheprisoners
there.Heknewthesitefrombefore;Ithinkitwasakillingsiteofhis.’
InpreparationforthetransformationofChoeungEk,lifeinthevillages
surroundingitchanged.Inlate1975orsometimein1976(thefewpeople
remaininginthevillageswhorecalltheperiodcouldnotrememberexactlywhen)
peoplewereevacuatedfromthevillages,joiningthemillionsofpeoplealready
displacedbytheregime.InonevillageadormitorywasbuiltforChinese
economicexpertswhocametoCambodiatoadvisetheregime(Chandler1999),
closebyweresleepingquartersandkitchensfortheguardswhoworkedatthe
site.Toproduceakillingsite,zincwallswereerectedaroundthesiteand
electricityprovided‘toilluminatetheexecutionsandtoallowtheguardsfromthe
prisontoreadandsigntherostersthataccompaniedprisoners’(ibid.:139).
TheroleofChoeungEkwasaheavilyguardedsecret.Peoplefromthelocalco-
operativeknewthatitwasaKhmerRougefacility,butonlythoserelatedtothe
regimeknewwhatwentoninside.‘Atnightwesawtrucksdrivingdowntheroads
tothesite’afarmerfromanearbyvillagetoldme.‘Wethoughtitwasanarmy
trainingground.’
32
AlthoughDuchwascommandantofS-21,andthereforeinoverallcommandofbothTuolSlengandChoeungEk,KhimVat,aliasHo,washisdeputy,andanequallyfearsomedisciplinarian(Chandler1999:23).‘Howasresponsibleforthekilling’Duchtoldme.‘Iwasinchargeofinterrogations.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 52
Everytwotothreeweeks,trucksofprisonersfromTuolSlengarrivedatthesite,
drivenbyaspecialcorpsofcadre,manyofwhomalsoworkedastorturersand
executioners.Unloadedattheentrance,theprisonersstood,awaitingtheir
deaths.Theydidnotwaitlong.Duringtheday,guardsbasedatthesitedug
gravesinanticipationofthenextshipment;oncedarkhadfallen,andthetrucks
arrived,thekillingsbegan.Toconserveammunition,themethodswerebrutal:
serratedpalmleavesdrawnacrossthroats;shovelssmashedoverpeople’sheads,
collapsingthemintothegraves;childrenheldbytheirfeet,theirskullsswung
againsttrees.HimHuy,oneofthetruckdrivers,andaregularexecutioneratthe
site,hasdescribedthekillingsinvariousinterviewssincetheregime:
Theywereorderedtokneeldownattheedgeofthehole.Theirhandsweretied
behindthem.Theywerebeatenontheneckwithanironox-cartaxle,sometimes
withoneblow,sometimeswithtwo....Hoinspectedthekillings,andIrecorded
thenames.WetookthenamesbacktoSuosThi[Headofthedocumentation
sectionatTuolSleng].Therecouldnotbeanymissingnames(HimHuyquotedin
Chandler1999:140).
Musicblaredoutofspeakershungfromatree,disguisingthesoundsofkilling.33
Onceapitwasfilledwithbodiestheguardscovereditinsoilandmovedontothe
next.Thenumberkilledeachtripvariedfromafewdozentooverthreehundred
(ibid.).Escapewasimpossible.
No-oneknowsexactlyhowmanywerekilledatthesite.Scholars’bestestimates
rangebetween14and17,000people,althoughresearchersfortheExtraordinary
ChambersintheCourtsofCambodia(theECCC–otherwiseknownastheKhmer
33
Afterthefalloftheregimetheloudspeakerswereappropriatedbyalocalfamilytoprovidemusicforpartiesandfuturecelebrations.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 53
RougeTrials)couldonlyfindproofbeyondreasonabledoubtfor12,273people34.
MostwerefromTuolSleng,butalocalvillager,whoprovidedfoodfortheKhmer
Rougecadre,toldmethatpeopleworkinginthecommuneclosesttothesite
werealsobroughtheretobekilled.Hisbrother,sister,acousinandtheirchildren
wereallexecutedatthesite:‘iftheywantedto“educate”people,theytookthem
toPhnomTaleong,andiftheydidn’tchange,theywouldcomehere[tobekilled]’
hetoldme.
Unceremoniousburialfollowedtheexecutions.Somebodieswerestripped
beforebeinginterredbutmostwereleftastheywere.Manygraveswerefilled
haphazardly,otherswerehighlyorganised;somestackedneatlyontopofeach
othertomakethemostefficientuseofthespace,othersdividedbytypeof
person:onegravecontainedonlycorpsesdressedintheuniformsoftheLonNol
military,allwithoutheads;anotherhadonlythebodiesofwomenandchildren.
ThechoiceofChoeungEkasakillingsiteisstillunexplained.Atotherlocations
executionswereusuallywithinafewhundredmetresoftheprisonitself.WhenI
interviewedhim,DuchclaimedthatHoselectedit.OmTa,oneofthecaretakers
atthesite,tookitschoiceasevidenceofthemillenarianambitionsoftheKhmer
Rouge,andtheirdisregardfortheoldCambodia:
34AlthoughmeticulousrecordswerekeptatTuolSleng,FrenchhistorianHenriLocardtoldmethatintheperiodimmediatelyafterDemocraticKampuchea,somerecordsweretamperedwithorremovedbyofficialsofthenewregime(Locard2013).Verifiableevidenceofthedetention,torture,andkillingof12,273peopleisknown,however,therewerealmostcertainlymore,bothfromTuolSlengandtheareassurroundingChoeungEk.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 54
thePolPots35,theynevervaluedwhatwealreadyhad.Theynevercared…they
destroyedculture....theywantedtodestroyeverythingalreadyexisting
completely.That’showitwas.Theynevercaredaboutancestors’spiritsatall.
TaTathoughtthesecretliesinitshistory;‘therewerealreadymanybodieshere.
MaybetheycouldconfusethemwiththeChinese.’Certainlyitisnotuncommon
formassgravestobelocatedinestablishedcemeteries;wherebettertohide
bodiesthanamongstthedead?36
AfterDemocraticKampuchea
ChoeungEk’semploymentasakillingsite,thoughdevastating,wasbrief.On7th
January1979,heavilyarmouredVietnamesetroopssucceededinremovingthe
KhmerRougefrompower.Tiredoftheongoingwarbetweenthemselvesandthe
KhmerRouge,theyhadinvadedCambodia14daysearlier.TheKhmerRougefled
theirbases,leavingchaosanddeathbehindthem–inmanyareasthey
slaughteredprisonersbeforetheyleft,buttherapidityoftheadvancegavelittle
timeforcareandattention,andmanyofthesebodiesweresimplyabandoned
wheretheywerekilled,leavingapathofdeathanddestructiontogreetthe
Vietnamese.
35
ThePolPotsisthenamebywhichmanyKhmerpeoplerefertotheKhmerRouge.Thesubsumationoftheregimeintooneidentifiablefigure(PolPot)isdiscussedinchapterfive.
36Ioftenwondered,bothduringmyfieldworkandafterwards,howmuchthelocationalsorelatedtothefactthatthosekilledtherewereprimarilyKhmerRouge,severalofthemcadrepreviouslyknowntothetorturersatTuolSlengandtheexecutionersatChoeungEk(KeKhimKhourt(Duch’sjuniorhighschoolteacherandKhmerRougecadre)andVornVet(DeputyPrimeMinisterofDemocraticKampucheauntil1978)forexample).Perhaps,Ithought,buryingtheminanestablishedgraveyardwasasubconsciousmodeofreducingtheburdenofboththeirdeathsanddisposal.ChoeungEkisoneoftheonlykillingsitesacrossCambodiathatwashidden,wheresecuritywassotight,andwhereitwasmostlyKhmerRougewhodugthegraves:inmostothersexistingfeaturesofthelandscapewereused,bodieswereabandonedwheretheywerekilled.Whengravesweredug,itwasusuallybytheprisonersthemselves,orvillagersintheworkcamps.Thecadrerarelyundertookthisgrimtask.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 55
Whilstsomevillagers,fearingtheVietnamesewouldkillthem,fledwiththe
KhmerRouge37,otherstookadvantageoftheinvasion,anddespiteheavyaerial
bombardment,startedthelongjourneyshome.38Peoplebeganreturningtothe
villagesaroundChoeungEkalmostimmediately.TaTawasoneofthefirstto
arrive-duringtheregimehehadbeenevacuatedonlyafewkilometresaway,so
hisjourneybackwasswift.Hesoondiscoveredthathishousehadbeen
demolishedandthematerialsusedtobuildfacilitiesfortheKhmerRougecadre
stationedatChoeungEk:fourorfivelongwoodenhalls,roofedwithzinc–a
kitchen,sleepingquartersandstorageroomshethought.Rabbits,bredforfood,
werekeptinrowsofcagesbeyondthehalls.39
Thehallsinthevillages,andshelterswithinthesiteitselfwereinitiallyusedas
shelterforthosereturningandothersontheirlongwalkshome,butoverthenext
fewmonths,TaTaexplained,peopletookthematerialstorebuildthelivesof
thosereturning:
Thosewhosehouseshadbeendestroyedsharedthematerialsinordertorebuild
theirownhousestolive….Myhousewashere.Thenthey[theKhmerRouge]
came,andImovedtotheSouth.WhenIreturned,myhousewasdestroyed.So
wesharedthehallsandlivedon.
37
‘TheytoldustheVietnamesewouldkillus,sowekeptrunning.Atthattime,wewerenotsurewhichweregoodorbad[oftheVietnameseandKhmerRouge],sowekeptfollowingthem[theKhmerRouge]’oneinformanttoldme.
38AnelderlycoupleIinterviewedinKandalprovincevividlydescribedthistome:‘Weranback
hereinashowerofbombsdroppedbytheVietnamese.Itwasasifriceseedswerebeingspread….Butweweregladtobeabletocomebacktoourvillageagain….Wewalkedalltheway.Wewalkedsofarthatourlegsandhandsbecamenumb.’39
Victimsoftherapidabandonment,therabbitstoohadsuccumbedtostarvation.‘Theyweredeadinthecages.Somany;somanyrabbits.Allwhite.Somanycages,’TaTatoldme.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 56
ThegrislypurposeofChoeungEkhowever,remainedconcealed;thegraveswere
covered,andpeoplepaidlittleattentiontoanythingbeyondsurvival.Ghosts
hauntedthosewhostayedthere,andTaTasaidatnighttheywouldhearchildren
crying,orchainsbeingdragged.Thoughtheysupposeditmustmeanthedead
werenearby,thiswastobeexpectedfollowingDemocraticKampuchea.Itwas
onlywhenthefirstgraveswereunearthedandthesmellofdeathand
decompositionspreadtothevillagesthatlocalpeoplerealisedwhatthesitewas:
after[myreturntothevillage],quiteawhilelater,abouttwomonths,theplace
wasdug.ItwaspossiblyDecember-itwascoldandwindy,andthesmellwas
terrible.I’mnotsureifitwasNovemberorDecember,butIknowitwasthe
monthwhenthewindwasblowingfromtheNorth;thatwaswhenweknewthat
peoplehadbeenkilledthere.Notuntilthegravesweredug.Thesmellwasso
terriblethatwecouldhardlyeatourmeals.
Afterinvasion,DemocraticKampucheawasquicklyreplacedwiththePeople’s
RepublicofKampuchea(PRK),andacohortofKhmerdefectorstoVietnamwas
putintogovernment.Intheireffortstowardsstabilisationandtheassertionof
theirpower,theVietnamesebackedgovernmentquicklybegantoexploit
evidencethatcouldbeusedtolegitimateboththeirinvasionintoCambodiaand
theircontinuedrule,viewedbysomeasinvasiveoccupation,throughoutthe
1980s.40Acrossthecountrytherewasnoshortageofphysicalevidence;
DemocraticKampucheahadnothiddenthedamageithadwrought-the
40Massgravesareoftenusedinthiswaytoday.In2004,forexample,TonyBlairdeclaredthatover400,000bodieshadbeenfoundinmassgravesacrossIraq(USAID2004),usingthisasevidenceforthenecessityofthecoalition’sinvasionintoIraqin2003.Helaterhadtoretractthisstatement,whichwasacompletefabrication(Beaumont2004);evenbythetimeIworkedinIraqin2009onlyafewthousandbodieshadbeenfoundinahandfulofgraves.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 57
populationwasemaciated,starving,andrifewithdisease;thedeadlitteredthe
landscape.
TuolSlengandChoeungEkbecameimportanttoolsinthislegitimation.Within
daysofbeinglocated,TuolSlengprisonwasturnedintoamuseumforforeign
journalistsandvisitingdignitariesunderthedirectionofMaiLam,acolonelofthe
VietnamesearmywhodesignedtheMuseumofAmericanWarCrimesinHoChi
MinhCity(Chandler1999,2008;Tyner,BrinidisAlvarezandColucci2012).
ChoeungEk,itssistersite,providedacompellingformofevidencewiththe
thousandsofdeaditcontained.Butthedeadwereburied,andneeded
unearthing.Thegovernmentsentateamtoexcavate,underthedirectionofMai
Lam.
However,beforethegovernmentworkerscame,anothergrouparrived;‘those
relatedtotheregime’accordingtotwoformerdirectorsofthesite,bothofwhom
werepresentatthetime.Thisinitialgrouparrivedwithahand-drawnplanof
ChoeungEk,andproceededtounearthitemsthathadbeenhastilyhiddenin
someofthegravespriortotheretreatofthecadre:‘theyknewexactly[whatthey
werelookingfor].Whentheyfirstcametheysaidtheywantedtodigthe
children’sgravewheretheyhadburiedhammocks,raincoatsandotherthings’
oneformerdirectortoldme.‘Theymusthavehadbloodstainsontheirhands.’
Smellingthedeath,andseeingthisgroupdigandrecovervaluableitemsled
peoplefromthelocalvillagerstosearchthesiteformore.Followingthisinitial
excavation,inwhichequipment,butnotbodies,wasunearthed,governmentand
localpeoplealikedugthegraves:thegovernmenttoextractbodiesrelatedtothe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 58
regime,andlocalvillagerslookingforgoldandjewels.BuSoth,whohasworked
atthesitesincetheearly1980s,toldmeaboutjoininginthelooting:
Whenitwasfirstunearthedvillagerspassedbythesiteandfoundgold.Itspread
fromonepersontoanother,andIheardaboutit,soIgatheredanothersixteen
peopleanddecidedtodigoneofthemassgravestoseeifwecouldfindanygold.
Wedugthatonethathad166bodies,allheadless.That’showIjoinedthe
digging…
Hisgrouphadnotuncoveredanyvaluables,sotheyhadgivenup.Butother
villagerscontinuedsearching,somefindinggoldandjewels,otherswatchesand
clothing.Beforeallthegraveshadbeenexcavated,however,thegovernment
bannedpeoplefromdigginganymoreandputguardsonthesite.Mostofthe
peoplearoundChoeungEkwerenotsureexactlyofthereason,althoughBuSoth
believeditwasduetothecholerathatwasspreading.41Itwasmorelikely,
howevertobeduetoa1982directiveorderinglocalgovernmentofficialsto
preventpeopledisturbinganymoreofthephysicalevidenceremainingfromthe
regimeinanattempttotryandstopthedeletionoftheregime’smaterial
presencebydismantlingthebuildingsandotherevidence(seechapterfive).
Afterbeingdugup,thebodiessatonthegravesidesformonths(orpossiblyyears
-no-onecanreallyremembertheexacttimescale)beforeawoodenp’teah
khmouch,(asmallhutthatliterallytranslatesashouseforthedead,orghost
house)wasbuiltforthem.Thoughconceivedintheearlyyears,thememorial
41Althoughthedeaddonotusuallyposea(physical)healthrisk,itispossiblethatifnotcholera,someotherdiseasewasspreadingaroundthearea.ChoeungEkisawetlandareathatfloodseveryyear.Rottingcorpsescouldwellhavespreaddiseaseandbacteriaintothewaterthatfedthericefieldsandriversinthesurroundingvillages.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 59
stupa42thatcontainstheskeletalremainsofthoseunearthedanddominatesthe
sitetoday(seefigurethree)wasnotcompleteduntil1988;nineyearsafterthe
bodiesbegantobeexcavated.43ItsofficiallyinaugurationonMay20th1988(the
newlydesignatedannual‘DayofAnger’–seechapterfive)coincidedwith
ChoeungEk’sofficialopeningasamuseum(TheNationalCentreforthe
PreservationoftheAtrocitiesCommittedbytheKhmerRouge)however,from
1980onwards,governmentofficialshadbroughtinternationaljournalistsand
otherforeigndignitariestothesiteseveraltimesayear.
Figurethree:ChoeungEkstupaanddisplayedremains(source:theauthor)
42
Astupa(fromtheSanskritstüpa,meaningheap)isaBuddhiststructurefortheremainsofthedead.Mostarebuiltwithinpagodagroundsbutsomefamiliesbuildthemathome.Ideallyeachstupaholdstheremainsofonepersonbutsomepagodashavecommunalstupatointerthecremainsofpeoplewhosefamiliescannotaffordtheirown,orwhohavenoknownrelatives.
43ChoeungEkwasnottheonlyplacewithatimedelaybetweenbodiesbeingexcavatedandthen
rehoused.InPoTonleinKandalprovince,severalfamilieslivedforseveralyearsinoneoftheprisonbuildingsconstructedundertheKhmerRouge.Duringthattimethegraveswereexcavated,andthebodiespiledontotheroofofthishut,wheretheyremainedforseveralmonthsbeforealocalmanbuiltap’teahkhmouch.Atnightallthatseparatedthedeadfromthelivingwasathinwoodenroof.‘Thedeadwerenicethough,’oneofthevillagerscommented:‘theyneverhauntedus.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 60
AsthepoliticalsituationinCambodiastabilisedandvisitornumbersincreased,
ChoeungEkgrewinpopularityasatouristsite.EasilyaccessiblefromPhnom
Penh,withdramaticphysicalevidenceintheformofskeletalremainsand
numerousvisiblegravepits,thesiteiscompelling.Bythelate1990sitsawa
regularinfluxofforeignvisitors,andin2005thesitewasprivatized,anda30-year
leasegiventoaprivatecompany,JCRoyal&Co,withanaimtoincreasetourist
revenuefromthesite.44
ChoeungEktoday
TodayChoeungEkisprimarilyatouristsite,thoughitsmulti-functionality(as
nationalmemorialandeducationaltool)ishighlightedbythose,suchasits
directors,wishingtorefutecriticismfollowingitsprivatisation.Asmoreandmore
touristsvisit,ChoeungEkandtheareaarounditarechanging.In2012thesite
wasgrantedA1statusasatouristsiteandwasa2014Traveller’sChoiceaward
winnerfromTripadvisor;thedevelopmentssurroundingitreflectthecentralityof
thisroleinitsconstitution.Onceawildandraggedsite(‘itwasstarkandopen.I
rememberthewindcomingthroughthetrees.AndsometimesIwonder,should
webedoingthis;thismakingitintoapark?’aformermanageratthesite
commented),theconcreteandbrickdevelopmentsareencroaching,withnew
onesappearingalmostweekly.Theroadthatleadsuptothesiteisnowcovered
inrestaurants.Brickandconcretepathscovermuchofthelandinsidethegates.
Shopsflankthecarpark;concretewallsborderthegraves.
44
Seechaptersix.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 61
Butaswellasatouristsite,itisalsoaworkplaceandhome.Duringmyfieldwork
45peopleworkedatChoeungEk:cleaners,guides,caretakers,management,
shopkeepers.Whilstthemanagementworksonlyfivedaysaweek,mostofthe
employeesworksixorsevendaysandChoeungEkhasbecomeanextensionof
theirhome.SreySreycooksherlunchanddinnerthere,andherchildrencometo
dotheirhomeworkatthesite.Vannaliveswithhiswifeanddaughteronthesite,
asdotwoothercaretakersandtheirfamilies.SreyPichworkspart-timeonthe
audioguidesbutvisitsonherdaysoff.Herbrother,sisterandfatherallworkat
thesitetoo.VisitorstoChoeungEkareintroducedtoitasaplaceofdeath;
destruction;deletion,andthisistheoverwhelmingimpressionmostleavewith.
ButIexperiencedasiteofvibrancyandlife:childrenrunaroundthegrounds
laughingandplaying;dogsandchickensroamthegrounds;treesandflowers
abound;smallpatchesofvegetablesaregrownbythefamilieslivingonsite;the
lakethatbordersitisusedforbathing,swimming,andwaterforcooking.ANeak
Ta(guardianspirit)inhabitsatreenexttothelakeandvillagerscometogivehim
offerings,askingforprotectionandluckforthemselvesandtheirfarms.He
usuallyobliges.
ResearchingatChoeungEk
GainingaccesstoresearchatChoeungEktooksometime.Iattemptedtolocate
JCRoyalandCo(thecompanythatleasesthesite),butcouldfindnocontact
details.Ispoketostaffbutno-oneseemedtoknowwhotheyworkedfor.WhenI
asked,theysimplysaid‘Ângkar’:‘theorganisation’45.Iaskedwhohademployed
45
Thisconfusedmeatfirst:duringDemocraticKampucheamanyordinarypeoplehadnotknownoftheKhmerRouge;forthefirsttwoyearsofrule,theCommunistPartyofCambodia(CPK)hadkepttheiridentitysecret,simplyreferringtothemselvesas‘Ângkar.’EvenafterPolPotannounceditsexistenceandhisleadershipin1977,thenewsdidnotfilterdowntomanypeople,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 62
themandwasdirectedtoOmTy,thedirector.OmTytoldmetoaskCityHall:
‘theymayormaynotgiveyoupermission’hesaid.
Itwasaserendipitousencounterthatfinallybroughtmeaccess.AtanImpunity
WatchrunconferenceonmemorialisationinSeptember2012ImetMinaBui
Jones,thecountrydirectoroftheAustralianbasedNarrowcasters-thecompany
thatmadetheaudiotoursforChoeungEk.Afterrequestingherhelpin
identifyingwhototalkto,shetookmetothesiteandarrangedameetingwith
oneofthedirectors.Consideringmyapplication,andMina’ssupport,Iwas
grantedaccesstoconducttheresearchIwished,providedInotdisturbthestaff
toomuch.ThereisnodoubtinmymindthatwithoutMina’shelpgetting
permissionwouldhavebeenmoredifficultandtheaccessIwasgivenmore
limited.
WhilstworkingatthesiteIlivedinPhnomPenh,travellingtoandfrowithmy
researchassistantbytuktukormoto.Thesiteopensfrom08:00to17:00;visiting
inthiswaymirroredthemovementsofthestaff.Mostoftheresearchat
ChoeungEkwasconductedonsite,butIalsovisitedthevillagesbehindittosee
thefamiliesofpeopleworkingthereandtoconductinterviewswithpeopleliving
locallybutnotemployedthere.Thisenabledmetoexplorelocalrelationshipsto
ChoeungEkanditsuseasatouristsite,includingwithseveralfamiliesofChinese
descentwhoserelativeswereburiedtherebeforeDemocraticKampuchea,and
whoremainburiedtheretodate.
whocontinuedtorefertoitasÂngkarthroughoutitsruleandafterwards.TheliteratureimpliesthatÂngkarrefersonlytotheKhmerRouge,however,throughoutmyfieldworkpeopleusedthetermtorefertoanyfacelessauthority:thecompanytheyworkfor,orthecurrentgovernmentforexample.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 63
Iworkedprimarilywiththestaff;keyinformantsatthesitewereBongLa,Srey
Srey,andOmTa.SreySreyhadworkedasacleaneratChoeungEkforseveral
yearswhenIarrived.SreySreyfeelsluckytohaveherjob:thesiteisconvenient–
onlyafewhundredmetresfromherhome-andthemanagementwelcoming,so
whilstshecannotbeathomeduringtheday,herchildrencometothesitetodo
theirhomeworkorplaywiththeotherchildrenwholivethere.Inherearly
thirties,sheisacheerful,friendlywoman,whoboostsherincomebycollecting
plasticbottlesleftbytourists:foreverysixshecollectsshereceivesfivecents
fromlocalrecyclers;withthehundredsoftouriststhatpassthroughthesite
everyday,shecaneasilyaccumulatebottles,andsheusesherextraincometopay
forherchildren’sschoolbooksandtreatswhentheyhaveworkedhard.We
wouldsitchattingduringtheday,andsometimesIwouldplaywithherchildrenin
theirbreaksfromschool.Herhusbandwouldpassusbyonoccasions,and
occasionallyhersisterjoinedforlunchinherbreaksfromworkcloseby.
BongLawasmyfirstfriendatChoeungEk.Inhisearlythirties,married,with
threechildren,BongLalivesinPhnomPenh,commutingdailybymotorbike.He
wasinterestedintheresearchIwasconducting,andondayswhenIdidnotvisit,
wouldmakeamentalnoteofanythinginterestingthathappenedtotellme.After
finishingschoolinthelate1990shetrainedtobeatourguideinPhnomPenh,
andlaterdecidedtobasehimselfatChoeungEk;hespeaksexcellentEnglish,and
goodmoneywastobemadefromtheincreasingnumberoftourists.Whenthe
audiotourguidesarrivedin2010,he,likemostoftheguides,transferredtothat.
Althoughheappreciatesthiswork,BongLamisseshistimeasatourguide:heis
interestedintheworldanditspeople,andisachatty,friendlymanwhoenjoyed
meetingnewandvariedpeople.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 64
OmTa,anelderlymanwhoworksatthesite,livedthroughtheKhmerRouge.
BornandraisedclosetoChoeungEk,hewasevacuatedduringDemocratic
Kampuchea,todistantprovinces.Helostmanymembersofhisfamilyduringthe
regimeincluding,bothparents,hisauntandherfamily,onesisterandtwo
brothers.Followingthedeposaloftheregimein1979hereturnedtohishome
village,wherehehaslivedeversince.Firstcomingtothesitewithothervillagers
tolootitsgraves,hewassubsequentlyemployedasacaretaker,aroleheretains
today.OmTawasoneofthehardestworkingpeopleatChoeungEk,alwaysin
movementpayingattentiontoonethingoranother,stoppingtocollectdebris,or
movingaroundtoolsforthevariousconstructionworkerswhoalwaysseemedto
bechangingsomething.
Thoughtheseweremymaininformants,Ispenttimewithseveralothermembers
ofstaff.OmTy,thesite’sdirectoralwaysmadetimetochatwithmeandanswer
anyquestionsIhad.BongBroh,acaretaker,wouldtellmegossipaboutthetour
guidesfromPhnomPenhashecarriedouthiswork.Ispentmostofmyother
timewiththeguideswhorantheaudiotours.Theymannedastationarypointat
theentranceofthesiteandIwouldsit,sometimesforhours,andchatwith
peopleastheyworked.PriortotheintroductionofaudioguidesatChoeungEkin
2011,thesemenhadbeentourguides.Theywerepersonableandmostly
enjoyedinteractionswithdifferentpeople;severalcommentedthatwasthe
reasontheyhadbecomeguidesandthattheymissedthisaspectintheirnewjob
(whichinvolvedsimplyhandingoutandtakingbackaudio-players).I,therefore,
offeredtheopportunitytochatandinteractwithanoutsiderthattheynolonger
hadintheirday-to-dayemployment.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 65
ThoughIworkedprimarilywiththestaff,Ialsospentsometimewithvisitorsto
thesite:whenthecoachesfromtheECCCarrivedmyresearchassistantandI
wouldjoinagrouparoundthesite,chattingwiththemaswewentandI
participatedinanyeventsheldatthesite,chattingwithotherparticipantsalso
attendees.Iinterviewedseveraltourists,althoughallbutoneoftheseinterviews
(withaloquaciousanti-abortioncampaignermoreinterestedinpersuadingmeof
hiscausethanengagingwithmyquestions)wereshort–around20to30
minutes.
ChoeungEkpresentedtheopportunitytoresearchtheonlystate-sponsoredmass
gravememorialinCambodia46,amemorialthatremainsanimportantsitefor
local,national,andinternationalencounterswiththeperiod.Thoughthepublic
presentationofmassgravesinCambodiaalmostexclusivelyfocusesonChoeung
Ek,encouragingatunnelledvisionthatthisstudyhopestohelpcounteract,itwas
animportantsitetoconsider,particularlyregardingthepoliticalforcesactingon
thegraves.However,inordertocounterbalancethistunnelvisioning,another
primaryfieldsitewasselected;anislandIcallKohSop.
46AlthoughTuolSlengalsofunctionsasastatememorial,themassgravestherearefewandIwouldthereforenotclassifyitasamassgravememorial.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 66
KohSop
KohSopisoneofastringofislandsintheBassacriverthatwereusedasprisons
andkillingsitesduringDemocraticKampuchea;theperfectmaterialisationofthe
regime’s‘kuketchonhcheang’:prisonwithoutwalls.Smallandunlabelledon
manymaps,itisnowadaysarelativelyunknownsite,excepttothosewholivedin
theareaduringitsregime.
BeforeDemocraticKampucheaKohSopwashometofamiliesfromvarious
nations,wholivedpeacefullyside-by-side:thechildrenlearnedeachother’s
languagesandthefamiliessocialisedtogether.Thesoilwasfertileandprovided
theideallocationfororchardsoffruittrees:guava,orangesandlamot47were
grownalongsiderice-fieldsandfamilyvegetablegardens.Somefamilieshadbeen
thereforseveralgenerations,othersmoveddowninthe1950sand60sfrom
neighbouringislandsrunningoutofspace.Alongwiththoselivingontheisland,
peoplefromacrosstheriverhadfarmlandthere,travellingdailytotendtheir
fieldsandorchards.
Theislandwastoosmallforapagoda,butasmallchurchwasbuiltinthemiddle
ofthelandforthosewhopractisedChristianityandapreachervisitedregularly
fromthemainland.SeveralNeakTa(guardianspirits)inhabitedtheland–the
KhmerNeakTaremain,butthosebelongingtoothernationsleftwhentheydidin
the1970s.48TheKhmerfamiliesalsohadNeakTa,butweremostlyBuddhist;
47Asicklysweetkiwi-lookingfruitwithatexturesomewhatlikecrystallisedhoney.
48NeakTaaretheKhmerguardianspiritsofthelandandwater(seechaptertwo).Bong,amanofaround50yearsoldwhohadgrownupontheislanddidnotknowthenameoftheforeignspirits,buttoldmetheirreligion‘wasliketheChinesereligion,withaNeakTa.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 67
theytravelledacrosstherivertovisitthepagoda,formostonlyonritual
occasionssuchasPchumBenh(theannualfestivalforthedeadinOctober)and
KhmerNewYearinApril.Bong,whowasachildontheislandbeforetheregime,
remembereditbeingapleasantplacetolive.Theonlyschoolwasacrosstheriver
ontheWesternsideoftheisland,andbeforethecivilconflictintheearly1970s,
thechildrentookaboatbackandfortheachday,untilitbecametoodangerousto
travel.LikemanyacrossCambodia,theireducationwasinterrupted;manynever
wentback.Peopleearnedtheirlivingthroughfarmingandafterharvestand
beforethenextsetofplanting,additionalsmalljobs.Bong’sfather,forexample,
workedasapru-laan:ahustlerforthesharedtaxisthatranbackandforthfrom
PhnomPenh,whilehismothertookcareofotherpeople’scows.
EventhroughtheUSbombingsandthecivilconflictsofthe1960s,lifewasmostly
quiet.Bytheearly1970s,however,thisbegantochange.Evenbeforetheir
victoryin1975,theKhmerRougewoncontrolofsomeareasofCambodia.
BecauseitsurroundedPhnomPenh,Kandalprovincewasahotlycontestedarea
betweenthesoldiersofLonNolandtheKhmerRougeandrightfromthe
beginningoftheLonNolregime(1970–1975),theareawascoveredinconflict.
LonNolsoldierswerepositionedontheWesternsideoftheisland,whilstthe
KhmerRougesoldiershadabaseontheEasternside.In1973,theKhmerRouge
woncontroloftheEasternsideandtheisland(theWesternsideremained
conflicted).Takingitasabasetheyevacuatedtheinhabitantsdownriver.49
49Somemovedonlyoneortwokilometres,whilstothersmovedtowardstheVietnameseborder;therewasadegreeofflexibilityatthistimeandsomechoicelefttothefamiliesleaving.Somewalkedtotheirnewhomes;othersloadedox-cartswithgoodsandtookthemwiththem.Oncetheygottotheirnewhomes,lifewasnormalforatime:peoplefarmedandraisedanimalsandlivedintheirownhouses.Mostoftheforeignfamilieshadfledintheearly1970s,fearingthepogromsoftheLonNolarmy.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 68
DuringDemocraticKampuchea
Followingtheevacuationsin1973,theislandwasusedexclusivelybytheKhmer
Rouge;initiallyasabarracks,andthenasaprisonandkillingsite.Byearly1975,
theKhmerRougehadwoncompletecontrolofthearea,andwiththefighting
ended,somelocalinhabitantsinthevillagesacrosstheriverreturnedtotheir
homesthere.Thosefromtheislandwerepermittedtothearea,buthadtolive
acrosstheriver.Theirlifewasnotsohard;‘Wewereoldpeople(brâcheachon
chas)’anelderlymanfromonevillagetoldme,‘sowecouldstaywherewe
were.’50
Fewpeopleaccessedtheislandduringtheregime,butSok,wholivesinanearby
village,wasimprisonedthereforashorttime,anddescribedthelifetomeone
afternoonwhilewesatintheshadeatthefrontofhishouse,wherehehaslived
sinceliberation.Althoughhehadbeenasoldierbeforetheregime,onceitcame
topowerhedisguisedhispastandwasputtoworkwiththeKhmerRougeyouth
group.Oneafternoonhewascapturedtryingtosneakawaytovisithismother.
Hewasheldforseveralhours,beforebeingbroughtbyboattotheisland.On
discoveringhewouldbesenttoKohSophewasterriblyafraid.‘Iknewitwas
hopeless’hetoldme,‘becauseIheardthatifyougottoKohSoptherewasno
wayback.’
50ManyofthepeopleIspoketointhesevillageshadarelativelybearableexperienceduringDemocraticKampuchea:thecommandersinthisareaallowedmostfamiliestostaytogether,andalthoughtheyweresubjecttothesameregulationsenforcedacrossthecountry(suchascommunaleating,noownershipofindividualproperty,andreducedrations)thepeopleherehadalwaysbeenfarmersandwereusedtohardworkandlonghours.Unlikethoseevacuatedfromthecities,therefore,theywerebetterabletocopewiththedemandsoftheregime,andfaredrelativelybetterinhealthandlossesthanelsewhere.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 69
OnarrivalatKohSop,prisonersweresubjecttointerrogation,andmanywere
torturedtodrawuppersonalbiographiesthatcouldbeusedtojustifytheir
execution(forbeingtraitorsorenemiesoftheregime).Sokhadagood
education,asdidhisparents,butheliedtoprotecthimself:
Theyaskedournames,whereweusedtostudy,whatgrade[weachieved],our
parents’names…likethat.Andtheyaskedourparents’profession….IliedbutI
liedverywellandIsaidIwasatgradethree,gradethreenationalmodern51.And
theyaskedwhatIdid;IsaidIhelpedmyparentsfarmingandtheybelievedme.
Duringthedaytheprisoners,mostlyyoungmen,workedontheisland,diggingup
treerootstoclearlandforfarming.Followingtheirdailylabourtheyweretaken
towashinasmallinlandlake.Atnighttheywereshackledtogetherinalarge
woodenhall.AtSok’sheadwasawoodenbucketusedasaurinal;whenusedthe
urinesplashedhisface.Iftheydidanythingtodispleasetheguards(notcoming
quicklyenoughfrombathing,ornotworkinghardenoughduringthedayfor
example)theywereshotorbeatentodeath.Someweretakentothebamboo
grovesattheendoftheislandtobeexecuted,otherskilledwheretheywere.The
bodieswereleftscatteredacrosstheland:
[thebodieswereleft]likerubbish,wheretheydied;theywereleftwherethey
wereput.Sometimestheydugsomedirttocoverthem.Manyofthemwere
killedandtheyleftthebodieshereandthere.Theclothes,theblood,thehair
werestillfresh.Theykilledpeopleallovertheland.
Besidestheprisoners,theonlypeoplelivingonthesiteweretheKhmerRouge
soldiersrunningthesite:allyoungcadreoflateteensorearlytwenties.Its
51EquivalenttoUKyearthree;ageeightornineyearsold.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 70
functionwaswellknown;peopleacrosstheriversometimessawtheprisoners
working(‘theyusedpeopleinsteadofcowstodotheploughing’anelderly
womanfromavillageacrosstherivertoldme),anditbecamewellknownthatif
youwenttoKohSopyoudidnotreturn.Thoseworkingdownriverreported
seeingbodiesfloatinginthewater:thoughtheywantedtoretrievethem,they
couldnotleavetheirworkstations,andthebodiesweresoonwashedalong.
After1979
NooneremembersexactlywhentheKhmerRougelefttheislandandtheareas
aroundit,butinallprobabilityitwasshortlybeforethefallofDemocratic
Kampucheaon7thJanuary1979;thesiteisenroutetoPhnomPenhfrom
Vietnam.Bong’sfatherwasthefirsttoreturntotheisland;whenhedidhemeta
terriblesight.Thelandwascoveredwithrottingcadaversandthetimewithout
farminghadletthewildnessencroachontheland.‘Itwasalljungle’hetoldme.
Thelandwascoveredinfreshlyduggravesandpilesofdead;corpseslitteredthe
shallowstreamsrunningthelengthoftheisland.Thehousesthathadstood
beforehadbeendismantled-likeChoeungEkthematerialswereusedto
constructKhmerRougebuildings:prisonhallsanddwellingsforthecadre.
Bongandhisfamilylivedacrosstheriverduringtheregimeandwereeagerto
comehome.Otherswereafraidtoreturn-KhmerandVietnamesemilitary
stationedthemselvesontheisland,andmanyfromtheEasternsidereported
seeinglightsflyingaroundatnight,asuresignofhauntingghosts.Asthemonths
passedafewfamiliesbegantoclearthelandandre-establishtheirfarming,but
manydidnotreturntoliveforquitesometime.Evenwhenpeoplereturnedto
theirhomes,somecouldnotreclaimtheiroldland;inthePRK,asystemofland
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 71
distributionwasinitiatedthatapportionedlandaccordingtothenumberof
peopleinyourfamily:‘ifyouhadfourpeople,yougotfourhectares;ifyouwere
twopeople,yougottwohectares’Bongexplained.
AsatChoeungEk,thedeadatKohSopprovedusefulinthenewgovernment’s
politicallegitimation.Underthesamedirectivethatguidedcollectionselsewhere,
thebodiesthatlayonthesurfaceweregatheredandpiledhighunderaquinine
treeinthecentreoftheisland.Atfirstthepitswerenotdisturbed,butlooters
sooncametodig.Peopleinmanylocationstoldmethatgroupsofpeople
travelledfromsitetositesearchingforvaluablesamongstthedead;Bongandhis
wifeSreyexplainedthisiswhathappenedatKohSop.Agroupofmen,travelling
fromBattambang(aprovinceontheothersideofthecountry),arrivedsoonafter
liberationandstayedforseveralmonths,campingontheislandwhilsttheydug:
[Srey]: Theycametofindthebodiestofindgold.Forexample:gold
teethorothergoldthatwasonthebody.
[Bong]: Sometimesthebodieshadgoldteeth,goldnecklaces…
[Srey]: Sometimes[thosekilled]hadsewngoldintotheirclothes…
[Bong]: Sometimestheyjustputgoldintheirclothes.
[Caroline]: Whichclothes?
[Srey]: Theyputthegoldintheirbras.
[Bong]: Theysewedapocketandputtheirgoldthere.
[Srey]: Andwhenthesepeoplewerekilledtheyhitthemandthebody
felldown,but[theKhmerRouge]didnotlookforanything.
[Bong]: Aftertheyfinishedfindinggoldheretheytravelledtoanother
place.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 72
Amongstthegroupwasagoldsmith;heaskedBongandotherstoworkforhim,
butBongrefused.‘Iwastoodisgusted’hesaid.Othersfromthevillagehad
joinedinandwhenpeoplefoundgoldthegoldsmithboughtitfromthem.
Astheydugtheypiledthebodiesonthesurfaceinonebigheap,arranging‘leg
accordingtolegandheadaccordingtohead.’Thep’teahkhmouchinwhichthe
remainswerelaterhousedwasbuiltatalaterdate,andtheareawherethe
gravesweredugisnowcoveredinhouses.Notallthebodiesweredug.Some
remained,andwhenothersmovedtotheareatheycoveredthemwithsoiland
builtontop.Intheearlyyearsthegroundmovedwiththedead:risingand
crackingasthebodiesbloatedwithdecomposition;sinkingwhentherainscame
andcompressedtheland.Thegroundhasmostlysettlednow,butsometimes
afterheavyraindepressionsstillappear;thelandunderOmYay’shousestill
movesandherdogoccasionallytriestodigupthegraves.Intheearlyyearsafter
liberationbodieswouldoftensurfaceintheriversorponds,orinthegroundas
peopleploughedforfarming.Nowadaysitisrare,butstilloccasionallyhappens.
AfewmonthsbeforeIarrivedsomebonesweredugupinthefieldofTaChas,an
elderlymanwholivesintheancestralvillageoftheisland:heputtheminaplastic
bagandthrewthemintothep’teahkhmouch(figurefour),nowemptyexceptfor
afewbonesleftbehindfromwhentheremainsweremovedinthe1990s.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 73
Figurefour:KohSopp’teahkhmouch(source:theauthor)
Sometimeinthelate1990s,ortheearly2000s,theremainswithinKohSop’s
p’teahkhmouchweremovedfromtheislandtocheddei(stupa)atlocalpagodas.
Thoughthreepagodastookremainsthemajoritywenttothewat(pagoda)
closesttothedistrictoffice.Theyremaintheretoday,lockedinasmall,
unassumingcheddei,onlyopenedatritualoccasionsandontherequestof
visitors.
KohSoptoday
Nowadaystheislandissplit,bothgeographicallyandsociallyintotwohalves:the
endoftheisland-hometofamilieswholivedonthesitebeforeDemocratic
Kampucheaorwhocomefromacrosstheriverandhavefarmedlandtherefor
morethanonegeneration,andtheheadoftheisland–threevillagesthatbegan
withNGOrehousingprojectsofthe1990s.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 74
Theislandishometo93housesandafluctuatingnumberofinhabitants
(averagingaround300people).Theendoftheislandischaracterisedby
traditionalwoodenhouses,andafewconcreteones,spacedapartfromeach
otherwithfarmlandin-between.Theotherhalf,wheremostofthegraveslay,is
splitintothreevillages,eachmadeupofarowofhousescrammedtogether.The
housesaremostlyoneroomwoodenorpalm-leafstiltedhouses,withoneortwo
brickhousesforthosefamilieswhosechildrenworkinthecitiesandsendmoney
home.Severalsmallstreamsandvariouspondscoverthelandandintherainy
seasonofferwelcomefishingopportunitiesformanyinhabitants.
TherearenoroadsonKohSop,onlydirtpaths.Mostpeoplewalkwhereverthey
aregoing,althoughsomepeoplehavebicyclesandoneortwoofthewealthier
families,motorbikes.Asmallferryconnectstheislandtothemainlandonthe
Westernside;ontheEasternsidealandbridgeconnectstheislandinthedry
seasonandinthewetseasonpeopletravelbyboat.WhenIwastheremains
electricityhadnotarrivedontheisland;thosewithelectricitypoweredfrom
batterieschargednightlyattheNGO-runschoolfromthesolarpanelsonitsroof.
Wateralsorunsonlyattheschool:thoughmosthouseshavewellsduginthe
1980s,thewatercomingfromthemhashighlevelsofarsenic,somostpeopleuse
rainwatercollectedinlargeurnsbesidestheirhouses,orfilterriverwater.Toilets
arescare:adultsusethefieldsandtheriver;childrenseemtogowherever.
Thoselivingontheendoftheislandmostlyrunfarms,growingsa’om,mangoes,
guavaandcorn.Mostfamilieshavecows,usedforfarmingandbreeding;afew
havechickensandonehassheep.Attheheadoftheislandmanypeopledonot
work.AfewfamilieshaveplotsinanNGO-ledagriculturalproject,whichrunsin
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 75
thegroundsoftheformerprison.Oneortwotendcowsforpeopleacrossthe
river:thegrassisgoodontheislandandidealforraisingcalves.52Afewmen
workconstruction,travellingtothenearbytownsandcities,andsomeofthe
daughtersworkinthegarmentfactories,cominghomeattheweekends.Manyof
thefamiliesrelyonaid,withoutwhichtheycouldnotsurvive.Landinsecurityis
highatthisendoftheisland:thelocalNeakThom[importantperson-literally
translatingatbigperson]isslowlytakingthelandontheisland,metrebymetre,
throughappropriationanddebt-collectionhousingswaps.
Figurefive:farmatKohSop.Aftertheregimebodiescoveredtheland(source:theauthor)
52
CowsarehugelyvaluableinCambodiaandareusedprimarilyforworkandbreeding.Becauseoftheircost(whenIwasthereawell-bredcalfwouldsellforbetween$500and$1,000)manypeoplecannotaffordtobuytheirown.SeveralpeopleIknewthereforeengagedinasystemofcow-sharing;thepoorerpersontendsacowownedbysomeoneelse,andeachyearthecowgivesbirththecalfisgivenalternatelytotheownerandthepersontendingthecow.Inthiswaypoorerpeoplecanreceivetheirowncow,andthepeopleowningthecowshavesomeonetolookafterandraisethem,andalsoreceivemeritforhelpingothers.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 76
ThereisaKhmerrunchurch,asmallprimaryschool,andacoupleofsmallshops
forbuyingtheessentials.Foreverythingelsepeopletravelacrosstheriver,where
asmall,bustlingmarketrunsdailyoutsidethelocalpagoda.Mostpeopleatthe
endoftheislandpracticeBuddhism;attheheadChristianity,thoughmanystill
attendpagoda,andgiveofferingstoNeakTa(localguardianspirits),ofwhich
thereareseveralontheislandandintheriveraroundit.
ResearchingatKohSop
IchoseKohSopforanumberofreasons.InmyfirstfewmonthsinCambodiaI
visitedseveralofislandslistedasmassgravesbyDC-Cam,butwhenIasked
peopleintheareaformoreinformationtheywoulddirectmetoKohSop,telling
meitwasthelargestandmostbrutalprisoninthearea.This,itsreturnto
everydaylandusedforhousingandfarming,anditssmallsizeandlowpopulation
madeitanidealplaceforresearch:withonly93housesIcouldeasilytalktomost
families,though,ofcourse,Ispentmostofmytimewithonlyafew.
AsmallNGOrunstheisland’sschool,andaftercontactingthem,theyoffered
supportandaroomattheschool,whichmyresearchassistantandIshared
throughoutourtimethere.Theschoolanditspatronsareviewedveryfavourably
ontheisland,andbeingassociatedwiththemgavemeaccessquicklytothe
villagesandtheirinhabitants.ItaughtEnglishthreemorningsaweekfrom07:00
to10:30,andduringtheschoolsummerbreakranartsessionsforthechildren.
Duetoperceivedsecurityissuesinthevillage,wewereundercurfewandhadto
returntotheschoolbydarkness,wherewewerelockedinwiththeschool
caretakerandthetwoschooldogs,however,duringthedayIspentmostofmy
timeinthevillage.Weateourdinnereverydayatthehouseofonefamily,which
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 77
offeredawonderfulopportunityforobservingthevillage,particularlyintheinitial
stages.Italsoprovidedmyfirstkeyinformantontheisland,asOmSrey,whose
houseitwas,wouldsitandchatwithus,fillingusinonallthegossip.The
repeatedwalktoandfromOmSrey’shousealsoprovidedanidealopportunityfor
gettingtoknowpeopleandwatchingthedynamicsoftheisland.AlthoughI
remainedalmostentirelyontheisland,Ioccasionallytravelledacrosstheriverto
interviewpeopleinthevillagessurroundingit.
OtherthanOmSrey,Ispentthemajorityofmytimewiththewomenandchildren
ontheisland,notnecessarilyoutofgenderbias,butbecausetheyweretheones
whowerehomeduringtheday.OmYay,MingYay,SreySabbay,andherhusband
Bu,befriendedmeassoonasImovedtoKohSop.SreySabbayinparticular
wouldspendtimewithmeandmyresearchassistant,Phasy,andwouldgiveus
eelsshehadcaughtorfruitfromhergarden.WhenIwantedtolearnhowtofish,
itwasshewhotookthetimetoteachthisbumblingforeignertowadethelakes
totraptheeelsandcrabsthathidamongsttherootsofthefloatingplants.When
myresearchassistantandIwerelatereturningtoourroom,sheandherhusband
walkedushometomakesurewearrivedsafely.Thesewomenwouldshoutand
invitemeinasIwalkedpasttheirhouses,andifIwassittingchattinginone
person’shouse,otherswouldoftenjoinus.Mosthadlivedontheislandfor
years.SreySabbayandherhusbandBuweresomeofthefirsttoarrive,moving
therein1981whenBugotajobguardinggovernmentlandontheisland.OmYay
andOmSreyarrivedshortlyafterwards,andMingYayarrivedlastofthegroup,
cominginthelate80s.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 78
Aswellasthesewomen,childrenwereoftenmyresearchallies.Somemight
considerthatonissuessuchasthesechildrenshouldnotbeinvolved,butthe
childrenatmyresearchsiteswerelivingtheirownversionsofthishistory,andI
foundtheirinputsometimesinteresting,oftenuseful.Theyoftentookpartinthe
interviews,encouragingtheadultstotalkopenlyaboutvariousissues.Onseveral
occasionswhenanadultwasholdingback,achildwouldpitchin:‘youshouldtell
hereverything,’or‘tellheraboutsuchandsuch.’Theadultsinvariablydid.The
fewmenIworkedwithoccurredprimarilyattheweekends.Theheadmasterof
thelocalschoolwasanimportantinformant,andIspenttimewithhimbothat
schoolandathishome.WithboththeheadmasterandthewomenIworkedwith
Icouldjoinintheebbandflowofeverydaylifeandparticipatingineveryday
activitiessuchasteaching,fishing,harvesting,preparingfoodforsaleatmarketor
ceremonies,andothercommunalactivities,encouragedtrustandenabledmeto
buildrelationshipswithkeyinformants.
Theyalsoofferedrichopportunitiesfordatacollectionasitwasduringthese
activitiesthatpeoplegossiped;Ireceivedmuchinformationonrelationshipsand
theworkingsofthevillageduringsuchencounters(asexplainedbyGluckman
(1963:308),gossipis‘theverybloodtissueof[community]life’).IfeltIhad
achievedalevelofacceptancewhenIwasacceptedinthesecircles,andafter
sometimeInoticedmypresencebeingtakenforgranted53wheninformants
stoppedalteringtheirinteractionsinmypresence;Iwasinordinatelypleased,for
example,whenoneofmyinformantsfeltcomfortableenoughinmypresenceto
53LikeOakley(2012:81),Iconsideritafallacythatanthropologistscanbecomeinvisible,althoughaftertimeandeffortourpresenceandparticipationcanbeacceptedandthentakenforgranted,offeringacertainamountofinconspicuousness.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 79
shoutinsultsatanotherwalkingby.Throughlivingandworkingwithmy
informantsonadailybasis,participatingintheirdailyactivitiesIhadaccesstoan
‘intimacyofdetail’(LindisfarneinOkley2012:87)andthisenabledmetoexplore
howthegravesareconstituted‘intheongoingindeterminacyandfluxof…life’
(Csordas1990:40).
Thoughthesedailyencountersenabledmetomodifymypositionasacomplete
outsider,therelationshipsIdevelopedinKohSopweresometimesfractious.The
foreignerswhohadvisitedtheislandbeforemewereinvolvedwithcharitable
projects,andthisassociationremainedinthemindsofmanyofthevillagers,
particularlythoseattheheadoftheislandwhoregularlyreceivedsuchaid.Itwas
almostimpossibleformetogooutwithoutsomeoneaskingformoney,ortopay
forthings,rangingfromthemodestpurchasingofmedicine,totheextravagant
fundingofagranddaughter’suniversityeducation.Iagreedtosomeofthese
requests,suchasbuyingmedicineforfamiliesIknowareverypoor,butmostI
refused.Thisaffectedsomerelationships:althoughsomepeoplejustshrugged
offmyrefusal,othersrefusedtotalktome,someforafewdays,acoupleformy
entirefieldwork.Theseconstantapplicationsmademefeeluncomfortableand
resentful:Ifeltexploitedbythosewhoaskedforthingsrepeatedly.I
misinterpretedsomerelationships,consideringfriendshipsbeingbuilt,whilst
somepeopleviewedmeinamuchmorepracticalway.Myfeelingswerearesult
ofignorance;areflectionofmyownconstructionsof,andaspirationsfor,
relationshipsinthefield,buttheyalsoreflectedthedifferentsocio-economic
statusofKohSopcomparedtomostofmyotherfieldsites–thecommunitythere
werethepoorestIworkedamongst,manylivingonlessthan$1perday.OnceI
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 80
acceptedtheserequestsaspartandparceloflifeontheisland,relationships,
becamemucheasier.
Othersitesandparticularmethods
Thoughthosesitesweremyprimaryfield-sites,Ivisitedsixteenothermass
gravesitesacrossseveraldifferentprovinces54.Ichosemulti-sitedresearchfor
tworeasons:firstlyitprovidedameanstoexplorelinks,commonalitiesand
disjuncturesbetweendifferentsites,enablinga‘cross-fertilisationofsites’which
providedinspirationtomyethnographicperspective(Gallo2009:90;Cook,
LaidlawandMair2009:58).SecondlyIaimedtoprovideacounterbalancetothe
publicpresentationofmassgravesinCambodia,whichalmostexclusivelyfocus
ononesite:ChoeungEk,encouragingatunnelledvisionofthegravesthatthis
studyhopestohelpcounteract.AsCook,LaidlawandMair(2012:68)state‘a
validethnographicfieldneednotcorrespondtoaspatialentityofanykind,and
neednotbeaholisticentity“outthere”tobediscovered’;thefieldofthisstudy
wasconstructedthroughoutthefieldwork,dataanalysisandwriting,demarcated
bymyattemptstoexplorerelationshipsandusesofmassgravesinCambodia,
ratherthanatonespecificsite.55
54Thesesitesare:Banan,WatSamrong,WatSampeauandWatEkPhnominBattambangprovince;ChongPrasat,KhsachSa,ORusseiandKampongChhnangAirportinKampongChhnangprovince;WatKampongTralach,PhnomKampongTrachandasiteIcallPhnomGrahominKampotprovince;KohTmeiandPoTonleinKandalprovince;TuolSlenginPhnomPenh,andTonleBatiandKraingTaChaninTakeoprovince.
55Howeverthisresearchprojectisnotperipatetic.Thatisnottosaythateachsitesisexaminedasifadiscrete,boundedentity(althoughIrecogniseCandea’s(2007)argumentthatallanthropologicalresearchrequiressomeelementofbounding,butthattheseboundsarearbitraryandselectedbytheresearcher,andapplyequallytotheoreticalconsiderationsasmuchastogeographicalspaces),norisittosuggestthattheplacesandpeoplewithwhomthisresearchinteractsarecomplete,consistent,orthattheyrepresentanythingotherthanthemselvesandtheirownexperiencesandunderstandingsofmassgraves.Ratherthatwhilegatheringdatafromarangeoflocations,Isituatedmyselfinspecificlocales.WhilstChoeungEkwasselectedforits
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 81
ThesitesforthisstudywereidentifiedfromDC-Cam’s56listofmassgravesites
(appendixone)andadvicefromlocalpeopleonaccessibility,bothphysicaland
otherwise.InKampot,forexample,IwasadvisednottoresearchinAngkorChey,
anareawithalargenumberofex-KhmerRougecadre,whommylocalassistant
consideredhostiletosuchresearch.ThoughIcouldhavefoundmodesofworking
there,Ifollowedtheadviceofmyassistant,andwasabletoidentifyanothersite,
thatIcallPhnomGrahom,whichwasanideallocationforworkingwithex-cadre.
Myvisitstothesesiteswerepartlytoassesspotentialfieldsites,however,I
conductedpreliminaryresearchatall:collectingstoriesofthegraves,their
construction,people’smemoriesoftheregime,andlocaltreatmentsofthegraves
intheyearssincetheendoftheregime.Ireturnedoverthecourseofmy
fieldworktosomesites,andIspentvaryingamountsoftimesateach,thelongest
beingthreeweeksatPhnomGrahominKampotprovince.AsaKhmerRouge
settlementitprovidedanideallocationforexploringtheviewsofex-Khmer
Rougeonthegravesandthedead.
Whileethnographicresearchtraditionallybringstomindlong-term
embeddednessinonelocation,thisprojectprovidesamulti-sitedethnographyin
bothliteralandconceptualterms.Aswellasthephysicallocalities,inexamining
therelationshipbetweeninternalandexternaldiscourses57onmassgraves,the
positionasanationalmemorial,thesecondandsubsidiarysitescouldhavebeensubstitutedwithmanyothersfromacrossCambodia.56
DC-Cam(DocumentationCenterofCambodia)isaresearchorganisationbasedinPhnomPenhthatcollectsandpublishesdataandresearchontheKhmerRougeregime.TheyweresetupasthefieldbranchofYaleUniversity’sCambodianGenocideProgramin1995,butbecameindependentin1997.
57IusediscourseintheFoucauldiansensetoreferto‘systemsofthoughtscomposedofideas,
attitudes,coursesofaction,beliefsandpracticesthatsystematicallyconstructthesubjectsandtheworldsofwhichtheyspeak,’(Lessa2006:3);thediscursiverulesinwhichknowledgeisproducedandreproduced(Hook2001:523).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 82
discoursesthemselves,whichareboth‘ultimatelymobileandmultiplysituated’
(Marcus1995:102),becameanobjectofstudy.Discoursesonmassgravesare
inevitablyglobalinthattheirimaginedmeaningsexistthroughouttheworld,
particularlyinlightofseveralfactors:filmssuchasTheKillingFields(Joffe1984),
ChoeungEk’spresenceasamajortouristsite,andtheongoingUN-backedtrialsof
theKhmerRougeleaders–theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia
(ECCC)–whichareinternationaltrialsofextremeimportanceincontemporary
internationalcriminaljusticesystems,beingthefirsthybridcourtsbroughtagainst
perpetratorsofcrimesagainsthumanity(Gray2014).58Thisthesistherefore
examinesthemulti-sitednessofbothmyresearchandthemeaningsattributedto
themasobjectsofstudy.
Myposition
AsaforeignfemaleIhadakindofliminalgenderthatenabledmetoaccessboth
menandwomen,andasaforeignerIenjoyedaleveloffreedomnotavailableto
mostKhmer.Inaddition,asanoutsidersomepeoplelikedtogossipwithme,and
fillmeinondetailsofsocialdynamics,orteachmeaboutKhmerhistoryand
culture,placingthemselvesinthepositionofculturalexperts.Thiswas
particularlyusefulformeintheinitialstages,allowingmetoseehowthese
informantswantedCambodiaandtheKhmerRougeperiodtobepresentedtoan
external,foreignaudience.Forsome,italsoofferedachancetohavetheirstory
heard;thiswasparticularlysalientinruralsites.
58Inaddition,mypresenceasanexternalresearcherinevitablytransformedthisresearchintoamulti-sitedproject,asIbecameaninterlocutorinthesociallyconstitutedlivedspaceofthemassgraves.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 83
Themostdifficultaspectofthis,however,wastheknowledge,powerandaccess
toauthoritiesthatmanypeoplepresumedIhad.SometimesIcouldassistpeople;
helpingthemunderstandtheirprescriptionsandmedicationlabelsforexample,
orsignpostingthemtoauthoritiesandNGOswhomightbeabletohelpthem.
However,thereweremanysubjectsinwhichIwasimpotent,andwasleftfeeling
notonlyhelpless,butalsolikealetdowntothosewhohadaskedforhelp.One
youngman,forexample,askedmetopersuadethepolicetoopenan
investigationintothedeathofhisfatherwhohadbeenkilledinacarcrasha
coupleofyearsbeforeandthepolicehadrefusedtoinvestigate.Nomatterwhat
Itoldhim,hewasconvincedIcouldgetthecaseopenedandafairinvestigation
conducted.
Visualmethods
Inadditiontoparticipant-observation,attheoutsetofthisresearchIintendedto
usevisualmethodsasaprimarymodeofdatacollection,andinparticularhad
plannedtomakeacollaborativefilmbasedonparticipatorymethods.However,
onceinthefielditquicklybecameapparentthatmakingacollaborativeor
participatoryfilmwasnotappropriateineitherofmymainsites–atChoeungEk
peopleweretoobusywiththeirworkandhadlittlefreetimetobeinvolved(most
workedsixorsevendaysaweek),andatKohSop,thereexistedmanyrivalries
betweentheinhabitants.Toselectafewpeopletoworkwith(evenifthey
selectedthemselves)wouldhaveaffectedmyrelationshipswithotherpeople,a
riskIwasnotwillingtotake.
Visualmethodsdid,however,continuetofeatureinmyfieldwork.Iusedthemas
aresearchtool,astoolsofenquiry,andassocialenablersasgifts.IusedGPS
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 84
mappingtochartmyruralfieldsiteandwheregraveslieincomparisontopeople’s
houses,schoolsandplacesofworkasaninitialmeansofunderstandingthe
landscapeofthesites.Makingthismapprovedtobeagreatfacilitatorinthe
village–thoughafewpeoplewere,atfirstseemedsuspiciousofmymotivesfor
mapping,sometookituponthemselvestobemyguide,offeringadviceand
directions:thisofferedaninterestinginsightintothesightsthepeopleonthe
islanddeemednecessarytorecord,andthosetheyomitted.Ialsomapped
ChoeungEk.Themappingherehadthreefunctions:toseehowthetourist
interestsfittedaroundthegraves,toseehowthealreadyexcavatedgraveslayin
relationtotheunexcavatedones,andtoassesswhereallthemassgraveswere
situatedinrelationtotheChinesegraveswhichhadbeeninthecemeterybefore
itbecameakillingandburialsitefortheKhmerRouge.
Ifilmedsomeofeverydaylifeinthevillageatmyruralsiteasanaidememoir,59
butphotographywasmymostimportantvisualtool.Icarriedsometypeof
cameraeverywhere,andphotographybecamean‘ethnographicpassport’
(Marion2010),bothinthefieldandbeyondit,providingameansofentranceto
someinformants,facilitatingsocialrapportinthefield,andextendingbeyondthe
fieldworkintomyanalysisandresearchpresentation.Itwasparticularlyusefulas
asocialenablerinKohSop.ManyCambodianshaveacollectionofofficial
portraitsofthemselvesandtheirfamily,whichareeitherdisplayedaroundthe
home,orkeptsafelystored.Ideally,thesephotographsarestudioportraitstaken
byaprofessionalphotographer,however,thisisexpensive,andmanyofthe
59Ialsoattemptedtoorganisesomeparticipatoryvideoworkshops,however,despiteseveralefforts,noadultswereinterestedinparticipatinginthese,althoughIspentafunandfascinatingdaywithagroupofsmallchildrenusingparticipatorymethodstomakeafilmcalled‘TherevengeofNdat’inwhichamurderedwomanrisesfromthedeadtotakerevengeonherkillersbyslaughteringthem.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 85
peopleIworkedwithcouldnotaffordit.Ithereforeorganisedafternoonsoffree
portraitshootingattheschool.Ialsophotographedvoraciouslythroughoutmy
fieldwork,andwherepossibleprintedcopiestodistribute.Thisfacilitatedmy
fieldwork,easingmyinitialcontactandsocialrapportbycreatingsocialrelations
withmyinformants.Italsogavemearolewithinthevillagebeyondresearcher
andteacherofferinganotheravenueofentrancetothesite.
Photoelicitationwasausefulresearchmethodforparticulartopics,especiallythe
displayofhumanremainsacrossthecountry.Apowerfulresearchtool,photo
elicitationhasthepotentialtoprovokevisceral,involuntarymemoriesand
embodiedexperiences(Harper2002).Thisisusefulinthisproject,mirroring,asit
does,theBuddhistmethodofunderstanding-contemplationandmeditationby
closeandrepeatedobservation,withoutdirectinterference(notwithstandingthe
effectoftheresearcher)(Klima2008).Thepublicpresentationofthedeadfrom
theKhmerRougeisdesignedtobevisuallyperformative:theirremainsarepiled
invastnumbersatsitesusedduringpoliticalcampaigningandotherceremonial
occasions(seechaptersfivetoseven).Iphotographedmemorialstupasatthe
sitesIvisitedacrossCambodia,andincertaininterviewsusedthesedisplaysto
explorethisvisualnatureofthepresentationoftheKhmerRougedead.These
providedrichinsightintoperceptionsofthebody,thedead,andtheuseofthe
deadoftheKhmerRougeforpoliticalandpersonalends.
Iusephotographsthroughoutthistexttoprovidevisualrepresentationof
elementsdiscussedandtoillustrateaspectsthatmaybeunknowntothereader.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 86
Interviews
InadditiontothesetechniquesIconductedopen-ended,interviewswith52
individualsthroughoutmyfieldwork.SomewerewithkeyinformantswhoI
interviewedtorecordpreciselyspecificrecollections;otherswereoneoff
interviewswithpeoplepreviouslyunknowntome.Exceptinafew,sensitive
cases,allformalinterviewswererecorded,andtheinterviewstranscribedand
translatedintoEnglishforlateranalysis.Wherepeoplewereuncomfortablewith
beingrecorded,extensivenoteswerewrittenduringtheinterview,whichwere
typedupimmediatelyafterwards.60Iinterviewedpeopleatleasttwicewhere
possible:lettingthemtaketheleadinthefirstinterviewandtellmethestorythey
wantedmetohear,thengoingbackwithfollowupquestionsandspecific
enquirieslater.Withsomeofficialsonlysinglemeetingswerepossible,andfor
theseIconductedmorestructuredinterviews,withsetthemes.Iwascarefulto
firstapproachvillagechiefsorotherofficialsforpermissiontoresearchbefore
proceedingtoworkwithotherpeople.InidentifyingintervieweesIprimarilyused
thesnowballmethod,usingthesocialnetworksofinformantsalreadycontacted
toaccessotherswhocouldpotentiallycontributetothisresearch(Macketal.
2005:5).Inmanyinstancesitwastheinformantsthemselveswhoidentified
others.Sometimestheywouldcallthepersondirectorgoandcollectthemand
bringthemtometointerview.OccasionallyIknewthiswashappening;on
occasionanewpersonwouldsimplyarriveandbepresentedtometointerview.
60Mostpeoplewerehappytoberecorded;however,someex-KhmerRougewerealittlenervous.Giventhis,adecisionwasmadebeforeresearchinginPhnomGrahomnottorecordinterviewsthere,buttotranscribeinstead.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 87
Interviewswerealmostneverone-to-oneorinprivatespaces.Usuallyconducted
outside,intheshadyareasunderpeople’shouses,orinsomecommunalspace
wherewecouldsitandescapethesun,IspentmytimeinCambodiasurrounded
bypeopleandcoveredinchildren,dogs,catsandmosquitoes.Aswetalked,
otherpeoplewouldjoinus,sometimesjustwatching,butmoreoftenthannot
interjectingandparticipatingintheinterview.Sometimesthiswashelpful:people
wereabletosupporteachother,ordebateparticularquestionsamongst
themselves,providingthought-provokinginsights.However,itoftenaddeda
performativeelementtothesituation.
AsIexperiencedincreasingencounterswithBuddhismandanimism,Isoughtout
peopletoexplaintheirunderstandingoftheconceptstomealongwithother
preceptsandpracticesthatareinfluentialinthelivesofthepeopleIlivedand
workedamongst,attemptingtoobtainthemeaningsofthesecontainedwithin
theDhamma-theuniversalteachingsofBuddha61,andthedifferencebetween
thisofficialdoctrineandthatbeingnarratedtomebylayinformants.Isoughtout
andinterviewedmonksofvaryinglevels:novicesandordainedmonksinboth
ruralandurbanpagodasandformermonkswhohadlefttheSangha(the
Buddhistmonasticcommunityofmonksandnuns).Ispentawonderfully
informativeafternoonwithaVenerableProfessoratthePreahSihanoukRaja
BuddhistUniversity,andalthoughTepVong62,thePatriarchofCambodian
61
LaiddownforTheravadaBuddhismintheTipitaka–thePaliCanon.
62TepVong,officiallytitledSamdechPreahAggaMahāSangharājādhipatiTepVong-ForemostGreatSupremePatriarchLeaderTepVong,isonetheJanuary7thmonks–thesevenmonksreinstatedundertheVietnameserulein1980asleadersofthere-established(althoughstilltightlycontrolled)BuddhistSanghafollowingitsdestructionundertheKhmerRouge.TepVongisasomewhatcontroversialfigure.HeremainstightlyentwinedwiththepoliticsofCambodia’srulingparty,andhas,inthepast,condonedtheuseofviolencebytheCambodiangovernment,arguingthatitisallowedunderBuddhism(Harris2001).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 88
Buddhismwasalwaystoobusytomeetwithme,hissecretary,amonkofmany
yearsexperience,gavemetwointerviews.
InadditiontothemembersoftheSangha,Ispentmuchtimewithlay-experts:I
interviewedapoetandadvisorwithintheMinistryofCultandReligion,several
âchar(layBuddhistpriests)andacoupleoflecturersfromtheBuddhistuniversity.
IalsointerviewedseveralMuslimKhmerattheTuoltompongMosque;I
attemptedtointerviewImamsinPhnomPenh,butallappointmentswere
cancelledatthelastminutesoadūcha(teacherofIslam)spokewithmeinstead.
ToaccessotherreligionsIwasluckyinmyresearchassistants:mythreeprimary
assistants(whoeachworkedwithmeforseveralmonths)wereChristian,Muslim
andBuddhist.ThereisnotoneleaderfortheChristianfollowersinCambodia,but
IinterviewedaKhmerpriestfrommyruralsiteandSompoah,myfirstresearch
assistantwasChristian,soIalsoaccessedherknowledge.
Afterconflictmuchismadeofthe‘victims’63,andanoftensimplistic
dichotomizationofsufferingpresentedofinnocentvictimsandevilperpetrators.
Totryandavoidthis,aswellasresearchingwithpeoplewhoclassifythemselves
as‘victims’Iwasconscioustoworkwithformercadre.Thisprovedtobeeasier
thanIexpected:alevelofimpunityexistswithinCambodiathatnotonlyenables
ex-KhmerRougecadretolivefreelyinthecommunity,butalsomeansthat
severalofficialsinthecountryareex-KhmerRouge,andthatpeoplecanspeak,
63Ifindtheterm‘victim’highlyproblematic,beingsovalueloadedandinfluentialinpeople’sreactions.Themoraldichotomyimpliedbythetermsperpetratorsandvictimssuggestsadistinctionnotonlybetweenpeople,butbetweenbadandgood;guiltandinnocence;deciteandhonesty;distrustandreliability.Havingworkedinmassgraveinvestigations,IamhighlyconsciousofthefactthataftersucharegimeastheKhmerRouge,peoplequicklyre-labelthemselves,andeveryonebecomesavictimandadoptstherhetoricofsufferingthataccompaniesit.WhilstalevelofimpunityexistsinCambodiathatallowspeopletoacknowledgetheirmembershipintheregimewithlittleconsequence,mostofthepeopleIencounteredwerehighlyawareofthepoliticalnatureofpresentations.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 89
thoughusuallyinguardedterms,abouttheirtimeasacadre(seechapterfive).I
knewbeforehandthatsomeofthepeopleIinteractedwithwereex-Khmer
Rouge;othersIfoundoutaboutlater.Somewouldtellmeimmediately,using
euphemismstodescribetheiraffiliation,rangingfromtheopaque‘Ifoughtinthe
forest,’tothetransparent‘IwasasoldierofKhieuSamphan’(Presidentduring
DemocraticKampuchea,andoneofthethreeKhmerRougeleaderstriedatthe
ExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia–theECCC).Withothersit
becameclearasinterviewsorinteractionswenton:somementionofaslogan
theywouldsing,oradiscussionoftheirworkduringtheregimewouldmakeit
cleartheyhadbeencadre.Althoughusuallyuncalculated,Ihadthedistinct
impressionthatsometimesthisuseofeuphemismsordisclosuresduring
conversationwasdonetotestme:bothmyknowledge(didIknowwhatthe
euphemismmeant?)andmyreaction(wouldIjudgetheinterviewee?).Itriednot
tojudge;thedistanceintimesincetheseeventsmadethatsomewhateasier.64
Thoughheappearsinfrequentlyinthisthesis,Iwasgrantedaccesstoconductan
interviewwithComradeDuch(KaingGuekEav):formercommandantofTuol
Slengprison,atKandalprovincialprison,whereheisservingalifesentencefor
crimesagainsthumanity,torture,andmassmurder.
Languageandtheuseofresearchassistants
Theroleofresearchassistantsisoftenobscuredinanthropologicaltexts,
obfuscatedundertermssuchasculturalmediator,keyinformant,orenablers
(MiddletonandCons2014).Borchgrevink(2004)arguesthatamythexistswithin
anthropologythat‘true’anthropologicalresearchcanonlybeobtainedbythose
64Inaddition,manyoftheex-cadreIcametoknowwereverykindandopentome:thevillageIwasmadethemostwelcomeinandatwhichIfeltthemostsecureandtheleastexploitedwasaKhmerRougere-settlementvillage.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 90
withfluency,andwhilstmanyanthropologistsuseresearchassistants,their
obscuringistheresultofafearofcriticism.Gupta(2014:394)statesthat:
‘successfulethnographicworkdependsuponawiderangeofcollaborations,’a
centraloneofwhichisoftentheresearchassistant.Consideredcollaborations
withmyresearchassistantsenabledtheresearchIconducted.
ThelanguageofCambodiaisKhmer,alanguagederivedfromamixtureof
SanskritandPali.PriortoleavingforthefieldItookKhmerlessonsatSOAS,and
onarrivalIenrolledinanintensivecourseattheRoyalUniversityofPhnomPenh.
ForthreemonthsIwenteverymorningtotheUniversity.IalsotookKhmer
conversationallessonsonceaweekwithagroupofothernewex-pats.We
learnedthebasics,andIwouldpracticeinmydailylife.Makingadealwitha
motodrivertotakemedailytotheuniversityprovidedagreatopportunity:Bu
Motowaspatientandallowedmetopracticeonourdailycommute.Afterthis
initialphase,IcontinuedwithlessonsthroughoutmytimeinCambodia.OnceI
movedtothefieldmyresearchassistantstaughtmeaspectsofthelanguage,and
IwouldhaveformallessonswheneverIwasbackinthecapital.Manyinterviews
weretranscribedtogether,andIlearnedalotthroughthis,andofcourse,through
thedailyresearch.
ThroughoutmytimeinCambodiaIhadtwoprimaryresearchassistants,
Sompoah,agraduateofUniversityinThailand,whoIworkedwithfromJanuary–
June2013,andPhasy,agraduateoftheAsianWomen’sUniversityinBangladesh,
whoIworkedwithfromJuly–December2013.Ialsoworkedfrequentlywith
Bunnwath,whowasworkingonanundergraduatedegreeinsocialsciencesandis
himselfsomewhatofanexpertinspiritsandthedeadhavingpreviouslyworked
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 91
alongsidemycolleaguePaulChristensenresearchingspiritmediumsacrossthe
country.Inaddition,whenworkingatdifferentlocations,Iendeavouredtowork
withsomeonelocalorwithpriorconnectionstothesite,becausetheir
establishedlinksandnetworksoftrustweregreatfacilitatorsingainingaccessto
informantsandprovidinglocallyparticularknowledge.Thiswasespeciallytrue
whenworkinginPhnomGrahom,atwhichattemptingresearchwithoutalocal
gate-keeperwouldhavebeenimpossible,duetothenatureofthevillage-a
KhmerRougere-settlementvillage-andthetimingoftheresearch-justbefore
thegeneralelections,whenthehorrorsoftheKhmerRougeperiodwerehighly
visibleduetoelectioncampaigning(seechapterseven)andthreatswerebeing
madetoprosecuteallformerKhmerRougeofficers.
Iworkedcloselywithmyresearchassistants,whoweretrainedbyme,andwith
whomIhadagoodleveloftrust65.Encounterswereusuallythree-way,between
myinformants,myresearchassistant,andme.AsMiddletonandCons(2014)
note,researchassistantsaremorethan‘mereciphers’ofknowledge;theyprovide
anextrasetofeyesandearsinthefield:mylocalassistantsprovidedlocal
knowledgeandinsight,andallwereagreatresourceformetocheck
assumptions,testdata,andtocorrectandteachmeonmodesofinteraction.66In
KohSop,havingaresearchassistantwithmeatalltimesalsoprovidedanelement
ofsecurityinalocationwhereviolenceagainstwomen,includingrape,was
65Madeexplicitinamyriadofways,butmosttellingly,when,onarrivalinKohSop,Phasy,whohadbeenchattingwiththeschool’sHeadmaster,toldmethathehadtoldhernottotellmeanythingnegativethatsheover-heard:Ishouldonlybetoldthepositivestories.Phasyneveradheredtothisrequest,andnor,afterawhile,didtheHeadmaster.
66Onapurelypersonalnote,Phasy,myassistantinKohSop,alsoprovidedcompanionshipandsecurityinthesomewhatunstablelocationwewerestayingin.Shewasalsoafirst-classcockroachhunter,whichhelpednoendwhenonemanagedtocrawlunderourmosquitonettonibbleonmytoesinthenight:asIpanickedandtriedtosqueezemyselfintoacornerPhasycalmlypickeduptheroachesandtookthemoutside,whereshesquashedthem.InreturnIprotectedherfromtheoverrambunctiouspuppiesanddogsinthevillageofwhichshewascautious.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 92
consideredathreat.Thedatacollectedforthisthesis,therefore,andthe‘field’
withinwhichIworked,emergedthroughthethree-waydynamicofmyassistants,
myinformants,andmyownencountersateachsite.Myresearchassistantsare
‘partandparcelofthesocialontologyofthefield’(ibid:282),whichwas
‘constitutedbythenetworkofconnectionsandlinkagesforgedindoingfieldwork’
(Gupta2014:399).
Anoteonwriting
Mydataanalysiswasacontinual,ongoingprocessthroughoutandpostfieldwork
because‘fieldworkiscontinuouslyanalyticincharacter,asfieldnotesarealways
productsofpriorinterpretiveandconceptualdecisions,and,hence,areripewith
meaningsandanalyticimplications’(Emerson,FretzandShaw2011:198).While
transcribinginterviewsandgoingovernotesinthefieldInoticedemerging
themes,whichhelpeddirectsubsequentresearch.Onreturningfromthefield,
andpriortowriting,Iundertookfurtheranalysisofmydata.Ire-assessedall
recordedmaterial,and,organiseditintoprimarythemes.Sometopicswere
madeapparentbykeyevents,someappearedintheminutiaeofeveryday
encounterswithinmyfieldnotes,andotherscamefromanalysisofmytranscribed
interviews.IusedNvivo67toorganisethetranscribedmaterialanddosomebasic
coding,whichwasausefulinitialorganiser,however,itcannotexplore
connectionsanddisjuncturesbetweendata,andtendstogeneraliseindividuals
andspecificencounterswhichmaybeethnographicallyvital(Emerson,Fretzand
Shaw2011:216);Iuseditprimarilytorevisitandreacquaintmyselfwiththedata,
someofwhichhadbeencollectedmorethaneighteenmonthspreviously.
67Qualitativedataanalysissoftware.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 93
Thisdissertationisanethnographicthesis,andassuchitisacraftedstory
developedtomyownends,whereeventsaremademeaningfulthroughmy
interpretation(Geertz1973a;Emerson,FretzandShaw2011:199).Itdeveloped
outoffieldwork,whichwasasmuchembodiedasitwasinformedbynarrative,
however,beingtextual,thethesisultimatelyreliesonnarrativestructuresto
communicateitsfindings.Thispresentsatensioninthattheexperiential
elementsofstudycanlittlebepresentedthroughtherhetoricaldevicesavailable
inwriting(Atkinson1992)andmustbewrestledintosomeintelligiblestory
communicablethroughtext.Thewritingofthisthesis,therefore,isasmuchofa
methodasthefieldworkwas.
What’sinaname?
Recentworkinthesocialscienceshasquestionedthepracticeofmaking
informantsanonymous,arguingittobeaformofneo-colonialistpractice,ade-
humanisingconventionthatreducespeopletodata(AbsolonandWillett2005;
TuhiwaiSmith2012).PartoftheviolenceoftheKhmerRougeregimewasto
renderallpeopleanonymous,classifyingthemintoclasseswithnoindividual
recognition(Gray2014:66).However,Cambodiaisacountrystillrifewith
violence,notleastpoliticalviolenceagainstdissentersandmanyofmyinformants
wereafraidtotalkaboutissuestheydeemedpolitical.Therefore,whilstI
recognisetheabovearguments,Iconsidertheneedforprotectiontobe
imperativeandhavethereforefollowedtheanthropologicalconventionofonly
namingthoserequestingtobenamed.Allothershavebeenrenamedwitheither
genericnamesinplaceoftheirown(suchasLōkOm-atermofrespectusedto
addressoldermen,orBongSreymeaningoldersisterforexample),orcommon
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 94
Khmernames(suchasSoth,Samnang,orChanforexample).Othershavebeen
namedbytheirrole(Monk,Âcharandsoon).Asafurtherattempttodisguise
identities,somepeoplehavebeenmergedtocreatecompositecharacters,whilst
othershavebeensplittoproducemultiplepersons.IhavenotrenamedChoeung
Ek,however,theothersitesvisitedhavebeenretitled,andtheirlocations
obscuredasfaraspossiblewithoutcompletelyremovingintegralfeatures.
95
SectionTwo:DigginguptheDead
Chaptertwo:Spiritualremains-caringforthedead
IfIthinkaboutthosewhodiedintheforest,theyareintheheat,scratchingabout
everywhere.IwalkedtomanyprovinceswhereIwasevictedtofromJanuaryfirsttill
Junefirst.Isawthedeadeverywhere.Thesedeadwecollected;itisluckyforthem.
-TaTa,onthehousingofremainsinstatesponsoredstupa
********
Thedeadarevitalbeingsthatinteractwiththelivingandhelpregulatesociety
andmaintainmoralorderinpost-conflictCambodia.Hundredsofthousandsof
deadlieinthemassgravescausedbytheKhmerRouge;aswesawinprevious
chapters,themajorityoftheseremainwheretheywereburied,andthespacesof
theirdeathhavebeenre-appropriatedintoeverydaylife.Livingwiththedeadis
acceptedaspartofeverydaylifeacrossmuchofCambodia;overtimetheyhave
changedinstatusfrombeingdangerousentitiesoffeartoharmlessbeings.
Thenextthreechaptersconcernthesedead,examiningtheirtreatmentandhow
relationshipswiththemhavechanged,andexploringhowthemassdeadkilled
duringtheregimehavebeenre-integratedintosocietythroughinformalusesof
thereligiousandritualsystemsofanimismandBuddhism.Bydescribingthe
everydayinteractionsbetweenthosekilledandtheliving,thesethreechapters
willshowhow,inoppositiontothegovernment’scommodificationofthedeadas
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 96
instrumentsinstatepoliticsandthebuildingofa‘new’Cambodia,localpeople
havereintegratedthedeadintothesocialsystem,andbydoingso,havefound
theirownwaysofrememberingandre-connectingwiththem,waysthatprovide
comfort,stabilityandsecurity,andwaysthatenablethemtoresistthestate
appropriationofthedeadasnamelessentities.
TheintertwinedsystemsofBuddhismandanimismareintegralinthisre-
integrationofthedead.Thischapterexaminesthese,discussingthefeatures
withineachthatenablepeopletousethemtodaytounderstand,narrate,and
dealwiththeKhmerRougeperiodanditsongoinglegacy.Itexplainsthewaysin
whichthosekilledundertheKhmerRougeregimeare(orwere)caredfor,
examiningtheirritualtreatment,anddescribinghowthishasnowbeen
integratedintotheKhmerannualcycle.Bydoingsoitlaysthegroundworkforthe
nexttwochapterswhichexaminespecificwaysinwhichthedeadandtheliving
relatedtoeachother,andhowtheyhavebeenreincorporatedintosociallife
today,firstbylookingatthechangingrelationshipsbetweenghosts(khmouch)of
thosekilledandtheliving(chapterthree),andthenexaminingthespecific
conceptsofreincarnationandkarma(chapterfour).
Inordertodothis,thischapterwillfirstprovideabriefoverviewoftheplaceof
BuddhismandanimisminCambodia,andhowthesewereaffected(ornot)by
DemocraticKampuchea.Itwillnextdescribefuneralritesandotherrituals
relatedtothedeadthatattendtothosekilledundertheregime,before
consideringthedifferencebetweenthosekilledundertheregime,andthose
killednow.Itwillshowhowtheresponsibilityofcaringforskeletalremainsofthe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 97
dead(whichnolongerrepresenttheindividual)hasbeendelegatedtothestate,
whilstpeoplecarefortheirrelativesspirituallythroughtheannualcycleofrituals.
BuddhismandanimismincontemporaryCambodia
SincetheThirteenthCenturythestatereligionofCambodiahasbeenTheravada
Buddhism.WhilstIammindfuloftheseductiveappealofdepictionsofitasbeing
allencompassing(eitherbeforeorafterDemocraticKampuchea),Buddhismis
significanttomanyKhmerpeople’slives,aswellastocommunitylifeingeneral.
95%ofthepopulationself-identifyasBuddhist(NIS2012),andexceptinatiny
minorityoflocations,theBuddhistpagodaisacentralelementofmostvillages
andiswheremostcommunalandcommunityeventsoccur,suchasvoting,village
meetings,ritualandfamily-basedceremonies.TheKhmerannualcalendar
revolvesaroundtheBuddhistritualcycle,andmanyofthepracticesofBuddhism
infusetheeverydaylifeoftheKhmerpopulation,eventhosefollowingother
religions.Myresearchassistant,aChveaMuslim68,recountedvisitingthepagoda
everyyearasachildatNewYearandsometimesotherritualdays.Shetoldme
thatitiscommon(inhervillageatleast),forMuslimfuneralceremoniestobe
heldonthefirst,seventhand100thday,apracticeinheritedfromBuddhism.In
KohSop,severalpeoplehadconvertedtoChristianityintheyearssince
DemocraticKampuchea:moststill,however,visitthepagodaonritualoccasions;
‘wedon’tburnincense,soit’sok’,oneofmyinformantstoldme.Anothersaid
‘theBiblesaidthatifwebelieveinGod,weareallowedtocelebrateany
ceremoniesaslongaswedonotburntheincense.’
68ManypeopleautomaticallyassumeallMuslimKhmerareCham–anethnicminorityfromSoutheastAsia,whomakeuparound1.6%oftheKhmerpopulation(NIS2008),wheninfacttheyareamixtureofChamandChveaMuslims.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 98
Buddhismisintertwinedwithanimism;thetwoareinterdependentandcannotbe
disconnectedAsAlexandraKent(2003:12),whohasworkedextensivelyonthe
subject,explains:‘themonkssharethecosmologyoflocalpeople:an
understandingofthepathogenicimplicationsofneglectingancestorsorbreaking
codesofconduct,thepowersofthevariouskindsofspirits…’69TheNeakTa,the
guardianspiritswhoformitscore,areascentraltosocialandcommunitylifefor
manycommunitiesasthepagodasare;indeed,manypagodashaveaNeakTa
thatlooksoverthem(O'Lemmon2014).In1988AngChouléannotedthat
Buddhismwassuperimposedontoapre-existinganimistbackground,populated
byanassortmentofspiritbeings(Chouléan1988)andinexaminingtherevivalof
BuddhismafterDemocraticKampuchea,AlexandraKentexplainsthat‘thetwo
systemsoperatesymbioticallyinthepopularmilieu’(Kent2003:13).Myown
fieldworkfoundthisstilltobethecase,perhapsevenmoresonowadays.Witha
widespreaddistrustofgovernmentandstateinstitutions,therehasbeena
resurgenceofritualsfortheguardianspiritsthatweredifficulttoconductwhilst
thecountrywasstillinconflictinthe1980sand1990s(Zucker2006;O'Lemmon
2014),andnewspiritmediums(Kruboramey)andceremoniesforthemhave
beenestablished(Christensen2014).Formanyofmyinformants,attending
pagodaandengaginginBuddhistpracticeswasimportantonparticularritual
occasions(suchasNewYearandPchumBenh)70,however,moreimportantin
theireverydayliveswasmaintainingpositiverelationshipswiththelocalNeakTa;
ascustodiansofthelandandwateritistheywhoinfluencethewell-beingand
stabilityofeverydaylife.
69
Thetwosystemsaresointertwinedthattermsusedtoaddresstheeldersineachareidentical–LōkTaforexample,isaformofaddressusedtorefertoVenerablemonks;itisalsothetermusedtonamemanyofthetutelaryspirits(alsoknownasNeakTa).
70Theseceremonieswillbediscussedlaterinthischapter.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 99
DuringtheKhmerRougeregime,an(almostsuccessful)attemptwasmadeto
eradicateBuddhism.Viewedasaforeigncorruption,whoseleaderswerehighly
influentialintheircommunities,andvocalintheirpoliticalaffiliations,itposeda
threattotheneworder(Harris2001)andtheKhmerRougemadeeveryeffortto
dismantleit.Monksweredisrobed,exiled,orkilled,andpagodasappropriatedas
holdingandkillingsites.Ritualswereforbidden,Buddhisticonsdestroyed71and
peoplefoundpracticingBuddhism,oranysemblanceofit,wereexecutedfor
disobeyingÂngkar.
Perhapsbecauseitisnotentrenchedininstitutions,butsituatedinthelandscape
itself,animismsufferednosuchpersecution.72Althoughritualswereforbidden
(andasaconsequenceafewNeakTagrewhungryanddied),animismwas
tolerated.SomeKhmerRougecadrecontinuedtoseekadvicefromspirit
mediums73andprotectionfromtheNeakTa.Sometimesthistooktheformof
humansacrifices:inhermemoir,SithaNaorecallsalocalKrubeingcalledonfor
adviceaboutbuildingadam–withnoconstructionexperts,thedamkept
collapsing,andmanypeoplediedduringitsconstruction.TheKrudetermined
71
HeadswerechoppedoffstatuesoftheBuddha,andotherssmashedinreligioussitesacrossthecountry.Theremnantsremaininmanylocationsandhavebecomeobjectsofworshiponceagainused;theheadlessremainseerieremindersoftheattempttodestroyoldCambodia.
72AlthoughnowadaysitisheavilyimplicatedinpoliticalaffairswiththeKingandimportantpoliticiansconsultingKru(spiritmediums)toconsulttheNeakTaonaffairsofstateaswellaspersonalmatters.
73SpiritmediumshavemanynamesinCambodia.Theover-archingtermforallmediumsisKruboramey;Krutranslatestomaster/teacher,andborameyreferstothespiritualpowerpāramī(boramey)thattheyaccess.AKrucanbeateacher,amedium,aswellasthespiritthatpossessesaparticularmedium.ThetypeofmediummyinformantsusuallyspokeaboutwereKrujoalrūb–joalrūbtranslatesas‘entersthebody;’thesemediumsarepossessedbyspecificNeakTawhopassknowledgefromthespiritworldontotheirmediums.Becauseofthat,KrujoalrūbareusuallyalsoKruNeakTa.Theyshouldnot,however,beconfusedwithKruKhmer(traditionalhealers)orKruTiey(astrologers/fortunetellers)neitherofwhichusuallyaccessthespirits.PaulChristensen,whoworksonKhmermediumsalsocameacrossothertypesofKru,includingKrukhmouch,KruarakandKrubeysat,allofwhichaccessthespiritsbutarenotpossessedbythem(Christensen2015),however,myinformantsneverspokeofthese.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 100
thattheNeakTa(acrocodilespirit)owningtheriverrequiredthesacrificeof
threepregnantwomen:threewereselectedandthrowntotheirdeathsamongst
thecrocodiles(Nao2013:84-86).Inherethnographyofthere-orderingofmoral
lifeincontemporaryCambodia,EveZucker(2013)reportspeoplebeingburiedin
thefoundationsofadaminKampongSpeuforsimilarreasons.CadreI
interviewedtalkedaboutaskingthelocalNeakTaforprotectionandreceiving
medicinesandamuletsfromthelocalKru–severalexplainedthisiswhytheyhad
survivedinthejungleforsolong.ManyoftheNeakTasurvivedbecauseofthis
patronage,butalsobecausethereisnowaytodestroythem:theyown(andare
partof)theland,mountains,riversandoceans,andrepresentnoexternal
authority.
Aspreviouslymentioned,theanthropologicalrecordshowsusthatthedeadare
usuallyre-integratedintothelivesofthelivingthroughstructuredritualsofdeath
andmourning.ThebanningofritualsandotherBuddhistpracticescouldbe
assumedtohavecausedmuchdistresstothosesurvivingtheKhmerRouge,
particularlybecauseofthehugenumbersofdeadleftaroundthecountry.Inhis
classicstudyontheritesofpassage,vanGennep(1960[1908]:160)statesthat
thosedeadwhohavenothaveappropriateritualsconductedforthemare
miserable:
Likechildrenwhohavenotbeenbaptised,named,orinitiated,personsforwhom
funeralritesarenotperformedarecondemnedtoapitiableexistence,sincethey
areneverabletoentertheworldofthedeadortobeincorporatedintothe
societyestablishedthere.Thesearethemostdangerousdead.Theywouldlike
tobereincorporatedintotheworldoftheliving,andsincetheycannotbe,they
actlikehostilestrangerstowardsit.Theylackthemeansofsubsistencewhich
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 101
theotherdeadfindintheirownworldandconsequentlymustobtainthematthe
expenseoftheliving.
Ritualsarecatalystsofprocessesthatenablethere-imaginingofsocialnetworks
andre-establishmentofstabilityfollowingtherupturethatdeathcauses(Rosaldo
1989).Theyareusedtoensurecontinuityinsocialsystemsthroughmanaging
processesthatremakekinship,reconfigurehierarchiesandestablishneworder.
Periodsofwar,orothersocialcatastrophessuchasdisastercausedeathsoutside
thesesocialsystems,producing‘unhappydead’;beingsstuckin‘perpetual
liminality’(vanGennep1960[1908])whoareforcedtoexistincontinualsuffering
becausetheycannotmoveontotheircorrectplaneofexistence.Itisonlywith
properritualcarethattheirsufferingcanbealleviated.InVietnam,followingthe
massacresatMyLaiandHaMy,forexample,manylivingpeoplesufferedpain
andshamebecausetheyhadbeenunabletocarefortheirdeadrelatives
properly:thosekilledwereinitiallyburiedinmassgravesinfarmland,and
followingtheendofthewar,werehastilyreburiedintheforestsandsanddunes,
becausetheancestralfamilyburialgroundsweredestroyedduringtheconflict
(Kwon2006:47-50).ForothersurvivorsoftheVietnamWar,theburialof
relativesinwar-heromonumentscausedon-goinganguishtotheliving,because,
beinginstatesponsoredtombsofmartyrs;theywereunabletofulfilltheir
obligationstothedeadbyfeedingthem(Kwon2008b).InEastTimor,theforcible
relocationofpeoplefollowingthemilitaryinvasionbyIndonesiain1975meant
thatpeoplewereunabletoattendproperlytothespiritswhoresideinthe
landscape.Inadditiontheyearsofcivilconflictensuingthereafterresultedin
hugenumbersofdeadwhocouldnotbeproperlyburied.Thisledtoalandscape
ofdanger–filledwithaspiritualpotencyknownaslulik.Afterbeingableto
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 102
returntotheirhomelandsinthe1990s,peoplewereeagertore-establishpositive
relationshipswiththelandspiritstoprovideprotectionfromthosespirits
saturatingthelandscapeandincreasingthedangeroflulik(Bovensiepen2009).
Thegrievousdead
Thisisbecausethosewhodieinsuchviolentcircumstancesusuallybecome
grievousdead.Thegrievousdeadarethecauseofmuchsocialunrest.Their
liminalstatuscausesthemtointerjectintothelivesoftheliving,sometimesin
extremelydisruptiveways:bringingbadfortune,illness,evendeath.InAfterthe
Massacre(2006),Kwondescribesthespiritsofpeoplewhohavesuffereda
‘grievousdeath’inVietnam,asbeing‘stuck’:asghostsnotspirits;betweenthe
insidedominionofthehouseortombandtheoutsidedomainofthestreetorthe
world;betweenthisworldandthenext.Thisisparticularlythecaseforthose
buriedenmasse,thephysicalconfusionofwhichtrapsthedead.Theunhappy
ghostsaresourcesofstressforthelocalpeople–survivorssufferguiltandshame
intheempathyandshametheyfeelattheirimproperburialandunhappystateof
thedead.Onepersoncommented(Kwon2006:121):
That’snotaproperlife;that’snotalifeatall….Onceinawhile,particularlythe
firstlunarmonth,theshamecamebackandinducedterriblepaininme.’
Inordertofreethesedeadfromtheirsuffering,peopleacrossVietnamstartedto
reburythem;atHaMyandMyLai,movingthemfromhastilydugmassgravesto
communalburials74,andinotherlocationsacrossVietnamfromthemassive
74Wherethose‘grievousdead’aretheresultofamassacre(asoccurredinHaMyandMyLai)reburialisoftentoacommunalmemorialsite,however,unlikeincaseswhereacollectivememorialsiteservestoprovidecollectiveidentity(particularlyofvictimhood)thatmaybe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 103
heroescemeteriestoindividualfamilytombs.Thesemovementsfreedthedead
becausetheyprovidedaproperburial,andenabledthelivingtogivepropercare
andattentiontothedeadinawaythatwasnotpossibleineithermassgravesor
thestatewarmemorials.InThailand,annualritualsbyChineseimmigrant
populationsdedicatedtorelieving‘restlessghosts’–thosespiritsofthe
‘unfortunatedead’(Formoso1996:218)-arecommonplace,andboththe
immigrantChineseandlocalThaipopulationstakepart.75Ifnotlaidtorest,the
unfortunatedead‘becomerestlessghostswhohauntthehumanworldand
threatenthesocialorderaswellasindividual’(ibid:220).Thisparallelsthecase
inTimorLeste,wheremanyofthespiritsofthosewhokilledinconflictswith
Indonesiaremainrestlessintheland,particularlywheretheywerenotproperly
buried(Bovensiepen2009:336).Insomecasesthedeadarelonely,inothers
hungry,inothersvindictiveandangry,andseekingrevenge.
InCambodiatheunhappydead(khmouchdtaihong–literallymeaningcorpsesof
violence)arethosewhohavediedunexpectedly,usuallyintragiccircumstances
forwhichneitherthey,northeirlovedones,wereprepared:acarcrashora
murderforexample.Theseareliabletobecomeeithermalevolentspiritsof
mischiefandmayhem(preay),whodisruptthesocialorderandcauseproblemsto
bothindividualsandgroups,orghosts(khmouch)whoaretrappedwaitingfor
theirrebirth(Chouléan1988).Thesespirits,accordingtoAngChouléan,canbe
calmed,butarerarelycompletelyplacated,andannualceremoniesarerequired
welcomedbyrelatives,friends,andotherinterestedparites(PotočariinBosnia-Herzegovinaforexample),inVietnamthecommunalsiteservedapurelystatefunctionthatstoodincontestationtoeverydaypeople’sneedsanddesires.
75AlthoughFormosoarguesthatsomeThaipeopletakepartinordertoweighdowntheimmigrantChinesepopulationwiththemalevolentghostsoftheirunfortunatedead.!
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 104
tomanagethem,preventingtheminterferinginpeople’slives,causingillness,
misfortuneandevendeathinextremecases.
OnewouldexpectthedeadfromtheKhmerRougetofallintothiscategory.
Thoseexecutedortorturedsufferedsuddenandviolentdeaths.Althoughthe
deathsofthosedyingofdiseaseand/orstarvationwereoftenslowand
torturous,theytoodied‘khmouchchikkei’(likedogs-literallytranslatedas‘dead
dogs)-withoutceremony.Indeed,someresearchershaveassertedthatthe
spiritsofthosewhodiedduringtheregimefallintosuchcategories,andare
thereforefrighteningandthreateningentitiestolivingKhmer.RachelHughes
(2005:276),whoundertookresearchatChoeungEk,declaredthat:
Incasesofviolentoraccidentaldeathitiswidelybelievedthatthespiritofthe
deceasedremainsintheplaceofdeathasaspiritorghost,insteadofmovingon
totherealmofre-birth.Ghostsmayharmthelivingbycausinggreatsickness
andmisfortune.Inlightofthisbelief,manyCambodiansconsiderChoeungEka
highlydangerousplaceandrefusetovisittheMemorial.
ThisassertionpresumesthatthedeadofthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRouge
regimeareviewedinthesameway,andhavethesamepowers,asthosewhodie
now,andarethereforesubjecttothesameemotions,actions,andrituals,
becausethesedeadhaveremainedstaticintheirdispositionandidentity.
However,thisisnotthecase;whilstthedeadwereinitiallyfrightenedand
threateningtotheliving,therelationshipshavechangedovertimeandtheyhave
longsincebeenpowerless,orhavemovedontotheirnextlives(seechapters
threeandfour).TounderstandrelationshipswiththeKhmerRougedead,we
mustfirstexaminethedifferencebetweenthemandthosewhohaverecently
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 105
died,becauseitisinthesedistinctionswheretheiremploymentasentitiesof
politicalpowerandsocialactionbecomespossible.Thisisbestintroducedwitha
shortstoryfrommyfieldwork.
WhenIhadbeeninthecountryaboutsixmonths,Soth,afriend’scolleague,went
missingfromPhnomPenh.Heavilyindebt,peopleatfirstpresumedhehadrun
awayorevenkilledhimself,toavoidtheloansharkstowhomheowedalarge
amountofmoney.Whenhisbodywasdiscoveredacoupleofdayslaterit
becameclearthathehadbeenmurdered.Hisfamily,havinglittlemoneytopay
foraninvestigation76andthereforenolegalrequirementtokeepthebody,had
himcrematedonthedayhewasfound.WhenIaskedwhythecremationhad
takenplacesoquickly,myfriendtoldmethattheywereafraidofthe
consequencesofallowinghisspirittowanderbecausehewaskhmouchdtaihong,
andthereforeliabletobecomeadangerousspiritthatcouldharmthefamily.
UsuallysevendaysofritualsfollowthedeathofapersoninCambodia.
Sometimesthisperiodmaybeextended(particularlyinthecaseofprestigious
andpowerfulpeople),butthroughoutit,thecorpseisverycarefullycaredforand
particularritualsconductedtofreethespiritfromthecorpseandenableitto
moveontoitsnextlife,whichoccursontheseventhdaywhenthecorpseis
76ThepoliceforceinCambodiaishighlycorrupt.Unlessthereisahighlevelofinternationalinterest,investigationsoftenonlyoccurifthefamilyorotherinterestedpartiescanpay.Themoremoneygiven,thebetterqualityinvestigationisconducted(oratleastthemorefindingsoccur).Oneofmyinformantstoldmethatthelowestamountofmoneyacceptedis$50,butusuallythepoliceexpectmore.Inacountrywheretheminimumwagewas$76pcmwhenIwasthere,thisiscompletelyunaffordable,andmanycrimes,evenextremelyviolentcrimesgouninvestigated.Forexample,threeyearsbeforeIarrivedinmyvillage,aseven-year-oldgirlwasraped.Sheknewtheteenagerswhorapedher,buthermothercouldnotaffordtopaythepolicetocomeandinvestigate.Sheborrowed$100andattemptedtosuethefamilywhosesonwasinvolved,however,theyrefusedtogotothecourt.Onapproachingthevillageanddistrictchiefstheytoldhertherewasnothingtheycoulddo.Threeyearsonsheisstillpayingoffthedebt,andherdaughterhastoliveontheislandwiththeboyswhorapedher.Unfortunatelythisisnotanuncommontypeofstory.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 106
appropriatelydisposedof–usuallyviacremation(Davis2009).Intheseven-day
periodbetweendeathanddisposal,thespiritposesathreatbecauseitdoesnot
realiseitisdead,andthereforemaytrytoreturntoitshomeandfamily.The
strictritualspreventthisthreatbeingplayedout.Ifsomeonediessuddenlyina
violentmanner,however,theirspiritisnotonlyconfused,butthereisthe
additionalriskthatthespiritmaybecomeapreayorotherkindofmalevolent
spiritthatstaysclosetotheliving.Inthiscase,itispreferabletocremateorbury
thepersonassoonaspossible,andconducttheritualsafterthecremation,so
thatthespiritcanmovequicklyawayfromthefamilyandhousehold.WhenSoth
wasfoundtohavebeenmurdered,thefamilywasafraidhisspiritwouldposea
threattothem;theythereforehadhimcrematedassoonastheycould,whilststill
performingtheritualsthatwouldnormallybeundertakenoverthesevendaysin
ordertoprovideproperritualcare.
ThedeadfromtheKhmerRouge,however,areadifferentstory.Althoughmost
diedviolently-khmouchdtaihong–andwithoutproperceremony-khmouch
chikkei-theyaresolongdeadthattheylongagobecamepowerless:theyaresap
(literallytasteless)-powerless,andunabletohaunt.Arecentlydeceasedspirit
onlyremainsdangeroustothefamilyandhouseholdinthesevendaysfollowing
itsdeath,intheperiodwhenitdoesnotrealiseitisdeadandthereforetriesto
comehome.77Aswewillseeinchapterthree,mostofthosewhodiedunderthe
KhmerRougedidnotbecomemalevolentspirits,andalthoughsomewere
disruptiveintheyearsimmediatelyaftertheregime,theyweresoonreintegrated
intoreciprocalrelationshipswiththeliving,andhavelongsincebecome
77Arecenttrend,particularlyinNorthernCambodia,istheconstructionofscarecrowstofrightenawaybadspirits.Thesescarecrowsareprimarilyforbadspiritswhoexistinthelandscape,however,theycanalsobeusedasanextrapreventativemeasureinthesevendaysafterdeathtoprotectahouseorvillage.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 107
powerlessordiedandbeenreborn.TheincredulityofmyinformantswheneverI
askedaboutthedangersoftheKhmerRougedeadwasobvious;oneexplained:
‘I’mscaredofthepeoplewhodienow.Bones(ch-ang)havebeendeadforalong
time.I’mnotscaredofthem.Butkhmouch78justdied.Theothersarebones-
whyshouldwebescaredofthem?’ThisispartlybecausethedeadoftheKhmer
Rougewerenotconsideredinthesamewayascontemporarydead,butmorelike
NeakTaintheirinhabitationofthelandscapeandreciprocalrelationswiththe
living,andpartlybecauseoftheflexiblenatureofKhmerBuddhism,which
enabledritualstoresurgeandreformtodealwiththerupturesoftheKhmer
Rougeregimeafteritsdemise.
TheravadaBuddhismallowsfuneralritestobeconductedwithoutthecorporeal
presenceofthecorpse,andtherearefouracceptablemodesofdisposalofthe
dead:abandonmentintheforest,abandonmentinwater,cremation,andburial
(Davis2009:80).79Whilstcremationandburialarepreferredincontemporary
Cambodia(cremationbyKhmerSot:pureKhmer,burialbyKhmer-Chen:Khmer-
Chinese),theotherformsremainvalidwherenecessary.Thedeadofthemass
graves,manyofwhomarewithinforestsand/orwater(manybodieswere
dumpedinwells,ponds,orirrigationcanals),arenotnecessarilytrappedin
inappropriateburials.Therewas,therefore,notthesameurgencytolocatethe
deadasinVietnamorEastTimorfollowingtheirconflicts,andnoneedtorebury
thedead.
78
Seechapterthreefordiscussionsonkhmouch.
79ReadersseekingamoredetaileddescriptionandanalysisoffuneralritesincontemporaryCambodiashouldrefertoErikDavis’s(2009)thesis,TreasuresoftheBuddha:ImaginingDeathandLifeinContemporaryCambodia.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 108
CareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRouge
Duringtheregimeformalritualsforthedeadwereimpossible.Evenimmediately
aftertheregimeduringthePeople’sRepublicofKampuchea(PRK)although
attentionwaspaidtore-establishingpagodas,Buddhismwasstillstrictly
controlled.Thenumbersofmonkswerelimited80andfewformalceremonies
occurred.Thesevenmonksreordainedintheperiodimmediatelyafterthe
regime’sdemisetoleadKhmerBuddhismwerethosewithallegiancestoVietnam,
andalthoughsomemonksreturnedtoCambodia,novitiateswerebanneduntil
thelate1980s.Althoughthedeadcausedsomedisturbanceinpost-DK
Cambodia,nostate-ledritualswereconducted,andwhileafewinformal,local
ceremonieswereorganised,inthemajorityoflocationsnoneoccurred.Astime
movedon,thedeadbecamecalmer,andtheirrelationshipswiththeliving
changed.NowadayscareforthephysicalremainsofthosekilledundertheKhmer
Rougehasbeendevolvedtothestate,andspiritualcarehasbeensubsumedinto
theBuddhistannualritualcalendar.
Careforthephysicalremains
Aswesawinchaptersoneandtwo,intheyearsimmediatelyfollowingthe
regime,manyoftheskeletalremainsscatteredacrossthesurfaceofthefieldsand
forestswerecollected,andsomemassgravesexcavated.Onceamassed,the
skeletalremains(khmouchcha’ang;literallythebonesofthedead)werehoused
inwoodenp’teahkhmouch–housesforthedeadbuiltundertheordersofthe
80
Forexample,nomalesundertheageoffiftycouldapplytobeordained,andqualificationsfromoutsideCambodiawerenotacceptedasproofofBuddhistlearning,thuslimitingthenumberofpeoplewhocouldbecomemonks.IanHarrisarguesthattheserestrictionswereinordertomaximiseproductionforcesinpost-DKCambodia(Harris2008:194).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 109
PRK.Thesecabin-likestructuresheldtheremainsformanyyears,andwhilst
manyhavenowbeenabandonedanddismantled,insomesites(suchasKohSop),
theyremainasevidenceofthepresenceofkillingfieldsatthesite.
AfterVietnamwithdrewfromCambodiain1989,thep’teahkhmouchwere
neglectedandabandoned;stateofficialsnolongermaintainedthem,andthey
heldlittleresonanceforpeopleinthelocalcommunities.AnneYvonneGuillou,
theonlyanthropologisttodoworkfocusingspecificallyonthedeadoftheKhmer
Rouge,statesthat‘thesememorialswereseenasstate-sponsored
commemorationdevicesandassuch[people]didnotfeelconcernedbythem’
(Guillou2012a:12).IntheareasIvisited,peoplesaiditwasnottheirbusinessto
lookafterthembecausethedeadwithinthem‘arenotourdead’(thisview
relatesnowadaystothecremationoftheremains,asdiscussedbelow).Thehuts
wereneglected,andfloods,animals,andtime,destroyedthebonesmany
contained.Followingacoupin1997,inwhichHunSen(thecurrentPrime
Minister)tookcontrolofCambodia,thepoliticalimportanceoftheremainswas
reinstated(seechaptersfive–seven),andthoseremainingweremovedfromthe
remoterurallocationstonewlybuiltconcretestupahousedwithpagoda
complexesinmoreeasilyaccessibleareas,oftengeographicallycloseorpolitically
affiliatedtoadistrictoffice.81
Oneoftheconcernsofthedeadisthetreatmentoftheirremains,andthisoften
relatestothelonelinesstheyfeelwhentheyarenotembracedwithinthefamily
orpagodacomplex.Althoughstate-ledformalritualswerenotconducted,and
81Theremainswereoftencollatedfromp’teahkhmouchinseveraldifferentareas,althoughoccasionallysomanyremainsexistedthatseveralpagodascouldcollectremains.InKohSop,theremainsweresplitbetweenthreepagodas,althoughthepagodawheredistricteventsareheldreceivedthemajorityofthebones.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 110
evenlocal,informaloneswererare,collectingthedeadandstoringthemtogether
enabledthemtobecaredfor,andtoberemovedfromthelonelinessand
sufferingthatthoseleftinthewildendured.
IntheliteratureonCambodiamuchismadeofthedistinctionbetweentheforest
[prei]andthetown[srok]assymbolsoftwodifferentperceptionsofmoralorder
(Davis2008;Lim2013;Zucker2013).BeforeIleftforthefieldIwashighly
dubiousthatthisdichotomywassoapparent:itseemedtoostructured,tooneat,
toodichotomous.EvenafterIhadbeeninthecountryforsometime,itseemed
anexaggeration.However,whenpeoplestartedtotalktomeaboutthedead
fromtheKhmerRouge,theydidindeedusetheselocationstosymbolisecontrol
andorderforthem.‘AftertheKhmerRouge,’Yaytoldme,‘lotsofthem[the
dead]werelostintheforest.’
Whilesrokrepresentsdomestic,controlled,andcivil,theforestrepresents
wildness,destructionanddisorder.Itis‘allthatischaotic,barbarian,untamed
andlawless’(Zucker2013:114).Theforestisusedtodescribethingsoutside
propercontrolandsocialorder-theKhmerRouge,forexample,wholivedand
fought‘intheforest.’82Inadditiontheforestistheplaceforthedead,particularly
thosewhohadunhappydeaths,ordidnotreceiveappropriatecare.Theforestis
frighteningforthelivingbecauseofitswildness,andbecauseofthisareasofland
thathadbeenkillingfields,andthereforeheldmanyghostswerecalledPrei
khmouch(forestofthedead,orforestofghosts)bysomeofmyinformants.
82ThiswasaeuphemismmanycadreusedwhenIfirstknewthemtoindicatetheirmembershipwiththeparty.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 111
Forthedead,therefore,whowerelostintheforest,lifewasfrightening,and
lonely,myinformantstoldme.Beingcollectedandcontainedwithinp’teah
khmouchprovidedawayofbringingthedeadinfromthewildandbackintothe
embraceofthestate.Thisrelateseventotheirdisplayinstupaintouristsites.
Yayyaytoldmethatbeingsomewherewithsomanypeoplealleviatestheir
loneliness,andbringsthembackintosociallife:
[beingondisplay]doesn’tbotherthem.Thereshouldbepeoplearoundtocalm
themdownratherthan leavingthemintheforest…. ithelpsa littlebittohave
peoplearound,haveelectricity,andbecrowded.Itislikereducing10%oftheir
loneliness.
Althoughmostofmyinformantsacknowledgedthepoliticalmotivationsbehind
themovementoftheremainsinthe1990s,theyconsideredthenewlybuiltstupa
tobeappropriateplacesforthedead.Whentheywereinwoodenp’teah
khmouchcowsandotheranimalsscavengedthebonesandweatherdegraded
them.OmTa,acaretakerwhoworksatChoeungEkfeltthattheconcretestupais
amuchbetterplaceforthedead:
It’sbetterthanbeforewhenweonlyhadawoodenbuilding.Nowwehavea
properplacewithshelvestostorethemon,andwecleantheskeletonsfromtime
totime.Beforeweonlyhadawoodenbuildinglikeanoldschoolbuildingand
theywerepiledupontopofeachother.Someofthemfelldown,andthedogs
wouldchewandcarrythebonesaround.Nowwehaveabetterplacetostore
them,whichreallyshowsrespecttothedead.
Inadditiontobeingpreferabletothefrangiblewoodenstructures,theconcrete
stupaalsoreplicatethecheddeithatmostremainsarekeptinfollowing
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 112
cremation.Cheddeiarestupabuiltspecificallytohousethecremainsofthedead.
Mostlybuiltbyfamilymembers,theyareusuallyconstructedwithinpagoda
complexes(becauseitisthemonkswhobestcontrolthedead(Davis2009)),
however,somepeoplehavethembuiltathome.Whilstinanidealscenariothe
remainsofeachindividualhastheirowncheddei,thisisonlyarealityfor
wealthierKhmer.Formany,thecostofthefuneralitselfiscrippling,andthe
buildingofacheddei(whichcancostseveralthousanddollars)beyondtheir
means.Becauseofthis,manypagodashaveacommunalstupa83fortheremains
ofthepoor.InseveralpagodasIvisitedthiscommunalstupaalsohousesthe
remainsofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougethuscaringforallofthosewhose
familiescannot(seefiguresix).
Figuresix:KhmerRougeremainsandurnsofthepoorattwodifferentpagoda(source:theauthor)
83Communalstupaareoftenpaidforbywealthypeopleasameansofgainingmerittoaccumulatekarma.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 113
AsamonkIspentseveralhoursinterviewingonBuddhistpracticesandteachings
explainedtome,evenwhenusedastouristattractions,suchasatChoeungEk,
stupaprovideappropriatestorageforthedead:
Youcansaythatbonesaredisplayed[inthesestupa].However,bonesarekept
inurnssothatfamilycanlookaftertheirparentsorrelative’sbone.Somebones
areputintheurnandkeptinthepagodaandsomebonesareputintheurnand
keptinastupainfrontofpeople’shomes.ThesebonesarekeptatChoeungEk
becausetheydonothaveanyrelatives,sotheyputthemallatoneplacesothat
otherpeoplewhocouldnotfindtheirrelativeswillcelebratebangskolandpass
themerittothosedeadpeople.
HisstatementhighlightsanotherimportantaspectofthecareoftheKhmerRouge
dead;thattheyarekeptincommunalstupabecausethey‘donothaverelatives.’
Bythishedoesnotmeanthatliterallynokinremains(althoughthisisthecasefor
some),butthatitisimpossibletodistinguishonesetofremainsfromanotherand
thatitcannotbeascertainedforcertainwhoserelativeseachsetofremainsis.It
isthereforepreferablethattheyremaininonelocationwhereanyonewhowants
tovisitcanaccessthem,thanbedistributedincorrectly.
Thisalsorelatestocremationoftheremains.Althoughcremationisthemost
commonmodeofcorpsedisposalinCambodia,itisnottheonlymeans,anditis
deemedunnecessary(andevendetrimental)fortheremainsoftheKhmerRouge
dead.Firstly,thedeadwhosebonestheyarehavealreadybeenreincarnatedinto
theirnextlife(seechapterfour).Assuchalthoughmaterialremnantsofthe
person,skeletalremainsarenolongerconnectedtothem;‘thosewhodiedcanbe
comparedtoapieceofwood,whichisworthless,’SreySreytoldme.Theiruseby
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 114
thegovernmentasmaterialsymbolsoftheregimeisthereforeacceptable,even
tothosewhoconsidertheirrelativestobeamongstthosedisplayed(seechapter
six).Secondly,cremationisarituallycontrolledactarrangedbyrelativesofthose
whohavedied.Oneofitspurposesistoreducethebodytoastateinwhichitcan
becollectedandstoredbytheliving(eitherathomeoratapagoda);‘wecremate
ourparentssothatwecanpickupsomebonesandkeepthem,’themonk
explained.84Thisisbothamarkerofrespecttothedead,butalsoholdssome
purpose:oncecrematedtheremainsareconsideredtoholdsomeaspectof
powerthatenablesprotectiontobegiventolivingkin(providedthedeadare
respectedwithofferingsonritualoccasions).Asthemonktoldme,thebonesleft
bytheKhmerRouge‘havenorelatives’;theyaremuddled,andwhilethisdoes
notcausedistresstoeitherthelivingorthedead,itdoesmeanthatcremationis
asimpossibleasitisunnecessary;‘Wedon’tknowthem.Wedon’tknowwhose
uncles,aunties,orrelativestheseare,’OmYaysaidwhenIaskedaboutit.YayDa,
whowaswithusaswewereconversing,elaborated:
Whenweseetheboneswedon’tknowwhichbonesaremyrelativesandwhich
onesarenot….Theydidn’tburnthebonesbecausenormallywhenwecremate
thebonestherehastobeafamilymembertorepresenteachfamilyandtakethe
ashtoputinanurnforrespect.However,inthiscasewedon’tknowwhich
bonesbelongtowhom.
Tocrematetheremains,therefore,wouldnotonlybeunnecessary(becausethe
deadhavebeenreincarnatedandtheirbonesarelikewood),butalsoimpossible
becausenobodyknowswhichremainsbelongtowhom.Thisrelatestotheearlier
84
FollowingKingFatherSihanouk’scremationinFebruary2013,thecurrentKing(NorodomSihamoni)andhismothersiftedthroughthecremainstoremovepiecesofbone:thiswasbroadcastacrossallTVstations,asthefuneralwastheonlythingbeingshownonKhmertelevisionthatevening.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 115
pointmadethatthedeadare‘notourdead.’Notonlydotheyholdnoritual
responsibilityforthem,butneithercantheyassumethisresponsibility;itisseen
asastateissue,andthereforeconsideredbetterthatthegovernmenttakescare
oftheminthecommunalstupas,whereatleasttwiceannually(atPchumBenh
andNewYear)theyreceivevisitorsandofferingsandhavemeritpassedtothem.
Annualritualcare
OfparticularimportanceinthecareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougeare
PchumBenh-theannualfestivalforthedead,KhmerNewYear,andforChinese-
Khmer,thegrave-sweepingfestivalofChengMeng.Whilstcorporealremains
soonbecamepowerlessandrelativelyunimportanttomostpeople,thespiritsof
thosewhodiedneededcarefulcareandconsideration.Themostimportant
aspectinthecareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougeisthepassingofmerit
fromthelivingtothedead.Thisenablesthedeadtoaccumulatekarma,which
willhelptheirnextreincarnation.PchumBenh,NewYearandChengMengall
enablemerittobesenttothedeadcollectively,andbecausetheyadequately
careforthedead,thereisnoneedforindividualfunerals,specialistceremonies,
orotherspecificactionsrelatedtothosekilledundertheregime.
PchumBenh,afifteendayritualheldannuallyinSeptemberorOctober(according
tothelunarcalendar),enablespeopletomakeofferingstosevengenerationof
deadkintolessentheir(thedead’s)suffering.JamesCliffordHoltarguesthat
PchumBenhisthemostimportantandpopularritualincontemporaryCambodia;
itis,hewrites,‘amajorcelebrationofthefamilyonanationalscale,and
somethingofacelebrationofthenationonafamilyscale’(Holt2012:12).Itis
becauseoftheturbulentdecadesofconflictandunrest,heargues,thatthisritual
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 116
hasbecomesoimportant.85PchumBenhisacollectiveritualdirectedtoany
whosedeathwas‘undesirable’(i.e.whodidnothaveapeacefuldeatheither
physicallyormorally);assuch,itincludesallowancesforthosewhodiedduring
DemocraticKampuchea.
Figureseven:depictionofPchumBenhatWatKampongTralach(source:theauthor)
Duringthefifteendays,preta(hungryghosts–thosewhohavediedinviolentand
unpredictedmanners),whohavebeentrappedintanarout–theKhmer
underworld-arefreed,andreturntoearthtofeed.86Peoplevisitsevenpagodas
85AmorecynicalpersonmightarguethatincontemporaryCambodia,where65%ofthepopulationneverexperiencedtheregime,orthedecadesofconflictsurroundingit,itspopularityderivesasmuchfromtheextendingnationalholidaythataccompaniesitasfromitsreligious,familial,ornationalmeanings.Certainlyamongstmanyofmyinformants,theholidaywastakenasanopportunitytorestandseefamilyandfriends,withmanynotevengoingtothepagodaonce,letaloneoneverydayofthefestival,asrituallymandated.
86Bunnwathtoldmetherearethreetypesofpreta:oneswhocaneatwhateverisoffered;ones
whocaneat,butonlyaftermonkshaverecitedthedhamma(Buddhistteachings)forthem;andoneswhosekarmaissobad,thatevenwhenfamilygiveofferingsandfood,theycannoteat.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 117
totransfermerittosevengenerationsofrelatives87;whichhelpsthem
accumulatekarmaandthusspeeduptheirreincarnation,andmakethenextlife
easier.88Meritispassedbytheperformanceofspecificchantsbythemonks;
duringPchumBenhthishappensearlyeachmorning.Inmostpagodasalonger
ceremonyisperformedonthefinaldayofthefestival;formanyofmyinformants
thiswastheonlydaytheyattendedpagoda.
ThePchumBenhceremonyreplicatesbangskol–genericritualsforthedeadthat
canbeconductedonanyoccasion(‘theprayersarethesame,itisjustthatoneis
calledBangskolceremony,onceiscalledPchumBenhceremony’amonktoldme).
Offeringsaregiventothemonks,whothenrecitespecificprayersthatpassmerit
tothedead.Aswithfuneralrituals,thepresenceofcorporealremainsisnot
necessary,however,thosewhosenamesarecalledandthereforeknowtocome
toreceiveitmoreeasilyreceivemerit.Thismakesnothavingcorporealremains
acceptablefortheliving;theyknowthataslongasthenameofyourdead
relativesiscalled,theywillreceivethemerityousendthem.
Unlikethephysicalremains,whichno-onehasresponsibilityfor,everyoneis
responsibleforthespiritsbecausetheyinterjectinthelivesofallliving,notonly
theirrelatives.ManyofthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRougelostalltheir
family.IncontemporaryCambodia,therefore,peopleareacutelyawarethat
somedeadmayhaveno-onetopassthemmerit.Inaddition,themassive
displacementsandrupturesoftraditionallivingpatterns,wherevillagesmoreor
lessequatedtofamilies(Ebihara1968),meansthatmanypeopledonotknowfor
87HoltsuggeststhatthesevengenerationsderivesfrommedievalChina,whereittooksevengenerationstobereincarnatedbackintothefamily(Holt2012:18).
88Reincarnationasoneofthemodesinwhichthedeadhavebeenre-incorporatedintoKhmersocietyisdiscussedinchapterfour.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 118
certainwhichoftheirrelativesdied.AnimportantaspectofPchumBenh
therefore,istosendmerittoalltheanonymousdead.BuSoth,whoworksat
ChoeungEkmakessuretopassmeriteveryyeartothosewhodiedatthesite:
Ihavesomemoney,soIgiveofferingstothemonksandIsharethatwiththe
dead,the8985peoplewhodiedhere-bothmenandwomen,maytheycometo
receivethemeritIdo(tveabon).
Thisisnotasaltruisticasitmayappear;asmentionedabove,PchumBenhiswhen
themalevolentpretacometoroamtheearth;givingthemofferingsandpassing
themmeritisnotonlyanactofcompassion,butalsoanactofprotectionforthe
living.
PchumBenhisnottheonlyceremonytoattendtotheKhmerRougedead.Before
KhmerNewYearinApril,mostKhmertveabon(dogooddeeds/makemerit-
literally‘doingceremonies’)byattendingapagodatobangskol.Forthemajority
ofmyinformants,theseceremonieswerebestperformedattheirlocalpagodas;
becausemeritcouldreachthedeadwherevertheyare,thereisnoneedtovisit
theirdeathsite,oreventhepagodaclosesttoit,eveniftheyknowwhereitis.
SomepagodasopenthestupathatcontaintheKhmerRougedeadduringthese
ceremonies,butmostofmyinformantstoldmetheydidnotgotoseethedead;
theydidnotneedtobecausetheyhadalreadyattendedtotheirspiritsbydoing
bangskol.
Chinese-KhmeralsogiveofferingsduringChengMeng89.ChengMengisthe
annualgrave-sweepingceremonyoccurringusuallyatthebeginningofApril.
89AlsospeltQingMingorChingMing.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 119
Duringthefestival,peoplevisittheirrelatives’gravesandcleananddecorate
them,beforegivingofferingsoffood.Animportantpartoftheceremonyis
passingitemsofcomforttothedead–clothes,money,cars:thisisusuallydone
byburningeffigiesoftheseitems,withabeliefthatoncerituallyburnedthese
itemswillreachthedeadintheafterlifeandhelpthembecomfortable.Ifthey
arelookedafterinthisway,theyaremorelikelytohelpandsupporttheirliving
relatives,forexamplebykeepingthemhealthy,orhelpingthembecome
successfulinbusiness.ChengMengalsoprovidesanopportunityforpeopleto
careforthosetheylostduringDemocraticKampuchea–insomeareassmall
ceremoniesareheldatthepagodascontainingremainsoftheKhmerRougedead;
theirstupasarecleanedanddecoratedwithbrightlycolouredpaper(seefigure
eight),offeringsmade,effigiesburned,andfeastsheld.90Unlikethetreatment
duringBangskol,whichprovideshelpsthedeadwiththeirnextlife,ChengMeng
providescomforttothelivinginthislife–passingtheseitemstothedead
providesthemcomfort,encouragingthemtohelptheliving;providingwealthand
goodhealth.
90SeveralyearsagotheâcharatthepagodawheremanyoftheremainsfromKohSoparekept,installedakilnforburningsucheffigiesinthestupacontainingthedead,becausemanyofthelocalChinese-KhmercommunitybelievethatmostofthepeoplekilledonKohSopwereChinese.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 120
Figureeight:PoTonlestupawithremnantsofChengMengdecorations(souce:theauthor)
AllofthesefactorsenablethosekilledundertheKhmerRougetobeembraced
withinthesystemwhetherornottraditionalceremoniesandritualswere
practicedduringtheregime.Thisisonlypossiblebecauseoftheflexibilityand
resilienceofKhmerBuddhismandanimism,whichenabledthemtopersist
despiteeffortstodestroythem,andtoresurfaceaftertheregime,withprovision
madetodealwiththerupturesandchaoscausedbytheregime.
Ritualresilience
SomescholarshavesuggestedthattheKhmerRougedestroyedtheCambodian
ritualsystem(LeVine2010;Ovensen,TrankellandOjendal1996).Inherexploration
ofbirthandweddingsitesofDemocraticKampuchea,LeVine(2010:14)declared
thattheKhmerRougeperformedRitualcide,andbydoingso‘generatedacosmic
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 121
betrayal.’However,theattemptsatritualcidewereunsuccessful.Mostreligious
andspiritualsystemsareadaptable,andpeopleareusuallypragmaticaboutthese
systems,adaptingthemtosuitindividualneedsandlifestyles(Kawano2004).
Ignoringthisadaptabilityisamajorflawinmuchoftheanthropologicalliteratureon
post-DKCambodia,whicheitherinsistsonvirtuallyidenticalritualspreandpost
DemocraticKampuchea,arguingthatCambodianssimply‘layerover’thepastinthe
present(forexample:EbiharaandLedgerwood2002;Ebihara2002),orgoestothe
oppositeextremeofpositingacompletedestructionoftraditionalrituals(for
exampleLeVine2010;Ovensen,TrankellandOjendal1996).Inthisscenario
alterationsmadeareimpliedtobesimplecompromisesordestructions.Thisisa
particularlydevastatingviewofCambodianBuddhism,andonenotreflectedin
practice.
Whilstdestructionofreligionwastheintention,andsocialcontroloverthe
populationmeantritualscouldnotoccur(LeVine2010;Ngor2003),evenduringthe
regimesomepeoplefoundwaysofadaptingcustomstotheircircumstances,for
examplebyutteringtheirownblessingstothedead,hidingfoodtogiveofferings
forthosedeparted,sneakingawayatnighttoburypeople,andburyingpeople
underparticularlyspiritualaspectsofthelandscape,suchastamarindtrees(which
areafavouredhousingoftheNeakTa).91Formany,simplybeingabletoburytheir
relativesthemselveswasseenasfortunate,asLōkChan,wholostmostmembersof
hisfamily,toldme:
91LeVine(2010)providesagoodoverviewandanalysisoftheseadaptationsinherbookLoveandDreadinCambodia:Weddings,BirthsandRitualHarmundertheKhmerRouge.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 122
InthePolPotera,wedidn’ttalkaboutceremoniesoranythingelse;ifwegotto
bury[thedead]ourselvesitwasluckyenough…Wegottobury[mybrother]
withourownhands.Iwastheonewhodugthesoil.
Inaddition,manyoftheconceptsofBuddhismexistedthroughouttheregime,and
modesof‘thinking,feeling,speaking,moving,’thatwerelearnedaschildrenand
‘embodiedashabitus’(Ledgerwood2008:148)continuedtobeimportantdespite
(orperhapsbecauseof)attemptstodestroythem.Reincarnationandkarmaare
twoofthese,andwillbediscussedinchapterfour.
Thepre-existingBuddhist/animistframeworkofpre-DemocraticKampuchea
remained,inmodifiedform,throughouttheregime,andresurgedfollowingits
fall.Mostdead,thereforewereencompassedwithinthesocialstructureshortly
afteritsdemise.Thatisnottosaythatpeopledidnotgrieve,northatthemass
deaththatoccurredduringtheregimewasnotemotionallydevastating.Itwas.A
fewofmyinformantstriedtolocatetheirdeadrelatives,butwithsomanydead
scatteredacrossthecountryitwasalmostimpossible.Mostneverattemptedto
lookbecauseofthisandinsteadcaredforthemthroughBuddhistannual
ceremonies,evenintheveryearlyyears.Thustheissueofreburialorcremation
andtheinabilitytoconduct‘proper’funeralritesdidnothavethedevastating
effectithasinotherlocations,suchasVietnam.ThefluidityofKhmerBuddhism
offersresiliencetodevastation:
Khmerculture,then,maynotbecharacterisedsomuchbyweaknessand
fragmentationbutbyasurprisinglyresilientsocialfluidity–afluiditythathas
longbeenheldtogetherbytheunifyingandstructuringforceofKhmer
Buddhism.Despiteallthetraumaandupheavalsofwarandthelackoftight
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 123
corporatesocialstructures,manyCambodianstodayseemstilltonurturea
strongsenseoftheircommonheritageanddestiny(Kent2003:10)
AfterthedemiseofDemocraticKampuchea,Cambodiahasseenaresurgenceand
regenerationofBuddhistandanimistpractices,bothamonglocalpeopleand
throughgovernmentinitiatives.Oneofthefirstthingspeopleattendedtoafter
theregimewastheNeakTa.Theircarewassalient,andmoreimportantthanany
otheraspectofspiritualcare,includingthecareforthethousandsofdeadwho
initiallyhauntedtheland.MingYaywhoreturnedtoherhomelandundertheveil
ofVietnamesebombingin1979toldmethatalthoughtheyinvitedmonkstopray
forthedead,theyfirstcelebratedaceremonyfortheNeakTa,becauseitisthe
NeakTathatensureshealthandwellbeingintheirlocality:
Wesworethatwheneverwecouldreturntothevillage,wewoulddoaceremony
tothespiritsofthehostwhoprotectstheland[theNeakTa]
Althoughformalritualstooksometimetobere-established,overtheyears
almostalloftheritualsthathadbeenbannedwerere-instated(Zucker2006;
LeVine2010;Ledgerwood2008;Davis2009;RithyMen2002),andBuddhismin
particularisbeingre-imaginedandre-inventedinrelationtocontemporaryissues
andpoliticalneeds(Kent2003;Ledgerwood2008;Zucker2006,2013).Its
regenerationoffersacontinuancebetweenthepast–theerabeforetheconflicts
(particularlytheKhmerRouge,whowereknownasNeakKmeanSasanea–the
peopleofnoreligion)-andnow.AsMingYaytoldme,‘thisisourreligion.Then
[duringKhmerRouge]theyhadnoreligion’92.Reinstatingtheseritualsbrought
92WhenIfirstarrivedinCambodiamanypeoplepresumedIwasChristian.Inanswertoquestionsaboutreligion,IwouldtellpeopleIhadnoreligion.AfterafewweeksmyresearchassistanttookmeasideandadvisedthatperhapsIshouldnottellpeoplethis;manyCambodiansassociate
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 124
securityandstabilitytomanypeople.Guillou(2012:17)wrotethatthere-
establishmentofPchumBenhinthe1990shelpedcomfortthelivingbecauseit
providedanopportunityforcollectivecareforthedeadbothknownand
unknown:
Imyselfwitnessedahugereliefamongthepopulationinthedaysfollowingthe
firstfestival,asiftheatmospherewassuddenlylighterandquieter.
Conclusion
Ithasbecomeacommontropeamongstwesternobserversthatdisplayingthe
remainsofthedeadandnotcrematingthemishighlydisrespectfultoKhmer
Buddhists(Hughes2005;Jarvis2013;Becker2013:107).93Thesestatements
objecttotheuseofskeletalremainstoreifypoliticalnarrativesoftheregimeand
itsliberation(seechaptersfive–seven),andtothelackofappropriateritualthey
assumetohavebeenconductedforthedead.Thischapterhasshown,however,
thatthisisnotthecase.Careforthephysicalremainsofthosekilledduringthe
regimeisappropriatelydevolvedtothepagodasinwhichtheyremain,andcare
forthespiritsisencompassedintheannualritualcycles.Themostimportant
aspectofthisisthepassingofmerittothedead.InCambodia,nomatterwhere
youare,themeritwillreachthosedeadpeople.InBuddhism,withbonesor
withoutbones,nearorfar,themeritcanalwaysbepassedtoyourrelatives.
havingnoreligionwiththeKhmerRouge,shetoldme,andshedidnotthinkitwasdoingmeanyfavoursinbuildingrelationships.
93IthasalsobecomeasiteofpoliticalcontestationbetweenthelateKingFatherNorodomSihanouk,andPrimeMinisterHunSen,aswillbediscussedinchapterfive.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 125
TheKhmerRougedeadincontemporaryCambodiaareencompassedwithinthe
annualritualcycle,andindividualceremoniessolelyforthedeadoftheKhmer
Rougewaslargelyunnecessaryeitherthenornow.Thereareamultitudeof
ways,bothpublicandprivate,bywhichthedeadarereintegratedintosociallife,
manyofwhichrelyonconnectionsandcontinuanceaswaysofdealingwith
disruption.Thisisparticularlysalientinsuchcontextsaswar,conflict,famine,and
othercausesofmassdeath.Theyprovidecontinuanceandassurancethatthese
periods(andtheirimpacts)arebothtemporaryand,likethecycleofdeathand
rebirthwithinwhichmostKhmerlive,inescapable.Thenextchapterwillshow
howrelationshipswiththedeadchangedovertimetoenablethemtobe
incorporatedintotheseacceptableaspectsofsociallife,whilechapterfivewill
explorethewaysinwhichkarmaandreincarnationprovideameansof
reincorporatingthedeadintothelivesoftheliving,andcontinuingafunctioning
socialsystemdespitethemassrupturesoftheKhmerRougeregime.
126
Chapterthree:Helpfuldead,frighteningghosts-relationships
betweenthelivingandthedead
ThoseyoungKhmershouldthankthespirits.Theyarereceivingbenefits
fromtheirdeath.
-SreySrey,onthebenevolenceofthosekilledbytheKhmerRouge
********
ThedeadroamedCambodiaintheyearsimmediatelyafterthefallofDemocratic
Kampuchea,hauntingpeopleintheirattemptstoalleviatetheirlonelinessandre-
connectwiththeliving.AtChoeungEk,theywreakedhavoc.Theystopped
peopleshelteringatthesiteandkeptothersawakewiththeircrying.Achildwas
killedwhenaghostspookedtheoxpullingthecarthewasin,causingittotopple
andrunoverhim.Butintheearly1980s,theghostsstoppedhauntingandthe
areabecamesafeforthepeopleinandaroundit.Thedeadbegantohelpthe
countrytoregainpeace,andovertimemostwerereborn.
InKohSopasimilarscenarioensued.Immediatelyafterliberationpeopleacross
theriversawlightsmovingacrossthespaceandthendisappearing–asuresignof
ghosts.Thosemovingtothesitewerehaunted.Theghoststriedtotrickthem;
disguisingthemselvesasshadowsorpeopletheyknew,onlytodisappearwhen
theyturnedaround.Thedeadpermeatedtheearth:fruitgrownontheislandwas
fullofblood;fishandcrabs,gorgingonthecorpses,fulloffat.Astimemovedon,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 127
however,andmorepeoplemovedtotheisland,theghostsstoppedhaunting.
Peoplebegantoconnectwiththedead,whohelpedthelivingrestarttheirlives.
Overtimethedeadlosttheirpower,andnowadays,theghostsfromthosekilled
undertheKhmerRougehaveallbutdisappeared.
GhostsandspiritsarenotimaginarybeingsinCambodia.Theyaresocialentities,
inhabitingtheworldalongsidelivingpeopleandinteractinginwaysthatshape
socialactionandrelationshipstothepast.Liketheliving,thedeadaresubjectto
changeandtransitiondependingonthesocialcircumstancestheyencounter.
ThischapterexaminesinteractionsbetweenthelivingandthedeadofDemocratic
Kampuchea.FollowingHeonikKwon’s(2006,2008)thesisthatghostscanbe
centraltounderstandingthesocialidentityandexperiencesoftheliving,
particularlythewaythatthesociallivesofthedeadmirrorthepoliticallivesofthe
living,thischapterexploresthechangingstatusofthedeadfromDemocratic
Kampuchea,examiningtheirchangefromfrightenedandfrighteningentitiesof
haunting,tobenevolentalliesinthereconstructionofpost-DKCambodia,to
powerlessbeingswhohavesincediedorlefttheirspace.
Todothis,itwillfirstexaminethetheoreticalframeworkofthechapter,before
introducingmorefullythedeadandtheirvariousincarnationsaswellasthe
relevantliteraturefromCambodia.Twoethnographicexamplesofthis
transformationwillbepresented:thefirstfromKohSop,thesecondfrom
ChoeungEk.Thesetwoencounterswillillustratehow,whilethedeadunderwent
similarpatternsoftransformationindemeanourandstatus,theirsupportand
interactionsarelocallysituated;atKohSoptheyarelocalandindividual;at
ChoeungEknationalandcollective.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 128
Whilstthischapterfocuseslargelyonghosts,thereisanelementofslippagein
everydaylanguagerelatedtothedeadinCambodia,andtherefore,Iwillusethe
‘thedead’todescribethespiritualincarnationsofthosekilledduringDemocratic
Kampucheaingeneral,usingonlytheirspecificformonlywhenitwasmade
explicitbymyinformants.
Theoreticalbackground
Theconceptsofghostsandhauntingarecommontropesinthepost-conflict
literature.AsHeonikKwonpointsoutinGhostsofWarinVietnam(2008),both
provideusefulhistoricalmetaphor,particularlyforeventscontemporaneously
deemedasnegative.Assuchtheyareusedasrhetoricaldevicestoexplorehow
contemporaryhistoryisinfluencedbythepast(theghostofthecoldwarthat
hauntstheWestforexample).However,asKwonpointsout,thepositionof
ghostsasvalidandvitalsocialbeingshasbeenlargelyignored,and,becauseof
theirassumedpositionbetweentherealmsofthelivingandthedeadwith
(accordingtoearlysocialtheoristssuchasDurkheim)noclearlydefinedsocial
functions,theyhavesatoutsidemuchsocialtheory(Kwon2008b:23).Kwon
questionsthisexclusionbyusingSimmel’smodelofthestrangertoshowhow
ghostsinVietnamareanintegralelementintheconstructionofsocialidentity;by
theirveryexclusion,theyareaspectsofwhatformsidentitiesandrelationships
withotherbeings,particularlythewidelyregardedancestralentities:
Thesocietyofancestors,aswithothermoresecularsocieties,hasforeign
relationsaswellasdomesticpolitics.Wemaynotignoretheseexternalrelations
inpaintingasocialorder…thenegativecultofghostsismutuallyconstitutiveof
thepositivecultofancestorsandwecannotimaginethesymbolicrealmof
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 129
ancestorswithoutplacingtheminawiderrelationalstructurewiththoseof
ghosts’(ibid.).
InthischapterIfollowKwon’sexample,examiningthedeadasvitalbeingswho
livealongsidetheliving,andwhoaffectsociallifebeyondbeingsimplyremnants
ofmemoryorimprintsofthepast.InCambodia,asinVietnam,thedeadare
sociallyactivebeings,whointeractwiththelivingonaregularbasis.Assuchthey
mustbeexaminednotasmetaphororallegory,butassociallysalientbeings.I
particularlydrawonKwon’sassertionthatthesociallivesofghostsreflectthe
politicallivesoftheliving(Kwon2006:178).Idonotmeantodiminishthemto
simplyallegoryormetaphor,butinsharingsocialworlds,thedeadexperiencethe
samedisjuncturesandchaosthatthelivingdoandthereforetheirexperiences
andstatusparallelthoseoftheliving.Becauseofthis,theirexperiencescanhelp
makevisiblethestatusoftheliving,becauseitsocloselyresemblestheirown.
OtherthanKwon’swork,whereghostsandotherspiritsresultingfromviolence
appearintheanthropologicalliteraturetheyareoftendistinguishedfromother,
more‘positive’spiritualmanifestations(suchasancestorsandguardianspirits),
insteadappearingassignsofsufferingand/orsocialmarginalizationmade
materialthroughspiritinteractions:possessions,hauntings,andother,usually
malevolent,encounters.Thisisparticularlythecaseinplaceswherehistorical
violencehascausedanexcessofspiritualbeings.SasankaPerera(2001),for
example,arguesthatduringtheintensificationofpoliticalviolencefollowingthe
JanataVimuktiPeramuna-leadviolentinsurrectionandstateledcounter
insurgencyinSriLanka(1988to1991),possessionbywanderingspiritsbecamea
modeofdealingwiththeterrorcausedbyenforceddisappearances,torturesand
killings.Possessions,andotherspiritinteractionsenabledpeopletogivesymbolic
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 130
meaningtotheeventsandsoprovidedameansofcopingwithfearaswellas
rememberingthepast.ThesustainedpoliticalviolenceinSriLankahaderoded
trustinsecularsystemsofcopingandhealingandnewmodestherefore
developedfromwithinalreadyexisting,easilyaccessibleaspectsofthesocial
sphere(i.e.ghostsandspirits),thatenabledpeopletodealwiththepastwithout
guiltorfurthersuffering.94
JudithBovensiepen(2009),meanwhile,explainshowthelandscapeofTimorLeste
becamemoredangerousforpeoplereturningtotheirhomesafterthemilitary
invasionsandforcedresettlementsofthe1970sand1980s,becauseanexcessof
spiritsofthosekilledbutnotproperlyburiedsaturatedthelandscape.This
saturationcausedariseinthenumberoflandspiritsandanincreaseoflulik-a
spiritualpotencythatinhabitstheland-makingitdangerousforthosereturning
tothearea.Inordertoregainsaferelationshipswiththeland,thosereturning
hadtore-establishreciprocalrelationshipswiththespiritualrealm,however,its
potencyremainedhighthroughoutherfieldwork;aphysicalandmetaphysical
reminderofthedisjuncturesinsociallifebroughtaboutbytheconflicts.
MostoftheliteratureonthedeadinCambodiaexaminestheritualsthat
encompassthem,ratherthanthedeadthemselves(forexampleDavis2009;
Ledgerwood2008;O'Lemmon2014;Zucker2006).Afewexceptionsexist.The
mostauthoritativevoiceonKhmerspiritsisCambodiananthropologistAng
94UnlikePerera’sfindingsinSriLanka,justiceandrevengearenotcentralcharacteristicsofencounterswiththedeadfromtheKhmerRouge,althoughstoriesinfolklorefollowthistheme,andrecentevents,suchasmassfaintingoffactoryworkers,indicateaformofresistanceplayedoutthroughpossession(Wallace2014).Onesimilaritybetweenthetwocountries,however,isinthedeclineoftrustinsecularjusticesystemsfollowingongoingpoliticalviolence,whichcouldbeindicatedinCambodiabytheriseinpeoplevisitingspiritmediumstoaskforguidancefromtheNeakTapost-DemocraticKampuchea(O'Lemmon2014).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 131
Chouléan,whosedoctoralthesisLesètressupernaturaldanslareligionpopulaire
khmère(1986)outlinedthedifferentspiritstobefoundacrossthecountry.This
workfocusedprimarilyonclassifyingspirits;individualspiritsaremissingfromthe
analysis,astheyarefromhissubsequentwork,which,althoughoftenconcerning
spirits,focuseslargelyonmyth,ritualandtheover-archingrelationshipsbetween
animismandBuddhisminCambodia(Chouléan1986,1988,1990,2004).Didier
Bertrandspentseveralyearscollectingdataontheboramey–thespiritsthat
possessspiritmediumsacrossCambodia,butlikeChouléan,heconcentratedon
classifyingtypesofborameyratherthanpresentingindividualencounterswith
specificdead(Bertrand2001).Inhisthesisondeathritualsincontemporary
Cambodia,ErikDavis(2009)paidattentiontopreta(hungryghosts),humans
rebornintotanarout–theKhmerunderworld,usuallybecauseofsinsconducted
throughouttheirlives.Pretanotonlyrepresentaliteralincarnation,butisalso
usedincontemporaryCambodiaasamodeofderidingthesocialcontradictions
anddisruptiontofamilyandvillagelifethatmigrantworkcauses.95
OneilluminatingworkregardinginteractionswiththedeadisConsolingGhosts:
StoriesofMedicineandMourningofSoutheastAsiansinExilebyJeanLangford
(2013).BasedonconversationwithKhmerandLaosemigrantstotheUS,
Langfordusestheirstoriesofghosts,haunting,andcareforthedead,toexamine
biopoliticsintheWestandquestionassumptionsandethicswithinmedicinein
theUS,particularlyexaminingtheconflictsthatariseininteractionswithstate
agencies.Whilsttherearesomeissueswiththisbook(forexampleshe
95Theotherplaceghostsandspiritsoccurisinthepsychologicalliterature,inarticlesexaminingtheongoingsufferingofKhmersurvivorsandrefugeesoftheKhmerRouge,primarilyinFranceandtheUS(Becker2000,Rechtman2000,2006).Thesepapers,however,tendtodismissthespirits(whooftenvisittheirrelativesindreams),classifyingthemaspsychologicalimprintsofongoingsufferingratherthanviablebeingswithwhomthelivingneedtointeract.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 132
intentionallyblurstheboundariesbetweenCambodiaandLaos,suggesting
SoutheastAsiatobeahomogenousterritorywhereexperience,relationshipsand
interactionsaresynonymousineachlocation),Ilikethisbookbecauseofits
engagementwithrecenteventsinthenarrators’lives,beyondthewarsand
conflicts,anditsunderstandingofthevitalrolethedeadplayinthese
interactions.Itthereforeenablesthereadertocomprehendthatwarandconflict
arenottheonlyeventsaffectingpeoplefromthesecountries,preventing
stagnationoftheseeventsinpeople’slifestories.
SomeoftheonlyworkthatfocusesspecificallyonthedeadfromtheKhmer
RougeisthatofFrenchanthropologistAnneYvonneGuillou(2012;2013),who
engageswithAlainForest’s(2000),authoritativebookonNeakTa(thelocal
guardianspirits),byexamininghowthedeadinherfieldsiteinPursatprovinceare
takingoncharacteristicsofNeakTabyprovidingprotectionandmoralorderingto
theliving.Throughthecirculationofpāramī,(akindofcirculatingspiritualpower)
thedeadoftheKhmerRougeimbuesomekindofpowertothemassgravesthat
theyinhabit,andlikeNeakTaare‘touchy’and‘illtempered’anddemand
respectfulbehaviorofthosewhopassthroughtheirspace(Guillou2012b:221).96
Guillou’sarticleisilluminating,particularlyinitsanalysisofthebiopoliticsofthe
UN-backedKhmerRougetrial(whichsheconvincinglyargues,bearslittle
resonancetomostKhmerpeople,andisinsteadentirelynationallyand
internationallyfocused),however,whileIagreewithGuillou’sassertionthatsome
ofthecharacteristicsofthedeadfromDemocraticKampucheaseemedNeakTa
likeintheirabilitiestomakepeoplesick,andpeopleusedthemodesoftalking
96ThisishappeningmostcontroversiallytothespiritofPolPot,whoistransformingintoapowerfulguardianspiritinthevillageofChoam,inAnlongVengprovince,wherehiscremainsareburied.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 133
aboutthekhmouchtobesimilartothewaytheywouldabouttheNeakTa(i.e.
testyandgrumpy),Ithinkthereisaconflationherebetweenlanguageand
characteristicsthatmyresearchdoesnotsupport.AtthesitesIvisitedthe
khmouchfromtheKhmerRougedidatfirstmakepeoplesick,anddisturbedmany
throughtheirhaunting.However,myinformantstoldmethiswasbecausethey
themselveswerefrightenedandconfusedanddidnotwanttobedisturbed.Neak
Ta,ontheotherhand,arenotconfused–theymakepeoplesickbecausethey
ownthelandandthewater,andpeoplehavedisrespectedthis.Theypunish
peopleandthereforeorderbehaviour,whereastheDKdeadsimplywantedtobe
leftalone.BesidesthisinmostplacesIvisitedtherearenohauntingghostsor
spiritsfromthedeadoftheKhmerRouge.Guillouherselfcommentsthatghosts
orotherspiritualincarnationsofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougearealmost
nonexistent;mosthaveleftthegravesandthesespaceshavebecomebenign,
andwhereghostshaunt,theyarekhmouchfromrecentdeaths.Thedeadofthe
KhmerRougehavenowbeenreborn,andassuchallthatremainsaretheir
skeletons,whichare‘likewood.’
ThecharacteristicsofthedeadkilledbytheKhmerRougehavechangedalongside
thecountry.Theydonotfunctionasameansofsuppressedvoicesbeingheard,
butparallelthelivingintheiraffectsandstatus.Thisisnotsurprising.Spirits
belongtotheacceptedrealmsofexistencethatbeingscanberebornintoand
manyoftheserealmsofexistencesharetheworldwithhumans.Thatthedead
paralleltheemotionsofthelivingdoesnotmakethemmetaphoricaldepictions
(althoughsometimestheyareusedinthisway,reflectingtheirliminality);they
aresubjecttothesamedisjunctures,chaosanddisorderasthelivingbecause
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 134
theyexistalongsidethemandareemotionalandvitalentitieswhoneedcareand
attention.
GhostsandspiritsinCambodia
EncounterswiththedeadarecommonplaceinCambodia,anditishometoa
plethoraofghostsandspirits,allofwhicharesociallyactiveentities-mostspirits
interactwith,andmakedemandsof,humansandanimalsaspartofeveryday
life97.Muchoftheannualritualcycleisstructuredaroundritualsproviding
communicationandconciliationtovariousspirits(LeVine2010;Nou2012),and
theirimportanceinthelivesofthelivingishighlightedintheplethoraoffolktales
andfablesthatcentreonthespiritsofthedead,andthenumberofmyths
circulatedacrossCambodiainwhichtheNeakTa(thelocalguardianspirits)are
fundamental.
Liketheliving,thedeadareorganizedintohierarchiesofpowerandbelonging,at
thetopofwhicharetheboramey:powerfulspiritsusuallyassociatedwith
mythicalandhistoricalbeingswhopossessspiritmediumsandgivethemaccess
toknowledge(Bertrand2001)98.Mostinfluentialinmyinformants’everyday
lives,however,arethelocalguardianspirits:theNeakTa(translatingliterallyas
‘maleoldperson’,orcolloquially‘Grandfatherperson’).Residinginsignificant
featuresofthelandscapesuchasparticulartreesorrocks,and,morerecently
97SocommontoeverydaylifearethedeadthatanEnglishconversationbookIboughtshortlyafterarrivinginCambodia,hadanentiresectiononghostsandhowtoconverseaboutthem,includingquestionssuchas‘Haveyouevermetaghost?’‘Haveyoueverbeenhauntedbyaghost?’‘Wheredoestheghostlive?’
98DidierBertrand,whoconductedresearchwithspiritmediums(Kru)acrossCambodiaforseveral
yearsinthelate1990s,wastoldthatover10,000borameyexist,however,inhisyearsofresearchhecollectedthenamesofonly300(Bertrand2001).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 135
architecturallandmarksofcitiesandtowns(seefigurenine),theyownandgovern
thelandscapeofCambodia.Byengaginginreciprocalrelationswiththehumans
inhabitingorusingtheirspace,theydemandrespectfortheirpropertyand,in
return,offerprotectionandgoodfortuneforthosewhoprovideforthem.Failure
togiverespect(byaskingpermissiontousethelandandgivingofferings)canbe
harmful-misfortune,illnessandevendeathareusedtopunishthoseproving
disrespectful99.
Figurenine:NeakTaonthemainroadintoBattambang
InadditiontotheNeakTaandtheboramey,bothofwhichhelporderKhmerlife
byprovidingmoralandspiritualguidancetopeopleintheireverydayactionsand
interactions,othertypesofthedeadinteractwiththeliving.Ancestors(kruba
cheay)mayappearintheguiseofabuffalooracowtoremindtheirrelativesto
continuerespectingthem.MalevolentspiritssuchasPreayorbrāyandarak(the
99
In2013theformervillagechiefofKohSopwaskilledbyoneoftheisland’sNeakTa(addressedasLōkTa)becausehecutdownalargeandancientquininetreewithoutpermission.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 136
spiritsofthosewhohavediedviolentdeaths)100andbai-sach(cruelspiritsfrom
ancienttimes)101wreakhavocuponthehumansthatencounterthem,causing
illnessorevendeath.Preta(hungryghosts;thosewhohavediedviolentdeaths,
orwhosekarmafrompreviousmisdeedsleadsthemtoberebornintotanarout–
theKhmerunderworld)needfeeding,especiallyatPchumBenh,otherwisethey
willbecomemischievous,andiftheyarehungrywillvisitpeopleintheirdreams
todemandfood.Thereexistothers,andreadersaredirectedtoAngChouléan’s
workforacomprehensivelist.102
However,thecategoryIammostinterestedinforthischapterarekhmouch.
Khmoucharetheghostsoftherecentlydeceasedandthereforeallpeople
becomekhmouch.Academicallyadifferenceexistsbetweenghosts(khmouch)–
remnantsofthosewhohaverecentlydied-andspirits(vinheankhan)–beings
thathaunt-however,thereisslippageineverydayparlancebetweendifferent
beings,andtheyarenoteasilyextractedfromeachother.Vinheankhanwas
neverusedbymyinformants,whilstkhmouchwasusedtorefertoghosts,spirits
thathaunt(khmouchloung),andvariousotherincarnationsofthedeadthat
interactwiththeliving.Thewordkhmouchisitselfsomewhatambiguous–itcan
100
Theseareusuallyfemalespirits.Arak(themalevolentspiritsofwomenwhohavediedviolentdeaths,usuallyasaresultofchildbirth)areparticularlytroublesome.Althoughtheycanbecalmed,theyneverbecomebenevolentandareliabletobecomemaliciousagainwithoutwarning.
101Bai-sacharetheonlyKhmerentitiesthatcannotbereborn:evolvingfromancienttimes,they
arefullofevilandwanttokilleachotherandhumanstheyencounter.OneofthemonksIinterviewedtoldmethatanancientKhmerprophecysaysthatthebai-sachwillcomefromtheforestclaimingtobeNeakTa,findkru(spiritmediums)tocommunicatethrough,andcausechaostothecountrybygivingbadadvice.Somemonks,hetoldme,considerthistimetobenow:thebai-sachhaveenteredhumanityandcausechaosbyencouragingpeopletocriticizethegovernment,killothersfortheirowngain,grablandfromothersandengageinothersociallyunacceptablebehaviour.
102AlthoughthespiritsthatChouléandescribesarebecomingrarer,particularlyinurbanareas,
andspiritsincontemporaryCambodiaarebeginningtoresemblethosefromcontemporaryfictionandfilmmorethanthoseofKhmerfolklore.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 137
refertoarecentlydeceasedperson,corpsesoftherecentlydeceased,oraghost.
ThisreflectsthenatureofthedeadinCambodia:immediatelyafterdeaththey
arebothacorpseandaspirit-ittakesuptosevendaysforthedeadto
comprehendtheirdeathandmovetotheirnextlife,andtopreventhauntingand
confusion,thecorpseisusuallynotdisposedofuntilthosesevendaysareover
(withtheoccasionalexceptionofcontemporaryviolentdeaths–seechaptertwo).
Thereisthereforesomeambiguityinpeople’sdiscussionsaboutthedead,
becausetheycanbereferringtoallthreemodesofexistencecontemporaneously.
Itisforthisreasonthatkhmouchareviewedasparticularlypowerfuland/or
dangerous,becausetheyinhabitanambiguousexistencenotyetsettledontheir
finaloutcome.
Khmouchoftenliveintheforestsorinotherwild,uninhabitedareas(prei).They
canbenervousoftheliving,however,theyalsocravetheircompany,anditisthis
thatcausesthemtohaunt.Whilstmanyofthespiritshauntinspecificways(for
exampleaaps103movefromhousetohouseknockingondoorsandwailing),
khmouchcanchangeformandoftendosoinordertotrickpeopleintofollowing
them,orconversingwiththem.Theymaydisguisethemselvesassomeoneyou
know,orreplicateeverydaypracticestofoolpeople,asYayexplainedtomewhen
IaskedherwhetherthosewhodiedundertheKhmerRougemanifested
themselvesinparticularways:
Khmoucharethesame;whentheyhaunt,theyhaunt.It’sjustsomeghostshave
onewayofhauntingandotherghostshaveotherwaysofhaunting.Duringthe
correctionera[PRK]somepeoplehadchildrenandalotofpeoplewereweaving,
sowhentheyhauntedustheymadethesoundofweaving-theyhittheloom.At
103Beingswhodetachtheirheadandintestinesfromtheirbodiesatnightandgohaunting.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 138
thattimepeoplehadkids,sowhensomehauntedustheyalsomadeasoundlike
theyweresingingalullaby.
Intheperiodaftertheirdeathskhmouchmayvisitpeopleintheirdreamstoplace
demandsonthatpersonorcommunity(usuallyaskingforcertainofferings,orfor
particulartreatmentoftheirremains).Althoughtheyhauntandcanmakepeople
sick,theyareusuallynotmalevolent,andaswillbeillustratedinthischapter,the
hauntingisoftenaresultoftheirownconfusedemotionalstate.
ThedeadoftheKhmerRougewereusuallyreferredtobymyinformantsas
khmouch,althoughdistinctionsweremadebetweenthosewhohavedied
recently,andthosewhodiedduringDemocraticKampuchea,whohavemostly
beenreincarnatedandwhoseremainsthereforeareonlyskeletal.Aspreviously
mentioned,althoughintheyearsimmediatelyaftertheregime,theysaturated
thelandscape,physicallyandspiritually,hauntingthosewhocametolivewhere
theydid,nowadaysalmostnoghostsremainfromtheKhmerRougeregime,at
leastnotinanyofthesitesIconductedresearchin.Andineachareathedead
hadundergonesimilarchanges:fromfrightenedandfrighteningentitiesthat
haunted,tobenevolentdeadhelpingtheliving,topowerlessspiritswaitingtobe
reborn,toreincarnatedbeingsnowinhabitingCambodia.
Ethnographiccasestudies
Havingcoveredtherelevantliteratureandexplainedtheplaceofkhmouch,Iwill
nowpresentethnographiccasestudiesthathighlightthewayrelationships
betweenthedeadandthelivinghaveevolvedintheyearsafterDemocratic
Kampuchea,fromhauntingghosts,tobenevolentdead,whohavesubsequently
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 139
beenreborn.Thefollowingethnographicencountersshowhowtheinteractions
anddispositionsofthedead,whilstfollowingthesameoverallpattern,arelocally
specific,andrelatedtothesitetheyinhabit.Thetwoethnographiesarecompiled
fromnarrativestoldoverseveralmonths–fromOmYay;OmSrey;MingYay;Yay;
SreySabbay;andherhusbandBuatKohSop,andSreyChanandherhusband
Samnang,OmTa,BongBroh,BuSoth,andBongLaatChoeungEk.
Rebuildinglives:thedeadatKohSop
WhenSreySabbayandBuarrivedonKohSopintheearly1980s,bodiesstill
coveredmuchofthelandandlayrottinginthelakesandstreams:theyhadto
clearthemfromthelandtobuildtheirhouses,sometimesburningthem,but
usuallyjustpilingthemwiththeothersunderthequininetree.Somepeopledid
notbothertoclearthem,theysimplypiledsoilontopofthemandbuiltontop.
Indescribingthebodiesshesaid‘theylookedlikefermentedfish.’OmYaytold
methattheysmelled‘mahes,’aKhmertermthatdescribesadamp,mouldykind
ofsmellofsomethingnotproperlydried,likeawettowel.OmSreydescribedthe
smellas‘sticky’104-togetridofthesmellfromtheirskin,peoplewashedtheir
handswithripeguavaor,iftheycouldgetit,pineapple.Theysquashedthefruit
overtheirhandsandtheacidfromthefruitcutthroughthesmellandprevented
itfromsticking.
Encounterswiththedead,bothphysicalandspiritual,wereinevitableatthistime.
Itwasafrighteningplacetothoselivingnearby.‘WhenIfirstcame’SreySabbay
toldme,‘peopledidnotdaretocomehere.TheyaskedmeifIwasscaredliving
104Irecognisethisdescriptionfrommyownexperienceofworkingwithcorpses–thereissomethingaboutthesmellthatseemstostickinyournose,onyourclothes,inyourhair,andstayswithyoulongafterdealingwithdeath.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 140
here.Peopleontheotherside[oftheriver]sawlightsflyingabout–likefar.’Far
arelightsthatmoveacrossthespace,fadingastheytravel.Theyareacertain
indicatorofthepresenceofghosts.Atfirstthedeadhadhauntedpeople,causing
insecurityandfearforsomevillagers.OmSreyhadneverbeenhaunted,butOm
Yaytoldmehowtheghostscausedtroubleintheearlydaystoherandothersin
thevillage,recountinganincidentoneafternoonwhenshewastransplanting
youngricefrompaddytopaddy:
OmYay: Atfirst,theycausedtroubletous.Theyhauntedus.Iwas
unconsciousfromonetofivepm.
OmSrey: Shehadthefrightenedfeelingwithherthat’swhy.
OmYay: No,itwasn’tlikethat.Inthemorning,whiletransplantingthe
paddies,Ifoundpiecesofclothinginthesoil.Itwasaround1pm
whentheystartedtoaffectme,andthenIfainted.Allmy
childrenwerecrying….IfeltdizzyandIsawthefanwasmoving
fastandthenIfainted.Myjawwasverytight.
OmSrey: Youweresicktooatthattimemaybe;wewereverytiredafter
work.
OmYay: Nosister.IsawthousandsofhandscatchingmylegsandI
couldn’tmove;Ifeltlikethekhmouch(dead)werealloverme….
OmYayreturnedhomeandlaydown,wheretheghostspressedhertothebed,
causinghertofallunconscious.Thekhmouchleftafterafewhours,andthough
theyhavenotbotheredhersince,othersinthevillagehadbeenhaunted.Even
aftertheKhmerRougehadleft,peoplefromacrosstheriverreportedseeing
soldierswalkingallovertheisland,andsomenights,ataroundeighto’clock,the
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 141
villageinhabitantswouldhearthemdancingunderthemangotreetothesound
ofbeatingdrums.‘Theywerenotscaredofus’OmSreyreported.
Yaywasalsohaunted.Shearrivedontheislandintheearly1980s,whentheland
wasstillcoveredinforestandfewpeoplelivedthere.Shecaughtglimpsesof
peoplewalkingaround,orsawshadowsinthecornerofhereye,butwhenshe
lookedtheydisappeared.Ononeoccasionsheheardthesoundofsomeone
jumpingintoapondneartoherhouse,butwhenshecheckedthepondwasstill.
Thelandwasstillwildwhenshefirstcame:theclearanceofpeoplebeforeand
duringDemocraticKampucheahadallowedmuchofittobecomeovergrown,and
thebambooforestthatcoveredtheheadoftheislandhadrunrampage.During
theregimethishadprovedconvenient:someexecutionsoccurredinthecoverof
thebamboo,althoughotherswerekilledwherevertheystoodandleftrotting
acrossthesurfaceoftheland.Whenshetoldherhusbandaboutthehaunting,he
toldhernottobesoscared;ghostswouldonlyhauntthosewhowerefrightened.
IaskedOmYayandOmSreywhytheythoughttheghostshauntedintheearly
days.OmYayconsideredittobebecausetheyhadlosttheirfamilies:
Theywereroamingaroundbecausetheywereworriedaboutus….theywere
worriedabouttheirchildren,becausewewereverysmall.Idon’tknowwhere
theywouldgo,buttheywereroamingaround.
Aretheystillroamingaroundnow?
Ithinktheyarereincarnatedalready,becauseitisalmost30yearsagoalready.
Itwasnotonlybyhauntingthatthedeadinhabitedthelandscape;theysaturated
thelandandpermeatedtheplantsandanimalsthatgrewamongthem.‘The
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 142
mangoeswerefulloffat,’SreySabbaytoldme.Bu(SreySabbay’shusband)told
methatthefruitwashuge,andwhenthestemswereremoved,wouldoozewith
fat.WhenIaskedaboutthistheybothreplieditwas‘thefatofthedeadpeople.’
Itwasnotjustthemangoes.OmYaytoldmeoftheprintree105:‘whenitfirst
gavefruit,itwasfullofblood.’Afterfeastingonthefleshofthecorpses,the
crabsandthefishwereenormous.Busaidtheywerecoveredinalgaeandwhen
theytookthefishorfruittomarket,noonewouldbuythem.SreySabbayand
Bu,andotherpeopleontheisland,however,atethefruitandthefish.Theyhad
nochoice–theywerehungry,foodwasscarce,andmoneywastight.And‘aftera
yearortwo,[thedead]weren’tinthefruitanymore’Butoldme.
Intheirpresenceinthelandscape,andthroughtheirhaunting,thedeaddisturbed
theliving,andmadeitdifficultforthemtosurvive.Peoplewereafraid,theycould
notsleep,andsomebecamesick.MingYayhadtodismantleandrelocateher
house106becauseitwasbuiltontopofthegravesandthoseinthemhauntedthe
family;sometimesatnightthehousewouldspin,andthechildrenstartedsleep-
walking.AFengShuiexpertcametoassessthehouse:‘hetoldmethatwewould
notbeabletolivesafely(soks’roal107)becausewelivedonothers,’shesaid.‘All
ofthislandwasfullofkhmouch.Iwasscaredtowalkatnoon108.’
105Atypeofplum.
106HousesinruralCambodiaareusuallyone-roomwood,orwoodandpalm-leaf,stiltedhouses.Theycanbeeasilydismantledandmovedasnecessary.
107Soks’roalcanbetranslatedassafelyorpeacefully,orcanmeanboth.
108Itwasexplainedtomethatnoonwastensetimefortworeasons.Firstly,mostpeopletakeanaparoundthistime,sothevillageisquietanddangerousentitiesthereforemorelikelytocomeout.Secondly,ghostscandisguisethemselvesaspeople,buttheydonothaveshadows-atnoonwhenthesunisatitshighestpointandshadowsareshortitcanbedifficulttotellthelivingfromthedead.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 143
ThoselivingonKohSopacceptedtheghostsasafactoflifeintheearlydays.Like
thelivingtheywerescaredandconfused;mostofthemhadbeenkilledfaraway
fromhomeandhadlosttheirfamiliesandtheirdisplacementcausedthemmuch
anguish.Butinordertosurviveandliveinrelativepeace,thosemovingtothe
siteneededtomakepeacewiththedeadandcometoanarrangement:thatboth
partieswouldleavetheotheralonetoexistundisturbed.Aftermovingherhouse,
MingYaytoldtheghoststheywouldnottouchthemanymore,andsincethen,has
hadnotrouble:
ifwetouchthemordoanyharmtothem,theywillharmusback.Theymight
causeusdeath….Soweburntincensesticks109andsaidthat[wewouldnottouch
themanymore]andaskedthemnottomakeussick.Whenweasklikethat,they
willgo;theywillnotharmusanymore.
OmYay’shousewasdirectlybehindthep’teahkhmouch(houseofthedead,or
ghosthouse),where,afterbeingdugupduringthelooting,thedecomposing
remainsofthedeadwerestoredforseveralyears.Atfirstshehadnotwantedto
livethere,becauseitwassoclosetothebodies,however,bythetimeshearrived
ontheislandnootherspacewasavailable.Despiteherlocation,however,and
othersseeingghostsallaroundherhouse(intheformoflights),thedeadlefther
aloneandshehadremainedfreefromhaunting,becauseshehadmadean
agreementwiththeghosts:
109
Incenseisburnttoletthespiritsknowthelivingarecallingthem.Oneinformanttoldmethatwhensomeonehasdiedinanaccident,aceremonyisheldforthespiritofthedead.Beforetheceremonyisheld,however,incenseislitandanofferingoffoodisleftatthesiteofthedeath.‘Theincenseistoletthespiritknowwearecallingthem’sheexplained.‘ThefoodisfortheNeakTa,sohewillletthespiritbefree.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 144
Isaid‘Let’sbefriends.Iwon’tdoanyharmtoyouandyoudon’tdoanyharmto
me….’Ijustsaiditlikethat….Isaid:‘Don’tcometostayhere;thisplaceisfor
thelivingpeople.Theliving.’Isaiditthroughthewind(niyeaytamveayor)110.
IftherewereanyspiritstheywouldhearwhatIsaid.
Overtime,andfollowingtheagreementsmadebetweenthem,thelivingandthe
deadstartedtohaveamoreharmoniousrelationship,andthedeadstartedto
helptheliving.Asintheearlystages,thisphasewasmarkedbybothphysicaland
spiritualrelationships.Thoselivingontheislandusedthebonestomake
medicine111;otherstooktheirskullsasamuletstoprotecttheirhouseandthose
withinit112,andaspeoplestartedtogrowcropsagain,ratherthanpermeating
themandmakingtheminedible,thedeadfertilizedthelandandenabledthe
cropstogrow.
However,itwasnotonlybyusingtheirremainsthatthedeadsupportedthe
living.Theyalsohelpedthemrebuildtheirlivesbyprovidingluckandmaterial
support,leadingpeopletofindgoldandothervaluablesburiedintheground;
allowingpeopletoloottheirgravesandtheirbodies.Whenthebodieswere
uncovered,severalpeoplejoinedinthelootingandfoundvaluablestoselland
otheritemstouseforthemselves.BongSrey,forexample,usedclothingfromthe
dead:110Becausethedeadcannotbephysicallypresent,thelivingspeaktothemthroughthewind(niyeaytamveayororniyeaytamkhyorl).
111Theskeletalremains(cha-engkhmouch–bonesofthethedead)wereusedtomakevariousmedicinalremedies.Usuallybeingburnedandthengroundintoapowder,theyweremixedwithvariousotheringredientsandthendrunkasatonic.Sometimestheyweresimplyboiledinwaterandthewaterdrunk.Theywere,accordingtoSreySabbay,particularlygoodfortreatinghighfeversandrubellainchildren.
112Thispracticewascommoninotherareas,wheretheskullsweretakenfromsomeofthemassgravesitesandusedtoprovideprotectiontothosewhotookthem,andtodetertrespassersfromtheland.OneinformantinKeptoldmethattheywereparticularlyeffectiveagainsttheVietnamese.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 145
WhenIwasyoungItooktheclothestomakeintoaskirttogotoschoolbecauseI
didn’thaveanyclothestowear.
Theclothes?
Theclothesofthedeadpeople.Itookthem,washedthemwithwashingpowder
andmadeaskirtforschool.AtthattimeIdidn’thaveanyclothestowear
becausemyfatherwaspoor.
Sheexplainedthatthedeadhelpedher,takingpityonherbecauseshewaspoor;
‘theyalwayslookedafterme’shesaid.Aswellasallowinghertotaketheir
clothes,wheneverfoodwaslow,thekhmouchwouldhelpherfindgoldintheir
graves:
TheyknewwhenIdidn’thaveanythingtoeat;theymademefindgold.Ionly
foundalittlebitofgold,sevenoreighthonoronechi113,butIoftenfoundsome.
Theexchangewasnotaltruistic.Thoughthedeadtookpityonher,andhelped
herout,italsobenefittedthem;assistingthelivinggavethemmerit,whichwould
helpthemintheirnextrebirth(seechapterfour):
WhenItooktheclothestowearlikethat,theyalsogotmerit,sotheyhelpedme.
Manypeoplejoinedinthelootingofthegraves,butthedeadnevermadethem
sick,showing,Yayexplained,thattheyapprovedandwantedtohelptheliving.
Somewerevisitedintheirsleepbythoseinthegravesleadingthemtogoldin
exchangeforofferingsandmeritpassedonatthepagoda.Onemorning
sometimeinthe80s,Yayfoundagoldtoothwhileshewastendingherturmeric
113
InCambodiagoldissoldbythechianddamlung.Adamlungistenchi,andweighs37.5gmetric.Onehonisonetenthofonechi.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 146
patch.Afterfindingitthekhmouchwhosetoothitwasvisitedherinadream,and
toldherofmorefortunetobefound:
Thosekhmouch…gavemeadream(aoyyulsop)114.Thatone[whovisitedher]
wasveryhandsome.Helookedlikeabusinessman;hecamewithhisbodyguard
togivemeadream.Ifeltwehadafortunateconnection(nissai),that’swhyI
foundhistooth.Ifoundagoldentooth.Itwasmadeofrealgold.Iwasgrowing
tumericandIfoundasetoffalseteeth.WhenIsawthemIsawsomethingand
whenIaskedpeopleifit’sgold,Igotmorethanonechiofgold.Ifoundthegold
duringtheday,andthatnighthecameinmydreambecausewehadnissaiwith
eachother.
Thedreamwasveryvivid–tothisdayYaycanrememberclearlywhatthe
khmouchlookedlikeandhowheshowedherwherethetreasurewas:
Hewashandsomeandwearingproperclothes.Hisshirtwastuckedinsidehis
trousers.Hewaswearingahatandhewasholdingasilverandgoldwalking
stick.Hehadhisbodyguardbehindhim;hisshirtwasalsotuckedinsidehis
trousers,buthisbellywasalittlebitbigger.Butthatmandidn’thaveabigbelly.
Hesaidhewasafive-starsoldier[awartimerankabovethelevelofGeneral].
ThesoldiertoldYaythathehadbeenkilledduringtheKhmerRouge.On
reflection,shethoughtshemustberelatedtohim,becausealthoughkhmouch
hauntwhoeveriscloseby,myinformantstoldmethatthedeadthatvisitpeople
114
Itiscommonforthedeadtovisitthelivingindreams:calledaoyyulsop–literallythedeadwhogivedreams-theyusuallyvisitrelativesorfriendstomakedemands,whichthelivingmustacton.Theirdemandsusuallyrelatetotheircomfort,askingforfoodorshelter,forexample.Thesevisitsareusuallypositive,andareviewedverydifferentlyfromhaunting(loung).Thoughitwasrare,somedeadfromtheKhmerRougecontactedtheirrelativesandaskedthemtocollecttheirbones,directingthemtotheexactlocationoftheirgrave.Inmostexamples,however,likeYaythedeaddirectedthemtowardsgoldorothertreasure.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 147
intheirdreamsareusuallyconnectedtotheminsomeway;kin,friends,orsome
sharedexperiencefromapreviouslife.Yayrememberedanuncleofhermother’s
whohadbeenrichduringtheLonNolperiodandthoughtitcouldbehim:
Ithinkhe’smostlikelytobemyfleshandblood(sach-chheam)becausemy
relativeswerekilledthereinapitjustbesidesmyhouse,butIdon’tknowwhere.
Helookedsimilartomymother.Hewasverybigandtall.Hisfacewassimilarto
mymothers.Andhesaidthatwewereconnectedbyfate-that’swhyhegave
thegoldtome.
InexchangeforgivingherhistooththekhmouchmadedemandsofYay.Heasked
hertotakesomefoodtothepagodaandofferittopassmerittohimtohelphim
bereborn.Yaydidthis,andforalongtimeshekeptthetooth,onlysellingit
whenshehadtopayformedicalbillsforherdaughtermanyyearslater.
Thehauntingsandthenhelpfromthedeadhadcontinuedforsometime.Even
whilethedeadwerehelpingsomepeople,otherswerebeinghaunted.Butover
timebothbegantowane.Itisusuallyonlythosewhohaverecentlydiedthatvisit
peopleintheirdream;onlyjustafterdeatharetheystrongenoughtoremain
connectedtotheliving.Inaddition,thedeadneedfeedingtostaystrong.Those
whoreceivedhelpfromthedeadgaveofferingstothemandthusimprovedtheir
merithelpingthemtoberebornquicker.OmYaytoldmethattheotherghosts
haddied:fearingtheirpoweriftheyremainedstrong,peoplehadrefusedtofeed
them,andtheyhadgrownweakandpowerless,andeventuallydied:
wedidn’tgiveanyofferingstothem.IfwegaveofferingstothemIthinkthe
spiritswouldbestronger.Butwedidn’tgiveanyofferingstothem.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 148
Withtheirpowerdiminished,theghostshadbecomepowerless-saproleap(sap
translatesliterallyastasteless),thelandfreefromhaunting,andpeoplesafeand
secure(soksabbay).WhenIaskedMingYayaboutit,shetoldmethatthedead
werenotscaredanymore:
peoplegrewcropsonthemanditbecameavillageandahometownthat’swhy
theywerenotscaredanymore.
Mosthavenowdiedandbeenreborn:someasaconsequenceofnotbeingfed,
mostsimplybecausethetimepassedsincetheregimefellhasbeensolong,and
throughreciprocalrelationshipswiththeliving,theyhavebeenabletorebuild
theirkarmaandbereborn.Thefewspiritsthatremainwaitingtoberebornare
powerlessasYayexplained:
Theywouldnotbeabletoharmanyonebecausetheydon’thaveanything[any
power].
Rebuildingthecountry:thedeadatChoeungEk
LikeKohSop,therelationshipsbetweenthelivingandthedeadatChoeungEk
wentthroughtransformationsovertime,followingasimilarpatterntothat
describedabove,althoughwithsubtledifferences.AtKohSopthebenevolence
ofthedeadwasalmostentirelymaterialsupporttoindividuals:helpingpeople
findgold;lettingpeopleunearththeirremainsandusewhatevertheyfound;
providingameansofsurvivalandsubsistence.Thiskindofsupportoccurredat
ChoeungEkforsomepeople,however,thesupportgivenbythedeadherewas
moremetaphysicalandnationallyfacedthanatKohSopandothersitesIvisited.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 149
‘Achilddiedbecauseoftheghosts,’YayChantoldmeaswesatoutsideherhouse
onahot,Augustafternoon.Hersisasmallhutbuiltfromscavengedwoodand
corrugatedmetal,oneofelevensimilarhutsdirectlybehindChoeungEk,
borderingthesmallcanalthatdividesonevillagefromitsneighbour.Thecanalis
stinkingwithfetidrubbishandthechemicalsthatrunofffromthePhnomPenh
municipaltip;toopoortoliveelsewherethesehousesrepresentsecuritytothe
peoplewholiveinthem;thepoorqualityofthelandmeansitisunlikelytobe
desirableforlandgrabbing.Theylivedinrelativepeacenow,thoughsoonafter
theliberationthesituationhadbeendifferentandthedeadmadelifedifficult.‘I
sawthisalongtimeago’shesaid:
threepeoplecamewithanoxcarttocollectwood,butsomethinghappened.We
didn’tknowwhy,butthecowsgotveryspooked.Ishoutedto[thedriver]‘Uncle,
catchyourcows!’ThenwhenIturnedaround,Isawablackshadowanditseyes
werehuge.Ilookedatitanditlookedatme.Ikeptshoutingattheuncleto
catchhiscowsproperly.Suddenly,it[theghost]wentpast,andthecows
abruptlystartedgalloping,sothechilddied[byfallingfromthecart].Igotvery
angrywiththeman;Ikepttellinghimtoholdthecowsproperly,buthedidn’t
listen.
Herhusbandelaborated:
Inthecart,therewasonlyachild.Therewerethreepeople,butonewalked
aheadandonewasdrivingthecows.Butthecowssawsomethinglikethat;they
wereafraidsotheygallopedabruptly.[Thedriver]couldnotcontrolthecows,so
hischildfelldown.Thecartwheelwentoverhimandhedied.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 150
Thedriverofthecartbeathiscowstodeathaftertheincident,butYayChanknew
itwasnottheirfault:‘theysawsomethingovertherethat’swhytheygot
surprised’shesaid.Iaskedherwhatshehadseen.‘Itlookedhuman’shereplied,
‘butaftertheincident,itdisappeared.’Shehadonlyseenitthatonetime,and
hadnotherselfbeenhaunted,butmanyotherpeoplehadbeen.LikeKohSop,
thelandaroundChoeungEkhadgrownwildduringDemocraticKampuchea,and
muchofithadreturnedtoforest(prei).Ghostsstalkedthearea,hauntingnot
onlythesitewherepeoplewerekilled,butalsotheroadsaroundit.Somepeople
makingthelongtreksbacktotheirhomestriedtorestthenightinthebuildings
remainingatChoeungEk,butthenoiseoftheghostswailingandcryingdrove
themout.
ThelootingofChoeungEk’sgravesbegansoonafterliberation,andalthough
governmentled,manyofthepeoplefromthevillagessurroundingthesitecame
toseektheirfortunes.AsinKohSop,somewereluckierthanothers.BuSoth
searchedseveralgraves,butfoundnothing.ThedeadhelpedthefamilyofBong
Brohmeanwhile,allowingmanyofthemtofindsmallamountsofgoldthatthey
wereabletoexchangeforfoodwhentimesgottough.Hefoundanearring,his
youngersisteranecklace,andhismotherfoundgoldonseveraloccasions.
Initiallythefamilywasconcernedthatthedeadwouldcomeanddemandthem
back.Buttheyboughtofferingsanddedicatedthemtothosewhohadgiventhem
thegoldandhelpedthemsurvive:chicken,fruitandothersnacks.
I gave an offering to the khmouch who allowed me to find the gold. I burnt
incenseandsaidthankyousomuchforhelpingmetofindthis:“NowIputrice,
snacks,alcoholandfoodandboiledchickenforyou.”
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 151
Havingdonesothedeadwereappeasedandneverreturned,excepttohelp.
Seeingthewaysthedeadwerehelpingsomeofthosereturningtothesite,others
soughttheiraid.Hopingtomakeaconnectionbetweenherselfandthedead,
Dara,wholivesclosetothesite,wenttohandlethebones;‘Itouchedthebones
incasetheyhadsomefortune,’shetoldme.Itseemedtowork;althoughshedid
notfindanygold,theghostsneverhauntedher,andherfamilyremainedwell.
In1983TepVong,oneofthemonksinitiallyinauguratedfollowingthePRK,
broughtadelegationofmonksandforeigndignitariestothesite.‘Hebought
peoplefromIndia,Japanandelsewhere’OmTa,whohasworkedatthesitefor
manyyears,toldme.‘Theforeignvisitorsbroughttheirownmonks.’Thecorpses
werestillstackedaroundtheedgesofthegravesatthispoint;itwasseveral
monthsbeforeap’teahkhmouchwasbuilttohousethem,andinthemeantime
theyremainedexposedonthesurface.‘Theylookedwhitelikemushrooms.’
LikeTuolSleng,ChoeungEkwasanimportantpartofthepoliticalconstructionof
theregimeanditsliberation(seechapterfive).ThevisitofTepVongwasasmuch
anopportunitytoshowthesitetothesedignitariesasitwastoperformany
rituals,however,itenabledthedeadtobebroughtbackintotheappropriate
ritualcontrol,andthereforecalmedthemdown.Althoughtheyhadbeenhelping
certainindividuals,thiscalmingunitedthedeadandallowedthemtostarthelping
thesiteasawhole.‘Before,theycouldnotrest.Butafterweinvitedthemonks,
whoprayedanddedicatedmanygoodthingstothem,theykindofcalmeddown’
OmTaexplained.
FollowingTepVong’svisitthesiteopenedtovisitors.Asteadytrickleoftourists
anddignitariesbegantovisit,andovertheyearsthenumberssteadilyincreased,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 152
duringthehighseasonwhenIwasthereupto1,000peoplevisitedperday.
Althoughghostsareusuallyfrightenedoftheliving,aswehavealreadyseen,
althoughscared,thedeadfromtheKhmerRougewerealsolonelyandseeking
theirfamilies.Thesteadystreamofvisitorsmadethedeadhappybecausethey
werenotlonelyanymore.Italsoenabledthemtofurtherestablishtheir
relationshipswiththeliving,andinreturnforallowingthemtovisitandthesiteto
bedevelopedthedeadreceivedmeritandcouldbereborn.Onlythreefamilies
(thoseoftheguards)liveatChoeungEk,sothebuildingofrelationshipshadless
urgencyandwerelessindividuallybasedthaninKohSop,wherethelivingneeded
tonegotiatewiththedeadinordertoreachagreementtolivealongsidethem.At
ChoeungEkthenegotiationwasnotforlivingspace,butforworkingspace,andto
enablethesitetobeusedasatouristsiteandstatememorial.
BuSothtoldmethatthoughheagreeswithsomepeoplewhocriticizethesitefor
makingmoney‘onthebackofdeadpeople,’maybethedeaddonotmind,
becausetheyrarelyvisitpeopleintheirdreamsanymore,andsincethe
developmentofthesite,theonlypersontobecomesickdidsobecausehe
angeredtheNeakTawholivesbythelake.Thedevelopmentofthesiteis
permittedbythedead,whoallowtheirgravestobedisplayed,theirremainstobe
exhibited,andtheirclothingtobecollected,becausetheywanttheircountryto
develop,partofwhichtheyenable:
TheyfindpeacebecausetheyareKhmer.Theywanttodevelopthecountry.
Theywantthenextgenerationtoprosper.ThatiswhyIthinktheirdeaths…their
lives….theyhelpuswhoarestillalive….Onlythebonesarehere[now],butifthe
spiritswereheretheywouldfeelwarmbecausetheirdeathsarevaluable
already.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 153
Thevalueoftheirdeathsliesinthedevelopmentofthesiteandthecountryasa
whole.BongLa,whoworksasaguideatthesite,andwhoregularlyinteractswith
spiritsofthedead,consideredthistobeintegraltowhythedeadatChoeungEk
havelongsincebeenatpeace,andhavebeenabletomoveonintheir
incarnations.Byreceivingmeritfromthosetheyhelp(individuallyand
collectively),theyhaveaccumulatedkarma,andmosthavebeenreborn(aswe
willseeinthenextchapter):
acoupleofyearsago,inmydream,IsawfiveVietnamese,fourorfive
Vietnamese,gotomyhomeinPhnomPenh.Youknowwhattheysaid?They
said‘Don’tworry–Iamfreenow!Iampeacefulnow!’Theywerewearingnice
shirtsandthen…theyweregone!Soit’sjustlikethatnow;theyhaveanewlife.
It’sjustlike,Itoldmyself–itseemsliketheyweretellingmethattheyhaveanew
lifenow.Andnowtheyhavegonetoagoodplaceorsomewhereelse,Idon’t
know….Theyaredoingwell.
Discussion
Theseethnographicdescriptionsdetailthechangingrelationshipsbetweenthe
livingandthosewhowerekilledbytheKhmerRouge.Fuelledwithfear,
confusion,andmassivedisplacement,theserelationshipsinitiallyconsistedof
distrustfulandfearfulinteractions,however,overtime,reciprocalrelationsbegan
tobere-established,withthedeadinKohSophelpingthelivingrebuildtheirlives
andsurviveinthechaoticanddifficultpost-conflictenvironment,andthosein
ChoeungEkhelpingenabledevelopmenttothecountryandthushelpingthe
Khmerpeoplesurviveintheglobalmarket.Thesereciprocalrelationshelpedthe
deadreceivemerit,whichenabledthemtorebuildtheirkarma,andinboth
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 154
locations,mosthavenowbeenreborn.Onlythosewithparticularlybadkarma
(seechapterfour)remain,butthesearepowerlessandsimplywaitingtobe
reborn.
OnemorningasIsatwithLōkOm,anelderymanwholivesintheSouthof
Cambodia,ourconversationturnedtoghosts.Iwashavingdifficulty
understandingthemanywaysinwhichthelivingareconnectedtothedead,soto
explainwhythedeadcontinueexistinginCambodia,hetoldmeanoldKhmer
folktale:
Oncetherelivedafarmer.Everydayhetendedhisricefield,andbecauseitwas
farfromthevillage,andveryquiet,heoftensleptthere,aloneinasmallcottage.
Onedayabeautifulspiritsawhimsleepingalone.Shecametoplaywithhim
everynight,andthetwofellinlove.Thefarmerwasnotsimplyanordinaryman
–hewasaKruwhoknewsomemagic,whichheusedtocallthespirittoliveina
deadbody.Sheenteredthroughthehead,andhetrappedherinside,usinga
tick115tosealthehole.TheKruandhisspiritwifehadahappylifeandovertime
sheforgotshewasaspiritandgavebirthtoachild.Onedayshewaswalkingin
theforestwithherchildandherheadwasveryitchywherethetickwas.She
scratched,buttheitchingwouldn’tstop,sosheaskedherchildtokillthetickfor
her.Thechildpulledthetickout,andthespiritescapedthebody,leavingadead
bodyastheparentofthechild.Sothisiswhythespiritsmuststaywiththeliving
nowadays.
Heusedthisstorytoshowmehowthelivingandthedeadareinterdependent
anditisonlywiththerecognitionofeachother,andmutualsupport,thateither
cansurvive.Ittookmesometimetocomprehendthisnotion,anditwasonly
115
Insomeversionsofthestorythefarmerknocksanailintotheheadtosealthehole.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 155
throughtheexaminationofthechangingstatusofthosekilledundertheKhmer
RougethatIfullygraspeditsmeaning.
Withintheliterature,discussionsofghosts,spirits,andothermanifestationsof
thedeadoftenconfinesthemtoonecategory,suggestingthatalongsidetheir
liminalstatus,thereisapermanenceofdemeanouranddispositionofthedeadin
whicheverformtheytake.Thisisparticularlythecaseforghosts,who,as
discussedearlier,haveprimarilybeenviewedasliminalbeingswhoareunableto
escapetheirdeathsandthereforeexistoutsidethesocialstructure.Indiscussing
thenotionofmemoryasamoralpractice,MichaelLambek(1996:241)argues
thateverytimespiritsappear,theyprovidenewwaysofconceivingandrevising
narrativesofthepast:
Centraltospiritsaretheirnarrativeandperformativefunctions.Spiritsare
vehiclesformemoryratherthanthefrozenremnantsofmemory.
ItcouldbearguedthatthisishownarrativesofthedeadfromtheKhmerRouge
areutilized.However,toseethemonlyasvehiclesfornarrationandevolving
understandingsissomewhatlimitinginCambodia,wherethedeadareas
constitutiveofcontemporarysocialorderandstabilityastheliving.AsLangford
(2009:682)states,inherexaminationoftheghostsencounteredbyKhmer
diaspora,thedeadinCambodiaare‘tangibleparticipantsin[the]violated
socialitiesoflivinganddead.’Aswehaveseeninthischapter,theghostsofthose
killedundertheKhmerRougewereneitherliminalnormetaphorical,butsocially
salientbeings,whosestatusandemotionschangedalongsidethoseoftheliving,
andnowadayshaveallbutdisappeared.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 156
AsOmYaytoldme,thosekilledbytheKhmerRougewereconsideredtohave
diedlikedogs(khmouchchikkei),andtobekhmouchdtaihong–sufferersofa
violentdeath,whohaddiedwithoutceremony.Assuchtheirplaceintheworld
wasconfused,andtheywouldnotaseasilybeabletomoveontotheirnextlife.
Displacedfromtheirfamiliestheybecameanonymous,wanderingdead,andthe
fearandlonelinessthisinducedcausedthemtohaunttheliving.Inorderfor
themtoaccumulatekarmatoassistintheirrebirth,theyneededtoreceivemerit
fromtheliving;todothistheyneededtoengageinreciprocalrelationshipsof
supportwiththeliving116,somethingthatwasonlypossibleiftheybecame
recognised,individualised(evenwithoutnames)andtherebyincorporatedinto
thesocialworldoftheliving.KwonnotesthatinVietnamtheliberationofthe
ghostsfromgrievousdeathisatwowayprocess,inwhichtheghostshavea
responsibilitytoworktowardstheirfreedombyshowingtheirwillandengagingin
ritualintimacywiththeliving(Kwon2008b:164).Thesamecanbesaidforthe
deadoftheKhmerRougeinCambodia,althoughtheirrelationshipswerenot
madeexplicitthroughritual,butthrougheverydayinteractionsofsupport.
RemainingforamomentwithKwon,heshowsushowperformingthecorrect
ritualsforthedead(i.e.beingabletofeedonesrelatives),andbeingableto
reburytheminappropriatesitesandengageinappropriatecaretransactions
(beingabletofeedthemagain),allowedthedeadtobebroughtinfromthe
streets(duong)tothehome(nha).InCambodiathedistinctionisnotbetween
thehomeandthestreets,butbetweenthetownorhomeland(srok)andthe
forest(prei):ghostswhoareconfused,wandering,andlonely,liveintheforests,
116InthiswaytheyresembletheNeakTa,whorequirereciprocalrelationshipstosurvive,andthelandspiritsofTimorLeste,whohadtobere-animatedfollowingpeople’sreturntotheirlandinordertoregainstability(Bovensiepen2009).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 157
whilstthosewhohavebeenproperlyintegratedintosociallifebelongtothesrok.
AstheritualsinVietnambroughtthedeadinfromthestreetstothehome,the
changingrelationshipsbetweenthedeadandthelivinginCambodiaovertime
allowedthelivingtobringthedeadinfromtheforest.Insodoingtheyhelped
alleviatetheirloneliness,whichstoppedthedeadfromhaunting.Italsoenabled
thedeadtomakerelationshipswiththeliving,byhelpingthemmakeconnections
withpeoplewhowouldgiveofferingsforthem.Byhelpingthemthedeadwould
gainmerit,andsoaccumulatekarmatohelptheirrebirth.
DuringtheKhmerRougeregimethemostsuccessfultoolofkillingwasthe
propagandathatenabledthecadretodehumanisethelivinginordertowork
themtodeath,starvethemoflife,andforthosewhoworkedasexecutioners,to
murderpeoplethenabandonthebodies(Hinton2005).117Aftertheregimethe
dehumanisationcontinued,firstintheinternationalcommunity’sdisinterestin
theconsequencesoftheregime,andtheninthestate’sappropriationofthedead
intheirwritingofhistory(seechaptersfivetoseven).Fromasuperficialglance,
thelootingofthegravesthatoccurredintheperiodimmediatelyaftertheregime
couldbeconsideredacontinuationofthisdehumanisation,andifitwerenotfor
theghosts,perhapsitwouldbe.However,unlikeinJewishPoland,where
ZuzannaDziuban(2014)arguesthatthelootingofthegravesofHolocaustvictims
wasaresultoftheculturalframingofcertaindead,wherememorypolitics
framedtheminsuchawaythattheJewishdeadwerenotonlydehumanised,but
renderedinvisibleandthereforeopentolooting,inCambodialootingthegraves
wasnotacontinuationofthedehumanizationofthosekilledundertheKhmer
117Cambodiaisnotuniqueinthis:NaziGermany;SovietRussia;Mao’sChina–allenforcedregimesthatperpetuatedthedehumanisationofthepopulationtoachievetheirgoals.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 158
Rougebecauseitcouldonlyoccurifthedeadallowedit;assuchtheywerevital
beingsinthenegotiationofthisactivity.
Thelootingwasanaspectofreciprocalrelationsbetweenthelivingandthedead:
byunearthingthem,andthereforeallowingtheirremainstobecollectedand
storedtogether,thelivingwerebringingthedead‘infromtheforest.’Bygiving
offeringstothemtheyhelpedsendthemmerit.Thedeadprovidedsupportto
thelivingbyallowingtheirteethtoberemoved,ortheirclothestakenwithout
punishingthosewhodidit.Thosewhodisrespectedthedeadbecameill,orwere
visitedintheirdreamsandtoldhowtorectifythesituation.Theserelationships
enabledthedeadtobeenfoldedintothelifeoftheliving,whichhelpedthembe
reborn.Thiswasnotnecessarilyaneasytransactionforeitherthelivingorthe
dead,butonethatwasnecessaryandunderstood,asoneofmyinformants
explained:
OnceIfoundanoillampthathadsomegoldandthreewatchesinit.Iliftedup
andIshookitandfoundallthatinside.Istartedcrying;Ijustfeltsosorryfor
them.Ithoughttomyself,“BothyouandIloveourbelongings.Butnowyou
havedied,leavingyourbelongings.”IfounditbutIsoldittofeedmychildren.
Wedidn’thaveanythingaftertheliberation.IcriedsohardbecauseIfeltso
sorryforthem[thedead].Butthethingdidn’tlastforlongbecauseIkeptselling
piecesofittobuyriceandfoodformychildren.Istillfeelverythankfultothe
owner.Evennow,whenIprayathome,Ithinkoftheowner.Ithinkabouthow
theyhadsavedourlives.Isurvivedfromthat,sopleasebeblessedandbereborn
inasafeplace.Icanneverforgetwhattheydidforus.
Itwasthroughtheserelationshipsthatthedeadcouldbere-humanised,brought
infromtheforestandbacktothehomeland,andthereforeabletotransition
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 159
frombeingfrightenedbeingsthathaunt,todeadengagedinrelationshipswith
theliving.InherbookConsolingGhosts(2013)JeanLangfordarguesthatthe
deadoftheKhmerRougecouldnevertransitiontobebenevolentancestors,
arguingthatthesedeadareforeverstuckaspretaorkhmouch,andcannot
transformtodifferentstatesofbeing.However,atbothKohSopandChoeungEk
thedeadwereabletomakethistransition.Thiswasonlypossiblebecauseofthe
negotiationsbetweenthelivingandthedead,whichwereonlypossiblebecause
ofthecosmologicalorderofKhmersociety.
Asexploredinthepreviouschapter,allincarnationsofthedead,includingghosts,
existwithintheacceptedBuddhistrealmsofexistence.Assuchtheyaresubject
tosomekindofmetaphysicalbirthanddeath,andaresubjecttoreincarnationin
thewaythatanimalsandhumansare.WhileinVietnamghosts(cobac)belong
neithertotheworldofthelivingnortheworldofthedead(Kwon2008b)in
Cambodia,khmouchbelongtoboth-theyarebothrecentlydeceasedcorpsesand
ghostsofthosewhohaverecentlydied.Anyonecanbecomeakhmouch,and
everyonewill(althoughnoteveryonewillbecomeakhmouchloung-haunting
ghost).Thekhmouchthatpeopleencounterareoftenknowntothem,andghosts
thereforearerelativesofsomeone.Iftheyarenotknown,thensomesortof
relationshipisconsideredtoexistofwhichthelivingisunaware:aconnection
fromapreviouslifeforexample,aswesawinthecaseofYayandthekhmouch
whosetoothshefound.Inadditiontobeingconnected,khmouchalsorepresent
beingsthathumansmaybecomethroughre-incarnationanddeathevents.
Thedifferenceinthedirectionalityofthehelpandsupportgivenbythedead
illustrateshowthedeadreplicatethepoliticallivesoftheliving.Thoselivingand
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 160
workingatChoeungEkarehighlyconsciousofitsuseinbuildingtheimageof
contemporaryCambodiaintheeyesoftheforeignerswhomakeupthemajority
ofitsvisitors.TheyarealsoawarethatCambodiadependsheavilyonforeignaid
foritscontinuedeconomicgrowth,andthatitisforeignaidagencieswhosupport
thepoorestandmostvulnerableofthenation.Attheendofeveryformal
interviewIwouldasktheintervieweeiftherewasanythingelsetheythoughtit
wasimportantformetoknow.Theanswersfocusedononetheme:thatwhenI
returnedhomeIshouldtellpeopleaboutCambodia;itsterriblehistoryandhow
poorthepeoplearenow,andbydoingsobringhelptothenation.Sitessuchas
ChoeungEkandTuolSlengwereconsideredimportantinthismissionbymanyof
myinformants(seechaptersix).
ThedeadofChoeungEkalsorecognizedtheoutwardlyfacingaspectofthesite,
andthough,likeKohSop,theygavesomeindividualsupport,theiraidtotheliving
wasmostlynationallyfaced.WhilstinVietnamworshipoftheghostsofwarwas
bannedbythegovernment(becauseitwasseenasevidenceofanundeveloped
nation(Kwon2008b:11),inCambodia,politiciansincorporatedthedeadfromthe
KhmerRougeintotheircampaigns.Payingattentiontothedeadintheunstable
yearsafterliberationwasanimportantpartofpoliticalcontrolfortheruling
party.Annualeventsheldatmassgravesitesincludebangskolceremoniesand
theleadingpoliticiansensuredthatnotonlydidtheyreassurethepublic,butalso
thedead.118
118
HunSenisparticularlyawareofthepoliticalpowerofrelationswiththedead,andoftenusesitinhispropaganda.AfterlightingSihanouk’sfuneralpyreheclaimedthespiritofthelateKingwaswaitingforhim,becausetheyhaveaspecialconnection(Meas2013).Whilecampaigningbeforethe2013generalelections,heclaimedthatashootingstarwasviewedintheskythenighthiseldestsonwasborn,suggestingheisthereincarnationofapowerfulNeakTawithconnectionstoCambodia’screation(Vannarin2013b).Inthepasthehasclaimedtobethereincarnationof
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 161
ThecalmingoftheghoststhatoccurredwhenTepVongledadelegationto
ChoeungEkwasnotonlyaboutre-establishingtherelationshipsneededforthe
survivalofboththelivingandthedead;italsoenabledthecountrytostart
rebuildingitselfinthepost-conflictera.ThedeadatChoeungEkplayedacentral
roleinthisandcontinuetodosotodate;itisbecausetheysupportpeaceand
developmentthatthebonesofthedeadcanbedisplayedandtheirgraves
exploited.InKohSop,thedeadhelpedthelivingthroughindividualrelationships
ofmaterialsupport.Thistooreplicatedthepoliticalpositioningoftheliving
there,who,distantfromthenationalandinternationalambitionsofthe
government,struggledindividuallytoregainstabilityandsecurityinpost-KR
Cambodia.
Conclusion
Thedeadinpost-KRCambodiawerechaoticandterrifyingtotheliving.Butthis
wasnotbecauseofanymalevolentintent;itwasahostilitybasedinfearand
insecurity.IfwereferbacktoVanGennep’sstatementsabouttheimportanceof
funeralrites,hecommentsthatthedeadwhohavenotreceivedproper
treatmentarehostilebecausetheycannotgainaccesstoeithertheworldofthe
livingorthedead(vanGennep1960[1908]:160).Therelationshipsre-
establishedinCambodiaineachlocalitywereanimportantaspectofre-asserting
controlandorderinthepost-conflictchaos.Theirdemiseovertimehasparalled
thepoliticalstabilityofthecountryanditspeople.Intheyearsimmediatelyafter
SdechKan,asixteenthcenturyfighterwhotooktheKhmerthroneafterkillingasupposedlycorruptking(Noren-Nillson2013).Byusingsuchnarratives,HunSenconnectshimselfandhisfamilybothdirectlytoroyalty,butmoreimportantlytothepowerfulspiritualworldthatordersKhmersociety.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 162
theliberation,thecountrywasstillwild:fullofforestthatneededtamingand
controlling;fullofdeadthatneededthesame.
KingFatherNorodomSihnaouk,Cambodia’sformerleader,oncesaidthatif
Cambodiawasmoderniseditsghostswoulddisappear.Asthepopulationhas
grown,andthecountryhasbecomemoreandmoreurbanised,thedeadofthe
KhmerRougehavediminishedintheirpower.However,thisisnotsomucha
reflectionofmodernityasitisaboutstabilityandsecurity.Themodernisationof
Cambodiahasledtothewild‘forests’ofCambodiabeingbroughtundercontrol,
whicheliminatestheelementsthatledtoinsecurity–theKhmerRougefor
example,wholivedandfoughtintheforests(inarecentboutofpolitical
posturing,HunSen,thecurrentPrimeMinisterthreatenedareturntotheforests
ifmorecadreweretobechargedbytheKhmerRougetrials,astatement
suggestingwarandtheresurgenceoftheKhmerRougeincontemporary
Cambodia).
Controllingandeliminatingthe‘forest’notonlycreatesaspacewherethedead
cannotlive,butitalsoallowsthemtobebroughtbackintoacceptablesociety;
althoughtheymayhavelosttheirkin,andthereforethosewhowouldusuallycare
forthem,theestablishmentofnewrelationsthroughassistingthelivingenabled
newnetworkstobecreated,whichboththelivingandthedeadcouldbenefit
from.Bringingtheminfromtheforestenabledthedeadtotransitionto
benevolentbeings,whicheventuallyhelpedthemaccumulatekarmatobe
reborn.UnlikeTimorLeste,where‘pastconflictshavesaturatedthelandscape
withthespiritsofpeoplewhowerekilled,someofwhomwerenotproperly
buried’(Bovensiepen2009:336),Cambodia’sdangercomesnotfromthedead,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 163
butfromtheliving,because,asthischaptershows,thosekilledundertheregime
havenowbecomeharmless,or,inthemajorityofcases,havebeenreborn,asthe
nextchapterwillexplore.
164
Chapterfour:Karmaandreincarnationinthekillingfields
Sreyisreincarnated.KilledbytheKhmerRougeasayoungboyinVietnam,her
spirithadtowaitforover20yearstobereborn.Whenitwas,itwaswithLōkOm,
aformerKhmerRougecadreinhismid-40swholivesinSouthernCambodia.
Despitethelongwaitingperiod,Srey’skarmawasgood:shewasrebornintothe
humanrealm,andintoarelativelyprosperousfamily.Alsokilledasachild,Lōk
Om’sson,Broh,hasalsobeenreborn.Heisnowpartofanotherfamilyinthe
village,butLōkOmseeshimoccasionally,oftengivingmoneyandgiftstohim
whenhedoes.
MostKhmerare,toborrowObeyesekere’sphrase(2002:176),‘karma-bound
beings’.Theirlivesareenmeshedintheoriesofkarmaandreincarnation,andin
thepresenceoftheverysociallyactivespiritswhoimbuethelandscape.
Followingdeath,rebirthalwayshappens,andkarmadeemswhenandwhereit
willbe.Alongwithmoralordering,andextendingandelaboratingnetworksof
kinships,reincarnationandkarmaalsorelatetoconceptsofjusticeandtothe
waysthedeadarereintegratedintothelivesoftheliving;itistheseaspectsthat
willbediscussedinthischapter.HereIaminterestedinkarmaandreincarnation
associalpracticesandconceptsthat,althoughcomingfromBuddhismcanon,are
playedoutineverydaylife.Reincarnationandkarmawerenotinitialresearch
interests,however,Iheardstoriesofrebirthfrommassgravesalmostfromthe
firstdayIwasinCambodia,andmanypeopleinvokedtheBuddhistnotionof
karmatoexplainthemassdeathanddestructionwroughtbytheKhmerRouge,
andtheirownsurvivalagainsttheodds.Itsoonbecameclearthattheseare
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 165
importantaspectsofhowKhmerpeopletodaynarrateandnormalisethemass
deaththatoccurredduringtheregime.
ThischapterconsiderstheplacethatBuddhismplaysinthenegotiationofthe
rupturesthatfollowthemassdeathanddisruptioncausedbytheKhmerRougein
Cambodia.Itisaboutimaginedandregeneratedcontinuities–betweenthepast
andthepresent,betweenthelivingandthedead-andtheintegralplacethat
Buddhismplaysinthis.Butbyconsideringhowthedislocationsand
discontinuitiescausedbytheKhmerRougeregimearenarratedandnormalisedin
contemporaryCambodiaitisalsoabouthowaspectsofBuddhismworktohelp
maintainstabilityandsomekindofpeaceinpost-KhmerRougeCambodiathrough
imaginedconnectionsandlinkagesbetweenthepastandthepresent.
UsingLambek’s(2013)conceptofthecontinuousanddiscontinuouspersonthat
connectshistoricalperiodsaswellaspersons,IwillarguethattheBuddhist
conceptsofkarmaandreincarnationaremeansbywhichmanyKhmerpeople
cometounderstandandnarratethe‘tragedyofCambodianhistory’(Chandler
1993),andinsodoing,tonormaliseandintegratemassdeathintoanexpected
aspectoflife,onethatcanbetalkedaboutandrelatedtothewidercosmologyof
Khmerlife.Iwillexplorehowdifferentincarnationsenableacontinuityand
connectionbetweendifferenthistoricaleras,particularlytheperiodsofpeace
beforetheregimeandnow,andenabletheextensionofsocialnetworksanda
formofre-incorporativekinship.Thejusticeprovidedbythenotionofkarmawill
beexplored,beforeexamininghow,inCambodia,thestabilityofbothBuddhism
andanimismenabledthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRougetobeswiftlyre-
incorporatedintoeverydaylifefollowingtheregime’sdemise.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 166
Theoreticalbackground
Inrecentyears,anthropologistshaveusedreincarnation(andtoalesserextent,
karma)asaconceptualtooltoexplorevariousaspectsofsociallifeinthe
communitiesinwhichitexists.AnneBennett(2006)examinesreincarnation
amongsttheDruze-anIslamicsectintheLevantineMiddleEast-where
reincarnationisacommon,thoughcontested,belief.Shearguesthat
reincarnationenhancessectunityandidentityamongsttheDruze,somethingof
extremesocialsignificanceforthismarginalandexcludedcommunity.Anya
Bernstein(2012)examineshowconceptsofreincarnationareusedpoliticallyby
BuryatsinSiberiaasameansofreinforcingorcontestingRussianpoliticalruleof
thearea119,whileinherstudyoftheWariofWesternBrazil,BethConklin(2001)
notesthatabeliefthattheirancestorswererebornaspeccariesbroughtgreat
comforttotheliving,becauseitofferedthemthechancetomeettheirrelatives
againafterdeath.
Otheranthropologistshaveusedreincarnationasalensthroughwhichto
examinetheculturalspecificityofconceptsofpersonhoodandtheformationof
beings.Robertson(2011)discussesrebirthasachallengetotheCartesiangap,
arguingthatreincarnatedbeingssubverttheCartesianseparationbetweenmind
andbody,andthatratherthandiscretephenomena,mindandbodyare
‘emergentpropertiesof…theprocessofbecoming,’whichoccursbetween
peopleandwhere‘personalidentitiesmaytemporarilymerge’(Robertson2011:
585).AkhilGupta(2002)usesreincarnationasatheoreticaltooltoexplore
conceptsofchildhoodandkinship,illustratingthe‘culturalspecificityof
119BringingtomindtherecentDalaiLama’sthreatnottoreincarnateifTibetremainsunderChinesecontrolandthecontroversythishascaused(Kazi2015).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 167
constructionsofthelifecourse’(Gupta2002:42).LikeGupta,AlmaGottlieb
(2004)exploresalternativeconceptualisationsofchildhoodaswellascultural
differencesinchild-rearingpracticesbetweenNorthAmericaandherresearch
communityoftheBenginCôted’Ivoire,wherechildrenarerebornfromwrugbe–
spiritvillageswherethedeadresidebetweenlives.Shearguesforan
anthropologyofinfancythatconsidersinfants’lives‘textstoberead’(Gottlieb
2004:53)sothatwemightbetterappreciateboththeculturalconstructionsof
childhoodandassumptionsrelatedtoitwithinanthropologicalpractice.120
AmongstKhmerscholars,whereBuddhismanditsplaceinthereconfigurationof
post-KhmerRougeCambodiahasbeenextensivelyexplored(manywithinKent
andChandler’s(2008)editedvolumePeopleofVirtue:ReconfiguringReligion,
PowerandMoralOrderinCambodiaToday),littleattentionispaidtothese
concepts,despiteseveralauthorstouchinguponaspectsofBuddhismrelating
directlytothem.JudyLedgerwood(2008)examinesmeritmakinginruralKandal
province(theprimaryaimofwhichistoaccumulatekarmatoimprovethenext
life),butdoesnotdiscussitsimplicationsforrebirth.EveZucker(2013)discusses
therebuildingofmoralityinpost-DKCambodia,butdespitekarmaand
reincarnationbeinginfluentialfactorsinthis,paysthemlittleattention.Inhis
discussionofthepoliticsofmemoryinpost-KhmerRougeCambodia,Alexander
Hintonconsidersthenotionsof‘karma,meritandaction’(Hinton2008:76),
120ReadersinterestedindiscussionsoftheoriginsofreincarnationbeliefsystemsshouldturntoObeyesekere’sbookImaginingKarma(2002).InthishecomparestheoriesofreincarnationinseveralWestAfrican,MelanesianandAmerindiancommunitiestotherebirththeoriesofclassicalGreekphilosophersandBuddhistscripture.Indoingsoheprovidesanargumentforthe‘ethicization’ofreincarnation,suggestingthatethicizedformsofreincarnation(‘karmiceschetologies’),whereethicalbehaviourcontrolsyourfortuneinthenextlife,evolvedoutofnon-ethicisedforms(‘rebirtheschatologies’)wherepeoplearesimplyreborninanendlesscycle.Osbourne(2007)arguesthatitistheotherwayaround,whilstBurley(2013)conteststhenotionofanykindoforderingorprioritytothedevelopmentofdifferentforms.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 168
however,thesediscussionsarebrief,andreincarnationreceivesnoattention
beyondafleetingmention.OneexceptionisErikDavies(2008),whodiscussesthe
continuinglivesof‘MissYaan,’usingherrecollectionsofpastlives,andtheways
inwhichsheusesthemtoextendherkinshipnetworks,asamodeofexploring
howmoralorderingisarticulatedineverydaylife.Hearguesthatinremembering
herpastlives,MissYaanenactsmanyoftheculturaltensionsexperiencedby
Cambodianpeopletoday,andfindssociallyacceptedwaystonegotiatethese.
Ofmostresonancetothischapter,however,isLambek’s(2013)article‘The
ContinuousandDiscontinuousPerson:TwoDimensionsofEthicalLife.’Inthis
Lambeksuggeststwoperceptionsoftheperson:continuous(whichhelabels
forensic)anddiscontinuous(mimeticinhisterminology).Forensicpersonsare
continuousbecause,whilstbeingunique,theiridentityisconsistentovertimeand
they‘carrymoralresponsibilityforpastandfuturedeeds’:theyarethe
‘cumulativeproductoftheactsinwhichshehasengagedorbeenengagedandfor
whichsheholdsherselfaccountable’(Lambek2013:838).Mimeticpersonsare
discontinuousbeingswho‘drawfromasetofnamedpersonnagesordramatis
personaethatthey‘become’,‘inhabit’,‘play’,‘personify’,‘imitate’,or
‘impersonate’alternatelyanddiscontinuously,orpossiblysuccessivelyor
simultaneously’(ibid).
Ratherthanconcentratingonthesedifferentaspectsofpersonhood,Iwantto
pickupLambek’sconnectionbetweenreincarnatedpersonsandtemporality.Ina
briefsectionofhispaper,LambekextendsGeertz’sassertioninPerson,Time,and
ConductinBali(1973)thatpersonhoodandhistoricityareintrinsicallylinked.
Reincarnatedpersonshavecharacteristicsoftheirformerincarnationthatenable
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 169
themtobecome‘‘characters’inapoiesisofhistorywhoexemplifyapastepoch’
(Lambek2013:847).Hereferstothesepeopleas‘dramatispersonnae’;aswith
actorsinplays,thosereincarnatedfromapreviouseracandistancethemselves
fromeverydaylifeandconnectthemselves,andothers,toaprevioustime.By
doingso,theyenable‘imaginativeandretrospectiveidentificationsand
connectionsbetweenhistoricalperiods’(Lambek2013:847).
WithinthesphereofreincarnationandkarmarelatedtotheKhmerRougeregime
inCambodia,theseidentificationsandconnectionsperformseveralfunctions:
theyprovideameanswithwhichthedeadcanbereincorporatedintosociallife
viaconnectionswiththeliving;theyprovidestabilityinthecontinuancetheyoffer
betweentheperiodbeforetheKhmerRougeandthepresent,andinthe
assurancethat,despitetheireffortstodestroyit,Buddhismanditscentral
tenantssurvivedandcontinuetoorderlivesincontemporaryCambodia.In
additiontheyprovideaformofjustice:thosewhodieddidsobecauseoftheir
karma;thosewithgoodkarmahavebeenreborn,andthosewithbadkarma(such
astheKhmerRougecadre)willsufferinsuccessivelivestocome.
ReincarnationandkarmainKhmerBuddhism
Reincarnation(kakertloengvinh-literally,birthagain-orkakertm’dongteat-
birthoncemore)andkarma(kamm)arecentraltenantsofBuddhistdoctrine.
Buddhahimselfcycledthroughmanylivesbeforehereachedenlightenment,and
allbeings,livinganddead,existinsamsara,theeternalcycleofdeathandrebirth,
dyingandbeingrebornindifferentrealmsofexistenceincontinueddukkha
(suffering)accordingtotheirkarma.MeritmakingisatthecoreofBuddhist
practiceinCambodia(Ledgerwood2008);theaimofmeritmakingistoimprove
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 170
one’skarmaorthekarmaofarelativeorfriend,sothatrebirthmightbequicker
andtoanimprovedstatus.Reincarnationandkarma,therefore,formthecentral
drivingforceofBuddhistactioninCambodia,andassuch,theirinfluenceonthe
livesofmyinformantswasprofound.
WithBuddhismforbiddenduringDemocraticKampuchea,formalritualscouldnot
beconductedforthepilesofdeadthatbegantomount;whiletheylayrotting
acrossthecountryorunceremoniouslydumpedinmassgraves,publicdisplaysof
griefandmourningwerealsoforbidden.OmYay,anelderlywomanwhosold
vegetablesintheshopclosetomyhouse,explainedthistomeoneeveningaswe
satchatting.Lateintheregimeherhusbandwastakentobe‘educated,’a
commoneuphemismforexecution.Sheknewhehadbeenkilled,butbecause
publicgrievingwasnotallowed,remainedsilent.Atnightthelocalcadrewould
cometothehomethatshesharedwithhermother,listeningtoseeiftheywere
crying.Theywouldaskher‘doyoumissyourhusband?’Knowingtheywere
lookingforotherstokill,shewouldanswerno;‘iftheysawuscryingtheywould
takeustoo’shetoldme.121Alltheycoulddowasgiveofferingstothespirits,and
begherhusbandtocomebacktothem:
Mymothersaidifyouarereincarnated,pleasecametobereincarnatedwith
yourfamily,andplease,yourspiritbehappy.
Regardlessofitspublicbanning,manyofthecosmologicalconceptsofBuddhism
continuedtoexistthroughouttheregime,andevensomeritualswerepracticed,
thoughinmediatedandadaptedforms(seeLeVine(2010)foracomprehensive
explorationoftheseadaptations).AsJudyLedgerwood(2008:148)explainsina
121
Thisenforcedmutenessisexploredinchapterseven.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 171
paperoncontemporaryBuddhistpracticeinruralCambodia,Buddhistmodesof
‘thinking,feeling,speaking,moving,’werelearnedaschildrenand‘embodiedas
habitus;’theycontinuedtobeimportantdespite(orperhapsbecauseof)
attemptstodestroythem.Buddhistreligiousconceptsofferedamodeof
narratingandnormalisingtheeventsoccurringandcouldnotbedestroyed
preciselybecauseoftheirmetaphysicalnature.Reincarnationandkarmabecame
particularlysalientduetothemassivenumberofdeadcreatedbytheregime;
evenaspeopleweredying,thosearoundthemexplaineditaskarma,andwaited
forthemtobereborn.
Aswesawinchapterthree,evenintheyearsimmediatelyafterDemocratic
Kampuchea,whentheKhmerRougerulewasreplacedwiththePeople’sRepublic
ofKampuchea(PRK),publicmourningforthoselostduringDemocratic
Kampucheawasscarcelypossibleduetothetightcontrolofreligionandthe
parityofmonks.Manyritualsthereforeremainedunpractiseduntilthelate1980s
andearly1990saspeoplestruggledtorebuildtheirlives.
Inthisperiod,mostofthedeadremainedintheirgraves;thosescatteredacross
thefieldswereeithergatheredupandmovedtoanearbypagoda,or,as
happenedinmyruralfieldsites,simplycoveredoverwithsoil.Thosethatwere
unearthedwerequicklysubsumedasvehiclesofthenewstate’slegitimationand
politicalpropaganda(seechaptersoneandfive).However,evenonceBuddhist
ritualswerere-established,fewoccurredforthedead,eitherindividuallyor
collectively.Theydidnotneedtobe,becausethedeadwouldbereborn,withor
withoutceremonies,asexplainedtomeoneafternoonbyaVenerablemonkfrom
theBuddhistUniversityofPhnomPenh:
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 172
Eveniftherearenomonks,deadpeoplewillstillbereincarnated.Theonesthat
havegoodkarmawillbereincarnatedfasterthantheonewhohavebadkarma….
Allthespiritshavesoughttheirworldalready.
‘Imagineawormmoving,’hesaid.‘Asitpullsitsbackup,itsfrontispushed
forwards-itisinconstantmovement.That’showwemovethroughourlives–
beforeleavingourcurrentlifewearealreadytouchingthefutureone;deathin
thislifepushesusintothenext.Itis‘judtipadisanti’inPali:passingawayand
rebirth.’
IhadcometoaskhimtoexplainthePaliCanon122relatedtokarmaand
reincarnation,becauseIwastryingtobetterunderstandtheseconcepts.‘Our
teachingisalittlebitdeviatedfrompopularbeliefnow’hesaid.‘Manypeople
believethatapersondies,butdoesnotnecessarilytakeuptheirnewexistenceor
newlifeimmediately.Itcantakedays,months,orevenyears.’Thissupported
thestoriesIhadheardsofar:manypeoplefrommyfieldsiteshadtoldmethat
thetimeofrebirthrelatedtoyourkarma:goodkarmaleadstoaquickrebirth;
withbadkarmaitcouldtakealong,longtime.Whentheytalkedaboutdeaths
duringtheKhmerRougeperiod,myinformantsusedthistodistinguishbetween
thedeathsoftheKhmerRougecadre(thePolPots),andtheseemingly‘innocent’
victims:thevictims(usuallytherelativesorfriendsofthepersontalking)had
beenrebornquickly,becauseeventhoughtheirkarmacausedtheiruntimely
deathduringDemocraticKampuchea,itsmannerhadbeenatthehandsofothers.
122ThePaliCanon(Tipitaka)isacollectionofscriptureswritteninPali,whichrecordtheTheravadaBuddhism’sDhamma–theofficialteachingsanddoctrineofTheravadaBuddhism.ThemonkinformedmethatitistheoldestoftheBuddhistCanons,andtheonlyonestillexistinginitsoriginallanguage.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 173
Thecadre,meanwhile,tookalongtimetobereborn.Someofthemarestill
waiting.
‘Mostpeoplethinkwhenthey[thedead]canbereborngoesalongwiththe
actionsoftheirfamily–theyhavetotveabon(domeritousdeeds–literally‘doing
ceremonies’)thatcanbetransferredtothedead,’theVenerablemonktoldme.
‘Theypassthemkarma.’Thesedeedsarenotonlyabouthelpingthedeadtobe
reborninsamsara–thecontinualcycleofdeathandrebirththatBuddhistslivein.
Theyalsohelpthedeadtoprogressinthatcycletowardsnibbana(Sanskrit:
nirvana)–thequalityofcompletenothingnessthatendsthesufferinginherentin
thecycleofsamsara,aslaidoutinthePalicanon:
Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—theresolutionofallfabrications,the
relinquishmentofallacquisitions,theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;
Nibbana.(AccesstoInsight2013:Anada3.32)
Inordertoreachnibbana,peoplemustaccumulatekarma,whichprovidesthe
forcetoaffecttherealmsofexistenceintowhichtheyareborn.Karmaisaction,
andisaccumulatedthroughlife.‘Youknow,karmaisnotineverythingyoudo’
themonkexplained.‘Itisonlyinintentionalaction,youknow-somethingyoudo
withwill.’Unintentionalactivitiesdonotaffectyourkarma:akarmicactisone
whereanintentiontoactisthencarriedout.‘Anactofkilling’hesaid‘hasmany
factors.Butitistheintentiontokillandthenenactingitthatmakesitkarma.’
Theseactsaccumulateandaffectyournextincarnation:thekarmicforce
determinesintowhichofthesixrealmsofsamsara123youwillbereborn:asan
123Withinthesixrealmsarethirty-oneplanesofexistence,eachinastricthierarchyofbeing.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 174
avatar(anincarnatedgod),abodhisattva(aBuddhatobe-someonewhohas
reachedenlightenment,butrefrainsfromenteringnibbanatohelpothers);a
human;animal;spirit;orintotanarout-theKhmerunderworld.Reincarnationis
inevitableforallbeings(includingthedead),butwhere,when,andwithwhom
rebirthoccurs,isaffectedbykarma,whichisaccumulatedthroughthis,and
previouslives.Whilstkarmacannotbedeleted,meritousactsenablethe
accumulationofgoodkarma,whichaddskarmicforcetothetransitioninthenext
life.Inthisway,historicalandcontemporaryactionsaffectthelifecycleofthose
insamsaraandfuturepositioningintheworld.
Oneofthewaysinwhichkarmacanaffectyourrebirthisbyaffectingthefamily
intowhichyouareborn.Thebondsofaffectionthattiepeopletoeachotherin
thislifecrosstheboundariesoflifeanddeath,andcanensuretherebirthofthe
deadwiththeirkin,particularlyiftheirkarmaisgood.Theassuranceof
reincarnationinCambodiaallowsforthepossibilityofreunionatsomepoint–if
notinthislife,perhapsinthenextone.Thisistrueforthedeadasmuchasitis
fortheliving:thedeadwanttobeamongstpeopletheyknowandtrust(‘theyare
lonely,andworriedaboutus’OmYayexplained).124Buttheplaceofthedeadis
atthesiteoftheirdeath–itishardforthemtoleaveandtravel(intimeorspace)
unlesstheforceoftheirkarmaisparticularlystrong.Distanceintimefadesthe
memoryofthedead,andtheybecomemorelikelytoberebornamongstthose
livingclosetotheplaceatwhichtheydied.Sometimesitissimplyaquestionof
timing–apregnancyhastocoincidewiththetimewhenthedeadarereadytobe
reborn,whichdependsupontheirkarma.
124ThetiesofaffectioninCambodiaarenotrestrictedtothoserebornwithinthehumanspherebutcanextendintodifferentrealmsofexistenceaswell:thecousinofoneofmyinformantsremembersapreviousincarnationwhere,followingherdeathasahuman,shewasrebornasacow,butwithinhersamefamily.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 175
ThoughIusetheminthischapterasconceptstoexploremeansbywhichpeople
incontemporaryCambodianormalisethemassdeathsthatoccurredduringthe
KhmerRougeregime,itisimportanttonotethatreincarnationandkarma,unlike
otheraspectsofBuddhistdoctrine,areconcretephenomenaofeverydaylifein
Cambodia.Theyareneitheridiomsnorsymbolicexpressionsofrelationshipsand
theconsequencesofaction.Assuch,theymaterialiseconnectionsbetween
periodsoftime,peopleandplaces,andmakeevidenttheeffectsofmoral
(dis)order.
Ethnographiccasestudies
HavingoutlinedtheplaceofreincarnationandkarmawithinKhmerBuddhism,I
willnowprovidethreeethnographicexamplesthatillustratehowtheseconcepts
areusedtounderstand,narrateandnormalisethemassdeathsthatoccurred
duringtheKhmerRougeregime,explainthesurvivalofmanyagainsttheodds,
andprovideameansofembodiedjustice.Thefirst,fromChoeungEkGenocidal
Center,showshownamelessdeadarereintegratedintosociallifebybeingreborn
amongstthoselivingandworkingatthesite.Thesecondexamineshow
relationshipsrupturedduringtheregimearerebuiltinthepresent,andnew
connectionsareforgedandextendedacrossfamilygroupsanddisparate
communities.Thefinalexampleexploreshowjusticeisunderstoodthroughthe
notionofkarmaandreincarnation.
Reintegratingthenamelessdead
DawasintroducedtomeonemorningbytheTaTa,anelderlymanwhosefamily
homewasinthevillagebehindthecenter.KnowingIwasinterestedinthegraves
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 176
andthosewithconnectionstothem,headvisedmetospeaktoDa:‘shegot
pregnantfromthegraves,’hetoldme.Da’ssonisthereincarnationofsomeone
buriedinthemassgravesatChoeungEk:hisspiritcametoherwhensheclimbed
intoapittolootitintheearly1980s.
ItwasChineseNewYear,andthevillagewasquiet;mostofthefamiliesonthe
streetareKhmer-Chineseandhadgonetovisitfamily,orwerevisitinglocal
pagodastoaskforfortuneforthecomingyear.Daandherfamily,however,
considerthemselvesKhmersoth–pureKhmer–andsowereathome.Theday
wascoolbyCambodianstandardsanditwasapleasantwalkthroughthedusty
village.AsmyresearchassistantandIwalkedalongthestreetIcouldhear
cricketschirpinginthefields,andthedistantsoundofcarsontheroadthat
passedthecenter.Dainvitedusintoherhometochat.Wesatonthebamboo
platformunderthestiltsofherwoodenhouse.Chickensscratchedthefloor
aroundus,sometimesjumpingupontotheplatformonlytobeshooedawayby
Da.
DuringtheregimeDahadbeenevacuatedonlyafewkilometresaway.She
returnedhomesoonafterliberation,butlikeothersinthevillage,wasunawareof
thegravesatChoeungEkuntilgovernmentemployeesstartedunearthingthem,
andthestenchofrottingfleshspreadaroundthecountryside(seechapterone).
Wordsoonreachedthevillagethatvaluableshadbeenfoundinthegraves,and
peoplestartedgoingtoseewhattheycouldfind:‘otherpeoplefoundgold,soI
wantedit,too,’Datoldme.‘Somefoundnecklacesandrings,andIevensaw
somediamonds.’Visitingthesiteoneafternoon,sheclimbedintoagravefullof
bodies,andimmediatelystartedvomiting.Climbingoutofthepit,shecrawled
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 177
home;althoughherhousewasonly500mawayittookherhourstomakethe
journey.
Shecontinuedbeingillforsomeweeks,anddespitevisitingadoctor,could
receivenorespite;‘Icouldn’tstopvomiting,’shesaid;‘IwassoweakandI
becamesoskinnythatIhadtositonapillow.’Elderstoldherthatshemusthave
angeredthelocalNeakTa–theguardianspiritofthearea.Otherstoldhershe
haddisrespectedherancestors.Butdespiteprayingandgivingofferingstoboth,
shewasstillsick:
Theysaid[thesickness]wasbecauseofwrongdoingstotheancestors,soIgave
offeringstotheancestors.AndwhentheysaiditwastheNeakTa,Igave
offeringstotheNeakTa.Whateveritwas,Ioffered.Ialsowenttothedoctorfor
injections.Itdidn’thelp.SoIstoppeddoinganythingandjustsatonthepillow.
Myhusbandcarriedmeupanddown.
Notknowingwhereelsetoturn,shevisitedaKruchoalrūp125(spiritmedium)who
toldhershehadnotangeredthespirits,butwaspregnantwiththereincarnation
ofsomeonefromChoeungEk.Sherecoveredfromhersicknessoncehersonwas
bornafewmonthslater.
ThereareseveralreasonsDaiscertainthathersonisreincarnatedfromthe
graves.Thesicknessstartedassoonassheclimbedintothegrave,andrather
thanwaningovertime,itcontinuedallthewaythroughherpregnancy,only
stoppingonceshedeliveredthebaby:
125Seechaptertwo,footnote74foranexplanationofthedifferenttypesofspiritmedium.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 178
Itwasn’tanormalmorningsickness:itwasterribleuntilIgavebirth.Ihad
morningsicknessuntilIdelivered,andassoonasIdelivered,Ifeltsorelieved.I
nolongerthrewuporanything.Assoonashecameout,Ifeltsowell;I
recovered.
Aswellasthesickness,theKruhadtoldheritwasaspirit.Butthesignthatgives
hercompletecertaintyofhisoriginsisherson’sintelligence:‘he’ssosmart,so
intelligent;today,he’sanurse.’Da’sfamilyismodest,andneithershenorher
husbandareeducated,makingDareflectonthekarmaleadingtoherson’s
reincarnation:
Ifeelsorryformyson.I’mnotsureifitwashisbadkarmaorsomething,ifthat
waswhyhebecameso,andwhyhisdestiny(upanisaya)wastobewithme.
Dafeelssorryforhersonnotbecausehewasreborn-forthatsheishappy-but
because(shebelieves)hiskarmahasledtohimbeingreborninalowersocial
classthanthatheleft.ThosekilledatChoeungEkwerealmostentirelybrought
fromTuolSlengprisoninPhnomPenh-theprisonwherehighprofileprisoners
weretaken,includingthosewhoposedthehighestthreattotheregime:lawyers,
doctors,andtheintelligentsia.Inexplaininghowhiskarmahadledtohisrebirth
withher,Dasaid:
there’ssinandgooddeeds(bāp/bon).AccordingtoBuddhism,ifyoudogood
things,youwillberebornsoon.Ifyouhavealotofsin,it’snoteasytobereborn.
Ifyoukillanyoneoranything,youwillnotberebornsoon.Ifyouhavegood
karma,youcanberebornwiththoseyouknow.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 179
Daconsideredherson’sdeathatChoeungEk,andhisrebirthintoamodest,
uneducatedfamily,tobetheresultofhiskarma;althoughstillhuman,she
consideredhisstatustobelowered.126Inaddition,hecouldnotfindhisoriginal
family,andsohadtobebornwithstrangers.Thosewhodied,shetoldme,were
lonelybecausetheycouldnotfindtheirfamilies.Butthosereadytobereborn
neededaplace,andwithoutbeingabletolocatetheirfriendsorrelatives(which
isonlypossibleforthosewithgoodkarma),theyhadtoreincarnatewiththose
closetotheirgraves.Thatiswhyhersonhadcometoher.
Da’ssonisnottheonlypersonrebornfromthegravesatChoeungEk.Afewdays
afterhearingthisstoryIwassittingchattingwithBongLa(whowemetinchapter
one).Hewasnarratingadreamfromafewdaysearlier,inwhichseveral
VietnamesepeoplevisitedhishomeinPhnomPenhandtoldhimtheywerefree
andheshouldn’tworryaboutthem.Herealiseditwaspeoplefromthegraves
tellinghimtheyhadbeenrebornandthattheyareatpeace.
IaskedhimwhythosekilledatChoeungEkhadvisitedhim?‘Ifeellikemyspirit
wasrelatedtothosepeople,or,maybe,I’moneofthosepersonsbutIcameback
nowtotellthestory,’hesaid.‘Andnotjustme’hecontinued,‘mysonstoo.’He
toldmethatbothhissonsarereincarnatedfrompeopleinthemassgravesatthe
site.HisyoungestsonisthereincarnationofanAustralianmankilledthere–he
knowsthisbecauseinadreamhemetanAustralianman,wholeftacaninetooth
nearatreeatChoeungEk,whichhepickedupandheldinhisrighthand.Another
126Aswesawinchapterone,whilstmanyofthoseimprisonedatTuolSlengandkilledatChoeungEkdidcomefromhighsocialclasses,particularlyintheearlydaysoftheregime,astimeprogressedandparanoiastartedtospread,thesitesbecamethefinallocationsformanyKhmerRougecadreandtheirfamilies.Althoughofhighstatuswithintheregimesomewerefromlowerstatusoriginswithlittleornoeducation.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 180
dreamtoldhimthathiseldestsonwasalsoreincarnatedfromthemassgraves–
inthedreamhesawatooth127markedwithBuddhistinscriptions,whichhe
pickedupandhelditinhislefthand.ToBongLathisclearlyindicatestheleft-
handedwritingofhisfirstson.Otheraspectsoflifenowconfirmhisreincarnated
status:
Irealizedwhyheonlyeatsporridge(Borbor)128now.BecauseduringPolPot
timeyou[he]ateporridgealot,sonowyou[he]seemtolikeeatingporridge….
ThoughlifeduringtheKhmerRougewasdifficult,itisthelastmemoryofthose
whodiedduringtheregime,andmemoriesorbehavioursfromthatlifeare
thereforecarriedwiththereincarnatedpeopletothislife,particularlyiftheydied
youngandthereforehavelittleornorecollectionoflifebeforetheregimeto
drawon.ForBongLa’sson,therefore,likingporridgeisabehaviourfromhis
previouslifethatisinherenttohispersona:aformofhabitusthatcannotbe
removed.ThisisoneofthediscontinuitiesthatLambek(2013)referstowhenhe
considersthediscontinuousnatureofreincarnatedbeings(thoughsomemight
arguethesetobecontinuitiesfromthelifebefore):whilsthehasnorecollection
ofhislifebefore,BongLa’ssonembodiesbothhispersonanow,andaspectsof
hislifebefore.Inaddition,hischoiceoffoodbringsimaginarylinkstothatperiod
ofhistory,whenfoodwasscarceandporridgetherationthatmostsurvivedon.
127TeethhaveparticularsignificanceinBuddhistliteraturebecause,beingtheonlyskeletalelementthatarevisibleinlife,theyaredeemedtorepresent‘whatthebodyisandwillbecome,andsoserveasremindersofimpermanencethathelptobridgethedividebetweenlifeanddeath’(Strong2004:180).Buddha’sownteetharepartoftherelicsdistributedacrossAsiafollowinghisdeath.
128Cambodianporridge(Borbor)isusuallymadefromchickenbrothfilledwithmeatorfishandvegetables.DuringtheKhmerRouge,however,rationswereminute,andtheporridgetypicallyconsistedofaspoonfulofriceinsaltedwater.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 181
Repairingrupturedrelations
Thesecondethnographicencounterrelatestotherepairofrelationshipsruptured
duringtheregime.InthissectionwemeetLōkOm,whosetwochildrenare
reincarnated:hisdaughterisreincarnatedfromaVietnameseboykilledduring
theregime,whilsthisson,alsokilledduringtheregime,hasbeenreborntoa
differentfamilyinthevillage.
Amanofaroundforty-five,LōkOmisaformercadreoftheKhmerRouge,only
leavingthemovementinthe1990swhenhiscommander(nowvillagechief)
agreedtopeaceterms.Onapreviousvisitasanasidetoadiscussionaboutthe
peacenegotiationsLōkOmtoldmethattheKhmerRougeshothisdaughter,Srey.
AlthoughtheyhadlostcontrolofCambodiain1979,theKhmerRougehad
remainedactiveanddangerousuntilthelate1990swhenpeacewasfinally
assured,andatfirstIthoughttheshootingmusthaveoccurredduringthislatter
period.Iaskedhimwhathadhappened.
‘Theycapturedherandshother,’hetoldme.HecalledSreyoverandpulling
downtheneckofhert-shirt,showedmearoundpuckeredareaofskinonher
shoulder,justbelowherneck.Iwasshocked.LōkOmsentSreyofftoplay,andI
triedtofindoutwhathadhappened.Ittookmeawhiletofullyunderstandwhy
LōkOmhadlaughedatmyshock:Sreyhadnotbeenshotinthislife,butinher
previousone.Thatdaytheconversationmovedon,butthisparticularmorningI
hadgonebackspecificallytotalkaboutSrey’sreincarnation.
ItwasrainingwhenIgottoLōkOm’shouseandhewastakingadvantageofthe
softeningtheraingavetothebakedsoiltoploughthericefieldnexttohishouse
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 182
inpreparationforplantinginthefollowingweeks.WhenIarrivedhestopped
ploughing,releasinghiscowtograze,andwemovedtositunderthesala:a
roofedbambooshelterbeneaththetreesinhisfrontyard,enjoyingthereliefthe
rainbroughttothestiflinghumidityofCambodiainJune.Aswetalked,Sreyran
aroundtheyard,playingintherain.
DuringtheKhmerRougeregimeSreyhadbeenayoungVietnameseboyfromthe
borderzoneofVietnamandCambodia,closetoLōkOm’shouse.TheKhmer
Rougewereparticularlyactiveinthatarea:inthelatterpartsofDemocratic
Kampucheatherehadbeenregularborder-raidsintoVietnam;fightingwas
frequentandmanycasualtiesoccurredasaresultofoffensesonbothsides129.In
onesuchborderraid,theKhmerRougehadcapturedtheboyandshothim.
YearslaterLōkOm’swife,Yay-yay,wastakinganafternoonnapinthehammock
swingingundertheirhouse.Asshedozedshestartedtodream.Shewaswalking
alongabeachwhenshesawaNeakdtienehchai–aspiritwaitingtobereborn–
collectingrocks.Asshewalkedpastthespirithedroppedtherocksandfollowed
her.Shetoldhimtoleave,butherefused,tellingher‘I’mcomingwithyounow.’
Whenshewokefromthedream130Yay-yayknewshewaspregnantandthatit
wasthisboy.WhenSreywasbornshehadmarksonherarmsfromtheligatures
shehadbeentiedinbytheKhmerRougeandtwobirthmarkswhereshehadbeen
shot:oneonherbacksideandoneonhershoulder-themarkthatLōkOmhad
129Areportfrom1977ontheconflictrecordedover1,000VietnameseciviliansbeingkilledorwoundedintheareabetweenSeptemberandNovember1977(Kiernan2007:312).Asaresultofsuchactions,thereare,accordingtosomeofmyinformantsfromthearea,massgravescontainingKhmervictimsexistinginVietnam.Iwasnotabletocorroboratethisduringthisresearch,butitcouldprovideaninterestingpointforfuturework.
130Thistypeofpregnancydream,whereaspiritvisitsthemothertobeor,occasionally,aclose
relativeofthemother,isrelativelycommon,andiscalledSuBenKor.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 183
showedme.Unlikesomechildren,Sreydidnotrememberherpreviouslife,nor
hadanyoneelserecognizedher.ItwasYay-yay’sdreamthathadtoldthem.
Srey’skarmahadobviouslybeengood,LōkOmtoldme,becausewhenshewas
reborn,itwasasahuman,andshehadbeenabletochangeherlifecircumstances
forthebetter,progressingfrombeing‘Yuan’(aderogatorytermusedbymany
KhmerforVietnamesepeople)tobeingKhmer.Aftertellingmethis,LōkOm
added:‘mysonisalsoreborn.’
Hisson,Broh,alsodiedandhadnowbeenreborntoanotherfamilyinthevillage.
‘He’sabouttwoyearsold’Sreyinterjected.Brohlooksnothinglikehedidinhis
previouslife,buttheyknowitishimbecauseduringhismotherconsidered
terminatingthepregnancy,buttheboy’sspiritvisitedherandaskedhernotto.
KnowingLōkOm,shefeltshecouldnotabortthefoetus.ItoldthefamilyIwas
sorrytohearabouttheboy’sdeath.LōkOmtoldmenottoworry–everyonelost
people,hewasnotalone.‘Anyway,’hetoldme‘itwashiskarma.’
LōkOmregularlyseeshisson;hehelpshisnewfamilysupporthimbygivingthe
childmoneyandgifts.Sometimeshepaysforhisschoolbooks.Hisobligations
towardsBroh’snewincarnationresemblethoseofagodparent:thereisnodirect
responsibility,butitisexpectedthatlinkswillbemadeandsupportcanbecalled
onintimesofneed.
BothSreyandBroh’sreincarnationswereannouncedbyspiritsvisitingtheir
mothersindreams,andforthisreasonbothfamiliesacceptthenewincarnation,
andtherelationshiptotheoldone.ThisismadeeasierbecauseLōkOmgets
alongwithBroh’snewfamily,andSreydoesnotrememberherpreviouslife,so
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 184
doesnothavethedualpersonalities(anddesiresthatgoalongsideit)ofher
incarnations.However,sometimesthespiritdoesnotvisit,anditisthechildthat
rememberstheirpastlife.Thiscancauseconflicts,particularlyifthechildisborn
intoanunknownfamily:somechildrendemandtovisittheirpreviousfamily,and
inthesecasesitiscommonforthemtoreplicaterelationshipsthatexistedintheir
previousincarnation131:unlike‘new’children,reincarnatedchildrenarealready
fullyformedsocialbeingswithcompleteidentitiesfromtheirpreviouslivesthat
maycontradicttheirnewplaceinthesocialhierarchyaswellasintheirown
particularfamily.132Newparentswilloftengivethechildmedicinetohelpthem
forgettheirlives,fearingthatthechildwillwanttoreturntotheirpreviouslife.
Oncefamiliesmeet,however,andthereincarnationisaccepted,theybecome
linkedinanextensionofthekinnetworksthatexistedbefore,asisthecasewith
LōkOmandBroh.
WecanhereseehowLambek’sconceptofthelinkingbetweentimesandpeople
worksinthisscenario.WhilstSreydoesnotrememberherpastlife,thespirit’s
visitandthebirthmarksshehasclearlyindicateherreincarnationtoherparents.
Cambodia’srelationshipwithVietnamwasoftenhostileduringtheKhmerRouge,
withfrequentfightinginthearea,andCambodia’srelationshiptoVietnamhas
131
Oneofmyinformant’sgrandmothershasbeenrebornasherdaughter.Atagethreeshechosetoleavehernewbirthfamilyandmoveinwithheraunt,whowas,inherpreviousincarnation,herfavouritechild.Becausethefamiliesliveclosetoeachother,andaredirectkin,thismovewasallowed,becausemyinformantalsorelatedtoherdaughterasherpreviousincarnation;‘Icallhergrandmotherandmyself‘Agn’[aninformalformof‘I’usedinself-addresswhentalkingtosomeoneolderorofhighersocialstatusthanyourself]….Weknowthatshe’sourgrandmother.It’simpossibletoaddressher‘Ahmeng’[aformofyouusedtoaddressyoungerpeopleorthoseofinferiorsocialstatus]’shetoldme.
132ItisthiselementofreincarnationthatGuptaargueschallengesWesternunderstandingsof
childrenasbeings-in-process:childrenthatareincarnatesofpreviousbeings(particularlyhuman)are‘inhabitedbytheir(adult)thoughtsandgestures’andtherefore‘havetobeconceptualizedasmorecomplexbeingsthanisallowedbythestandardnarrativeofchildhoodwhichpositsanewbeingwhoslowlyfindshisorherwayintheworld’(Gupta2002:1).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 185
remainedfragilesincetheregime.ThevillagewhereLōkOmlivesisonly20
kilometresfromtheVietnameseborder,andpeopleoftenvisitthebordertowns
totrade.Inaddition,manyVietnamesemigrantworkersliveandworkintherice
fieldsoftheareaalongsidetheKhmerlivingthere.Reincarnatedfroma
VietnameseboykilledclosetoLōkOm’shome,Sreynotonlyoffersameansof
reintegratingthenamelessdeadintocontemporarylife,butalsooffersamodeof
repairingrelationshipsandprovidingabridgebetweenclashingnationsand
communitieswhofoughtviciouslyduringtheregime,butnowlive,workand
tradetogether.
Broh,meanwhile,embodiesseveralotheraspectsofLambek’sproposition.As
boththenewchild,and,concurrently,LōkOm’sson,hereunitesparentsand
child,repairingtherelationshiprupturedbytheregime.Healsoreconnectsthe
periodbeforetheregimewiththepresent,offeringabridgebetweenthetwo;
andbybeingbornintoadifferentfamily,presentingameansofextending
relationshipsandnetworksacrossdifferentfamilies,withtheassociated
obligationsandsupportsystems.
Thejusticeofkarmaandreincarnation
Thefinalencounterconsidersthewaykarmaandreincarnationareconnectedin
thenarrativesofmyinformantstoconceptsofjustice.HereIaminterestedin
justiceasitismaterialisedthroughsociallifeandembodiedexperiences,rather
thaninitsjudicialstatus.Oneencounterispresentedinthissection:OmPich,
wholostovertwentymembersofherfamily,butwhodespitebeingdisabled,and
beingtakenfor‘re-education’(afateusuallyendingindeath),survivedthe
regime.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 186
OmPichwasoftenill,sufferingfromhighbloodpressureandthefrequentbouts
ofdizzinessthataccompaniedit,soshedidnotleavethehousemuch.Wewould
sitinthehammocksunderherhouse,oronchairsinthegrassyareabehindit,
andasIswattedthemosquitoesthatconstantlyplaguedme,shespokeabouther
lifeduringandaftertheKhmerRouge.Shewantedmetotakethestorieshome
sopeopleinBritainwouldknowhowterriblelifehadbeeninCambodia:how
manypeoplehaddied,howmuchpeoplehadsuffered.
OmPichlostmanymembersofherfamilyduringDemocraticKampuchea.She
missedthemdaily,shetoldme.Heraunt,uncleandsisterwerekilled.Bothher
parentsdiedattheruralworkcampinKampongThomprovincewheretheywere
evacuated.Herbrotherwaskilledbythecadre:
Myfamily,onmymother’sside;threedied.Butonmyfather’sside,therewere
more:sevenpeople.Allgone.
HerAuntandUncle’sfamiliesfaredevenworse;thewholefamilywaskilled
duringtheregime-fifteenintotal.‘Nobodyisleftinthosetwofamilies’shetold
me.However,despitethegrief,OmPichexplainedtomethatforpeopletohave
sufferedsomuchandexperiencesuchterribledeathswasbecauseoftheirkarma
frompreviouslives.DuringtheKhmerRouge,shesaid,peoplewere´forcedto
die.’WhenIaskedhertoexplain,sheelaborated:
Iftheydidn’thavekarma,theywouldnotdie.Itmustbethattheycommitted
baddeeds;that’swhytheywerekilledlikethis.
Aswehavealreadyseeninthisthesis,theKhmerRougewereruthlessand
inclusiveintheirkilling.OmPich’sAuntandUncle’sfamilieswerekilledbecause
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 187
herUnclehadbeenaLonNolsoldierbeforetheregime,fightingagainstthe
KhmerRougeguerrillasintheearly70s.Herbrotherwasexecutedbecausehe
displeasedoneoftheKhmerRougeofficersinhisworkgroup.Herparentsdiedof
starvationandfatigue;hersisterofdisease.Butsomehow,OmPich,although
disabledbeforetheregime,survived.Thiswasnotonlyunusualinthecontextof
herfamily,butalsobecauseofherdisability:mostdisabledpeoplewere
slaughteredbytheregime,whoneededfit,ablepeopletotakepartinthe
massiveprojectsthatwouldconstructthenewCambodia-disabledpeoplewere
simplyadditionalmouthstofeed.OmPich,however,survivedandhadbeenable
toliveandworkthroughoutDemocraticKampucheaalongsideothervillagers
fromherhometowninKandalprovince.
DuringtheregimeOmPichhadworkedintheyouthsectionofamassiverural
workcamp.Shehadcomeclosetolosingherlifeonmorethanoneoccasion,but
somehowhadsurvived.Atonestageshewasimprisonedbythelocalcadreand
takentobe‘builtup’(kāsang).IncontemporaryKhmerkāsangliterallytranslates
as‘tobuild’.However,duringtheKhmerRougeregime,thewordtookonadual
meaningwhere‘tobuild’alsomeanttodestroyorteardowninordertostart
buildingfromscratch:akindofdeathandrebirthofparticularinstitutions,or,
morecommonly,ofindividualswhoweretakento‘kāsang’(Harris2008:186).
Shedescribedittome:
Oh…Oun133…thattime,theycapturedusjustbecausewescreamedbecauseof
hunger.TheycalledusNeaytunSakadePhum134.Wecouldn’tevensayaloud
133
Ounisatermusedtoaddressthoseyounger,oroflessersocialstatus,thanyourself.
134VillageLeader’sChild-aphraseusedtodescribechildrenwhocomplainalot.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 188
thatwedidn’tgetenoughrice.I,myself,wasattheTuolKrosangdam135,ohmy
god,Iatesixbananasthesizeofthetoesinsteadofrice,andthemorningglory
soupwascookedsometimeswithrootsandsmallfish.Weateitjustforthesake
ofeating.Iftherewasacameraatthattime,you’dseehowthinIwas.Just
steppingovergrassIwouldtripandfall.Duringtheregime…letmetellyou,so
manydied.Somediedofsickness,somediedbecausetheycomplained,like:‘I
wishwehadthisorthatfood’or‘I’mnotfull….’Theywouldtakeustobuildus
up(kāsang)becausetheydidn’twantustothinkofthepast.Itwassodifficult….
ButaccordingtoBuddhism,Ihadgoodkarma.That’showIsurvived.
OmPichconsideredkarmatobetheonlyadequateexplanationastowhyshe,a
disabledperson,hadsurvivedwhilstother,non-disabledpeoplehaddied:
Allofthesedeadpeoplemusthavehadbadkarmainthereligion.Yes,nowyou
thinkaboutit-theywerestrongandphysicallyhealthy.Whataboutme?How
couldIsurvive?ImetaDonChee(laynun),achiefmonk,anâchar(laypriest).
Thechiefmonkwasdisrobedandhadtocarryagun.Hetoldmeso.Buthow
comeIstayedalive?
Oneofthosewhohaddiedwasherbrother.Aftertheregime,shehadrunintoan
oldneighbourwhohadworkedinhiscommune:
Hetoldme‘Iworkedwithyourbrother.Whenwefinishedcarryingsoil,he
showered,andthenhisnamewascalledout.Theykilledhim.
TheneighbourtoldOmPichwhohaddonethekilling,thathewasstillalive,and
toldherwherehelived.
135
OneofthemanydamsbuiltundertheKhmerRougerule.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 189
IthoughtIwantedrevenge.ButthenIthoughtabouttheBuddhistteaching-
thatitwasprobablyhisbadkarmafromapastlife,soitwaslikethat.
Thoughherbrotherwasonlyayoungmanwhenhewaskilled,hisdeathwasa
consequenceofactionsfromapreviouslife.OmPich,therefore,didnotneedto
seekrevenge;hisdeathwasinevitable.Thoughthereisanelementoffatalismin
thiskindofthinking,itdoesnotmeanthatactionsinthislifearemeaninglessand
havenoeffect.Quitethecontrary:thekarmicforceofevildeedsissostrongthat
itwillpotentiallyaffectpeopleformanylivestocomeandallsubsequentactions
arethereforeimportant.
Discussion
InLambek’sconsiderationofcontinuousanddiscontinuouspeoplehearguesthat
discontinuouspersons(i.e.thosereincarnatedwhoaresimultaneously
themselvesandanother)presentameansbywhichhistoricalperiods,andpeople
withinthem,canbeconnectedthroughretrospectiveandimaginarybridges
betweentime.ForLambek,thosereincarnated(orpossessedbyspirits)
materialisethepast,andthereforeenabletheseimaginativeconnectionstobe
made.
InCambodiathosereincarnatedarerarelyfiguresfromthedistantpast(ancestors
andpowerfulhistoricalfigureshaveinsteadbecomepowerfulboromeyspirits
whopossessspiritmediumsandprovidethemaccesstoknowledge).Insteadthey
arereincarnatedfromrecenthistory,andratherthanparticularepochs,embody
relationships.Thatsaid,thosereincarnatedarenotalwaysknowntothosethey
cometo,andparticularlyinthecaseofthosereincarnatedfrompeoplekilled
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 190
duringtheKhmerRougeregime,theconnectionbetweenpeopleofferedby
reincarnationprovidesameansofreintegratingthemassdeadintocontemporary
life.
AswesawinthecasesofDaandBongLaandhissons,thosewhodiedduringthe
regimehavenotbeenforgotten,nordotheyremainnameless,despitemost
remaininginmassgravesandneverhavinghadfuneralceremoniesperformedfor
them.Thoughritualsdonotoccur,peoplecanbereborn:thisoffershopeand
reassurancetomany.AsErikDavisnotesinhisdiscussionofMissYaan’s
continuinglives,itisintheeverydaylivesofpeoplethattheculturaldesiderataof
orderandjusticeisenacted(Davis2008:129);implicitinthereincarnationofDa’s
son,BongLa’schildren,andBongLahimself,isthedesireforanewlifebeing
offeredtothosefromwhomitwastornduringtheregime.
LōkOm’ssonBroh,meanwhile,exemplifieshowreincarnationprovidesameans
ofrepairing,orcontinuing,rupturedrelationships.Inaddition,itenablesnew
connectionsandrelationshipstobemadeamongststrangersandneighbours.
Beingtiedthroughreincarnationofferspotentialbenefitsforbothsides:in
additiontoprovidingcomforttotheoriginalfamily(throughknowingwhoand
wheretheirlovedoneshavebeenreborn),itreinforcesorextendsthenetworks
ofkinandsupport,sometimesacrossvastswathesofland.AsDavisnotes(2008:
133):
TheCambodianfamilymapslargerCambodiansocietymoreflexiblythandoes
thetraditionalWesternfamily.Familyboundariesappearloose,andvarious
typesofadoption,god-parenting,andotherformsof‘fictivekinship’havebeen
created….Thisnetworkoffamilymembersdefinesanddelimitstheboundaries
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 191
ofthesocialworld,thelandonemaysafelytravel,thepeopleonemaytrustand
uponwhomonemayrely,andthenetworksandintimaciesthatcomposeour
emotionalgeographies,thosespaceswherewerecognizetheemotional
landmarksandwherewecannavigatewithmoreexperienceandconfidencethan
withstrangers.
Reincarnationprovidesoneofthemanymodesofmakingconnectionsand
strengtheningandextendingkinshipnetworksinthefragilepost-conflictworldof
Cambodia.Thisisavitalelementofprovidingstabilityinacountrystillfraught
withdifficultiesandongoingstructuralanddirectviolencebythegovernment
againstitspeople,wheretrust,destroyedduringtheregime(whenchildrenkilled
parents,loversbetrayedeachother,andfriendsbecamebitterenemies)remains
elusive.
Therelationshipsformedthroughreincarnationnotonlyprovideacontinuance
betweenthelivingandthedead,butalsobetweenthepastandpresenteras.
Peopledonotend;andwhilsttheymayhavebothforensicandmimetic
propertiesofpersonhood(Lambek2013),manytransformintootherbeings.This
metamorphosis,asGupta(2002:49)callsit,providesstabilityandreassurance
becauseofthecontinuityallowedbythetranspositionofsomeessentialqualities
ofthepersonthathappenswithreincarnation:alook,awayofspeaking,marks
onabody(aswesawwithSreyandherbirthmarks):
Insteadofemployinganideaofgrowth,withitscorollaryofteleological
directionality,weneedtodrawuponanotionofmetamorphosisor
transformation.Metamorphosisemphasizescontinuityandsurvival;itinvolves
nottheobliterationorannihilationoftheselfasitsfinalstagebutatransposition
ofsomeofitsessentialqualities.Inthefluxandflowofhumanpropertiesacross
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 192
bodilyinscriptions,reincarnationstressescontinuitywhereideasofgrowthcould
onlyseediscontinuity.
Thedifferenttemporalitiesthatexistwithinreincarnationarenotonlyabout
linkingpeople,theyalsolinkdifferentperiods:reincarnatedbeingsarecomplexes
ofhistoricalerasandsopresentcontinuationbetweenthoseeras,mostsaliently,
betweenthetimebeforechaosdescendedonCambodiaintheformofcivil
conflictandtheKhmerRougeregime,andthemorestableexistencefeltbymany
today.
ThisrelatestoBuddhistnotionsofthecircularityoftimeinitswidestsense,made
explicitwithinBuddhistpropheciessuchasthePutTumneay136.Theseprophecies
(whichsomeofmyinformantscalledbunaatasaa-‘curses’)dictateanexistence
incontinualfluxbetweenperiodsofprosperityandperiodsofdevastation.Most
ofthepropheciesarehighlymetaphorical,however,theyarere-examinedinlight
ofwhathappens.Ashootingstarin1969,forexample,wasasignofwarforan
employeeattheMinistryofCultandReligionIinterviewed,whoalsousedan
ancientpredictiontoshowmehowancientBuddhistphilosophershadpredicted
theoverthrowingofSihanoukbyGeneralLonNolin1970:
Amythicalbirdleavesitsnest,fliestocatchanotherbird,butwhenahunter
comes,thebirdleavesthemythicalbird.Canyoutranslatethis?Thisprediction
hadexistedsincealongtimeago.Butifyouthinkaboutthecoupd’étatin1970,
you’llseethatitmatchedtheprediction.
136PuthTumneaytranslatesas‘ThePredictionsofPuth’.TheseareancientpredictionswithinKhmerBuddhism,manyofwhicharepassedbetweenpeoplebywordofmouth.IheardseveralvariationsthroughoutmytimeinCambodia,butthepredictionmostcommonlyrelatedtometoexplaintheKhmerRougeregimewas:‘Bangkokro'lum;PhnomPenhro'leay;Battambangkmchatkmchay;sabbaiAngkorWat’–‘Bangkokwillcollapse;PhnomPenhwillbedestroyed;Battambangwillbescattered;happinesswillreturntoAngkorWat.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 193
Othersputitmoreplainly.OmPichtoldme‘ithadtohappen.’‘Therewillalways
betimesofdeath:itisthecurseofBuddhism.’Thesecurses,however,donot
affecteveryoneequally:therearenotionsofjusticeboundupintheir
interpretationthatrelatetokarma.
ThecaseofOmPichandherfamily,particularlyherbrother,illustratehowkarma
isusedtoinvokenotionsofjustice.OmPichsurvived,whenmanyothersdidnot,
becauseofherkarma.Herfamily,friends,andthousandsofothersaroundher,
sufferedanddiedbecauseoftheirs.Likewise,whenLōkOmspokeofhissonwho
haddiedandthedaughterhenowhas,hepronouncedtheirdeathstobetheir
‘karma’.Ashe,andseveralotherstoldme:‘webelieveinbon/baap:goodand
evil-ifyoudogood,youwillreceivegood,ifyoudoevil,youwillreceiveevil.’
Theyhadtodiebecauseactsinpreviousliveshadgiventhem‘bad’karma.
Thenotionofjusticeisnotlimitedtopeople’stimeofdeath.Thekarmicforceof
theactscommitted(inthislifetimeandpreviousones)determinesintowhichof
therealmsofsamsarayouwillbereborn.AsHintonexplains(2008:78),
Buddhismoffers‘asortofontologicaljusticeforthevictims’inCambodia,
providingasystemofrewardandpunishment,regardlessofhowcontemporary
societydealswithpasttransgressions.Justiceisalsoplayedoutinrelationto
whereandwhenpeoplearereincarnated.LōkOm’ssonBrohhadgoodkarma:he
wasthereforeborntoalocalfamilyclosetoLōkOm.Sreylikewisehadgood
karmahetoldme–madeevidentbyherprogressionfromVietnamesetoKhmer.
ThekarmaofDa’sson,however,wasnotsogood,sohewasreborntostrangers
ofalowersocialclassthanwherehecamefrom.Justiceisthusmaterialisedby
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 194
theplaceandtimeofbirth,aswellaswithintheassurancethatperpetratorswill
suffercosmologicalpunishment.
TiedinwithBuddhistnotionsofforgivenessandlettinggoofanger(Hinton2008:
76),karmaprovidesawayofacceptingthemillionsofdeathscausedbythe
KhmerRouge;ultimatelyeachindividualisresponsiblefortheirownkarma,inthis
andotherlives.Adherencetothisconceptenablespeopletolivein
contemporaryCambodia,whereKhmerRougeperpetratorsliveopenlyinthe
populationwithoutseekingrevenge.Thiscanbere-assuringinacountrywherea
cultureofimpunitycondonesviolencepastandpresent,wheremanyex-Khmer
Rougecadreholdpositionsofauthority,andwhereithasbeendeclaredthatonly
fiveperpetratorswilleverbeprosecutedintheUN-backedKhmerRougetrials-a
movearguedtoensurethePrimeMinisterandotherinfluentialpoliticianswill
remainuntouched(Sperling2009:137).
Inaddition,itoffersanavenueofpotentialreconciliationforCambodianpeople–
knowingthattheirkarmawillensureKhmerRougecadrearepunishedbytheir
rebirthintotherealmsoftanarout(theunderworld)oraspreta(hungryghosts)
andunderstandingthatpeople’sdeathswereduetotheirownkarma,prevents
peopleseekingrevenge,asOmPichexplained.ItisthiscertaintythatledKok
ThayEng,aseniorresearcherattheDocumentationCenterofCambodia,a
researchfacilitywhoseaimisto‘helpCambodianshealthewoundsofthepastby
documenting,researching,andsharingthehistoryoftheKhmerRouge’(DC-Cam
2012),tousekarmaandreincarnationasapleaforforgivenessandreconciliation
withintheKhmerpopulation,inanewspaperarticlepublishedin2010:
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 195
TheenormityofthecrimescommittedbyleadersoftheKhmerRougecould
makethemtheworstbret137(lostorwanderingghostswhohavecommitted
serioussinsduringtheirlifetimesandcannotbereborn)ofall,whowouldalways
behungryandwanderingwithoutdestination.Iftheycanbeforgivenby
survivors,theirprospectforlifeafterdeathcouldbeimproved(Eng2010).138
Somebelievethisisalreadyhappening.Realmsofexistencearenotonly
ontologicalrealities,butalsometaphoricalmaterialisations.Anadvisoratthe
MinistryofCultandReligionsummarisedthiswhenwemetoneafternooninan
officeattheBuddhistUniversity.Theendemiccorruptionandviolencein
contemporaryCambodia,hetoldme,isduetothesereincarnatedKhmerRouge
stalkingthecountryaspreta;hungryghostswhopreyontheliving:
Thespiritsthatwebelievedwerehauntingwereactuallymorethanjust
haunting.Theyarethespiritsofmorethantwomillionwhodiedwithoutcare.
Thesespiritscamebackintohumanbodiesandcausedthemtokilloneanother,
likedrinkingeachother’sbloodforthosespirits.Khmer[people]usedtorespect
eachother,respecttheirparents,respectteachersandleaders.Theyusedto
loveandhelpeachother.Nowtheydon’tloveandhelpeachotheranymore.
Childrendon’tknowtheirparents.Andtheyfightwitheachother.Thismeans
theyhaunteachother.Inthepast,ghostshauntedindifferentways...Butnow
theyhauntinaformofmurdering,hauntingbyputtinghumanbeingagainst
humanbeing.Peoplearelosingtheirmorality.Andoncetheylosetheirmorality
andwhentheyaresousedtoseeingthekilling,theyfollowthat.Theykilleach
other.Whentheyseecorruption,theyfollowit….Thelawsaysthis;theydo
137Althoughtranscribedhereasbret,theKhmerwordforhungryghostsisusuallytranscribedaspretorpreta.
138ItisnotonlyforKhmerRougecadrethatformsofincarnationprovideatypeofcosmicjustice;someconsidertransgendermalestohavebeenfemalesinapreviouslifewhostolethehusbandorpartnerofanother(Drennan2013).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 196
that.Forexample,thelawdoesn’tallowdeforestation,buttheycutdownthe
trees.Thelawdoesn’tallowmurder,buttheykilleachother.Thelawdoesn’t
allowrobbery,buttheyrob.
Theadvisorwasnotreferringtothepossessionofhumansbymalevolentspirits;
hewasusingpretaasbothmetaphorfortheendemiccorruptionofcontemporary
Cambodia,andasanexplanationforwhyitisoccurring:reincarnationin
Buddhismcanleadtosomebeingreincarnatedasspirits,andpowerfulspiritscan
sometimestaketheformofhumans.Pretacanonlybereleasedfromtheir
suffering(andCambodiafromtheirsinisterpresence)oncetheyarereborn.For
thattheyneedtoaccumulatemerit,somethinghardtodoifyouareapreta.
However,itcanbedone.Thepopulationhasfundedmostofthepagodasthat
havebeenrebuiltsincethedemiseoftheregime,withthelargestdonationsoften
comingfrompoliticiansorbusinessmenandwomenasamodeofmerit-making.
Thesameistrueoftheconcretecheddei(stupasforthedead)thathavebeen
builtinrecentyearstoreplacethewoodenp’teahkhmouch(houseofthedead)
thatusetocontaintheremainsofthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRouge.Some
ex-KhmerRougecadrehavebecomeâchar(layBuddhistpriests),donchee(nuns),
orelderswholiveinpagodasandtakecareofthemonks.Theseareallgreat
sourcesofgainingmerit,whichcanbeaccumulatedtocounteractthekarma
alreadycollected.MeritisalsopassedtothedeadatBuddhistceremoniesthat
occuronregularoccasions.Althoughoccasionallyorganisedspecificallyfordead
relatives,thisformofmeritmaking(tveabon)hasbeenincorporatedintothe
annualritualcycle,andprimarilyoccursduringPchumBenh,andatKhmerNew
YearinApril,aswesawinchaptertwo.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 197
Conclusion
JudyLedgerwood,whohasspentmanyyearsworkingacrossruralCambodia,
wrotethatpost-DemocraticKampuchea,manyBuddhistpracticeshavebecome
embodiedactsofrememberingtheperiodbeforetheKhmerRouge,recreating
sensesofplaceandbelonging(Ledgerwood2008:159).Indoingsotheyprovide
comfortandstability,particularlytotheelders,becausetheypresentamarkerof
continuancebetweenthenandnow,somehowlesseningthechaosthatthe
KhmerRougeperiodthrewthecountryinto:
IfyouaskruralKhmeraboutBuddhismtodayyouarelikelytogetthereplythat
Buddhismismuchthesameasitwasbeforewarandrevolutiondevastatedtheir
country.Whatisdifferenttoday,theywillsay,isthemoralityofthepeople,their
inabilitytoliveaccordingtothetenetsofBuddhism.Thisthemeisconsistent
withastandarddiscourseofcrisisandreformationinBuddhisthistory–timeis
cyclicalwithperiodsofglory,prosperityandlonglifethatalternatewithperiods
ofdeath,destructionanddespair(Ledgerwood2008:147).
Thischapterhasshownhowreincarnationandkarmaactinthesamewayforthe
peoplewhodiedduringtheperiod(and,ofcourse,whodienow).AsLambek
asserts,theyprovideacontinuity,bothwiththepersonthemselves,andwiththe
erabeforethewars.Theyofferameansofmakingsenseoftheperiod,and
narratingittoday.Theyenablethenarrationofthechaoticandterrifyingperiod
ofDemocraticKampuchea,intoanormalisedandunderstandablecosmological
contextbywhichthedeadcanbereintegratedintosociety.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 198
Thisisonlypossiblebecauseoftheself-containedsystemsofBuddhismand
animismexistinginCambodia,whichwhilstflexibleandendlesslymalleable,
nevertheless,remainresistantintheirenduringpresence:
TheBuddhistcosmosisoverwhelminglyverticalandhierarchicalinitslogicof
organization,canonicinitsselfknowledge,everythinginitsrightfulplace,fully
continuouswithinitself,carefullycontrollingeverybeingwithinitself,through
itself.Thiscosmosisheldtogetherfromwithinitself(HandelmanandLindquist
2011:11).
ElementswithinBuddhismwereabletoexistthroughoutDemocraticKampuchea
andhavecontinuedintothenewCambodia,despitetheattemptatdestructionof
thereligion.Karmaandreincarnationaretwosuchelements.Whilstritualsorder
thepracticeofBuddhism,andtheSangha(themonasticorderofnunsandmonks)
organiseitsplacewithinthewidersociety,ultimatelyallpeoplecontinuetolivein
samsara,cyclingthroughrealmsofexistence,dyingandbeingrebornincontinued
dukkha(suffering)accordingtotheirkarma.Whetherritualsareconductedornot,
allwillbereborn.
Thedifferenttemporalitiesenabledbyreincarnationprovideconnectionsand
continuities:betweenthelivingandthedead,betweenpeopleandplaces,and
betweenhistoricalperiods.Inallowingpeopletomeetagainitconnectspeople
acrosstimeandspace,providingameansofextendingnetworksoftrustand
kinship.Thejusticeprovidedbykarmaprovidesasenseofredressand
retribution,aswellasareleasefromresponsibilityofsurvivors;withindividuals
beingultimatelyresponsiblefortheirownkarma,whichinfluencestheirdeaths,
thosewhosurvivedcanexplaintheirownsurvivalwhilstothersdied.Karma
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 199
explainsdeath,butalsooffersamodeofembodiedjustice;thosewhodieddidso
becauseoftheirkarma;thosewithgoodkarmaarerebornwithfamilyorfriends;
thosewithbadkarmawithstrangers;KhmerRougecadrearereincarnatedas
pretaorintotanarout,orinsomeextremecases,arestillwaitingtobereborn.
Theexplorationofkarmaandreincarnationinthischapterallowsforan
explorationbeyondmemory,tothesocialincorporationofthedeadinto
contemporaryCambodia.Initsmoststraight-forwardinterpretation,
reincarnationallowsforcontinuedattachmenttothedeadandthepossibilityof
meetingagain,andkarmaprovidesamodebywhichpeoplecanunderstandand
narratethechaosraineddownbytheKhmerRouge.Karmaalsoprovides
opportunitiesforcosmologicaljusticeandaresistancetothepervasivepolitical
impunityinCambodia.Reincarnationmeanwhile,enablesformsof
reincorporativekinshipthatextendssupportnetworksandrelationshipsoftrust
incontemporaryCambodia.Bothprovideimaginedcontinuancesbetweenthe
periodsbeforetheregimeandnow,andindoingso,allowfortherupturesand
disjuncturescausedbytheregimetobenarratedinthepresent.
Finallytheconceptsofreincarnationandkarma,aswellasotherBuddhist
conceptssuchasthecircularityoftime,offeranelementofstabilitytolifein
Cambodia.Theydonotimplythatnothingchanges,butthatchaosand
destruction,aswroughtbytheKhmerRouge,areelementsofBuddhistlife,andas
such,arebothinevitableandtransient.Regardlessofwhathappens,peoplewill
continuetoexistinsamsara,movingthroughcyclesofdeathandrebirth.Itis
thatinevitability,asmuchasthephysicalreincarnationofthosewholivedbefore
it,whichconnectsthe(relatively)peacefulerasbeforetheregimeandthe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 200
present:noamountofkilling,noamountofritualdestruction,noamountof
devastation,canpreventrebirth–‘weareborn,wedie,wearebornagain.It’s
likethat’OmPichexplained.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 201
SectionThree:GraveConcerns
Chapterfive:Pastpresent,presentpast–politicsinCambodia
Thegovernmenttakesoutthebonestoscarepeople:
–thiswastheKhmerRouge.
-OmTa,onthedisplayofremainsatmemorialsites.
********
Whilethedeadaresociallysalientbeingswhointeractwiththelivingandthus
affectthewaytheyareconceivedandrelatedto,theirspacesofdeathandburial
areopentointerpretationandappropriationforstateandinternationalpolitics,
aswellasindividualneeds.Aswith(most)massgravesandtheirmemorialsites,
politicsrendershowthosefromtheKhmerRougeregimearepresentedand
experienced.InCambodia,thosethatare‘remembered’publicallyarehighly
politicizedsitescentraltothere-workingofnarrativesoftheregime.The
selectionofwhichsitesarecommemoratedandwhicharenotisapolitical
statement,makingvisiblethecontainedculpabilityofonlyafewnamedKhmer
Rougeleaders,andtherebyrenderinginnocentthehundreds(ifnotthousands)of
lowergradecommanderswhowereactuallyresponsibleforthemajorityofthe
killing,manyofwhomstillholdpositionsofpowerinregionalandlocal
governmentsacrossCambodia.Sitesthatare‘forgotten’meanwhilenegatethese
simplisticnarrationsandprovideothercontestednarrativestostateand
internationalnarrativesontheregime.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 202
Movingonfromconsiderationsoftheeverydayinteractionsandindividual
relationshipsbetweenthelivingandthedeadthatwereexploredinthelast
section,thenextthreechaptersallconcernnationalpoliticalusesforthemass
graves,showinghowthegovernmenthascommodifiedthedeadandtheirgraves
asinstrumentsofstatepoliticsandthebuildingofa‘new’Cambodia–in
developmentandtheretentionofpower.Itwilldothisbyconsideringstate
relationshipstothosekilledthroughthespacesoftheirgraves,examininghow
politicscontrolsknowledgeaboutthem(whichcanbeknownandwhichare
forgotten),andhowthegravesandtheirdeadareputtoworkforparticular
politicalendsthroughtheuseofspecificmemorialsitesthatdisplaytheskeletal
remainsofthosewhodied.
Thischapterexaminesthepoliticallandscape,discussinghowitcameintoplace,
howsuccessivegovernmentshavenarratedtheKhmerRougeperiod,andthe
placeofthegravesandtheirdeadinthis.Acentralaspectofthisisa
considerationofthegravesandmemorialsthatareintegraltothispolitical
manoeuvring,forwhichthosekilledaremostusefulasanonymouspilesofdead,
allowingtheirrecognitionasamasscollectiveratherthanasindividualliveslost.
ItwillfirstexplaincontemporaryKhmerpolitics,introducingtherulingparty(the
CambodianPeople’sParty)andtheirrisetopower,beforelookingatthewaysthe
deadandthegraveshavebeenusedpoliticallysince1979,exploringtheselective
memorialisationoftheperiod,thechoiceanddismissalofsitesinofficialrecords,
and,thewaythedead’s‘stagedbodies’(Feldman1991:8)areputtoworkas
agentsofviolenceindisplayofhumanremains.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 203
Bydoingsoitlaysthegroundworkforthenexttwochapterswhichexamine
specificwaysinwhichthegravesareusedpolitically,bylookingattheuseof
ChoeungEkfortourismasameansofeconomicdevelopment,politicalstability,
andfuturesocialimprovement(chaptersix),andthemaintenanceofpower
throughtheharnessingofthespectralpresenceoftheKhmerRougeinpolitical
campaigning(chapterseven).
PoliticsincontemporaryCambodia
Officiallyaconstitutionaldemocracy,contemporaryCambodiais,inreality,a
countryofauthoritarianrulewithadomineeringPrimeMinister(HunSen),whois
notadversetoviolenceandextremeviolationofhumanrights139.Hisparty,the
CambodianPeople’sParty(CPP),remainsincontroltodaythroughamixtureof
force,intimidation,corruption,andadroitpoliticalmanipulation,inwhichthe
KhmerRougeperiod,itsdead,andtheirgraves,arevital.Thoughtheyhave
fluctuatedinimportanceinpoliticaldiscoursewithsuccessivegovernments,being
demonisedduringthePRK,and‘buried’inthelate1990sandearly-mid2000s
(Chandler2008),theyhaverecentlyresurgedassitesofpoliticalpower.This
resurgencemostlikelyrelatestotheestablishmentofthetheExtraordinary
ChambersintheCourtsofCambodiain2006(theECCC,akatheKhmerRouge
TrialsorKhmerRougeTribunal),atwhichpointitbecamemostusefulforthe
governmenttore-harnesstheregimeanditshorrificviolence.
139
HunSenhasoneoftheworsthumanrightsrecordsforany‘democratic’leader.ThelistofviolationsundertheCPPisextensive,including:politicalkillings;torture;extrajudicialdetention;arbitraryarrests;summarytrials;censorship;bansonassembly;violentrepressionofprotests;anationalnetworkofspiesandinformantsusedtofrightenandintimidatethepublicintosubmission;theobstructionoftheKhmerRougetrials;andimpunitytotheendemiccorruptionthroughoutthegovernmentandcivilsociety(HumanRightsWatch2015a).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 204
TheCPPhaseffectivelyruledCambodiainoneformoranothersincethedeposing
oftheKhmerRouge,withthecurrentPrimeMinister,HunSen,atitshelmsince
1985140.AtitscoreareseveralformerKhmerRougecadrewhodefectedto
Vietnamin1977and1978,andwhohaveformedpartofeverygovernmentsince
1979,includingthePrimeMinisterHunSen,partyChairmanHengSamrin,andthe
formerpartyandSenatePresident,thelateCheaSim141.FollowingVietnam’s
invasionofCambodiainDecember1978,thesedefectorsformedFUNSK(Front
d'UnionNationalepourleSalutduKampuchéa-KampucheanUnitedFrontfor
NationalSalvation):asmallpartywhichwasbackedbytheVietnamese
administrationandputintogovernmentduringthePeople’sRepublicof
Kampuchea(PRK:1979–1993)astheKampucheanPeople’sRevolutionary
Party142.FollowingtheVietnamesewithdrawalfromCambodiain1989,theparty
continuedtorule,changingitsnametotheCPPin1991inpreparationforthe
1993UNTAC143managedelections,whichweretoheraldthebeginningofa‘fully
140
Nowthesixthlongestrunningleaderofanycountryintheworld,HumanRightsWatch(2015)reportthatHunSenhasbeenabletojoin‘anexclusiveclubofmennowinpowerwho,throughpoliticallymotivatedviolence,controlofthesecurityforces,manipulatedelections,massivecorruption,andthetacitsupportofforeignpowers,havebeenabletoremaininpowerwellbeyondthetimeanyleaderinagenuinelydemocraticpoliticalsystemhaseverserved.’
141HunSenjoinedtheKhmerRougein1968,wasacommanderintheEasternZoneduringDK;
foreignministerinthePRKfrom1979–1985;andPrimeMinistersincethen.HengSamrinwasaKhmerRougearmydivisioncommander;PrimeMinisterinthePRKfrom1979–1981;andisnowPresidentoftheNationalAssemblyandCPPChairman.CheaSimwasaKhmerRougecommanderofEasternZone20;MinisteroftheInteriorinthePRKfrom1979–1981;PresidentoftheNationalAssemblyfrom1981–1998;andPresidentofthepartyfrom1991,andtheSenatefrom1999,untilhisdeathinJune2015.HunSendefectedin1977,andHengSamrinandCheaSimin1978followingafailedrevoltbydissidents(includingthemselves)againstPolPot,whichledtothemostbloodypurgesoftheregime(BartropandJacobs2015).AlthoughinsufficientevidencehasbeenfoundtoindictHunSenforhisactionsduringDK(Peou2013),in2006evidencerelatedtoHengSamrinandCheaSimwaspresentedtotheECCCforinvestigation,however,thesewerenotpursued,allegedlyduetopoliticalcontrolofthecourtsbyHunSen(HumanRightsWatch2015b).
142AtthistimetheyweretheonlylegalpartyofCambodia.
143TheUnitedNationsTransitionalAuthorityinCambodia(UN-TAC)administeredCambodiafrom
1992–1993andmanagedthe1993electionsaspartofthe1991ParisPeaceAccordsorganizedtoendtheconflictsinCambodia.Thepeaceaccordsmandatedthedisarmamentoffightingfactions,mineclearance,theimplementationofanewdemocraticconstitutionaldemocracyandimprovedhumanrightsamongotherthings(USIP2015).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 205
realisedpluralistliberaldemocracy’inCambodia(Gray2014:56)somethingthey
categoricallyfailedtodo.Despitelosingtheelections,bythreatofviolenceHun
Senforcedacoalitionwiththemajoritywinners,FUNCINPEC144,beforetaking
completecontrolaftercivilconflictsin1997145.SincethattimetheCPPhaswon
everyelectionwithasubstantialmajority(until2013,seechapterseven).An
employeeattheMinistryofCultandReligionsummeditupformeaswechatted
oneafternoon:
TheelectionorganizedbyUNTACwasjustandfair.FUNCINPECwon.Butafter
that,inelectionswithoutinternationalmonitors,[they]neverwonagain.
MuchofthelongevityoftheCPPisconsideredtobetheresultoffear,
intimidation,andwidespreadcorruption:electioncampaignsaretingedwith
violenceandrepression,andpoliticalviolenceisrife,includingtheassassination
ofpoliticalrivalsandcritics,violentintimidationofvoters,andextensive
bureaucraticviolence.
Centraltotherulingparty’sdiscourseisaconstructednarrativeinwhichthe
party,withHunSenatthehelm,emancipatedCambodiafromtheKhmerRouge,
144SetupbyPrinceSihanouk,FUNCINPECstandsfortheFrontUniNationalpourunCambodgeIndépendant,Neutre,Pacifique,etCoopératif-the‘NationalUnitedFrontforanIndependent,Neutral,Peaceful,andCooperativeCambodia.’FUNCINPECwaspartoftheCoalitionGovernmentofDemocraticKampuchea(1982–1993)–agovernmentformedinexilebutexertingsomecontroloverthecountry-thatincludedtheKhmerRougeaswellasRoyalistfactions.
145ThereissomedebateastohowpowerwaswrestedfromthecoalitiontotheCPP.ThepressandinternationalorganisationssuchasHumanRightsWatchcontenditwasabloodycoupbyHunSen(Adams2007;Efron1997;GarellaandPape2005;HumanRightsWatch2015);whileothersargueforamorenuancedanalysis(bothoftheeventandthevalue-ladenterm‘coup’)duetothehistoricalcomplexityandresultingoutcomesofpoliticalstability(Kevin1999;Ledgerwood2010).Oppositionparties,however,haveusedthedateofthiseventintheirpoliticalpropaganda:in2002,FUNCINPECmovedtheiranniversarycelebrationstothedateoftheclashes(July5-6)(althoughtheylaterstoppedthis),andin2014and2015,themainoppositionparty(theCNRP)heldcommemorationservicesinPhnomPenhfortheevent.PoliticalcommentatorsagreethatthemainpurposeofsucheventsistoremindthepublicoftheviolenceandterrorcausedbytheCPP(Meas2014;Vong2015).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 206
andbywhichonlyheandhispartycanmaintainorderandpeace,withoutwhich,
theregimewillriseonceagain.ThedeadoftheKhmerRouge,aswellasthe
spectralpresenceoftheregime,arecentraltothemanipulationofCambodia’s
collectivenarrationofitsliberation.Thisisparticularlystrikingbecauseofwho
theleaders,andanumberoftheCPPofficialsacrossthecountry,are-former
cadre,manyofwhomheldpositionsofrankduringtheKhmerRougeregime.
WhilecentralgovernmentofficialssuchasHunSen,HengSamrin,andCheaSim
areamongstthese,therearemanyothersbesides;OmJah,whoIworkedwithin
Kep,isaparticularexample.Nowaquiet,elderlyman,heisawell-respected
memberofthelocalcommunecouncilforasmallvillageatthefoothillsof
PhnomGrahom.OmJahwaswarmandwelcoming,andwassurroundedby
peoplewheneverIsawhim.Helavishedlovingattentiononhismany
grandchildren,andwasviewedaskindandgenerousbythecommunity.The
villagehelivesinispeacefulandrelativelyprosperous,afactormanylocalpeople
attributedtoreliableandconsistentleadership,includinghis(Hull2013).
ThroughouttheKhmerRougeregime,however,hislifewasverydifferent.One
ofthreehighrankingcommandersinthearea,heledacohortofcadrerenowned
forviolenceanddisruption(‘theyusedtosay,‘ifyouwanttofight,comewithme
toPhnomGrahom,’hetoldme).Intheearly1970s,disillusionedwiththe
government,andangryabouttheUSbombingthatdevastatedthecountry,he
hadjoinedtheguerrillaKhmerRougearmyintheforestsofKep,andwassoon
promotedtocaptain.Althoughhesupportedtheiraims,itwasadifficulttime:
thereweresomanyproblemsfrombombs;weaponslikeIdon’tunderstand.So
manyordinarypeoplewerekilled,someburned,somecremated;wholefamilies
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 207
gone.ItmadethepeopleveryangrywiththeUSandthegovernment[ofLon
Nol].Peoplediedintheforestandwereeatenbyanimals;thesmellwasterrible.
Itwasaterribletime.
OncetheKhmerRougetookcontrolofthecountry,theareabecamehometotwo
prisonsandseveralkillingfields,andalthoughthecadrecoulddescendfromthe
forests,itremainedwildanduntamed.‘Theforestsarefullofskeletons’the
districtchieftoldmewhenIfirstarrivedinthearea.AfterthedemiseofDK,when
VietnamesetroopsforcedtheKhmerRougetowithdraw,manycadre,including
OmJah,wentbacktotheforest,anditremainedoneofthelaststrongholdsofthe
KhmerRouge,wheretheysurviveduntilthelate1990s.146
PeacewasfinallybrokeredundertheWin-winpolicyofthelate1990s.Attributed
toHunSen,thewin-winpolicygaveamnestyandaparallelpositionwithinthe
newgovernmenttoKhmerRougecommanderswholaiddowntheirarmsand
defected.147Bythemid1990smanycadreweretiredoffightingandtheconstant
struggleoflifeintheforests.InPhnomGrahom,thoughlocalvillagerssupported
thembybringingfoodandmedicalsupplies,manybecamesickanddied.During
thetransitionalperiodbeforethe1993elections,UNTACsoldierscametoKampot
totryandbrokerpeace.Althoughtheydidnotenterthearea(itwasdeemedtoo
dangerous),severaloftheKhmerRougecommanders,includingOmJah,went
downtomeetthem.
146TheKhmerRougeretainedcontrolofsomeareasinKepandAnlongVeng,andfrequently
raidedvillagesacrossthecountryforsupplies.TheyalsoransomeoftherefugeecampsattheThai-Cambodianborder,fundingtheirexistencethroughgemandtimbersmuggling,andviaassistancefromChinaandThailand(Lischer2006;Pear1988).147
Thiswasnotthefirstinstanceofamnestybeingoffered.In1979,inpartnershipwiththe‘showtrail’ofPolPotandIengSary,immunitywasofferedbytheVietnamesetoanyformerKhmerRougememberswillingtoworkagainstDemocraticKampuchea(HederandTittimore2001:7).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 208
ThiswasthebeginningofthepeaceprocessforPhnomGrahom.Theseinitial
talksopenedthepossibilityofofficialnegotiationsbetweenthegovernmentand
theKhmerRouge.148‘TheKhmerRougewerelikebamboo’OmJahexplained:‘to
bendityouneedtodoitlittlebylittle.’Oncethepossibilityofcompromisewas
conceded,andtheKhmerRougeofficersinagreement,defectionbecamea
conceivablefuturethattooklittletimetoenable.
Althoughacontroversialpolicy,becauseoftheimpunityitgavetoformerKhmer
Rouge,thewin-winpolicyis,arguably,theonlywaypeacecouldhavebeenmade
inCambodiaatthetime;itwastheonlywayhigh-rankingKhmerRougeofficials
suchasKhieuSamphan(HeadofStatefortheKhmerRouge)andNuonChea
(BrotherNumberTwo)couldmakepeacewithoutlosingface149,andthis,
alongsideitscriticaltiming(whenmostcadrewerewearyoffighting,butneeded
awaytobeabletolaydownarms),madeitremarkablysuccessful(Hull2013).
HunSenandtheCPPhavetakenthissuccessandturneditintoacentralnarrative
supportingtheircurrentpositionasleadersofthecountry.Theyhavecombined
itwiththeirpresenceintheinitialVietnamese-backedgovernmentofpost-Khmer
RougeCambodiatocreateanarrativethattheysavedCambodia,andthatonly
theycanmaintainpeaceandpreventtheKhmerRougerisingagain(seechapter
seven).
148
Althoughofficiallyonoppositesides,thegovernmentandKhmerRougesoldiersinPhnomGrahomhadbeenworkingtogetherforyears.ItwasthegovernmentsoldierswhotoldtheKhmerRougewhenatrainwascoming,andtheysharedthespoilsaftereachambush.‘Itwaslikeagame,’aformercadreintheareacommented:‘wefoughtinthedayanddranktogetheratnight.’
149InAugust2014KhieuSamphanandNuonCheabothreceivedlifesentencesforCrimesAgainst
HumanityinCase002oftheECCC.Theirindictmentsin2007causedsomeresentmentandnervousnessamongstformercadre–OmJahtoldmethatmanypeoplefeltangryaboutthis,notbecausetheydidnotfeelliketheyhadcommittedterriblecrimes,orthatCambodianeededsomeformofjustice,butbecausetheyhadbeenpromisedimpunitywhentheydefected.HefeltHunSenhadgonebackonhisword,whichwasmakingsomeex-cadrenervouswhileIwasthere.Becauseofthis,wheneverIworkedwithex-cadre,Ihadtobesuretoemphasisetheanonymityofmyresearch.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 209
However,thisrenewedinterestintheregimeisrelativelyrecent,andanexample
ofthefluctuatingdiscoursesandnarrativesregardingthattime,something
illustratedbythetreatmentofremains,andthefluctuatingprivilegingand
selectivememorialisationofthegravesandthedead.
Raisingthedead:politicalusesofthedeadandtheirgraves
Aswehavealreadyseen,whilemanylocalpeoplelootedthegravesforvaluables,
theinitialattentionpaidtothemassgravesbythestatewasasevidenceof
atrocityasamodeofpoliticallegitimation150.Aswehavealreadyseen,the
VietnamesebackedgovernmentofthePRKexploitedanyevidencethatcouldbe
usedtosupporttheirruleandembedtheirnarrativesofpower.TheKhmerRouge
weredemonisedRouge,labelledas‘‘genocidal’and‘facist’toencourage
comparisonswithHitler’sGermanyandtodownplayDK’ssocialistcredentials’
(Chandler2008a:360).DemocraticKampucheabecameknownas‘samayaPot’-
thetimeofPolPot,andtheblameforallitscrimeslaidatthefeetof‘the
genocidalcliqueofPolPot,IengSaryandKhieuSamphan.’Thedeadandtheir
gravesbecamecentralcomponentsinthis.
Therewasnoshortageofphysicalevidence.DemocraticKampucheadidnothide
thedamageitwrought.Thepopulationwasemaciated,starving,andrifewith
disease.Thedeadlitteredthelandscape.Withindaysofbeinglocated,TuolSleng
prisonwasturnedintoamuseumforforeignjournalistsandvisitingdignitaries
(Chandler2008c;Tyner2012a).Althoughitwasnotofficiallyturnedintoamuseum
150Itiscommonformassgravestobeexploitedinsuchwayswhennewgovernmentstakeoverfrompreviouslybrutalregimes.Theyofferameansofdifferentiatingthemselvesfromtheoldregimeandsecuringtheirstatusassavioursoftheirnation;thiscanbeseenregularlyinthemedia,mostrecentlyinSyria,LibyaandIraq(Al-Jazeera2011;BBC2012;Crossley2014;Hassin2011;Mezzofiore2015).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 210
until1988,in1980guardswereputatChoeungEk,andofficialsbroughtforeign
visitorstothesiteseveraltimesayear.Othergravesandtheirdeadbecamepartof
thislegitimation:AnneGuilloureportsthatfollowingtheVietnameseinvasion,many
localcommuneswereorderedtocollectbodiesfromthelocalfieldsandre-house
theminvillagememorialstupas(Guillou2012a,2012b).Inmanyareasgraveswere
notexcavatedforthis.Theydidnotneedtobe;therewereenoughbonesscattered
acrossthesurfaceofCambodiaanditwaseasytocollectthousandsofremainsfrom
these.Twoelderlyâchar(laypriests)fromavillageacrosstheriverfromKohSop,
BuMuoyandBuBpii,hadbeeninvolvedinthiscollection:
[BuMuoy]: Atthattime,theboneswerescatteredallovertheplace.That’s
whytheyaskedpeopletogotheretocollectthebones.They
werescatteredallovertheplace;somewerenearthepitsand
somewereneartheforest.Sowecollectedthem.
[BuBpii]: Theboneswerecollectedtoputindifferentpagodas:this
pagoda,thatpagoda…
[BuMuoy]: Theboneswerecollected.Whenitwasnew[immediatelyafter
liberation]theboneswerescatteredallovertheplaceandsome
hadthefleshattachedtothem.Thenthefleshgotrottenand
theboneswereallovertheplace,andwewenttocollectthe
bonestokeepinoneplace.ThatwasduringPRKafterthe
liberationofDemocraticKampuchea.
Whenyouwenttocollectthebones,werethebonesonthetop[thesurface]?
[BuMuoy]: Yes,theywereonthetop.
[BuBpii]: Yes,theywerenotburied.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 211
In1982thePRKissuedadecreeorderingthatthephysicalevidenceof‘the
genocidalcliqueofPolPot,IengSeryandKhieuSamphan’shouldbepreserved.
Thesedecreesandordershavebeentakenasevidencethatthisiswhythegraves
wereexhumed;FawthropandJarvis(2004:217)statethat‘graveswereexcavated
bytheCambodiangovernmentintheearly1980s….’andCraigEtcheson(2005:
125)notesthata‘significantproportionofthemassgraveshasbeenexhumed
overtheyearsbyCambodiangovernmentauthorities….’Certainlythedeadwere
exploitedforthispurpose,althoughwhetherthemajoritywerefirstexcavatedby
governmentdecree,orbylocalslootingthemforvaluablesisdebatable:the
bodiesatallthesitesIvisitedduringmyresearch(sixteenlocationsacrossseven
provinces),exceptChoeungEk,wereinitiallyunearthedastheresultoflocal
interventions-peoplelootingthegravesforvaluables.Theseuneartheddead
werethencollectedtodisplayinp’teahkhmouch(builtundertheordersofthe
government)alongsidethosewhohadlaidonthesurface.151FawthropandJarvis
notethatMinKhin,oneoftheeightpeopleformingthePeople’sRevolutionary
CouncilofKampucheawhichfunctionedasthecabinetuntil1981,recallssending
adirectiveout‘throughthegovernmentalapparatustovillagelevelaskingthe
peoplenottotouchtheremainingphysicalordocumentaryevidence’ofthe
regime(2004:41).Thisdirectivewasanattempttotryandstopthedeletionof
theregime’smaterialpresenceintheformofbuildings,whichweretorndown
(usuallyformaterialsbutsometimesoutofanger)aswellasmassgraves,which
werebeinglooted.
151
DC-Cam’smappingdatasupportsthishypothesis.Ofthe47caseswheretheexcavation
methodisrecorded,onlyninereportbeingorderedbygovernmentdecree.35werereportedasbeingdugupbypeoplesearchingforvaluables,onebyfamilymemberslookingforrelatives(thiswasrare),andtheotherthreearenotmadeclear.FawthropandJarvis(2004),Etcheson(2005),andDC-Cam(2005)allacknowledgetheactionsofthosesearchingforvaluablesinthegraves;however,theyarenotattributedtobeingresponsibleforexhumingthebodies,orofbeingtheinitialmotivatorsforopeningthegravesinmanylocations,aspeopleoftentoldme.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 212
Memorialisingviolence,forgettingnames
Whicheverthecase,theremainsbecameimportantevidenceofmassviolence
andusefulpoliticaltools;acrossthecountrytheboneswerecollected,cleaned,
lefttodry,andeventuallydisplayedinthewoodenp’teahkhmouchbuiltineach
districtundergovernmentorders.Thesecametoserveasmemorialsofthe
regime;DC-Camrecordsovereightyofthesehutsservingas‘local’152memorials,
withTuolSlengandChoeungEkfunctioningasnationalones.Memorials153
provideidealsitesfortheembeddingofnationalconstructionsofhistorical
narratives;warmemorialsinparticulararesitesatwhichthenationisconstructed
andreified(Mosse1991),because,asJennyEdkins(2003:16–17)assertsinher
bookTraumaandtheMemoryofPolitics,‘inthemostpart,memorialisationof
warisapracticethatreproducesstoriesofnationalgloryandheroism.It
produceslineartime,thetimeofthestate[which]caninscribethenationalmyth
ortheimaginedcommunity.’154Thisworksparticularlywellinthecaseof‘event-
centredframesformemory’(suchastheKhmerRougeregime)becausetheseare
‘amenabletonarrativeanddramaturgicalmodesofrepresentation’(White2006:
293).Insuchacase,thememorialisedeventorpeoplebecomeasymbolof
152
Thereferencetothesememorialsas‘local’memorialsissomewhatmisleading,implyingthatthesewereinitiatedbylaypeople,notthattheywereameansofdisplayingtheconsequencesoftheregimeacrossthenation,thusembeddingitsviolentremindersnomatterhowfarfromPhnomPenhyouare.
153Iusememorialstorefertomonumentsbuiltorpreservedtocommemorateeventsofthepast.
Eventscanalsobememorialised,ofcoursethroughliterature,art,dance,theatreandotherperformances.Thompson(2013)providesanexcellentexplorationofmemorialisationthroughartinCambodia,highlightingthetensionbetweenartisticexpressionandconsumptionandnationalconstructionsof‘truths’abouttheKhmerRouge,managedthroughtheDocumentationCentreofCambodia,whichcontrolsamonopolyonknowledgeandmemoryincontemporaryCambodia.
154Herbookillustrates,however,thatalthoughoftenseparated,personalmourningandthe
impositionofnationalmytharenotnecessarilyopposed,using,asanexample,thepartHolocaustmemorialsandcommemorationsinIsraelhaveplayedintheconstructionofanarrativethatsupportsthemilitarisationofthestate.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 213
solidarityviaanemotionalpresentationofhistorythatisapowerfulenablerof
nationalsubjectivitybyrendering‘thecontextofviolenceoneofnational
sufferingandsacrifice’(ibid:296),andtherebypresentingthesubjectsofthe
memorialastheembodimentofnationalidentity.155
Theserepresentationsenableunified,politicallysalientstoriestobepresented
(‘rehearsedmemories’asCarolineWinter(2009)labelstheminherexamination
ofsocialmemoryofWW1inAustralia),andthroughtheirpresentationinthis
form,thesenarrativesbecomereiteratedinbothnationalandinternational
collectivememoryandfixedasstatichistoricalpresentations.Thisisarguablythe
caseinCambodia,whereitsturbulenthistoryhasbeenconsolidatedinpopular
internationaldiscourseintooneevent:destructionbytheKhmerRouge.Thishas
partlybeenachievedthroughtheamalgamationofnamelessdeadintostate
memorials,wheretheyhavecometorepresentCambodianswhosuffered,notat
thehandsofhundreds,possiblyeventhousands,oftheircountrymen,butbya
selectfew‘evil’KhmerRouge.JamesHolt(2012)arguesthatthePRKmemorials
directedstatesponsorednarrativesthatputthedeadtoworkinthenameofthe
newlyconstructedstate,tellingastoryofliberationandfreedomthatarguably
thePRKregimedidnotfullyepitomise;whileallowingpeopletoreturnhomeand
beginfarmingandworkingagain,thePRKstillstrictlycontrolledCambodia,
restrictingpeople’smovementandcontrollingreligionandlandownership.
Violencewasstillrife,extrajudicialimprisonmentscommon,andhundredsof
155
Thepremierexampleofthisis9/11memorialisations,wherethe‘greatsacrifices’ofthedeadareusedtojustifydevastatingmilitaryinterventionsacrosstheglobe.AmorerecentexampleistheshootingofholidaymakersinTunisia,whichhasbeenmanipulatedbythegovernmenttoexhibitthedeadasmartyrsinthe‘war’againstterrorism.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 214
thousandsofpeopledied,fromdiseaseandstarvationintheinitialyears,and
fromtheK5plan156inthelatter(Slocomb2004).
WhilethePRKemphasisedthegenocidalactionsofDemocraticKampuchea,
followingVietnam’swithdrawalfromCambodiain1989andamovetowards
democraticruleintheStateofCambodia(1989–1993),duringthe1990s
‘amnesia[became]theorderoftheday’(Chandler2008a:363).Aspeacewas
brokeredbetweentheongoingfightingfactions,widespreadimpunityforKhmer
Rougecadreandtheircollaboratorsbecamethenorm,andrankingcadrewere
enfoldedintotheranksofthegovernment(theaforementionedwin-winpolicy).
ThoughChandlerdiscussesthisamnesiainrelationtoCambodianpoliticsinthe
1990s,aninternationalamnesiaprecededthis.The1991ParisPeaceAccords157,
drawnupinanattempttoendtheongoingconflictinCambodia,notonlyinsisted
thattheKhmerRougebeincludedintheinterimgovernmentofCambodia(which
theCPPresisted),butalsoensuredanymentionofkillings,torture,orother
sufferingenduredundertheKhmerRougewasomittedfromtheinternational
lexiconandtheword‘genocide’removedfromdiscussions,insteadreferringto
‘thepoliciesandpracticesofthepast’(Chandler2008:364).Partlythiswas
relatedtothe1993elections(internationaladvisorsconsideredthatelections
couldnotbefreeandfairifonepartywasabletoaccusetheotherofgenocide),
156
AlsoknownastheBambooCurtain,theK5planranfrom1984–1989andwasanattemptbythePRKtocutoffKhmerRougeaccesstoCambodia.Uptoonemillionpeople(mostlymen)wereforciblyconscriptedtothisprogramme(HumanRightsWatch2015a)inwhichthousandsofacresofforestwerefelled,wirefenceserected,trenchesdug,andsomewherebetween4and25millionmineslaidalongalmosttheentire750kilometreborder-thedifferenceliesbetweenofficialandunofficialreceiptsofmunitionsatthetime;amilitaryveteranreportedthatforeveryofficialshipmentrecorded,6or7unofficialshipmentsalsoarrived(Roberts2011).Thousandsofpeoplediedfrommalaria(Gottesman(2003)estimatesupto25,000althoughitcouldwellbemore)andtheminesmaimedorkilledmanythousandsmore,andremainathreattoday.
157SignedbytheStateofCambodia,theKhmerRouge,theKhmerPeople’sLiberationFront,and
FUNCINPEC.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 215
butitalsoresultedfromColdwarpolitics:aroundtheglobeVietnam’s
interventioninthecountryin1979wasseenasanaggressiveactofinvasion,and
itsongoingpresenceinthecountrythroughoutthe1980sasillegaloccupation
(Martini2007).AsaresulttheKhmerRouge(incoalitionwithtwoothersmall
parties)heldtheUNseatforCambodiauntil1993,whenitwasconceded
followingtheelections.158
AsHunSen’srulebecameembeddedwithouttheinternationallyfrownedupon
Vietnameseassistance,andasmoreandmorecadredefectedtothegovernment,
theKhmerRougeregimebecameweakerandweaker.AstheCPPtriedtobroker
peacewiththoseremaining,highlightingtheevidenceoftheatrocitiescommitted
duringDemocraticKampucheabecameilladvised,asdidsinglingoutKhieu
SamphanandNuonCheaasleadersofagenocidalregime(thisistheamnesia
Chandlerrefersto).Atthistime,allresponsibilityforthecrimesoftheregime
waslaidatthefeetofPolPotandafewloyalfollowerssuchasTaMok159.
AlthoughTuolSlengandChoeungEkcontinuedtobeimportant,thep’teah
khmouchthatstoodacrossthecountrybecamelesspoliticallyimportant;astime
wentontheywereneglectedandmanyfellintodisrepair.Remainsdecayed,
animalsateortrampledonthebones,andinsomeareasfloodsandbadweather
destroyedwhatremained.Localpeoplehadonlyevermaintainedthemunder
governmentorders,andwithcentralcontrolbeing(violently)assured,these
formsofevidencebecamelessimportant.AnneYvonneGuillou(2012a;2012b)
158
Not,sadly,inrelationtotheatrocitiescommittedbytheKhmerRouge,whichhadlongbeenknownbytheinternationalcommunity.
159TaMok(nicknamedthebutcherbecauseofhisreputationforbrutality)wasaleadingKhmer
Rougecommander,andaccordingtoHinton(2006)oneofthekeyarchitectsoftheKhmerRougegenocide.In1977hebecamechiefoftheKhmerRougearmyandoversawallinternalpurgesoftheregime.TaMokwastheonlyKhmerRougeofficial,exceptPolPot,torefusetodefecttotheCPP.In1999hewasarrestedandchargedwithgenocideandcrimesagainsthumanity;hediedinprisonin2006(ibid.).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 216
andRachelHughes(2005)reportthatthisneglectwasaresultofdisinterestfrom
localpeople,whosawnouseforthesememorials,andforwhomtheybearlittle
resonance.160
ThedefectionsbytheKhmerRougecontinuedthroughoutthe1990s,until1998,
whenNuonChea(BrotherNumberTwo)andKhieuSamphan(Presidentof
DemocraticKampuchea)cameovertothegovernment.Thegovernment’smode
fordealingwiththeregimeatthispointbecameburial.Atthepressconference
thatwelcomedthetwoovertothegovernment,HunSenentreatedpeopleto‘dig
aholeandburythepast’(Chandler2008:356).Teachingabouttheregime,which
hadbeenstoppedintherunuptothe1993elections(becauseofitsinsistenceon
genocide)remainedabsentfromtheschoolcurriculum.161However,the
devastationcausedbytheregimecouldnotbecompletelydismissed,andafter
decadesofnegotiation,intheearly2000s,thepossibilityofaKhmerRouge
tribunal162becameinevitable,andinterestintheregimeanditshistoryresurged.
160
GuillouarguesthattheruralpopulationofCambodiahavetheirownmethodsofcommemoratingthedeadwhich,ratherthanbeingchronologicalandrelatedtoparticularsites,worksina‘switchon,switchoff’fashion,wherethedeadinterjectintothelivesofthelivinginsomeperiods,andatothertimesareforgottenaseverydaylifeprogressed.Thisismostlikelytrueregardingtheiruseasmemorials,however,aswesawinchaptertwo,thesep’teahkhmouchwerenot,accordingtomyinformants,completelyalienorunnecessarybutprovidedaplaceforthedeadtobebroughtinfromtheforest,andbehousedappropriately,whiletheircarewasmanagedspirituallybytheirfamilies.
161BongLatoldmehehadneverlearntabouttheKhmerRougeatschool,andalthoughhisparentshadtoldhimsomestories,mostofwhatheknowshetaughthimselfwhenhebecameatourguideatChoeungEk.‘Actually,nowIknowmorethanmyparentsaboutit,eventhoughtheylivedthroughtheregime,’hetoldme,‘becauseIworkhere,andeverydayIlearnmoreandmore.’
162FawthropandJarvis(2004)provideagoodsummaryoftheupsanddownsofgettingthe
tribunalstarted.Readersshouldbeaware,however,oftheheavybiasinthisbooktowardsHunSenandtheCPP.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 217
Resurginginterest:theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia
Followingtheircompleteseizureofpowerin1997,theCPPsoughttolimitits
symbolsoflegitimationtocertainsites(primarilyTuolSlengandChoeungEk),but
asinterestintheregimeresurfacedintheearly2000s,givenhis,andmanyofthe
CPPmembers’pasts,thehistorystillneededmanaging,andHunSenonceagain
soughtcontroloftheremains.InDecember2001,shortlybeforelegislationwas
signedoffonthecreationoftheECCC,HunSenissuedthefollowingdirective
(RGC2001,myhighlights):
Followingtheliberationof7January1979,numerousgraveswereleftbehind
throughouttheentireterritoryofCambodiaasphysicaltestimonyofthecrimes
committedagainsttheinnocentCambodianpeoplebythegenocidalPolPot
regime.Rightaway,theauthoritiesandcitizensmadeeffortstotaketheremains
ofvictimsandtopreservethemcarefully,someinstupas,andsomeinother
formsofappropriatememorial.However,thegovernmenthasobservedthat
sincethattime,thesememorialshavenotbeenproperlymaintained.
Inordertopreservetheremainsasevidenceofthehistoriccrimes…alllocal
authoritiesatprovinceandmunicipallevelshallcooperatewithrelevantexpert
institutionsintheirareastoexamine,restoreandmaintainexistingmemorials,
andtoexamineandresearchotherremaininggravesites,sothatallsuchplaces
maybetransformedintomemorials….163
Thisdirectivemakesitclearthatthepersonnowblamedforthecrimes
committedwassingular:PolPot(incontrasttoduringthePRK,whenithadbeen
163
ThisdirectivealsoorderedthepreparationfortourismofAnlongVeng,thebaseoftheKhmerRougeleadership,andburialsiteofPolPot’scremains.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 218
PolPot,IengSaryandKhieuSamphan)furtherobfuscatingthenamesand
numbersofothersinvolved,thewidergeo-politicalcircumstancesthatledtothe
regime,andtheongoingviolencethatbroughtthecurrentgovernmenttorule.
Ataroundthissametime,skeletalremainsstartedtomovearoundthecountry
fromtheruralp’teahkhmouchtoconcretecheddei(stupa)withinparticular
pagodasites.ADistrictChiefinKandalprovincetoldmethatthereasongivenfor
movementwastomakethingseasierfortherelativestovisit,butinpracticemost
weremovedundergovernmentdirectivesoftheearly2000ssothateach
provincialmemorialwouldhavemoreremains.AtKohSop,theremainswere
splitbetweenthreepagodas164,however,themajorityoftheremainswenttoa
pagodacomplexwithinahundredmetresoftheCommuneOfficeandclosetothe
DistrictandProvincialOffices.InKep,remainsweremovedfromseverallocations
toWatKampongTralach,againthepagodamostcloselyassociatedwiththelocal
districtandprovincialoffice.InBattambangitwastoWatSamrongKnong.The
sitestheymovedtowerenotonlyselectedfortheirgeographicallocationor
politicalaffiliation.Mosthadalsobeenkillingandmassgravesites.Theessence
ofKhmerRougekillingtherefore,remainsinthesespaces.Itisatthesecentral
pagodasthatmanypoliticaleventsnowoccur;fortherulingparty;forthe
opposition;andforotherorganisationsandindividualswishingtomakevisible
perceivedviolencesintheworld(seechapterseven).
164
Althoughdrivenbythegovernment,thesemovementswerenotunwelcomedbythoserunningthepagodasandsomeactivelysoughttheremains;onemonktoldmethatceremoniesarethemainmeanspagodashavetoraisefunds,andbecausememorialceremoniesforthedeadoftheKhmerRougeonlyoccurwherethereareremains,somepagodastookbonesfromlocalp’teahkhmouchinordertoencouragepeopletovisitduringPchumBenhandNewYear,duringwhichtimetheywouldprovidegenerousdonationstothepagoda.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 219
Contemporaneouslytheannualremembranceceremonyfortheregime,TheDay
ofAnger,wasrevivedatthesecentralisedsites.In1984,commemoratingthe
datein1976thattheKhmerRougefirstinstigatedcollectivization,thePRK
nominatedMay20thasT'veerChongKamhaeng:theDayofTyingAnger(orthe
DayofMaintainingRage(FawthropandJarvis2004:73)).Onthisday,ceremonial
eventswereheldacrossthecountry,usuallyatpagodasorotherpublicspaces
suchasschools.Theseeventsservedtwopurposes:legitimisingthenewPRK
regime,andkeepingthehatredaliveagainsttheKhmerRouge,whostillposeda
threatacrossmuchofCambodia.‘WemadestatuesofPolPotandthrewstones
atthemanddestroyedthem.Theytaughtthechildrenthataction’BongLatold
me.Hatredattheseeventswasnotonlyaimedattheregime,butbecauseof
theircontinuedsupportoftheKhmerRouge,alsodirectedtowardstheUSand
China,bothofwhombearsomeresponsibilityfortheriseandsuccessofthe
KhmerRouge(Kiernan2004),bothofwhichenforcedatradeembargoon
CambodiafollowingitsliberationbytheVietnamesein1979(FawthropandJarvis
2004),andbothofwhich(alongsidemostotherpowers)opposedbringingthe
KhmerRougetojustice,andensuredtheirretentionoftheUNseatforCambodia
until1993(Marks1994).
T'veerChongKamhaengwassuspendedduringtheUNTACperiod(1992–1993),
butin2001theCPPrevivedtheevent,renamingitT’ngaiRomluk(Dayof
Remembrance).Priortothemovementofremainstocentralisedsites,‘anyplace
thathad‘witnessed’killing,torture,burialorforcedlabourduringtheDemocratic
Kampucheaperiod(1975-1979)wasconsideredanappropriatedplaceforthe
May20thcommemoration’(Hughes2000:40).Nowhowever,itoccursonlyat
thesecentralisedsites.Itsrevivalservesanequallyusefulpoliticalfunctionasits
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 220
creationduringthePRK,helpingsolidifynarrativesrelatedtotheparty’sliberation
ofCambodia’sfromtheKhmerRouge,whilstsimultaneouslyremindingthe
populationoftheterrorandviolencetheregimeengendered.Atmostpagodas,
theeventisunderstatedandalthoughmostlygovernmentemployeesattending,
somelocalpeopledotoo.AtChoeungEk,however,theeventismuchmore
formalized,andthecentralelementisagraphicre-enactmentofthebrutalityof
theregimeanditseventualdemiseatthehandsoftheCPP(seechapterseven).
Notonlyhasthiseventbeenrevivied.Aspartoftheproposedreparationsbythe
ECCC,fivenewmemorialswillbecreated.165Thesememorialswillbeatsitesthat
canbedirectlylinkedtothefiveperpetratorstriedbytheECCC:KaingGuevEav
(ComradeDuch);NounChea;IengSary;KhieuSamphanandIengThirith.James
Tyner(2014)arguesthatthisselectivememorialisationfunctionsinthesameway
JamesHolt(2012)arguedVietnamesememorialisationdid:asameansof
controllingthehistoricalnarrativesandsettingtheCPPapartfromtheKhmer
Rougeasperpetratorsofnationalviolence,inordertoconsolidatetheirposition
aspatronsofCambodia.ThefirstmemorialwasinauguratedatTuolSlengin
February2015.Itsplanningtookmuchtime,andcausedmuchcontroversy
becauseamongsttherecommendationswerethelistingofthenamesof‘victims’
torturedatTuolSlengandChoeungEk.Thecontroversyarosenotonlybecause
namingpeopleonamemorialisnotaKhmertradition,andwasviewedasa
foreignimpositionbytheinternationaladvisors(McPherson2014),butalso
becauseastheonlysitenamingthedead,itwouldbemostlyKhmerRougecadre
165
AlmostallconceivedofbyinternationaladvisorsandPhnomPenhbasedNGOsfundedbyinternationalfunding.In2012IattendedoneofthemeetingsheldbytheECCC’sVictimSupportServicediscussingwhatkindofreparationsshouldbegiven.ThemeetingwasheldintheInterContinentalhotelinPhnomPenh,andofthe20+peopleattendingthemeeting,onlytwoorthreewereKhmer,allemployedinPhnomPenhbasedorganisations.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 221
whobecamememorialized,thusinscribingtheirnamesasvictimsofKhmer
historywhilstallothersremainnamelessandthereforedeletedfromthe
record.166
Inaddition,anewwaveof‘local’memorialshavebeenrecentlyconstructedbya
PhnomPenhbasedNGO,fundedwithforeignmoney.Thesememorials(hidden
awayatthebackofthesitestheymemorialise)donotmentionthedead.Instead
theyrepresenttheKhmerRouge.TheyarestatuesofKhmerRougesoldiers(asin
WatEkPhnominBattambangprovince);depictionsofslavelabourintherice
fields(asinKapmotProvince);paintingsoftheregime(asinKraingTaChanin
TakeoProvince).Thesememorialsaremuchmoreaboutrememberingviolence
thantheyarecommemoratingthedead,alinemuchfavouredbytherulingparty,
whichusesthistoitspoliticalandsocialadvantage.
Hierarchiesofdeathinthewrittenrecord
Itisnotonlythelocationofmemorialsandeventsoccurringthatcontrolmemory
thisway.Thelistingofmassgravesalsoaffectsthesitesthatarerecordedin
historyandthosewhichareforgotten,excludingthosewhichdonotsuitthe
politicalrhetoricofoneguiltyleader,withahandfulofloyalfollowers,andan
otherwisebenignandmalignedfollowing.
MuchoftheinformationcurrentlyexistingonthemassgravesinCambodiacomes
fromatenyearmassgravemappingprojectundertakenbytheCambodian
GenocideProjectatYaleUniversity,inpartnershipwithDC-Cam.Thisproject166
Interestingly,thememorial,likemuchofthememory-workbeingdoneinCambodia,wasfundedthroughtheGermanyaidagencyGIZ.Muchofthememory-workreplicatesthatdoneinGermanyfollowingtheHolocaust.ItsappropriatenessforCambodia,andGermany’splaceaspatronsofremembering,is,perhaps,aninterestingtopicforfurtherresearch.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 222
attemptedto‘mapthegenocide’bymappingthesecuritycentresandkillingfield
sitesacrossCambodia,andputtingsomefiguresonthescaleofthekillingsby
recordingestimatednumbersofbodiescontainedwithingravesatthesesites.
Althoughthemappingprojecthasmajorflaws(seeintroduction,footnote13),itis
theonlysuchattemptthathasbeenundertakenandisthereforethestarting
pointofanyresearchonmassgravesinCambodia.Indeed,itisfromtheirlistthat
IdiscoveredmanyofthesitesthatIvisitedinCambodia167.
Theinclusionsandexclusionsinthismapping,however,provideaskewedviewof
themassgravedistributionandcontents,whichisfurthercontrolledviathe
nationalmemorialisation.Omittedfromthelistaregravescreatedbefore1975or
after1979168,gravesfromknown(orsuspected)hospitalsandfieldclinics,sites
wheretheresearchersfelttheycouldnotestimateafigure(evenifseveral
witnessesandnowcourtproceedingsreportedthepresenceofgraves,suchasin
theareassurroundingTuolSlengprisoninPhnomPenh),andsitescomposingof
singlegraves,evenwherehundredsorthousandsofsinglegravesresultedfromthe
policiesoftheregimerenderingthemsitesofkillinganddeath(seeintroduction).
167
Thislistcausedsomepeopletoviewmewithsuspicionuponfirstmeetingme:askingmewhohadgivenittomeandwhatdidIneeditfor?
168AlthoughtheKhmerRougeonlyruledCambodiabetween1975and1979,asmentionedin
chapterone,theyhadcontroloversomeareasofCambodiaintheearly1970s,andhadalreadystartedtheirsystemofsecuritycentresbeforetheycametopower.Despitefindingevidenceforseveralgravesfrompre-1975,onlyoneappearsonDC-Cam’slist:M-13,aprisonfacilityinThpongdistrictofKampongSpeuprovince.M-13waswhereKaingGuekEav(ComradeDuch)perfectedhiscraftofextractingconfessionsthroughtorture.Asthedataforthemappingprojectwasbeingcollected,itwasalreadyclearthatDuch(whohadbeeninprisonsincegivinghimselfupin1999)wouldpotentiallybethetrialcasefortheECCC,andevidencefromM-13wasimportantinhisconviction.Inaddition,althoughtheterribleyearsofDemocraticKampucheawerethemostbrutal,thedecadesbetween1960and2000sawmassiveperiodsofcivilunrest,duringwhichmanypeoplelosttheirlives.Althoughoccurringinperiodswheretraditionalfuneralritualswereenabled,someofthesebodiesareburiedinmassgraves:TaVengdistrictinRatanakiriprovince,forexample,hasatleasttwocommunalgravesforthosewhodiedasaresultoftheUSbombing(DC-Cam2000),andaninformantwhohadbeeninK5toldmethisoccurredelsewhere,particularlyinthoseareasheavilyaffectedbythebombingsandothercivilunrest.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 223
Researchersdidnotvisitsomeareas(suchastheheavilyforestedareasof
Ratanakiri,orareaswheretheKhmerRougewerestillatlarge,suchastheborder
regionsofThailand),gravesinothercountries(suchasVietnam),orthoseof
contemporarypoliticalinterest169.Itisnoteventhatsuchgravesappearlisted
elsewhere;theyaresimplyrenderedinvisible(andthereforenon-existent)through
theirexclusion.
Omissionstoitslistofgravesconstructsahierarchyofthedead:onlythosewho
wereexecutedduringApril1975–January1979,andthosewholieatsitesnot
consideredpoliticallychallenginghavebecomeworthyofrecording,andtherefore
rememberedas‘victims’oftheregime.Thisparallelsthereductionofthose
responsibleforthedeathsanddestruction,bothofferingapoliticallycontrolled
narrativeofblame,aswellasofviolentdeathandgenocide.
Violentbodiesandaffectiveremains
ThisfinalsectionwilluseFeldman’s(1991)argumentthatthebodyinjuredin
terrorbecomesitselfanagentofthatterror,togivespecificconsiderationtothe
displayofhumanremainsacrossCambodia.Thesedisplays,alongsidethecontrol
ofinformationandnarrativesoftheregime,exemplifyhowtheCambodian
169KampongChhnangairportisonesuchexample.Onlyafewkilomtersfromtheprovincial
capital,theairportiseasilyaccesseddownwell-builtconcreteroads.Thesitestandsneglected,withoneortwoguardslookingoverit.Upto10,000peopleworkedonthesiteatthepeakofitsconstruction,andmanymorepassedthrough.NearlyallwereRAK(RevolutionaryArmyofKampuchea)soldiers–menandwomenfrominsideDKranksaccusedofbeingtraitors(ECCC2015b).Hundreds,ifnotthousands,ofpeoplediedthroughexhaustionandothersdisappearedintheevenings.Althoughmanyweremovedtoothersitestobeexecuted,thoseIspoketowholivedontheapproachroadtotheairport,andaguardwhohadbeenworkingatthesitesince1979,toldmethatwhentheyreturnedin1979thesurroundingfieldswerefullofbodiesandtheairaroundthesitewasfetid.DC-Camneverdeployedaresearchteamtothishighlyaccessiblesite,notevenafteritbecameasiteofsignificantinterestincase002and003attheECCC.In2012,itwasannouncedthattodivertsomeofthetrafficfromPochentonginPhnomPenh,theairportwillbeexpandedtobecomeCambodia’ssecondmajorinternationalairport.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 224
governmentismanipulatingtheinherentsymbolicpowerofdeadbodiesto
furthertheirpoliticalaims.Aswehaveseen,itisthematerialityofdeadbodies
thatiscentraltotheirefficacyassymbolsbecause,asVerdery(1999:28)asserts,
theyaremademeaningfulthrough‘culturallyestablishedrelationstodeathand
throughthewayaspecificdeadperson’simportanceis(variously)construed.’
ThedeadoftheKhmerRougearepowerfulnotbecauseofwhotheyare,but
becauseofwhatthey:anonymouspilesofskeletalremainsthatbecauseoftheir
pastarebothemblematicandagentsoftheviolencethatcreatedthem.
HunSenhasoftenstatedthattheremainsofthosekilledduringDemocratic
Kampucheawillnotbecrematedbecausetheyremaintheonlyevidenceofthe
KhmerRougeregime.170Myinformantsfeltthesame.Chan,ateacherwholives
behindChoeungEkandusesitasasiteofeducationforherpupilstoldmethatin
heropinion,theremainsshouldbekeptforaslongastheycould:
theyshouldbekeptasevidencefortheyoungerKhmergenerationtoshowthem
itwasreal:thattherewastheKhmerRouge,thatKhmerkilledKhmer.Itwasnot
alegend.Becausesometimeselderlydolietous,forinstance,theywouldtellus
toeatthefishesfin,sothatwecouldswim,andeattheendofsugarcanesothat
wecouldswimaswell.Actuallythosethingswerenottasty,theyjustwantedus
toeatthem.Ifwejusttoldpeoplethroughwordofmouth,theywouldnot
170
ThispreservationwasasiteofcontestationbetweenhimandSihanoukwhenhewasalivewhowantedtheremainstobecremated.OmJahwasconvincedhewantedtodestroytheevidenceoftheregime,whichhe,andmanyothers,heldSihanoukresponsiblefor:‘itwashimwhocalledustotheforests’hetoldme(awidelyacceptedview:BenKiernan,ahistorianwhohasundertakenextensiveresearchintotheregime’srisetopower,arguesthatwithoutSihanouk’ssupport,theKhmerRougeareunlikelytohavereceivedthelevelofsupporttheyneededtotakeCambodiain1975(Kiernan2004).PhilipGourevitch(2012)putitmoreprosaically:‘HisnamebecametheKhmerRouge’sgreatestrecruitmenttool,andthemostextremeCommunistmovementinhistoryswepttopoweronroyalcoattails.’HunSen,meanwhile,hassopersuasivelyre-workedthehistoricalnarratives,thateventhisworksinhisfavour:astheonewhowantstokeeptheremainshepresentshimselfasonewhocannotbearforthehorrorsofthepasttobeforgottenandwilldefenditsattempteddeletion,whilstatthesametimecontrollingnarrativestosuithisownends.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 225
remember.Heretheycanseethetruth,becausethebonesarepiledup.WhenI
camehere,Irealised,eventhoughIwasnotborninthatera,thiseventobviously
happenedinKhmerSociety…KhmerkilledKhmer.
Itwasacommontropethatwithouttheskeletalremainsitwouldbeharderfor
people,especiallyyoungergenerationswhohadnotlivedthroughtheregime,to
believethatithadhappened.171OneofthedirectorsatChoeungEkfeltit
importanttobeopenaboutthepast,becauseonlythenwouldyoungerpeople
believetheveracityofthetalestoldtothem.
thisisatruestory.Wecan’thideatruestory.Weshouldn’thideitfromthenext
generationatall.Weshouldkeepalltruestories,whethergoodorbad,as
evidenceforthenextgenerationsotheycanuseit.Letusshowbothgoodand
badfromthepastsothatitisknownwhatthereasonswereandits
consequences.Sodefinitely,wemustknowthetruthfromthepast.Thenext
generationmustknow.Wemustnothide.Yes,wemustnothide.Sowemust
keepeverythingforthemtosee,becauseeverythingistrue.Itisnotfake.Itis
true.
Itwasnotjustabouteducatingtheyoung.Foreignerswouldalsobebetter
convinced,Iwastold,iftheycouldseepilesofhumanremains.172
171
SomeofmyyoungerinformantsalsotoldmethattheKhmerRougeislikeabogey-mantomany:itisusedbysomeparentsasathreattoencouragegoodbehaviour,inthemodeof‘ifyouhadrefusedyourfoodduringthePolPots,youwouldhavebeenkilled’.This,alongwiththelackofeducationabouttheregime,encouragesamythificationoftheKhmerRouge.
172Theneedforforeignersinparticulartoseethisphysicalevidencewasexplainedtomeoneday
byanoldmanIwasinterviewing.Hewasadamantthatiftheinternationalcommunityhadknownwhatwashappeningtheywouldhavecometotheiraid.Hewasshocked,andIfelttheinheritedguilt,whenItoldhimthattheyhadbeenaware,buthadchosennottointervene.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 226
OnecouldassumethattheevidencetheyrefertoisfortheongoingKhmerRouge
trial.Humanremainshavebeencentraltootherwarcrimetribunalssuchasthe
InternationalCriminalTribunalfortheFormerYugoslavia(ICTY)andthe
InternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda(ICTR).However,noskeletalremains
havebeenusedintheECCC.Noforensicexpertshavebeencalledtoexamine
eitherthecorporealremainsoranygravesites(Jarvis2013).173Rather,the
evidencereferredtoistoprovetheexistenceoftheKhmerRougeregimeandfor
thegovernmenttoreifytheCPP’snarrativethattheysavedCambodiaandonly
theycankeepitfromsafefromaresurgenceoftheregime(seechapterseven).
Ofcoursethisisnotthecase:thereisplentyofotherevidenceofthehorrorsof
theregimeanditsdevastatingeffect.However,skeletalremainsholdaclaimto
authenticitythatfewotherartefactscanapproachandthereforeprovide
compellingevidence.AsRenshew(2011:32)explains,inherexaminationofmass
gravesfromtheFrancoregimeinSpain:
Thedeadbodyaswitnessholdsapowerthatlittleelsecanmatchbecauseofits
authenticity;thematerialityofdeadbodies‘enablerepresentationsofthepastto
bemadewithoutapparentauthorshipormediation.
Assuchtheyoftenholdprecedenceoverotherartefactsandtestimony;incases
ofabusesofhumanrightstheyhavebecomeoneoftheonlyformsofevidence
173
AsaforensicanthropologistitwascleartomethatthereasonforthiswasthatbecauseoftheKhmerRougekillingmechanismsthemajorityoftheremainswillbearlittleornoskeletaltraumathatwouldbeusefulasevidence.Additionally,theremainswereexcavatedsolongago,andmanyhavebeenmovedaround,thatitisimpossiblefortheirprovidencetobeproven;allamassivepileofbonesprovesisamassivepileofdead–whereandwhenthesecamefromisdifficulttodetermineunlessforensicprotocolsarefollowedfromthefirstdayofinvestigation.Mostofthemassgraves,meanwhile,havelongagobeenre-appropriatedintoeverydaylivingspace.Remainswithinthemarelikelytohavebeendestroyedfromyearsoffarming:theyhavebeenhumanfertilizerformanyyearsnow.Assuchitwouldbedifficulttolocateagravewithenoughintegritytobeusefullyexcavatedforevidence.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 227
thatistrusted.Theauthorityofbodiesisonethatnootherdocumentorartefact
canclaim:theyoncewerepeople.Wetoohaveskeletons,andthiscouldbeus.
ThehumanremainsdisplayedthroughoutCambodia,therefore,havesymbolic
credibility,despitethehumanmediationthathasgoneintotheirarrangement
anddisplay.Thoughcuratedobjects,thesebodiesappearnottobe‘histories
after-images’(Young2000:3);theyarenotsimplyrepresentationsoftheevent
leftbehindthatmustbemediatedinordertopresentaparticularnarrative(at
leastintheviewer’seyeswhenseeingthem);theyAREthehistory:theyarethe
deadandthereforetherealstory.However,theyarealsoexhibitionartefacts,
collatedandcuratedinorderto‘‘preserve’thepast’(Hoskins2003:13).The
corporealremainsthereforematerializetheKhmerRougeperiodinawayno
otherartefactcould.174
However,asSaraGuyer(2009:159)arguesinherdiscussionofmemorialsitesin
Rwanda,allbodiesmakebones,andthosedisplayedatChoeungEkandother
sitesacrossthecountrycouldbeanydead.Todisplaytheremainsinsuchaway-
piledontopofeachother,arrangedbyskeletalelementratherthanindividual
people;dirty;dusty;disorganised–enablestheirusenotasarepresentationof
individualslost,butinsteadacollective:thosewhodied:
torememberthedeadthroughthesheeranonymityofthesebonesmeansthat
nooneisorcanberemembered.Apileofunrelatedbonesorashelfwithrows
ofcarefullyarrangedskullsdoesnotcommemorateaperson.175
174
Sodisregardedisotherevidence,thatwhentheschoolheadmasteronKohSopdiscoveredshacklesandotheritemsleftoverfromtheKhmerRougeprisonnearhishome,hethrewthemintheriver.‘They’renotusefulforanyone’hetoldme.
175Guyerarguesthatsuchdisplaysrepresentadehumanisationofthosekilled,andbydoingso
engendersafurtherpoliticalviolenceonthosedisplayed.Asimilarargumenthasbeenmadefor
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 228
Thecollectiveidentityrenderedbytheirun-namedstatusenablestheiruseas
objectsofconstructednarratives.AsGuyerstates(2009:172),suchmonuments
servenotasremindersofwhathappened,butaslessonsofwhatwemustsee:
‘what[suchdisplays]showsusisnottheholocaustaswemightrememberit,but
rathertheHolocaustaswemustlearntoseeitforthefirsttime.’Genocide
rendersagroupofpeopleasone:onethatcanbedeletedfromlife.These
anonymousdisplaysdothesameinthepresent:thesebones,theseseemingly
unrealbones,rendertheremainsasone:‘evenasthememorialpreserves
individualbodies,itturnsthesebodiesintomerepartsofasingleanonymous
form’(ibid:173).Buttheyareaparticulardead–theyarevictimsofabrutal,
genocidalregime.Assuchtheirsymbolicpowergoesbeyondthemanipulability
renderedbytheiranonymity.Theyarealsoinstrumentsoftheterrorinstilledby
theKhmerRouge,anditisthisthatgivesthemtheirstatusinCambodia.
Inhis1991examinationofterrorinNorthernIreland,AllenFeldmanarguedthat
powerisembeddedinthebody.Onceinscribedwithviolence,heargues,bodies
becomeasmuchpoliticalagentsasthosewhoauthoredtheviolence,because
theycannotbeextricatedfromthatviolence;‘thebodymarkedbyviolence
encapsulatescertainpoliticalpurposes,mediations,andtransformations’
(Feldman1991:70).Thisgoesasmuch,ifnotmoreso,fordeadbodies,because
oftheirinherentmanipulability.Theskeletalremains,andthemassgravesin
whichtheywereburied,cannotberemovedfromtheviolenceinflictedonthem
bytheKhmerRouge,andbecauseofthistheywillforeverrepresentthepower
thattheregimeheld,apowerinstilledbyterror.Theyareagentsofthatpower:
thephotographicdisplaysatTuolSlengprisonandexhibitionsrelatedtoit(Sontag2003),andtheremainsatChoeungEk(Hughes2005)although,aswehaveseeninpreviouschapters,thisisaparticularlyethno-centricwaytoviewtheremains,althoughitisanargumentthatcouldbevalidwhenconsideringinternationaltourists’encounterswiththeremains.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 229
thedeadmaintainelementsoftheterrorwithwhichtheKhmerRougeruled,and
itisthiselementofthemthatenablestheirusebythecurrentgovernmentin
theirpedagogyofterror(seechapterseven).Therealityofdomination,Feldman
(ibid.:8)writes‘isorganizedthroughthelogicofmythicinstantiation,andthe
bodyisacentralmediumofthepoliticalinstant.’Everytimethebodiesareused
incontemporaryCambodia,theirinscribedterrorworksagain,evenonthosewho
didnotlivethroughtheregime,butwholivetheconsequencesofiteveryday.It
isbecauseofthisterrorthatmanyofmyinformantswantedtokeeptheremains;
sothatthey,andothers,maynotforgetthehorrorsofthepast.Thebones,Ta
Chasinformedme,wereimportantforeveryone,notonlytheyoungerpeople
whohadnotexperiencedthehorrors,ortheforeignerswhocametolearn,but
alsothosewho,likehimself,hadlivedthroughtheregime:
Theywillmakemerememberitformywholelife.Evenmychildrenand
grandchildrenwillrememberit.Thereweresomanypeoplekilledhere.Soitisa
placetoremember:theKhmerRougekilledus.
Thesesites,therefore,actnotassitesofcommemorationofthedead(aswesaw
inchapterstwotofour)butinsteadasremindersoftheKhmerRougeasa
mythologised‘phantasmororic‘genocidalclique’(Chandler2008a:363).Intheir
repeatedpresentationofviolenceanddeath,theyevoketheviolenceof
dehumanisationandmassbrutalitybyreproducingthesamewiththebonesthat
remainondisplayandtheglutofhorrortheyrepresent.Tocommitgenocide,to
maim,totorture,tostarveanddebasethousandsofpeopleanelementof
dehumanisationisrequired.ThiswasintegraltotheKhmerRougecadre’s
abilitiestoslaughter(Hinton2005).Theunnameableremainspiledhighatthese
memorialseffectsthesameaction,andindoingsosignifiesagaintheviolence
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 230
thatthesepeoplesufferedandtheregimethatbroughtitabout.Askeletonisnot
aperson.Theyareeasilyremovedfromourunderstanding:anobjectofinterest,
ofstudy,offascination,maybe.Butnotaperson.176Buttheyareagentsof
violencebecauseofthelinktoittheyhold.Andthisiswhatmakestheiruseso
powerful.
Conclusion
In2006,thejudgesweresworninandcasesbeganintheKhmerRougetribunal–
theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia177.Theconsequencehas
beenaresurgenceofinterestintheKhmerRougeperiod.Theresultofthisisa
revitalisationoftheKhmerRougebythecurrentgovernment.Thememorialsites
haveonceagainbecomeusefulsitesofpoliticalpowerandtheanonymousdead,
thatarethemselvessitesoffluctuatingprivilegeandattention,areagainuseful
silententitiestowhichothersputvoicesandnarratives.
InCambodiaimportantcorpses,suchasmonksorKings,arepreservedbecause
someelementoftheconnectionbetweenspiritandbodyremains,alongwiththe
associatedkinandcommunityrelationships(Marston2006:494).Itisbecauseof
theirsocialimportancethattheseparticularbodiesarepreserved.Thedeadfrom
theKhmerRougearepreservedforthesamereason.Asanonymousdeadthey
maintainelementsofpowerfulassociationwiththeregimeanditsviolence.In
thesamewaythatotherexhibitionsofmasskilling,suchastheHolocaust
176
TheyalsorefertoBuddhistideology;whenwedie,wearereborn;wetravelthroughacontinualcycleofdeathandrebirth.Ateverydeaththebodythatheldusinthislifebecomesasifdrywood:itreturnstotheearthandthushelpsformthenewlife.
177ReadersinterestedintheestablishmentandworkingsoftheECCCshouldrefertoClaussen
(2008),Gray(2014),andthecourt’swebsite(ECCC2014).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 231
exhibitionattheImperialWarMuseum,usetheexhibitionofphysicalartefactsto
narratehistory(Hoskins2003:14),inCambodiaitistheskeletalremainsthatdo
this.
OnemightthinkitstrangethatapartysoimplicatedintheKhmerRougeregime
wouldworksohardatmakingitsconsequencesvisiblebydisplayingthedeadand
holdingcommemorativeeventsthatre-enacttheviolenceanddevestation.
Ordinarilyonewouldexpectittobeanalternativeregimethatemploysthe
powerofthedeadasamodeofpoliticallegitimation–asawayofdistancing
itselffromtheregimethatcausedthedeaths.178Themanipulabilityofthedead
enablestheirharnessingforalmostanynarrative.Italsoenablestheobfuscation
ofothernarrativesand‘truths’thatmayexist.This,infact,makestheKhmer
Rougedead,andtheirmassgravesites,idealforusebytherulingparty,which
havestrictlycontrolledpresentationsoftheregime,andusesofthedeadand
theirgravesinmultifariouswayssincethedepositionoftheKhmerRougein1979.
Itisoftenthecasethatspacesremainneutraluntiltheybecomepoliticallyuseful:
itisatthistimethatpeoplere-forgeaninterestandownershipofthespaceand
itscontents.Springer(2008)proposesthatpublicspacesinCambodiaarespaces
ofcontestation–theyaresitesofprotest-andcontrolofthepopulationisoften
practisedthroughthembycontrollingaccessandlegalactivitywithinthese
spaces.AsIhavearguedearlier,massgravesareeminentlypoliticalbecauseof
thebodiestheycontain(ed)andthekillingtheyborewitnessto.Thiscanbeseen
178
Massgravesareparticularlyusefulinthisregard.Malaki’sgovernmentinIraqhasbeenexcavatingmassgravesfromSaddamHussein’sregimesince2009–everytimetheyfindanewgrave,orbeginworkonolderones,newsstoriesarereleasedandphotographersinvitedtorecordthegrave.ThroughoutthecontemporarycivilwarinSyriastoriesthenewsregularlypublishstoriesofrebelcausedmassgravesandfollowingtheoverthrowofGaddafiinLibyamassgravesofthosekilledunderGaddafi’srulestartedappearinginthemedia.!!!!!!
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 232
inthecaseofmemorialisationofmassgravesitesinCambodiainthe1980s,their
neglectinthe1990s,andtheresurgedinterestbutevenmoredirectedfocusin
thelate2000s.Itcanalsobeseenintherecordingoromissionofsitesfrom
‘official’informationontheperiod.
Thecontrolofmemorializationandthedisplayofthedeadwithinthosesites
createsahierarchyofthedeadandmassgravesitesanderasesfromhistoryand
memorythosenotincluded.Bydoingsoitalsoallowsaparticularstoryofthe
pasttobetoldandreinforcedthroughthelandscape:thatofasmallnumberof
perpetratorsinanotherwiseneutrallandscape.Therealityis,ofcourse,very
different:hundreds(ifnotthousands)ofpeopleweremembersoftheKhmer
Rougeandcommittedatrocities,andeventhosewhowerenotcadreoftenco-
operatedtoensuretheirownsurvival,frequentlyattheexpenseofothers(Ngor
2003).ThroughoutCambodia,victimsandperpetratorslivesidebyside,andthe
landisfilled(physicallyandmetaphysically)withevidenceofthisviolentpast.But
the‘preservation’oftheKhmerRougestoryhasbecomesolelyfocusedonthe
tortureandkillingsthatoccurredwithinit,duringaspecificperiod(Democratic
Kampuchea)atparticularsites,omittingmuchelsefromthenarrative.This
provesincrediblyusefulinthetwomainwaysitisputtowork:nationallyasa
modeofmaintainingfear,andinternationally,asameansofengenderingpityand
sorrow.AsElaineScarry(1985:109)comments,‘whatis“remembered”inthe
bodyiswellremembered.’
InhisdiscussionofthedifferingpresentationsoftheKhmerRougeregimeby
successivegovernments,DavidChandler(2008:356)wrotethatHunSen’sover-
ridingconcernsinthelate1990sandearly2000swere‘todevelopCambodiaand
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 233
tomaintainhimselfinpower.’Atthattime,thisinvolvedinstigating‘induced
amnesia’abouttheregime.FollowingtheestablishmentoftheKhmerRouge
trials,however,thisamnesiaisnolongerfeasible.Itismuchmoreuseful,
therefore,forHunSentoonceagainharnesstheregimetowardsthe
achievementsofhisgoals.ChaptersixwillexplorehowtourismatChoeungEk
(andbyextensionothersitesrelatedtotheKhmerRougeregime)workstowards
thefirstaim(thedevelopmentofCambodia),whilechaptersevenwillexamine
thesecond(hismaintenanceofpower)bylookingatpoliticalcampaigningduring
the2013generalelectionsinCambodia.
234
Chaptersix:Hauntingthefuture-tourismatChoeungEk
AshewalksaroundChoeungEkcarryingouthisdutiesasacaretaker,OmTa
carriesasmallplasticbag.Initheplacesthesmallbonesandteethhefinds
emergingfromthesoil.Oncehehasafew,hetakesthemtoaglasscasewhere
newlyunearthedremainsandbitsofclothingaredisplayed.Thedisplaysare
integralpartofthetouristencounterwiththesite,andwithoutthetourists,the
sitewouldbeneglected.‘Myjobisimportant,’hetoldme‘becauseit’slikewe’re
helpingournation.’
TourisminCambodiaisagrowingtrade.In20144.5millioninternationalvisitors
arrivedinthecountry,contributing$2.8billiontoitseconomy(ADB2014;Ministry
ofTourism2015).Intheattempttoattractincreasingtouristrevenue,Cambodia
hascommoditisedtheKhmerRougeregimeandspecificsitesofsufferingand
deathrelatedtoit.ChoeungEkisoneofthese.Althoughthesitehasmany
functions,itsprimaryfocusistourism.In2014over210,000foreignersand
50,000Khmervisitedthesite.
WhilemostscholarshaveconcentratedonChoeungEk’splaceinCambodia’s
circuitofdarktourism,oritsuseinthepoliticalnarrationoftheKhmerRouge
regime,thischapterexaminesitsplace,notasasitefacedtowardsa
concretisationofthepast,buttowardsthecreationofthefuture.Offeringa
companiontoRachelHughes’(2009)conceptofthe‘dutifultourist’(onewho
aftervisitingsitesofhorrorfeelscompelledtosupportthenationwherethey
occurred),thischapterwillshowhowsuchhorror,pityanddesireisharnessedby
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 235
myinformantsatChoeungEk,andhowintheexploitationofsuchsites,the
ambitionsofthestate,localcommunities,andthetouristunite,albeit
temporarily.ItwillalsodrawonChristinaSchwenkel’s(2006)theoryof
‘recombinanthistory’(wherethemeaningofsitesofmemoryarenegotiated,
recycled,andreconstitutedinneo-globalspheresofimaginationforeconomic
development)toarguethatinthecaseofChoeungEk,itscentralrolein
Cambodiantourismisdirectlylinkedintheimaginationsofthestaffandthestate
toeconomicprosperityandsocialdevelopment,aswellastofuturepeaceand
stability.
Thesearefacilitatedbyinternationaltourists,whobycomingtothesite,engage
inreciprocalrelationshipswithCambodia,supportingitastheysimultaneously
learnfromit.AstheyengageinthesereciprocalrelationsCambodiabecomes
connectedtoawiderglobalnetworkandprovideameansofimaginingamore
positivefuture,sowhilstthetransformationsinherentinthecommodificationof
sitesofconflictfortourismalterandadjustcollectivenarrationsofthepast,they
dothisinanticipationofthefuture.Suchcommodificationtherefore,andthe
transformationsitbothrequiresandengenders,areasmuchabouthopeand
changeastheyareaboutreificationandmanipulation.
Inordertoexplorethesetopics,Iwillfirstexaminethetheoreticalframeworkof
thechapter,beforeofferinganintroductiontotourisminCambodiaanditsplace
inthewiderdevelopmentplansforthenation.Thetouristencounterwith
ChoeungEkisdesignedtoengenderanoverwhelmingsensoryencounterwiththe
site’shistory,adescriptionofwhichwillprefacetheethnographicsectionofthe
chapterwhichillustratestheroleoftouristsandthesiteinthefutureof
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 236
Cambodia,asimaginedbySreySrey,OmTa,BongLaandTaSann.The
ethnographyforthischapterisbasedentirelyinChoeungEkas(untilrecently)the
onlyofficialmassgravememorialforthecountry179whoseprimaryaimistourist
incomegeneration.
Theoreticalbackground
ThepopularityofChoeungEkasatouristdestinationispartofawidelyreported
trendofincreasingglobalcommodificationofsitesofsufferinganddeaththatput
collectiveviolenthistoriestoworkinthedevelopmentofnationalidentityand
economicprosperity-socalled‘dark’or‘thanatourism’180(ibid;Strangeand
Kempa2003).Forthosedirectlyconnectedtothesite(bytheirown,arelative’s
orfriend’sexperience)suchplacescanofferameansofconnectingand
understandingpersonalexperiencesinthepastandpresent(Kangetal.2012;
LennonandFoley1999,2000).Forpeoplewithnoconnectiontothesite,the
motivationsofsuchtourismaremanifold:adesireforhistoricallearning(Kanget
al.2012);anopportunityforexistentialcontemplationondeathanddying(Seaton
1996)181;orthefeelingofamoralimperativetovisit(Caswell2014;Hughes2008;
Linfield2010),forexample.
179
AlthoughTuolSlenghassomemassgravesitisprimarilyconsideredasadetentionandtorturecenterandispresentedfirstlyasamuseumandsecondlyasamemorial.
180Darktourismrefersto‘adiverserangeofsites,attractionsandexhibitionsthatareassociatedwithdeathandthemacabre’(Stone2006:145),whilethanatourismisrelatedspecificallytositesassociatedwithviolentdeaths.
181Fewwriteonthevoyeurisminvolvedinsuchencounters,althoughEmilyGodbey(2006)writesof
the‘thrillofencounteringtheauthenticandthereal’indiscussingthe‘rubberneckers’oftheJohnstownfloodof1889.Perhapsagreatdistanceintimeisneededtobeabletoconfrontoradmittothisaspectofhumanencounters.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 237
Theprimaryattractionofsitesofdeathandsufferingistheirmateriality:they
offeratangiblelinktoahistory182thatcannotbegainedfromremotesources;as
suchtheyengenderafeelingofconnectionandembodiedknowledgetothe
visitor(Huyssen1995:255).MeganBest(2007)arguesthatsuchsitesaresitesof
emotiondesignedtoprovideembodiedandaffectiveencounterswiththepast.
Violi(2012:36)assertsthatsuch‘traumasites’‘existfactuallyasmaterial
testimoniesoftheviolenceandhorrorthattookplacethere.’Thattheyare
preservedassitesoftourismdisplayschoicebythepost-conflictsociety‘about
whatpoliticsofmemorytoadoptineachcase,’ofwhichshemakesaninteresting
discussion,butheracceptanceofthe‘truth’presentedbythesesitesishighly
problematic.Bickford(2009)arguesthatpublicmemorialsare‘primarilytoolsof
humanrightseducation’andassuch‘ChoeungEkandsimilarsitesthroughout
Cambodiacouldbecomeimportantplacesoftruth-tellingabouttheKhmerRouge
period.’183PaulWilliams(2004)meanwhile,arguesthatbothTuolSlengand
ChoeungEkareeffectivevehiclesforcommemoration,arguingthattheyarevital
asremindersoftheregimeinacountrywherelittlejusticeagainstthe
perpetratorsprevails.Whiletheremightbesomevaliditytothesearguments,
theyfailtoquestionnotionsof‘truth’and‘fact’,thehumaninterventionrequired
topreserveanddisplaysuchsites,andthepoliticsbehindtheconservationof
certainsitesandthedismissalofothers.
182
Iusehistoryheretorefertoeventsthathappenedinthepast,whichmayhavemultipleandchangeablereadingsandpresentations.
183Themultifariousissueswiththisreportaretooextensivetolisthere,buttheyinclude:
normativeassessmentsoftheconceptsofhumanrights,justice,democracyandcitizenship;ethnocentricnotionsofhealing;theproblematicideathatmemorialsprovideanykindof‘truth’(andtheideathatthereisonetruthofthepast);andalackofdiscussiononthepoliticalinfluenceonmemorialsandtheirpresentation.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 238
JensMeierhenrich(2009)addressesthisfluctuatingprivileginganddismissalof
memorialsitesbyexaminingtheNyabarongoriverinRwandaasasiteof
‘underprivilegedmemory,’chartingitstransformationfrom‘anotoriouskilling
sitetoasanitisedbuildingsite’(2009:15,italicsoriginal).Bydoingthishe
discussestherelationshipbetweenmemorialisationandmodernisation.The
river’stransformationresultsfromtheconflictingforcesofmemorialisationand
modernisation,wherecentralisedprojectsofeconomicandpoliticalreform
marginaliseorevendestroydecentralisedeffortsofmemorialisationthatdonot
perfectlysuitthestaterhetoric.Thislinkstotwomajormotivationsformany
statesinthecommoditisationofsuchsites:controlofmemorytosupportstate
rhetoric,andeconomicdevelopment,forwhichaparticularnarrativethatappeals
totouristsmustbeconstructed.Wood(2006:181-182)assertsseveralnegative
consequencesof‘puttingthecountry’shistoryofsufferingattheserviceof
attractingrevenue’,including:
Asingularversionofhistoryatoddswithandattheexpenseoflocalparticipation;
amemorializationapparatusthatreproducesandextendsexistinghierarchiesand
linesofcontrol;andanintensifiedcommodificationofhistoricalsitesandlandthat
generatesgreatereconomicvulnerabilityandsocialtension.
Tegelberg(2009:499)concurs,arguingthatthecommodificationofKhmerRouge
sitesfortourism‘threatenserasureofthemorenuanced,multi-facetedcultural
narrativesthatcharacterizetheregion’svasthistory.’
However,tourismisnotonlyabouteconomicprosperity.Italsoofferstoolsfor
politicalstabilitythroughitspartinwiderregionalandglobalnetworks(Telfer
2002),andasSkinner(2006)notes,itisalsoausefultoolinthecreation,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 239
embedding,andmaintenanceofnationalidentitiesandideologies,aspeoplecreate
andperformparticularnarrativesofthepast.Assuchitisa‘highlypolitical
phenomenon’(Richter1989:2).Severalpreviousscholars(Hinton2008;Hughes
2005,2008;Ledgerwood1997)havefocusedonsuchpoliticsofmemory,exploring
theuseofKhmerRougesitesinthecreationofstatenarrativesthatcontrolthe
historyoftheregime,andcertainlythisisacentralfeatureoftheuseofChoeungEk
today.However,suchargumentsoftenfailtoengagewiththeconceptthatwhile
beingeconomicallyandpoliticallydriven(oftenbeingadeliberatemanoeuvreby
thestatetoraiseawareness,engendersympathyforvariousends,attracttourist
revenue(onwhichmanymayrely),andassertapresenceinthegeo-political
sphere),theaimsofsuchcommodificationarenotnecessarilyatoddswiththe
ambitionsoflocalpeople,whomayjustasopenlyexploitsuchhistories(andtheir
own)totheirownends,andtherebydirectittowardsthefuture.
RachelHughes’(2008)article‘DutifulTourism’examinesthemotivations(orat
leastretrospectivenarrations)oftouristsvisitingTuolSleng,however,someofits
argumentscanbeequallyappliedtoChoeungEk.Shesuggests(ibid.:328)that
peoplevisitthesitebecausethey‘desiretobehaunted;’throughthishaunting
theycanshowcompassion,sympathyandrecognitionofthesufferingundergone
inthis,andotherregimes.Aftervisiting,sheargues,theyarecompelledto
become‘dutifultourists’:
ThedecisionsofcontemporaryvisitorsatTuolSlengarerefiguringsoftheworld
fromwithinvariousdiscoursesofmorality.They(re)constructmoralgeographies
whichbringeventsofthepastintoproximity,allowpoliticalconcernstotravel
alongwiththemandactinways(albeitminor)thattheybelievewillimprovethe
livesofthoseintheplacestheyvisit.Theirvisitinginvolvesreturningtoamoral
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 240
terraininwhichmasspoliticalviolenceanditsongoingsocialand(geo)political
effectsareapproachedthroughdutifulexposure.
The‘Battlefieldtourist’Schwenkel(2006:4)asserts‘isdrivenbythedesiretosee,
experience,andunderstandmassdestructionandviolenceinthemodernera.’
ManycountriessuchasCambodia,andVietnam(whereSchwenkelworks)have
takenadvantageofthisincreasingtrendtocommodifysitesofconflictand
disasterasameansofpromotingeconomicdevelopment.Asthesesitesare
recycledandreproduced,Schewenkelargues,thememoriestheymaterialiseare
rearticulatedinincreasinglytransnationalarenasinfusedwithcapitalistvalues.
Thisisnotnecessarilynegative:the‘new’memoriescreatedviathis
commodificationdonotdisplaceotherunderstandings,butratherareconstituted
throughaprocess‘ofencounterandcontestation’whichaddlayersofmeaning
andunderstandingtothesites.Thisshelabels‘recombinanthistory,’suggesting
‘theinterweavingoftransnationalmemories,knowledgeformations,andlogicsof
formations’(ibid.:5)
TheaspectofSchwenkel’sargumentthatIwishtoengagewithisthatthe
narrativesattachedtosuchsites,therefore,arecontinuallychanging,andthere-
imaginingsandre-creationsrequiredfortourismarenotnecessarilynegative,nor
subsumeothermemories,butareseenasworkingforthebenefitofindividuals
andcommunitiesaswellasthestate.InVietnamtheindividualbenefitisthe
veteransofthewar,someofwhomworkastourguidesandtowhomitprovides
anopportunitytosharealternativehistoriestothestate’s,particularlyimportant
inacountrythat‘attemptedtoimposehistoricalamnesiaonthe“losing”side’
(ibid.:20).Likewise,inthecaseofChoeungEkmemoriesandhistorical
presentationsareworkedandre-workedinrelationtothetouristmarket,a
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 241
negotiationthatwhilstrequiringacompliancewithonemodeofnarration,is
imaginedtomyinformantsasprovidingbenefitstothemselves,their
communities,andthestate.
ChoeungEkinCambodianTourism
Sincerelativepeacewasmadeinthelate1990s,tourismtoCambodiahas
increasedsteadilyatarateofapproximately20%peryear(MinistryofTourism
2015).In2014,4.5millioninternationalvisitorsarrivedinthecountry,90%of
whichweretourists,andtourismwasthesecondlargestincomegenerator,and
thethirdlargestsectorafteragricultureandtextiles,contributing$2.8billion
dollarstotheeconomy(17%oftheGDP)(ibid.).ItsimportancetoCambodiais
illustratedbyitsplaceinthenationalinvestmentandplanningstrategies:
between2006and2011,54%ofinvestmentfromtheCambodianInvestment
Boardwenttotourism(ADB2014)184,anditisoneofthefivenationalprioritiesin
Cambodia’sNationalStrategicPlan(RGC2014).Thisfocusispartofachangein
nationalstrategyfrompoliticalstabilityto(neoliberal)development,asexplained
intheNSP:
Inthefirstdecadeuntilthe2000s,thehighestpriorityoftheRGC185was
rebuildingthesociety,theeconomyandtheinfrastructure.Inthesecond
decade,thecountrybeganpursuingplanneddevelopmentinamarket
framework.
184
Resultingin,amongotherthings,itsbrandingas‘TheKingdomofWonder.’
185RoyalGovernmentofCambodia.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 242
HunSenhasregularlyemphasisedtheimportanceoftourisminCambodia’s
development,botheconomicallyandstrategicallyintheregion,andasChheang
(2009:69)pointsout,inacountryembeddedinapatronagesystemwithatop
downdecisionmakingprocess,thewordsofthepremierinevitablyequateto
nationalpolicy.Tourismisrepeatedlyreferredtoas‘greengold’inministerial
speeches(ADB2014;Samouth2013;PPS2013),beingviewedasameansof
economicgrowthandpovertyreductionthroughincomegenerationandjob
creation,andpoliticalstabilityandco-operationthroughthenegotiationand
maintenanceofregionalallegiancesinSoutheastAsia(particularlythroughthe
ASEAN186network).
Tourismisalsooneofthewaysthestatepromotesapositiveimageofthe
countrytoothernations;thisaspectwasviewedasespeciallyimportantformy
informantsbecauseofitsunstablepast,particularlytheviolenceoftheKhmer
Rouge,whichexistswithinlivingmemoryformanypeoplevisiting.Forthis
reason,neitherChoeungEknorTuolSlengappearonofficialgovernmenttourism
information,despitetheattentionandinvestmentthathasgoneintobothover
theyearsandtheirstatusaskeytouristsites.Althoughitsnumbersaresmall
comparedtoAngkorWat(approximately260,000visitorsin2014,comparedto
AngkorWat’stwomillion),itreceivesover25%ofPhnomPenh’stourists(Ministry
ofTourism2015)andChoeungEkisthusintegraltotourisminthearea.
Itsuseasatouristsiteisnotnew.Sinceitsdiscoveryasasiteofkillingin1979it
hasalwaysbeenoutwardlyfacing;likeTuolSlengitwasquicklyharnessedasa
showcaseofevidenceoftheatrocitiesoftheKhmerRougeandduringtheearly
186
AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations.Memberstatesare:BruneiDarrusalam;Cambodia,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic;Malaysia;Myanmar;Philippines;Singapore;ThailandandVietnam.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 243
daysofthePRK,thosevisitingthesitewerealmostexclusivelybroughtby
governmentofficialsastheyuseditintheirpost-depositionpropaganda(Chandler
1999,2008;Tyner2012a).Overtimehowever,thetypeofvisitorsbeganto
change.Between1992and1993,whenUNTACruledCambodiaforeignsoldiers
becameregularvisitorsandslowlyasmorevisitorscameoftheirownvolition,
family-runbusinessesstartedtoopen.187AsthesituationinCambodiastabilised
andvisitornumbersincreased,ChoeungEkgrewinpopularityasatouristsite.
EasilyaccessiblefromPhnomPenh,withdramaticphysicalevidenceintheformof
skeletalremainsandvisiblegravepits,thesiteiscompelling.Bythelate1990sit
sawaregularinfluxofforeignvisitors,andsometourguidesfromPhnomPenh
begantosituatethemselvesatthesite.BongLa,wasoneofthese;initially
comingin2000undertheadviceofhisaunt(whoworkedintheMinistryof
CultureandFineArtswhichhadjurisdictionofthesiteatthetime),hehasstayed
eversince.
In2005thesitewasprivatized,anda30-yearleasegiventoaprivatecompany,JC
Royal&Co:aJapanese-Khmerco-operativecompanythatcomesundertherule
ofPhnomPenhmunicipality.188Theaimofthisleasewastoincreasetourist
revenue,andthisprivatisationhascomeundermuchcriticismfrombothnational
andinternationalmedia,whodeemitdisrespectfulandaccuseitofcorruption
187
Thefirststallwasrunbyoneofthedirectorsofthetime.Itwasnothisidea:arepresentativefromCocaColabroughtthedirectoreightcasesofsoftdrinksandofferedthemtohimforfree.Hefoundtherewasgoodmoneytobemade,andasthenumbersgrewandtypeofvisitorchanged,itbecamealucrativebusiness.
188ThoughreportedtobeaJapanesecompany,thedirectorsatthesitetoldmeitisapartnership:
theJCinthetitle,theytoldme,standsforJapanese-Cambodian,andtheJapaneseprovidedoverallplansofimprovementofthesiteandcapacitybuildingskills,forwhichtheyreceivesomerevenue(reportedly$15,000perannum).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 244
(Doyle2005;KinetzandKuch2008;Mydans2005;Sokha2010;Yimsut2005).189
Criticscontendthatitisabusivebecauseoftheforeignoriginsofthemanaging
companyandtheexploitationofthehumanremainsitdisplays(Becker2013;
Hughes2005).ButsinceDemocraticKampucheaChoeungEkhasneverbeen
aboutrememberingthedead.Itwasfirstlyabouterasingthem,thenabout
showcasingthem.
Theprivatisationhasledtochangesinitslayoutandpresentation,andaddedto
thefacilitiesavailableatthesite.Asmallmuseumwaserected,newtoiletsbuilt,
andwhenIwasthereapavedfootwaywasbeinglaidalongthepaths.Flowers
andbusheshavebeenplanted,andbenchesputuparoundthesite;amanager
theretoldmeitspresentationischangingfromaraggedexhibitionofconflicttoa
peacefulparkofmemory(‘Ihavemixedfeelingsaboutthat,’shecommented‘I
canalsoseethevalueoftryingtopreserveaplacethat,ofcoursewillalwaysbe
politicized,butdon’twewanttobeabletoshowpeoplethisiswhatpeoplecan
dotoeachother–thisiswhatthey’vedonehere.SoI’malsonotsurethatit
shouldbemadenice’).Aspartofthecompany’sleaseacharitablefoundation
wassetup:the‘SunFoundation.’Throughthissomeproceedsgotocharitable
work;thesitefundsseveraluniversitystudents190andgivesmoneytoelderly
peopleinthelocalcommune–eighteenfamiliesreceived$10and15kgofriceper
monthwhenIwasthere.Andeventhoughtherestofthemoneygoestothe
municipality,thosewhoworkthere,particularlythosewithexperiencefrom
before,viewitsprivatisationpositively.‘Before,’BongLareported‘itwasonly
189
Oneparticularlydamningarticleclaimedthatthousandsofdollarsinrevenuehavegonemissing.‘Theynevercameintothesiteandinterviewedus,andgaveusachancetoexplain’thesite’sdirectortoldmewhenIaskedheraboutit.
190Thenumberisunclear–onepersontoldmetentotwelvestudentsaresupportedannually,
anothertoldmethattheyhavesupported550since2005.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 245
underthegovernment,andwehadnoideawhathappenedtothemoneythey
madeatthegate.Nowit’sbetterbecausetheyhavetotelluswhereitwent.’
Thetourist191encounteratChoeungEkisahighlychoreographedandheavily
mediatedexperiencedesignedtoteachthevisitorabouttheKhmerRougeregime
whileengenderingsympathyandempathybyengagingtheminanimmersive
sensoryexperience.Passingthroughthegatesofthesite,visitorsaredirected
firsttotheticketcounter,andthentotheaudioguidestationimmediatelynextto
it.Almostnonerefusetheaudiotourandithasnowbecometheprimarywayby
whichtouristsengagewiththesite;moreorlesstheonlypeoplenottakingit
arrivedwithaguidefromPhnomPenh,andnowadaysevensomeofthose
encouragetheirclientstotakethemselvesroundwiththeaudiotour.Itis,of
course,ahighlydesignedtourofthespace,andprovidesdirectedreadingsto
boththeencounteranditsinterpretation.Thatisitsjob:toguidethosewhotake
itonwhattopayattentionto,bothvisuallyandimaginatively.Andasaprovoker
ofemotion,andconnectionwiththesite,itisbothpowerfulandsuccessful.
Thetourfollowsapatternmostwesternmuseum-goersarefamiliarwith.
NarratedbyaKhmer‘survivor’192itleadsyouaroundtonotifiedstops,ateach
directingattentiontospecificaspectsofthesite:theareawhereprisonerswere
heldbeforebeingtakentotheirdeaths;achainedoffareawherebonesare
emerging;the‘Magictree’fromthebranchesofwhichhungspeakersthatblasted
musictodisguisethesoundofkilling.Asitmovesalongthepaththatwinds
aroundthesiteittellsthestoryoftheKhmerRougeandofChoeungEkin
191
Iusetouristheretomeaninternationalvisitors,becausetheencounterforKhmervisitorsisverydifferentandmuchlessmediatedanddesigned,aswillbeexploredlater.
192Manyofthevoicesontherecordingareactors.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 246
particular.Thelimitedsignagetellsofterriblethings:thebodiesofonegravehad
noheads;anothercontainedonlywomenandchildren.Rowsofpitscoverthe
land,separatedonlybyasmallwindingpaththatthetouristswalkdown.Inthe
pathundertheirfeet,remainsareemerging;shardsofbone:fragmentsofpeople.
Likeanygoodstorythehorrorandtensionisbuilt–itsclimaxatthecentreisstop
fifteen-thetreewherebabies,heldbytheirfeet,hadtheirskullssmashedagainst
thetrunk(figureten).Reachingthisclimax,itcalmsthemood,movingonto
discussCambodia’sfuture,andtheplaceofChoeungEkasamemorialtomass
death.Itendsdrawingconnectionstootherglobalsitesofgenocide:Germany,
Poland,Rwanda,andothers.
Figureten:ChoeungEkkillingtree(source:theauthor)
Thefinallocationisthecentralstupa.Atmorethan30metreshighitdominates
thesite,whichrevolvesaroundit.Insidearepiledtheskeletalremainsofover
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 247
8,000people193excavatedfromthesiteintheearly1980s(seechapterone,figure
four).Thesedustyremainsarestackedinsideonshelvesbehindglassdoors.
Theirarrangementamplifiestheirimpact;skullsseparatedfromlongbones;long
bonesfromshortbones-thedeadrupturedfromtheirlivingselvesnotonlyby
massburialbutalsobyskeletaldismemberment.Clothingpilesonthebottom
shelf,thenextsevenfilledwithskulls,allfacingoutwards,sonomatterifyouare
childoradult,whereveryoulookhundreds,thousands,ofskullsateverylevel
meetyoueyetoeye.Abovetheskulls,theotherbones;theshelvessohighthat
whenItriedtophotographitsheightmycameracouldnotcaptureit.Thespace
issmall;theconfinementphysicallyforcingyoueye-to-eyeandbody-to-bodywith
theremains.Insideishumidandslightlyfetidandtingedwiththefaintbut
distinctivesmellofdecomposingbone;sweatandbonedusttangledtogether:
scentsofthelivingbutalsothedead.
Ethnographiccasestudies
HavingintroducedtheplaceoftourisminCambodia,andtourismatsitesofwar
anddeath,thissectionwillnowmoveontopresentthreeethnographic
encountersatChoeungEk,illustratinghowmyinformantsviewthedesignofthe
siteanditsuseintourism.Bydoingsoitwillshowhowmyinformantsconceive
tangibleandabstractbenefitsfromitsuse,asthetouristsbecomeengagedin
reciprocalrelationswiththesiteandcountry.Threestoriesarepresented.The
firstshowshowSreySreyandOmTaviewtheuseofhumanremainsasavital
elementofthetouristexperienceatChoeungEk,whichtheyviewassignificantto
193
Theexactnumberofpeoplerepresentedbytheremainsinthestupaisunknown:thesitereportsitis8,995,butthatseemsverypreciseandbasedonmyexperienceofotherforensiceffortsinCambodia,unlikelytobecompletelyaccurate.Iprefer,therefore,togiveanestimatedfigure.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 248
thelocalcommunity’swellbeinganddevelopment.InthesecondwemeetTa
Chann,amanlivinglocallytoChoeungEk,whosesister,cousin,theirhusbands
andchildren,werekilledatthesite.Thisencounterdemonstrateshow,evenfor
thosewhosedeadareatthesite,itsplaceasalocationofhistoricaleducationis
viewedascrucial,butalsohowsuchdisplaysrelatetoideasofinternationalaid
andawareness.ThefinalencounteriswithBongLa,whoviewstouristsas
integraltofuturepoliticalstabilityandsocialdevelopmentofCambodia.
Displayingdeath,ensuringlife
OmTawasprobablyoneofthehardestworkingpeopleatChoeungEk.Herarely
tookarest,movingconstantlyaroundthesite,keepinganeyeopenforjobsthat
neededtobedone,peoplethatneededhelping,oranimalsthatneededtending.
‘Myjobisimportant’hetoldmeonedayasIaccompaniedhimaroundthesite.
‘It’slikewe’rehelpingournation.ThereasonIsaysoisthatitisthegovernment.
Thegovernmentisthecountry.It’slikeI’mhelpingthecountry.EventhoughI
can’thelpmuch,asacleaner,Iamhelping.’
AsheworksOmTacarriesasmallplasticbag,tuckedintoapocketofhisshirtor
trousers.Asweweretalkingonedayhepulledthebagoutofhispockettoshow
mewhatitheld.Thereinhishandwasagrislycollection:teethandshardsof
bone,splinteredfromlargerones.WalkingaroundthesiteOmTakeepshiseyes
alertfortheseremains.Ifheseestheminthegravepitsheleavesthemalone,
butanyheseesinthepathsthatwindaroundthesitehelifts,addingthemtothe
baginhispocket.Oncehehasasmallcollectionhetakesthemtothecasewith
theotherremains.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 249
Collectingtheremainswasimportantfortworeasons,hetoldme.Firstly,putting
themallinonelocationtogetherisameansofrespectingthosewhohavedied.
Butsecondlytheyareanimportantpartofwhytouristscometoseethesite.The
useoftheremainsinsuchawayisnotnew,heexplained;ithasbeensosincethe
sitewasfirstdiscovered.OmTahasmuchexperienceoftheremains:hisfirst
encounterwithChoeungEkwasintheearly1980swhenhecametolootthe
graveswithhisfather;hefoundawatchandhisfatherfoundalongmilitarycoat
whichheusedforyearsbeforeitworeout.Hewasemployedsoonafterthisasa
guardatthesite,andwatchedastheremainswereunearthedandpreparedfor
display–allclothing,ligatures,andblindfoldswereremovedandtheflesh
detachedfromthebones.Afterseveralmonthsofdryingtheyweremovedtothe
woodenp’teahkhmouch,andcarefullyarrangedtomakethemostimpacton
thosevisitingthesite.Whentheycameacrossaskulltheybelievedtobeof
foreignorigintheworkersmadesuretodisplayitatthefront:
Weweretoldtobringtheskullsandbonesandputthemthere.Isawagrave
underthetree.Isawalong,bigskull.Itwasstrange.Thensomepeoplesaid
theywantedtoplacethatinthefront.Weplaceditintheveryfront;weworked
onthatarrangement.Itmusthavebeenaforeigner—eitheranAustralianor
American194.
Itsarrangementatthefrontofthestupawas,OmTaconfided,aimedatthe
foreignersalreadystartingtovisitthesite.Thisconsiderationcontinuedafterthe
centralstupawasbuilt;beforethebonesweremovedexpertscamefrom
Vietnamtoconductsomebasicskeletalanalysisontheskulls,organisingthemin
194
Over500foreignerswerekilledatChoeungEkandTuolSleng.MostwereVietnamese,butahandfulofothernationalitiesalsosuffered(EaandSim2001).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 250
thestupabysexandage.Thisanalysisneverhadanyforensicuse:‘itmakesit
betterforthevisitorsiftheyknowsomethingaboutthem’OmTaexplained.
Theselabelscanstillbeseenonthestupashelvesbuttheskullsarenow
confused;aboutayearbeforemyfieldworkstartedtheremainshadbeentaken
outofthestupaforcleaning,andduringtheprocesshadbecomemuddledand
somebroken.Thosebrokenwereputtothebackandtheonesintactarrangedat
thefront,allwiththeirfacesfacingoutwards.
SreySreyparticipatedinthiscleaning.SreySreytakesgreatprideinherwork.
Workingsevendaysaweek,ChoeungEkhasbecomeanextensionofherhome,
andsheviewshercolleaguesasextendedkin.Amongstherdutiesasacleaneris
themaintenanceofthegraves,andthecleaningofremains.Everydayataround
2pmagroupofcleanersandcaretakersgathertosweepleavesandotherdebris
fromthemassgravepits,andtocollectbonesandclothingemergingfromthe
soil.Inthedryseasonlittleemerges,butduringtherainyseason(Mayto
October)therainwashesawaythesoilanderodestheedgesofthegraves,andas
theseasonadvancesandfootfallaidsthesoildispersion,skeletalremainsand
clothingareslowlyuncovered(seefigureeleven).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 251
Figureeleven:humanremainsemergingatChoeungEk(source:theauthor)
LikeOmTa,SreySreycollectsremainsandfreesbitsofclothingfromthesoilas
shecleans.Notalltheremainsarecollectedthough;somearemovedand
displayedindifferentareasto‘improve’thetouristexperience.195Aswellas
remainsbeingmovedaround,SreySreyconfided,otherswereleftinthepaths
thatpeoplewalkedon,toimprovetheattractionofthesitetointernational
visitors;‘oneoftheguyssaid:“Ifweclearallthebonesfromtheground,whatwe
goingtosee?Wewillhavenothingtosee.”’‘Somewanttoshowthemas
evidenceforchildren,’sheexplained,‘butsomewanttoattractmorevisitorsto
seetheCambodianhistoryandimproveCambodianeconomics.’Atfirst,Srey
Sreytoldme,shewasshockedbythisattitude,butfromwatchingthetourists
interactwiththeremainsshesoonrecognisedtheirimpact:‘Theycomehereto
195Ilookedoutforthesemediationswithinterest.Ononedayapairoftheblackrubbersandals
similartothoseusedbytheKhmerRougeappearedunderaphotographshowingtheexcavatedremainsstackedhighintheearly1980s.Theyhadnotbeentherethedaybefore.Onanotherdayafragmentedfemurlayfullyexposedinachainedoffareathatthedaybeforehadbeenemptyexceptforleavesanddirt.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 252
seetheseskeletons,toseewhowaskilled,’shecommented,‘andwhenvisitors
cometheycantellothersthatCambodiahasaplacewheretheykeepthebodies
ofthedeadfromthePolPotregime.’
Bypayingmoneytoenterthesite,thetouristsaredirectlyinputtingtothesite
andthewell-beingofthecommunitysurroundingit,SreySreytoldme,because
notonlydoesitprovidesafe,wellpaid,employmentformanypeople,butsince
thecompanytookoveritsmanagement,infrastructurehasimprovedandmoney
isgivenascharitablecontributionsinthesurroundingareas:
Theysupportorphansandgivescholarshipsto[university]students.Ithink
they’renotwastingthemoney.[Theygivemoneyto]olderpeople….Whenthe
companycame,Iexpectedthatitwasgoingtobehard.Butwhentheyactually
camein,itwasreallygood….It’sbetterthanbefore.Theyhaveclearobjectives
thatareacceptable[and]itimprovesourlives.It’smuchbetternow.
Despitetheseadvantages,SreySreysometimesfeltconflictedaboutthe
mediationofthesite’sexperienceforthetourists;‘they[tourists]worksohardat
homeandtheycomeherejustforfreedom,butsometimes,wealsohave
propaganda,’shecommented.Butoverallshebelievedtheworkofthesiteis
good,andtheuseoftheremainsacceptable.Peoplewanttoseethedead,and
theyarewillingtopaytodoso.Afterseeingthistheyreturntotheircountryand,
shehopes,tellpeopleaboutCambodia;aboutitspast,but,moreimportantly,
aboutitspresentandfuture;‘thevisitorshelpCambodians.Whenthe
internationalvisitorshelpCambodians,itmakesmehappy.SoIthinkwhatthe
governmentdoestodayisright.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 253
OmTahadnosuchconflictions.HeconsidersChoeungEktobeintegralto
developmentofCambodia,andbyinference,hisjobtoo.‘Maybethisplacedoes
businessusingtheskeletons,’hecommented.‘Buttheyareimportant….Ithink
somepeoplearemaybejealousthatwegetmoney[fromthesite]….Itisgoodfor
peoplewholivearoundhereandforpeoplewhoworkinthisplace.‘It’slike
we’rehelpingournation.’
‘Ifweforgetaboutit,historywillbeerased’
TaSannisanelderlymanwhohaslivedclosetoChoeungEkforallhislife.He
wasintroducedtomebyoneofthemanagersonthesite.Theyhadbeen
acquaintancesforalongtime,becauseTaSannhadbeenoneoftheonlypeople
beyondtheguardsworkingatthesitewhoknewitsfunctionduringtheregime
andassuchhadbeeninvolvedwithmanyresearchprojectsatChoeungEkas
peopletriedtopindownitspast.Beforetheregimetookpowerhesupported
theirsoldiers,dealingfoodandmedicalsuppliestothem,andafterpowerhe
remainedintheareawithhisfamily.HewasamemberoftheMinistryofSocial
Affairs,workingasafarmerinthelocalco-operativethatmanagedfood
distributioninthearea.
TaSannwasoneofthemanythousandlowrankingKhmerRougecadrewho,
althoughworkinginandsupportingtheregime,werealsothemselvesvictimsof
thepurges,socialcontrolandexecutionoffamilymembersandfriends.Towards
theendoftheregime,hissisterwastakenfromtheircommuneoneafternoonas
theyworked.Thiswasfairlycommon,andthosearoundthemknewthatonce
taken,theywouldnotreturn.Someonerantohim,shoutingthathissisterhad
beentakentotheEast.Heknewthisprobablymeantherdemise:
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 254
IthoughtiftheyhadtakenhertotheEast,itmusthavebeentothisplace.I
knewthatPreySarprisonwaswheretheyeducatedpeople,andthatTaleong
villagewaswheretheyre-educated[kāsang]them,andiftheycamehere,they
hadtodie.
Hedreadedtheconsequenceofthisnews,andwantedtocheckforhimself.So
heborrowedabike,androdetothesite,wherehesawthetrucksunloadingthe
passengers.‘Ihadaccesstothesite’hesaid,‘becauseIworkedforsocialaffairs.’
Therehesawhissister,herhusbandandtheirten-year-oldchild.‘Isawtheir
faces,andIturnedaroundbecauseIwasafraidthatIwouldcry.ThenIleft’he
toldme.Laterintheregimehisbrother,cousinandcousin’swifewerealsotaken
tothesite,alongwithhisformerboss,whofirstwasprocessedbyTuolSleng.‘I
wenttoseehisphotograph[afterwards].Theypulledouthistoenailsandstuff.’
TaSannisapoliticalpragmatist,whowasnotalwaysasupporteroftheKhmer
Rouge.WhentheLonNolregimewasinpower,hecollaboratedwiththem;when
theylostpowerheturnedtotheKhmerRouge.Followingthefallofthatregime,
heturnedhisallegiancetothecurrentgovernment(‘Theywereallrelated,’he
commentedwhenIaskedhimaboutthis.‘Somedidn’tfollow[politics]closely
likeIdid.Ifolloweditverycloselyineachregime.IlearnedsinceIwasyoung’).
Nowadays,recognisingthelackofsocialbenefittobeingassociatedwiththe
KhmerRouge,hetellsfewpeopleofhisinvolvementintheregime,claiming
insteadthatheknewaboutthesitefromothers.
Followingtheregime’scollapse,hereturnedtothesite,beingemployedtoguard
thoseexcavatingthegraves.Heworkedalongsideothers,countingtheskullsthat
wereunearthed,andassistingtheirarrangementfordisplay.Amongstthebones
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 255
ofthosedisplayedarepotentiallythoseofsixfamilymembers-hisbrother,sister,
herhusband,hisniece,cousinandcousin’swife-andatleastoneformer
colleague.Wetalkedaboutthisatsomelength.Hetoldmehecameregularlyto
thesite,andwaspleasedwiththewayithadbeenmanagedovertheyears,
particularlytheuseofthehumanremainsasatoolofeducation.Thatticketsare
chargedisnotaproblem,becauseitisahistoricalsite,andhistoricalsitesallsell
tickets–hehadheard,hetoldme,thatatAngkorWattheticketswere$20or
more,andstilltouristswent.‘Foreignerswanttovisithistoricalplaces,’he
commented,beforecontinuing:
Notonlyforeignerswanttovisit,someCambodiansalsodon’tknowanything
aboutChoeungEk.Everyonewantstoknow,wantstolearnthishistory.Ifthey
knowthatthereisaplace,thereisevidence,showingthekillingduringthe
regime,everyonewouldwanttoseeit,bothforeignerandKhmer,especiallythe
youngergeneration….Itisimportant.Ittellsmorefromwhatweseeherethanif
weonlyhearthestoryfrommouthtomouth.Peoplewerekilledwithoutreason.
Sowelearnaboutitbyseeingthisplace.
Thepreservationoftheremainsisintegralinthis.‘Ifeelproud’hetoldmewhenI
askedhimabouthisfamiliesremainsbeingdisplayedatthesite.‘Iftheyknock
thisplacedown,Iwouldbedisappointed….[Theregime]isover.’ChoeungEkisa
place,TaSannfelt,wherethosewhodiedcouldbehonouredandremembered,
andthestupaholdingtheirremainsgaveaplaceforthegovernmenttolookafter
them.Butmostimportantly,heexplained,itpresentsKhmerhistorytoyoung
Cambodiansandforeigners.
[iftheremainswerecremated],itwoulddisappear,andtheyoungergeneration
willnotrememberit.Ifit’shere,theycouldsayohthat’swheremymother,my
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 256
fatherwerekilled.Bonesbecameamountain.Thisismyidea.Ithinkit’sgoodin
thehistory.It’sbettertokeepthem,toletKhmerandforeignersknow.It’san
importantthing.Weneedtoletforeignersknow.Somanypeoplewerekilled
becauseforeignersdidn’tknow.
Buildingafuturebyusingthepast
ThefinalethnographytellsthestoryofBongLa,andrelatestosomeofthemore
abstractbenefitsoftheChoeungEkuseasatouristsite.OnedayasBongLaandI
satchattinghestartedtellingmeabouthischildren.ItwaslateJanuaryanda
breezewasblowingacrossthesite,makingthedaycoolbyCambodianstandards.
Afewtouristswerewanderingaround,butitwasstillearly,sowehadtimetosit
andenjoythetime.
BongLa’stwoboysweresevenandten,andweregettingtotheagewherethey
werebecomingmoreindependent,listeninglesstotheirparentsandmoreto
theirfriendsandpeopleatschool.ThisworriedBongLa.Thoughheloves
Cambodiaandisgenerallyhappyinhislifethere,heisconcernedaboutthemoral
economyofthecountry;thedisregardpeoplehaveforeachotherandthe
environment,andtheendemiccorruptionofgovernmentandotherauthorities.
‘TheKhmerarealloppressednow’heconfidedoneafternoon;‘wecanonlyhope
forinternationalhelp.’
Thishelpcouldcomeinmanyforms.Butonewayofgettingitwasthroughthe
workofChoeungEk,andbyinteractingandlearningfromthetouristswhocome
tovisitit.Heoftenbringshischildrentothesitenottoteachthemaboutthe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 257
KhmerRougeanditsresults,buttoshowthemthebehaviorofthetourists,
particularlytheirrespectfortheenvironment:
Iteachthembyexample.Youknowalongtheroad,peopledrinkteaor
somethingandthentheyjustthrow[litter]onthestreet.Ifonepersondoesit,
thechildrenwillfollow.Sowhathappenstenyearslater?Thisplacecouldbea
fieldofrubbish.SoIwanttoteachthemthis,andIlearntalotaboutitfrom
visitors,alotabouthygiene.Liketheplasticfromaroundthetopofabottleof
water–theyevenputthatinthebin–it’sverynice;Ilikethataction;it’sgood
thattheyalwayscleanthearea.SoIbringmykidshereandsay‘lookatwhat
thatmandoes,[throwingaway]hisdrinklikethat.’Soit’sgoodyeah.Ihopethat
Cambodians,wholostalotofhistory,willstartlookingatothercountriestohelp
Cambodia.Notthebadthings,thegoodthings.
BongLahasastrongaffectionforthetouristsatChoeungEk.Hehasalways
enjoyedlearningfromotherpeople,particularlythosefromothernations;itwas
thisthatinfluencedhisdecisiontobecomeatourguideinthelate1990s.We
oftensatwatchingthetouristsarriving,chattingaboutthemandtheiractions.
WhenIfirststartedworkingatChoeungEkIwouldoftenfeeloffendedbywhatI
viewedastheinappropriateanddisrespectfulclothingthatmanytouristswore.
Onedayayoungwomanarrivedwithherboyfriend.Sheworeminutedenim
shortsandatopthathunglooseattheside,exposingherbra.AsIrantedtoBong
Laaboutthisattire,helaughedandsaid‘itdoesn’tmatter:wedon’tmind.At
leastshehascomeandwillseeandlearn.’Laterheexplained‘whentheycome
here,theylearnaboutCambodia’hetoldme.‘SometimesIfeelsadseeing[the
dead]allstackeduplikethat’hesaidcommentingontheremains,‘butIdon’t
knowtoohowtokeepthestoryineveryone’smind….manyofthemtheyreally
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 258
sharetheseexperienceswithothers,becausetheyknowabout[Cambodia’spast]
onlyfromChoeungEkKillingFields.’Thissharingcouldonlybepositivehetold
me,becauseastheyshared,otherswouldwanttovisit,andthisbroughtpeople
whocouldhelpCambodiadevelop.
Thatisnottosaythatheisnaïveaboutthepotentialrisksoftourism,andwehad
manydiscussionsaboutsomeofthemoreseriousissuesCambodiafacesrelated
tothis,suchassextraffickingandpaedophilia.Butheviewedtheseasminimal
comparedtotheoverallbenefitsthathepersonallyengagedin,andthattourism
broughttothecountry.Althoughthemoneyraisedbythesitewasusefulin
generalforCambodia’seconomicdevelopment,itwasthescholarshipsgivento
universitystudentsthatBongLathoughtmostimportant:
Thereasonweareprovidingmoneyisbecausewewantthestudentsto
concentrateontheirstudies,notanythingelse,sothattherewillbemorehuman
resources[inCambodia].Becauseinthepast,itwasalackofhumanresources
thatledtokillingwithoutanyconsideration.Ithinkthatwhentherearen’t
enoughhumanresources,thecountrycan’tdevelop.Forexample,HongKong
candevelopbecausetherehavealotofhumanresources.
TheKhmerRouge’spropagandaisconsideredbymanytohavebeensosuccessful
becausetheyeliminatedtheintelligentsia,andinsteadreliedonpoorlyeducated
ruralfarmers,childrenandyoungpeopletorunthecampsandenforcetheirlaws.
Improvingeducationtherefore,isviewedasawaytopreventmovementsofthis
typeandscaleinthefuture.Thetourists’moneyatthesitehelpsenablethis
throughthecharitablelegaciesinwhichtheyengage.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 259
AswetalkedIaskedBongLaaboutthenegativeperceptionsofthesite’s
privatisation.‘Yes,’hereplied,‘thisisdifficult.Iknowthisisdifficultbecausethis
siteisnotonlyhistorical,itisalsopolitical.’Hefoundithardtoexplainthe
advantagesofprivatemanagementtoforeignvisitors,aswellasthebenefitsof
thesite,buthesummedituptome:
thiscompanyismuchbetterthanbeforebecausewehaveamanagement
system;it’smuchbetterthanthestate–theCambodianState–butforeign
visitors,youknow,whentheyaskme‘Iheardthatthisisprivatecompany,isthis
aprivatecompany?’sometimesIcannotexplaineverything;actuallythey’re
Cambodian,butthenameisjustwrittenlikethat.Sometimesit’sreallyhard.All
ofthemfeeltheywanttocomeandhelp,andtopreservethissite,notjustfor
business,buttohelpfindjustice.ButithelpsCambodiansdevelopthemselves,
becauseatthattimewelostalotofteachers,alotoflife….
Overall,heexplained,‘[thecompany’s]workislikemeritforCambodia.’The
meritcomesfromitsplaceintheeducationoftouristsabouttheregimeandthe
country,aswellasinthemoneyitraisedthatgoes,notonlytothePhnomPenh
municipality,butalsotothelocalcommunity.Thisisbecausemattersleftonlyto
Cambodians,hebelieved,werecorrupt:
IthinkthatifwehopeontheKhmer,there’snohopeatall.Wecanonlydepend
ontheinternationalcommunity.
Discussion
Invokinghistorytogenerateincomeandthecommodificationofsitesoftragedyis
neitheranewnorunusualphenomenon.AsVenbrux(2010:44)writes,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 260
‘throughoutourcontact[withotherpeople]death-tourismhasbeenaprominent
modeofcross-culturalinteraction.’Whatisnewinrecentdecades,however,is
theglobalizedaspectofsuchtourism,andtheincreasingstateharnessingofthis
ineconomicdevelopmentandregionalstrategy.Inthisglobal,increasingly
neoliberaleconomy,Schwenkel(2006:5)arguesthattheuseofsuchiconsofwar
entwinethepastandthefuture,byrecyclingandreimaginingsuchsitesin‘a
transnationaleconomyofmemoryforthesakeofprosperityanddevelopment.’
Thiseconomyisfluidandflexible,andisusedandmanipulatednotonlybythe
state,butalsobyeverydaypeopleinvolvedinthesesites.Aswesawinthecases
ofSreySreyandOmTa,theuseofsuchsitesintourismhavetangiblebenefitsfor
thepeoplewholivethere.Butbeyondthattheyexertinfluenceonthewider
localcommunity,andCambodiaasawhole,andsomeofmyinformants,suchas
BongLasawthemascontributingtofuturestabilityofthenationandtheregion.
Thedesiretoexplore‘war-torn’historiesdrivesexoticismbyinternationalvisitors
whoactivelyseektoviewandexperienceitstragicpast(Schwenkel2006).Indoing
soitappearstoreifysomeoftheimagesandnarrativesbeingpresented.Asmy
informantsconstruct,reconstructandperformthesenarrativeseveryday,they
becomefurtherentrenchedas‘truth’inthemindsofthoseconsumingthem.But
thesenarrativescanhavepositive,futureorientedresults,asarguedbyHughes
(2009)withregardto‘dutifultourists,’whoaftervisitingsuchsitesfeelanobligation
toprovideaidofoneformoranothertoCambodia.ThemarketingofChoeungEkis
notsimplyamatterofpresentingitasis.Itrequiresanunderstandingaboutthe
globalperceptionoftheKhmerRouge,andknowledgeofwhatattractsinternational
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 261
visitors.Althoughthishasbeenfacilitatedrecentlybycollaborationwithforeign
stakeholders196,myinformantswerealreadyskilledatthis.
ThepowerofChoeungEkisinitsphysicality,itsmaterialityandtheembodied
connectionitgivesthevisitortoCambodiaandthisperiodofitspast.Thesensory
immersionofferedbythechoreographedtourmomentarilycollapsestemporal
distance.Thedeliberateexposureofhumanremainsandpreservationofthe
graves197inparticularprovideanotionofauthenticityandrealismtothesite.On
wartourisminVietnam,Schwenkel(2006:8)notedthattouristsfeltthat‘warwas
moretangibleinCambodia,’itwas‘morereal’thaninVietnambecauseofthese
humanremainsandtheirlocationinaplacewherevisibletracesoftheirdeathand
massburialisstillevident.TouristsIwatchedvisiblyslumpedastheyreachedthe
graveofwomenandchildren.Peoplecriedastheyroundedthelakeatthebackof
thesite,listeningtocommemorativemusic.‘TheKillingFields’were‘raw’onetold
meafterwards.Afriendcomingbackfromvisitingthecountrytoldmehefelt
‘ashamed;soashamed;’another‘weleftthekillingfieldsfeelingveryheavy.’But
thisauthenticityisframedandperformed,andthedisplaywithinitheavily
mediated.Theaudiotourdirectsattention198;employeesatthesitearrangethe
196
TheJapanesearmofJCRoyal&Coproducedthedevelopmentplansaimingtoimproveitsappealtointernationaltourists,andtheAustralianbasedNarrowcastersthatdevelopedtheaudiotour(whichwaswrittenbyanAmericanscriptwriterinEnglishfirstsoastoappealtoanaudienceusedtomuseumtoursandparticularwaysofseeing).
197Astheyearspassthemassgravepitsarestartingtoerodeanddisappear.Somepitshave
merged;othersbecomeshallower.Thisisworryingthesite’smanagement.‘Iwantedthegovernmenttobuildglasscoversoverthegraves,becausetheyweren’tthisshallow[before]…therainerodesthemandfillsthemin.’onetoldme.
198Beingsodirectedmanymissmuchofthesitetheyarelookingat.Theywalkonbonesand
clothingwithoutnoticingitundertheirfeet,becauseearlierinthetourtheyhavebeendirectedtopayattentiontothosecomingthroughtheearthinchainedoffareas.TheywalkorsitonChinesegravestones,notnoticingtheyaregraves,ornotcaringbecausetheyarethewrongsortofdead:theydonotrepresentthehorrorthesevisitorshavecometosee.Theywerenottossedinpitsandpiledontopofeachother.Thatthisisagravesiteofappropriate,familialburials,aswellasmassgraves,becomesirrelevant-onlyonetypeofdeadistobenoticed:thosekilledduringtheKhmer
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 262
artifacts;andbydoingsotheyembraceandharnessthetouristgaze.Myolder
informants,suchasOmTa,seemedparticularlyadeptandcomfortablewiththis.
Thisisnotsimplypredatorycommodificationinsearchofeconomicprosperity,
althoughsometimesitmightappearthatway.Norisitnecessarilyexploitativeof
thedeadandtheirremains.Aswesawinchaptertwo,thoughpolitically
motivated,thedisplayofhumanremainsandtheuseofmassgraveswasnot
viewednegativelybymyinformants,andeventhosewhoobjectedpersonally(for
exampleBuSothwhothoughtno-oneshouldmakemoneyfromthedead),
thoughtperhapsthedeaddidnotmind;theydidnothauntandhadnevermade
peoplesick.ThecaseofTaSannshowsthateventhosewhoserelativeswere
killedatthesite,andwhoseremainsmaythereforebeamongstthosedisplayed,
sawthemasplayingapositiveroleinthefuturedevelopmentofCambodia.Chan,
ateacherfromtheschoolclosetothesitecommented:
Theincometheycollect…theirsufferings,gaveus…givesusall…givesme…
providesbenefitstoallthepeople…providesabenefittosociety,whichistolive
comfortably/safely(soks’roal),becauseoftheirhorrificdeaths.SoIthinkthat
theirsufferingdeathisvaluableforthenextgeneration,likemyself.
Byengagingwithimaginedvisitormotivationsinthedesignandperformanceof
ChoeungEkmyinformantsperceivedbothtangibleandabstractbenefitsto
themselves,Cambodia,anditsfuture.Thesitegivesthemajob,SreySreytold
me,andsupportsthelocalcommunity.OmTacommentedthathewashelping
thecountrybyworkingtherebecauseofitsplaceinCambodia’seconomic
Rouge.Itisnotthetourists’faultperse:alltheliteratureclaimsthatthesite‘usedtobeaChinesegravesite,’eliminatingfromconcernthefewChinesegravesthatremain.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 263
development.BongLasawpersonal,nationalandglobaladvantages:intheways
hecouldteachhischildrenabouttheenvironment,andtheuseofincomefrom
thesiteinfundingscholarshipsthatwouldhelpensureamoresecureandstable
future.ThishasimplicationsforthefutureofCambodia:BongLalikenedits
potentialtoHongKong,Singapore,andJapan,andindoingsoillustratedthe
promiseofdevelopment.Andasitimproves,liketveabonandbangskol
ceremonies,ChoeungEkishelpingthecountryasawholetogainmerit,and
improvingitskarmaasitdoesso.Itswork(theirwork)isrelatedtothemoral
economyofCambodia;somethingmanyIinterviewedconsideredlackingandin
needofsupport.
Thisisnot,however,aunilateralrelationship.Insteaditwasviewedasareciprocal
relationshipbetweenthesiteanditsvisitors.MoststaffatChoeungEkusedthe
termvisitor(neaktossna)orguest(phngeav),ratherthantourist(neaktesschor–
literallypersonwhomakesatour)torefertothosewhocometothesite,whether
foreignorlocal.Impliedtherefore,inthetouristencounter,isanelementof
hospitalityandahost-guestrelationship.Hospitalityactsinthemodeofagift,and
althoughTesart(1998)insiststhatagiftoughtnotbereciprocated,Iagreewith
Mauss’s(2002[1950])assertionthatthereremainsanobligation,andan
expectationofreturn.AtKhmerRougesitesthisreturnisbothtangibleand
abstract,andimaginedbybothsides:thetouristandthoseworkingatthesite.The
site’scentralroleinCambodiantourismisdirectlylinkedintheimaginationsofthe
staffandthestatetoeconomicprosperityandinternationalassistance,andthe
reciprocatedrelationship,therefore,iswiththetouristswhohelpdevelopthe
country.Myinformantsembracedtourism,andthereciprocationitimplied.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 264
ItisnotonlyChoeungEkthatusesthepastinsuchaway.Thep’teahkhmouchat
KohSophasbeenpreservedandthepastorfromtheisland’schurchregularlybrings
foreignvisitorstoseeit.AghoulishpaintingclosetotheentranceofPhnom
SampeauinBattambangindicatesitsformeruse;therelocalguidestaketouristson
thebackoftheirmotorbikestoseewherepeoplewerethrownfromthetopofthe
mountainintoacavebelow,beforeguidingthemtothespotwheretheirbodies
weresmashedandtheremainsnowsit,piledhighinaconcretecheddei(figure
twelve).199InAnlongVengTaMok’shouse,theallegedsiteofPolPot’sfuneral
pyre,andtheburialsiteofhiscremains,haveallbeenturnedintotouristsites,
renamedas‘TheCulturalSiteoftheKhmerRouge.’MarketsellersinPhnomPenh
haveembracedthisinterest,producingacrylicTinTincoversfeaturingtheKhmer
Rouge,andsellingreplicapropagandapostersfromtheVietnamesewar.
Figuretwelve:KhmerRougetourismatPhnomSampeau(source:theauthor)
199
AtBananinBattambangprovince,however,wherethemaintouristattractionisanAngkoriantemple,thebodiesonthesurfacewerecollectedandcremated,orcoveredwithsoil,becausepeoplereturningafterDemocraticKampucheathoughttouristswouldnotliketoseesuchbodieswhentheyhavecometoseeanancientsite.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 265
NeitherisitonlyKhmerRougesitesthatarehoninginonthissideoftourism.
ThereisanincreasingmarketforsitesofsympathythroughoutCambodia.
OppositeChoeungEkarestaurantrunbythe‘Cambodianhandicapassociation’is
alwaysbustling,butnodisabledpeopleareemployedthere,theyarenotallowed
insidetherestaurant,andthemoneyraisedgoesalmostentirelytothefamily
whorunit.InPhnomPenhandSiemReapcafesandshopsadvertisetheir
employmentoftraffickedwomen,ex-prostitutes,orphansanddisabledpeople.
AstouristsmovearoundCambodiatheyareimmersedinanimageofacountry
thatnotonlysufferedfromaterriblepast,butcontinuestoneedhelp.The
resultingimpressionleftontouristsvisitingthesesitesisoneofoverwhelming
sufferingandongoingproblemsthatcannotberecoveredfrom.Asonetourist
toldme,‘IgottheimpressionCambodiaisawholenationwithPTSD.’
Ofcoursenotalltouristsconsumethesiteinthesameway,andalthoughtheaudio
guidesprovidesadirectednarrationthereisnotahomogenousreceptiontothe
site.Evenwhentheirconsumptionisdesignedandchoreographed,landscapesare
notstatic.Theyarecontested,negotiated,politicalanddynamic(Bender1993:2-
3),theirmeaningbeingworkedandreworkedthroughdifferentpeople’s
engagementswiththem.Theyaremulti-layered,andtheinterestsinthemand
meaningsinscribedwithinanduponthemmove,overlap,collideand,sometimes,
clash.ChoeungEkandotherKhmerRougesitesareinternationallandscapesthat
speaktoaglobalimaginaryofmassdeathandviolence.HenceChoeungEk’s
transformationfromamemorialintoamuseum,madeintelligibletothethousands
oftouristswhopassthroughitsgateseverydaybyaguidedaudiotour:onethat
directsthemwheretolook,whattosee,howtofeel.Atthemoment,my
informantsviewitsuseasatouristsiteprimarilypositively,withtangibleand
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 266
abstractadvantages.Butaswesawinchapterfive,theusesandnarrativesrelated
tosuchsites,whileappearingstaticarefluid,particularlytothosewhoproduce
them.200
WherefrustrationagainsttourismexistedamongstmyinformantsatChoeungEk,
itwasnotdirectedatthetourists201,butatthegovernment’scontinued
corruption.CriticismagainstChoeungEkwasturnedintoapoliticalmatter–a
desiretoerasetheviolentpast.‘Thepeoplewhosaidthismaybedon’twantthis
placetoexist,’OmTacommented.‘Ifthisplacedidn’texist,wewouldforgetall
thepainfulstories.’Beforethecompanytookover,BongLatoldme,amanhad
arrivedfromtheMinistryofDefence.ThoughhewasKhmeranddidnothaveto
pay,hetooktwodollarsoutinfrontoftheticketbooth.‘$1forSihanouk;$1for
HunSen’hesaid.ForthisreasonOmTa,BongLa,andotherbesides,preferred
thesitesmanagementbyaprivatecompanywhichhadtomakepublicits
accounts,andwhosepoliciesofsocialresponsibilitywerevisibleinthelocal
community,tosoledirectionbythegovernment.Touristswereseenaspotential
alliesintheendeavouragainstthis;themorepeoplewhocametoCambodia,and
themorewidelyitwasknownabout,BongLacommented,thelessablethe
governmentwouldbetocontrolthemsostrongly.202‘Thisisforthebenefitof
humanity’hecommented.
200
Althoughperhapstherewasmoreflexibilitybeforetheaudioguides,becausetheknowledgebeingsharedreliedonatripartiteencounterbetweentourguidesandtourists,andthephysicalencounterwiththesite.
201ThismightbepartlybecauseofChoeungEk’ssegregationfromthehomelivesofthosewho
workthere:thesiteisfencedoffandclosedat17:00,soeventhosefewfamilieswholiveonthesitehavespaceawayfromthetourists.
202Myinformantswerenot,however,naïveaboutthepoliticalnatureofChoeungEk.Thedirector
toldmethatthemunicipalityistheirparent,andtheyatChoeungEkarethetechniciansofthegovernment’svision.Oneoftheotherguidesrefusedtocommentonthesiteanditsuses;‘if
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 267
Conclusion
WhenIfirstarrivedatChoeungEkoneofthemanagersaskedmeifIhadever
beentoanyoftheHolocaustmemorialssuchasAuschwitzorDachau.‘Howdoes
thissitecompare?’heaskedme;‘howcanwemakeitmorelikethose?’Another
askedmetoconductbasicskeletalanalysisontheskulls:providingsexandage
categories‘becauseitwillmakeitbetterforthevisitors.’203Althoughprivatizedin
2005thesitehasalwaysbeenexternallyfocused;fromdayonethisrequireda
shapingofthenarrativeaboutthesesiteswhichwhilsttargetedtoattractan
internationalaudience,whichhasmostlikelyaffectedlocalunderstandingsas
well,particularlygiventhelackofotherhistoricalnarrativesontheperioduntil
veryrecently(Latinis2011;Tyner2012a).Khmervisitorsreceiveaverydifferent
site.Thoughseveralthousandvisitperyear,mostcomeaspartoftheECCC
sponsoredvisits;theirtripsarebrief(usuallyaroundtenminutes),theyreceive
littleguidance,andmostsimplywanderinandwanderoutagainwithlittleideaof
whattheyareseeing.ThefewsignsthatexistareinEnglish,andevenwhen
‘remembrance’ceremonies(suchasPchumBenhandNewYear)areheld,they
takeplaceatthesideofthesitesoasnottodisturbthetouristpathsaroundthe
site.
someonebreastfeedsyou,youshouldbreastfeedthemback’hesaid,aKhmeridiomequivalentto‘I’llscratchyourbackifyouscratchmine.’WhenIfirstknewSreySreysherefusedtodiscusssuchtopics,sayingitwasnotherplacetocomment.‘IknowthatthetouristsjustcometovisitCambodia.Sometimes,theyvisitheretolearnaboutthelivingconditionsinCambodia.SomepeoplejustcometoseewhatCambodiaislike…’shetoldme.‘It’sdifficultformetotalkaboutit;thisispolitics.’Overtime,however,shestartedtotalkmorefreelyandcoulddiscussherviewsontheuseofremains.
203Ineverdiddoanyanalysis,althoughwhenIleftCambodiathemanagementwasstillplanning
tohaveitdoneatsomestage.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 268
Thiscommoditisationfortheinternationalmarkethasbeencriticisedbymany,
however,asthischapterhasshown,itwasnotdeemedoffensiveordisrespectful
bymyinformants,butratherembracedandengagedwithasameansofproviding
futurebenefits.Supportingmanipulationsandtransformationsofthepastare
embracedbecausetheyprovidesecurityinthepresent,andofferfuture
potentialsforpositivechangeforCambodiaanditspeople.
ChoeungEkrepresentssomethingslightlydifferenttomostCambodiantourism,
wherethebenefitsoftheincomedonottrickledowntoordinarypeople.The
impactofthemoneyisevidentinthesupportofthelocalcommunityandthe
scholarshipsgiventostudents.Thebenefitofthetouristsisvisibleintheroads
thesitehasbuilt,theimprovementstothesite,thenewjobsandsocial
relationshipsithascreated.TourismatChoeungEkwasviewedbymyinformants
notasmanipulativeandexploitative,butaspositiveandsupporting.Touristshelp
thecountry,bothnowandforthefuture,andbyworkingforthesite,theydotoo.
Ofcoursethefuturemightnotturnoutthewaymyinformantsimagine,
particularlyifthecurrentgovernmentremainsinpower.Anumberofissuesare
alreadyapparentinCambodiantourism.Someofthese,suchassextrafficking
anddrugs,werediscussedbymyinformants,butmanyotherswereomitted:the
stressoninfrastructurecausedbyincreasingdemand(Becker2013),orthe
increasinglandinsecurityaspeopleareforciblyevictedfromlandthatisthen
developed.Butwhetherthefuturearrivesintheformimaginedisnotreallythe
point.Inusingthesite,BongLa,OmTa,SreySreyandTaChannallamodeof
assertingtheirplaceinCambodia’sfuture,andbydoingsoprovidingmeritfor
themselvesandtheirnation.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 269
Oneafternoon,aswewalkedaroundthesite,myresearchassistant,Bunnwath,
turnedtome.‘Youknow,’hesaid‘PolPotdidsometerriblethings.Butitleftalot
ofsitesthatarereallygoodfortourism.’Thiscomment,madewithahitofirony,
wasanobservationontheuseofChoeungEk,andthevoraciousappetiteofforeign
touristsforsuchsitesofdeath.Butsuchastatementcanalsosuggestaconnection
betweentheviolenceoftheKhmerRougeregime,andthepoliticalsphereof
contemporaryCambodia,athemethatwillbeexploredinthenextchapter.
270
Chapterseven:Deadoftoday,ghostsoftomorrow-electionsand
thespectralKhmerRouge
Fear,thearbitratorofpower–invisible,indeterminate,andsilent.
-LindaGreen1994:227
********
The2013generalelectionsinCambodiawereatenseaffair.OmSreywas
nervous;‘IremembertheKhmerRouge’shetoldmeaswesatchattingafter
dinneroneevening.‘IwillkeepvotingforHunSenbecausehesavedusfrom
them.’OurchatcameasIplannedtoreturntoPhnomPenhforameetingafew
daysbeforetheelection.‘Areyoureallygoing?’sheaskedme,‘aren’tyou
scared?’
ThepoliticalsphereinCambodiaisfraughtwithviolence,particularlyaround
elections.In2012and2013,tensionwashigh,becauseforthefirsttimeinnearly
30years,itseemedthattherulingCambodianPeople’sParty(CPP)faceda
genuinechallengefromthemainoppositionparty,theCambodianNational
RescueParty(CNRP).Therulingparty’smodeofdealingwiththiswastwofold:
reinforcingthethreatofdirectandstructuralviolence(particularlytoopposition
voters)thathelpsmaintaintheirrule,andbeginningasmearcampaignagainst
theoppositionparty.Forbothends,theyharnessedthesymbolicpowerofthe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 271
KhmerRougeandtheirdead;raisingthespectralpresenceoftheregimeandits
violence.TheCPPwerenotaloneinthis.TheoppositionCNRPalsousedthe
KhmerRougeandtheirgravesitesintheirpoliticalpropaganda,butforthemit
wastoremindthepopulousoftheformerstatusofthePrimeMinisterandother
CPPofficialsasKhmerRougecadre.Bothpartiesusedrhetoricsofviolence
throughouttheircampaigningthatmanifestedthreatsonindividual,community
andnationallevels.
Thischapterexploresthe2013electiontimeinCambodia,asalocusthatmakes
visibletheviolencepervadingKhmerpolitics.UsingDerrida’s(1994)conceptof
hauntology-thespectersofapastthatinhabitthepresentandshapethefuture;
thehauntingbyspiritstowhichallexperiencesareconnected–Iwillarguethat
contemporarypoliticsinCambodiaisanewmanifestationoftheviolencethathas
scourgedCambodia’spast,particularlytheKhmerRougeregime,which
contemporarypoliticswasformedinoppositionto,butwhichhasbeenpoliticized
toreinforceviolentnarrativesthatmaintainitsspectralpresenceasaconstant
threatwithintheKhmerimaginary,reinforcingpoliticalinsecurityamongstthe
population.
Toexploretheseconcepts,Iwillfirstexaminethetheoreticalframeworkforthis
chapter,beforebrieflydescribingelectionsinCambodia.Thiswillprovidethe
frameworkfortheethnographicsection,whichwillfirstdescribetheannual
remembranceceremonyheldbytheCPPatChoeungEk,nextapoliticalrally
organizedbytherulingpartyagainsttheoppositionshortlybeforetheelections,
beforediscussingtheelectiontimeasexperiencedbymyinformantsandmyself
inKohSop.TheseexampleswillhighlighthowtheKhmerRougeregimewas
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 272
revitalizedbythe2013elections,heighteningtheinsecurityandfearalready
inherentinthepoliticalsphere.ThediscussionwillreturntoDerrida,butalso
considerLindaGreenandAllenFeldman’sexplorationsoffearandinsecurity,to
showhowtheactivehusbandryoftheKhmerRougespectersnotonlyreminds
peopleoftheirviolence,butalsoreimaginesandrecreatesapoliticalspherein
whichviolentdiscoursesarethenormandauthoritarian,violentruleis
maintainedundertheguiseofliberaldemocracy.
Theoreticalbackground
InSpectersofMarx,Derrida(1994)createdthetermhauntologytodescribethe
continuedpresenceofMarxisminthepost-Marxistworld.Whilehaunting
expressestheongoingpresenceofsomethingpast(orinthecaseofdeceased
beings,passed),hauntologyderivesfromtheFrenchhantise,andincludesmore
nuancedexpressions,including‘obsession,aconstantfear,afixedidea,ora
naggingmemory’(Derrida1994:177,noteXX).204Derridausedthisconceptto
arguethat,despitesomeacademicsargumentsthatitwasnolongersignificant
followingthefalloftheBerlinwallandtheassociatedendofcommunism,
Marxismwas,in1993,morerelevantthanever.Itisbothimpossible,heargued,
andunjust,toclaimtoexistintheworldwithoutreferencetoMarxbecause
contemporarydeconstructionsofMarxismactuallyservetocreatenew
conceptions,basedon,andevolvingoutof,preciselythosedeconstructions.In
thischapterIwillusethisconcepttoexplorecontemporaryKhmerpolitics,which
204Althoughthetranslator,PeggyKamuf,continuestotranslatethetermashauntingthroughoutthebook,itisundoubtedlythispluralityofmeaningsthatattractedDerridatotheterm,becauseitsconception,heinformsus,beganashecontemplatedthehauntingobsessionthat,heargued,organizeddominantdiscoursetoday(Derrida1994:37).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 273
isnotonlyhauntedbytheKhmerRougeregime,butwhichwouldnotexist
withoutthemandisformedinrelationtothem.
Thespecters205ofthepastnotonlyinhabitthepresent,butcomefromthefuture:
lineartemporalityiscollapsedbythesespectersbecausetheirmostdominant
characteristicistheirimminence:‘Itisthefutureitself,itcomesfromthere.The
futureisitsmemory’(ibid.).Thiscanbeinterpretedinmultipleways:thatifthere
isanyfuture,itwillbethisone,orthatintheiterationofthespectralpast,its
revivalbecomesnotonlyimagined,butpossible:inre-enteringthepopular
imaginaryitagaintakeslife,andintakinglife,itisbothre-enactedandre-
constructed.
ForDerrida,thereweremultiplespecters–notonlyMarxhimself,butalsothe
ghoststhathauntedMarx’swork,andthosethathauntsubsequentsocieties
(Macherey1999:18).ThesamecanbesaidofCambodia.TheKhmerRouge
hauntitspresent,butconceptionsoftheKhmerRougearethemselveshaunted
bythoseregimesandconditionsthatprecededandfollowedthem:theUS
bombingcampaignofthe1960s,theLonNolgovernmentof1970–1975;thePRK
of1979–1993;evenactionsofthecurrentregime,whoseruleofdirectand
structuralviolencemaintainsthesespecterswithinthepresent,andtakesthemto
thefuture.‘TounderstandtheKhmerRouge’OmTacommented,‘wehaveto
understandthesituationalittlebitbeforeandafterKhmerRouge’:
205Derridausestheterm‘specter’preferentiallyto‘spirit’or‘ghost’becauseunlikePlato’sphantasma-thesimulacrumofaparticularsomething-aspecterisbothintangibleandtangible;itisamemory,arecreation,animprint,ashadow,butitisonethataffectstheformandactionsofthoseithaunts(Derrida1994:7).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 274
thestoryofCambodiawasnotjustfrom1975to1979,therewasmorethanthat.
ThiswastheeffectoftheColdWar.Itwasnotjustthoseyears.Before1975
whathadhappened?After‘79whatwouldhappen?
Thespecterscannotberationalisedaway–theyhauntthehistoricizedpresent
andshapeitsfuture.TheyarethereforeintegraltocontemporaryCambodia,
extendingVeenaDas’s(1997)criticalevents–itisnotonlythatDemocratic
KampucheademarcatesaparadigmshiftinCambodianlife,butthatitformsthe
basisofeveryreimaginingandreconstructionofsocial,politicalandreligiouslife
inCambodia.The2013electionshighlightedthis.
‘Asthecoreofdemocracy’Coles(2004:553)wrote‘electionsareacultural
practiceaswellasapoliticalone.’Theirculturalperformanceisarguably
ritualistic,and,therefore,performativeaswellassymbolic.Althoughdemocracy
‘wieldshegemonicauthority’throughitsapparentdistinctionfromsocietyand
subjectivity(ibid.),itisasociallyembeddedconstruct,constitutedandperformed
locallythroughitsattendantritualssuchaselections.Bydrawingonlocal
discourse,electionscreateandperformthelocalarticulationofdemocracyasa
setofpracticesandartifactsthatreifyconsolidatefeelingsofcommunityand
belongingandstateideologiespurportingfreedomandhumanrights.Democracy
exists,therefore,asaplurality;thelocalarticulationofwhichishighlightedduring
elections.206
206ThepluralityofdemocracyishighlightedbyBjörkman’s(2014)explorationoftheflowofmoneyduringthe2012electionsinMumbai,inwhichsheilluminateshowcontestedissuesofmodernity(suchastheneo-liberalandpoliticallandscapes)arenegotiatedinrelationtotraditionalformsofpatronageandexchangesystemsthatexistineverydayIndiathroughouttheyear.Inthiscase,moneyworksnotasamediumofpurchase,butasagiftexchangedforalliancesandsocialaffiliations.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 275
However,whileseeminglyidealperformancesofliberalismanddemocracy,
electionscanbefraughtaffairssurroundedbydiscordandviolence,andtheir
practiceisoftenasmuchaboutgeo-politicsasitisgenuinelocaldesires.Thisis
exemplifiedbytheviolencethatoftensurroundsthem,particularlyinstatesthat
haveonlyrecentlyadopteddemocracyasthepoliticallandscape.Butthis
violenceisnotnecessarilycompletelydestructive,andcanbesocially
advantageousaswellaspoliticallyuseful.The1994electionsinMexico,for
example,providedasiteofuprisingforindigenouspeople,highlightingeconomic
andsocialinequalities,whichopenedthedoorforpoliticalreformandnewsites
ofpoliticalinclusionacrossthesocialspectrum(Fiederlein1996).Jonathan
Spencer(1990)meanwhileshowsthatin1980sSinhala,SriLanka,socialdisputes
andriftswereexpressedaspoliticaldifferences,andelectionsthereforeprovided
theopportunityfortheexpressionofordinarilyrepressedemotions.Election
times,therefore,althoughsitesofacrimonyandexcitement,providedaspacefor
therenegotiationofsocialdifferences;notonlyintheselectionofrepresentatives
togovern,butmorewidelyinsocialnetworksandrelationships
Uprisingsandcontestationscanonlyoccur,however,whenpeoplenolongerfear
theconsequencesofthesecontestations.Stateengenderedviolencesurrounding
electionsusuallyrelatestotheconsolidationandsolidificationofpoliticalpower
oftherulingelite,throughterrorandviolencethatmaintainsauthoritythrough
fearandtension.Theviolenceismostcommonwhentherulingpowerfeels
threatened(Hafner-Burton,HydeandJablonski2014),aswasthecaseforthe
2013electionsinCambodia.Inthe2002presidentialelectionsinZimbabwe,for
example,RobertMugabeusedrhetoricsofracialdivision(focusingonthe
unilaterallandownershipbywhitepeople)toinciteviolenceagainstthe
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 276
oppositionbyyoung,blackpeople,whoposedthegreatestthreattohischances
ofre-election(Lindgren2003).Plotsoflandfromfarmstheyoccupiedrewarded
theirviolence,andtheirsupportforMugabewasconsolidated,whilstre-visiting
theethnicdivisionsandpoliticalviolenceofthe1980s,whendistinctionsbetween
differentgroupingsofpeopleweremanipulatedtogarnersupportthroughfear,
violenceandrhetoricsofoppression.
ElectionsinCambodia–abriefoverview
ElectionsarearecentintroductiontoCambodianpolitics;thefirstnationalones
wereheldin1993underthesupervisionoftheUnitedNationsTransitional
Authority(UNTAC),aspartofthearrangementsofthe1991ParisPeaceAccords,
whichaimedtobringpeacetotheregionandanendtotheongoingconflict
betweentheKhmerRougeandthePRK.Theseelectionsweredeemedasuccess
bytheUNandmanyothercommentators(Findlay1993;McCargo2005;
SandersonandMaley1998)207andreportedlymarkedatransitionalpointin
Khmerpoliticsfromauthoritarianrule,toneo-liberaldemocracy(somethingthat
manyofmyinformantsnoted).However,despitetheirseemingsuccess,
(FUNCINPECreceivedamajority)theresultswereoverturnedfollowingpressure
fromHunSenandacoalitionpartyformedinstead.Everyelectionsincehasbeen
subjecttoviolenceandsurroundedbyaccusationsofcorruption(HRW2015).
SandersonandMaley(1998)arguedthatthe1998elections(whichfollowedthe
1997coup)remainedacontestbetweenliberaldemocracyandauthoritarianrule
–acontestwonbytheauthoritarianruleoftheCambodianPeople’sParty.My
experienceinCambodiaindicatedthesame:therulingparty,usingthreatsand
207McCargo(2005:99)notesoneofthesuccessesbeingthat‘veryfewpeoplelosttheirlives’!
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 277
actualviolence,governedwithauthoritarianruleundertheguiseofliberal
democracy,anillusionsupportedbyinternationalgovernmentsandbusiness.
WesawinchapterfivehowtheCPPandHunSencametopowerfollowingthe
1979depositionoftheKhmerRouge,andhowtheirrulehascontinuedeversince.
2013wasthefirstyearsincetheUNTACelectionsof1993thattheCPPfaceda
genuinechallengefromthemainoppositionparty,theCambodianNational
RescueParty(CNRP).Formedin2012bymergingtheSamRainsyParty(led,
unsurprisingly,bySamRainsy)andtheHumanRightsParty(ledbyKemSokha),
theCNRPwasgainingmomentumandsupportintherun-uptothe2013general
election,particularlyamongtheincreasinglydisillusionedyouthofCambodia.In
previousyearsthishadnotbeensuchathreattotherulingregime;themajority
ofvotershadlivedthroughtheKhmerRougeregime,andassuch,werenotonly
gratefultotheCPPformakingpeacewiththeKhmerRougeandrulingarelatively
peacefulcountry,butalsolivedinfearoftheregimes’revival.In2013,however,
approximately1.5millionyoungpeoplebecameeligibletovote(Hughes2015),
andoveronethirdofthevoterswereagedbetween18and25years(Lohmanand
Enos2014).Manyweredisillusionedwiththegovernmentanditsmodeofruling
andwereseekingchange,offeredbythenewlyformedCNRP.Thisyouthdidnot
deterthepoliticalpartiesfromusingtheregimeintheirpropaganda,however;by
doingsotheyaimedtomanipulatetheoldergeneration,andremindthemofthe
violence.However,itwasnotonlythroughremindersandre-vitalisationthat
KhmerpoliticsrevivedthespectersoftheKhmerRouge,themainparties
themselvesre-enactedtheviolenceanddominationoftheregimethroughthe
useoffearandtension,usingterrorasamechanismofpowertogarnersupport
andfostersuspicion.
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EthnographicCaseStudies
Havingoutlinedthetheoreticalbackgroundforthischapter,thissectionwill
provideanethnographicexplorationoftheKhmerRougehauntology,made
explicitbythe2013elections.CoveringeventsoccurringbetweenMayand
September2013,itwillshowhowinmyfieldsites,tensionandfearwerebuilt
incrementallybyiterationsofviolenceandremindersoftheKhmerRougethatre-
animatedboththeregimeanditsotherviolenceandinsecurity,reachingaclimax
atthetimesurroundingtheelections.FirstIwilldescribetheMay20thmemorial
eventheldbytheCPPatChoeungEkGenocidalCenter,wheretheviolenceofthe
regimeisre-enactedingrotesquerealismannually.Iwillmoveontodiscussa
politicalrallyheldbytherulingpartyagainsttheCNRPinJune2013inKep
provinceofSouthernCambodia,andfinally,Iwillexploretheincreasingfearand
tensionthatgrewaroundelectiontimeasexperiencedbymyinformantsand
myselfinJulyandAugustinKohSop.
Spiritsofthepast:the‘heroes’ofthenation
May20th2013.Bodieslaystrewnacrossthegrass:women;children;men.AsI
lookedon,aKhmerRougesoldierdressedinblack,witharedandwhitekrama208
knottedaroundherneck,tookapalmleafanddrewitacrossaprisoner’sthroat.
Anothertookthebuttofhisgunandsmasheditontothebackofaman’shead,
knockinghimtotheground.Amalesoldiergrabbedawoman,and,draggingher
byherhair,pulledhertothefloor,wherehethrusthisbodyagainsthers,asifto
rapeher.Thecarnagecontinuedforalmostfifteenminutes.Thesoundof
208AtraditionalKhmeritem,thekramaisalargepieceofstrongmaterial,ofteninachequeredpattern,usedforalmosteverything:headscarf,sarong,dishcloth,baby’shammock,handkerchiefandmoreorlessanythingelsealargepieceofmaterialmightbehandyfor.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 279
gunfire,screamingandbeatingfilledtheair,alongsideanothersound:the
murmurofchatteraspeoplelookedon.
Thisterriblespectaclewasanact:partofaremembranceceremonyheldannually
atChoeungEkbytheCPP.Beforethekillingstarted,wewatchedastheKhmer
RougetookoverCambodiatocheersandjubilation.Wesawpeoplebeingdriven
fromtheirhomesintothecountryside,beforebeingputtowork,fromwhich
manycollapsedandneverrose.Wewitnessedpeoplestarving,dyingfrom
disease,andcountlessexecutions.The3years,8monthsand20daysof
DemocraticKampucheawasenactedinexcruciatingrealismtousspectators;all
Khmerexceptformeandonemediacameraman.
Sompoah,myresearchassistant,andIhadarrivedatChoeungEkaround8.30am,
catchingaliftfromPhnomPenhwithoneofthemanagersfromthesite.After
thecoolofherair-conditionedcar209,theheatwasalreadyoverwhelmingaswe
madeourwaytothecentralstupa,wheretheeventhadalreadystarted.Crowds
circledthegreenthathadbeentheholdingsiteofthosearrivingatChoeungEk
forexecution–nowadaysanemptyspaceofgrass.Threesideswereboundedby
colourfulmarquees,offeringshadefortheimportantguests:overahundred
saffron-robedmonksononeside;theothertwocrammedfullofofficialinvitees,
primarilymembersoftheCPP-localofficialsandgovernmentemployees
conspicuousintheirblacktrousersandwhiteshirts.Therestofusstoodunder
theblisteringheat,crowdingtogetabetterview.SompoahandImadeourway
upthestepsofthestupa:fromthetoplevelwecouldlookdownovertheheads
andwatchtheproceedings.
209AluxuryforSompoahandI,whousuallymadeourwaydownthepot-holedanddustyroadbytuktukormotodop.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 280
Aswemadeourwayupthestepswelistenedtothespeechesbeingbroadcast
overloudspeakers.‘Wecomeheretoremembertheheroeswhosaved
Cambodia,thepartywhoareheroesofournation,whodidsuchgood’the
compère,anâcharfromapagodainPhnomPenh,announced.‘Weallthankyou’
hecontinued,‘andwewishyoualltheluckintheupcomingelections.Wepray
youaresuccessful.’Thenextspeaker,arepresentativeoftheKhmerCham
community210wasnolesseffusive:‘Thankyou[CPP]fororganizingthisevent,and
thankyouSamdechHunSen211forallowingustopracticeourreligionfreely.’
There-enactmentsweregraphic;womenwerebeaten,childrentornfromtheir
parents,peopleexecuted.Thecrowdcrammedtoseeovereachother’sheads;
childrenpushedtheirwaytothefront;onemanliftedhisson,aboyoftwoor
threeyearsold,ontohisshoulderstogetabetterview.Whenthefieldwas
litteredwithbodies(figurethirteen),thetroopscameintosaveCambodia.
210Cham(anethnicgroupinSoutheastAsiawholiveprimarilyacrossCambodiaandVietnamandfollowIslam)weretargetedbytheKhmerRougeasagroupforextermination,particularlyunderHunSen,andHengSamrin’sdirectionsintheEasternzone(HumanRightsWatch2015a).
211 Samdechisanhonorifictitlemeaningprincelyorlordly,usuallygiventothoseprovidinggreat
servicetothenation. HunSenhasrecentlygivenhimselfthetitleSamdechAkkaMohaSenaPedeiTecho:PrincelyExaltedSupremeGreatCommanderofGloriouslyVictoriousTroops.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 281
Figurethirteen:KhmerRougere-enactmentatChoeungEkremembranceevent(souce:theauthor)
Tomuchheralding,soldiersinthemilitaryuniformsofthegovernmentmarched
in,holdinghighthreeflags:theblueflagoftheNationalFront212,theredand
yellowflagofthePeople’sRepublicofKampuchea(PRK),andtheblueflagofthe
CambodianPeople’sParty(CPP),butnoticeablymissingtheVietnameseflag.If
themessagehadbeenobtusebefore,thesefinalflagsmadeitexplicit:theCPP
savedCambodiafromtheKhmerRouge.Asthere-enactmentsended,andaftera
fewshortchantstosendmerittothedead,theattendantmonksstoodtocollect
offeringsfromtheattendees.Astheyrose,theâcharonceagaintookthe
microphone:‘Don’tforgettovoteforthe[CambodianPeople’s]Partyinthe
electionsinJuly.’
ThoughincludingtheBuddhistchantsthatenablemerittobesenttothedead,
thiswasneitherareligiousceremony,noraneventofremembranceofthosewho
212TheKhmerUnitedFrontforNationalSalvation(nottobeconfusedwiththeopposingKhmerPeople’sLiberationFront),usuallyshortenedsimplyto‘TheFront’or‘TheNationalFront’,consistedofopponentstotheKhmerRougeregime,andformedthecoreofthePRK.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 282
haddiedduringtheregime.213Itwasinstead,agraphicreminderoftheKhmer
Rouge,reifiedasahomogenous,evilentityofterrorandchaos,removedfrom
powerbytheheroicCPP.Speakingwithattendeesafterwards,no-onementioned
thedead.InsteaditwastheKhmerRougethatwastheobjectof
commemoration:‘itisimportantforusnottoforgettheKhmerRouge’one
womantoldme‘otherwiseitmighthappenagain.’
OnceallhadfinishedIwanderedtomyusualspotatthefrontofChoeungEkwith
theaudio-guideteam.BongLawastakingheadphonesandaudioplayersfrom
touristsastheyleftthesiteandIjoinedhim,helpingpreparetheplayersforthe
nextpeople.AsweworkedIaskedhimabouttheevent.‘It’sreallyhard’hesaid.
‘I’musedtoitnow,butatfirstIfounditfrightening,anditshockedme.’BongLa,
aged32,didnotexperienceDemocraticKampuchea,buthisparentslivedthrough
itandtoldhimmanystories.BongLahimselfgrewupinKampongCham,andhad
vividmemoriesofthelatteryearsofKhmerRougeviolence:inthelate1980sand
throughouttheearly1990shisvillagehadbeensubjecttomanyraidsbythe
regime.‘Whentheywerecomingthecommuneleaderwouldhitabell,andwe
wouldhear:“PolPot,PolPot;PolPot’scomingagain!PolPot’scomingagain!”
Wewouldrunandhide.Sometimestheystolethings.Sometimestheyburned
thehouses.Onetimetheykilledsomepeople.’
There-enactmentsinitiallyremindedhimoftheseraids,andofthestorieshis
parentshadtoldhimoftheirsuffering.Bynow,havingworkedatthesitefor
213Thepresenceofthemonksservedprimarilytolegitimatetheculturalandmorallegitimacyoftheevent(Gray2014):themonk’spresencealsoprovidedameansbywhichpeoplecouldimprovetheirownkarmathroughtheactionoftveabon–makingmeritbygivingofferingstothemonksandthepagodatheycamefrom.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 283
manyyears,hewasusedtoit,andhadnoticedsomechangesinrecentyears:
‘thereusedtobemanymorepeople’hetoldme,‘buteveryyearitgetslessand
less.Theyoungpeopledon’tcome.Butstilltheyusethesamestoryaboutthe
KhmerRouge.’
‘Theotherparty,theoppositionparty,theyalsohavearemembrancedayhere’
hetoldme.Ihadbeenawayatthetime,andhadnotknownabouttheevent,
anduntilthispointMay20thwastheonlyremembranceeventdatethatIknew
of.‘Dotheycomeonthesameday?’Iasked.‘No’hereplied,laughing,‘different
days.SamRainsy’spartycomeson17thApril.’In2013theCNRPeventat
ChoeungEkwassmall,onlyattendedbyaround200people.SamRainsy,the
leaderoftheoppositionparty,wasinself-imposedexileinParisatthetime,
avoidingan11-yearsentencethatwas,reportedly,politicallymotivated.
However,oppositionpartymembersarrivedfromPhnomPenh,andthedeputy
leaderandactingpresident,KemSokha,ledasmallceremonyduringwhicha
videolinkwasestablishedwithParisthroughwhichSamRainsyspoke.Atthis
event,Rainsy(quotedinMeas2012,myhighlights)stated:
ThenewgenerationofKhmerRouge,puppetsofVietnam,havekilledpeople
littlebylittle….BothPolPotandHunSenhavealwayscelebratedApril17
becausetheyregarditastheirvictoryday.
April17thisthedayin1975thattheKhmerRougemarchedintoPhnomPenhand
tookpower.
Occurringsoclosetotheelections,the2013eventsprovidedaplacewherethe
violenceoftheKhmerRougecouldbereiterated,butalsoprovidedoccasionfor
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linkstobemadebetweentherespectivepoliticalpartiesandtheregime.The
parallelsdrawnweremoreconvincingandbetteranimatedbecauseofthe
connectiontothedeadandtheirviolentdeathsofthoseatChoeungEk(see
chapterfive).However,remembrancedaysbythemselveswerenotenough;
althoughtheywereusefultoolsofpoliticalpropaganda,toreallyinstillfearand
insecurity,andtheviablethreatoftheKhmerRouge,continualreferenceand
reanimationwasrequired.Thishappenedincrementallythroughoutthe
campaignperiod,withstatementsmadeeitheralludingtotheKhmerRouge,or
explicitlythreateningtheirpresence.InresponsetoSamRainsy’scommentsat
ChoeungEk,HunSenthreatenedCambodiawith‘internalwar,akintotheKhmer
Rougeperiod’iftheoppositionweretowin(Naren2013).Earlierinthe
campaigninghehadlikenedtheCNRPthemselvestotheregime(quotedin
Vannarin2013a,myhighlights):
Theyhavesaidbothopenlyandinwhispersthatoncetheyareelectedtheywill
eliminateeveryone’sdebt….ThisiswhatImean;theKhmerRougehasreturned.
Suchstatementshowever,neededreiteratingtobecomeagenuinethreatin
people’simaginations,somethinghelpedalongonlyafewweekslaterbya
politicalrallyledbytherulingpartyagainsttheopposition.
Spiritsofthepresent:rallyingagainsttheopposition
InJuneIvisitedPhnomGrahominKep,aKhmerRougere-settlementvillagebuilt
inthe1990saspartofthewin-winpolicy.Oneofthelaststrongholdsofthe
KhmerRouge,theareaaroundthevillageishometoseveralmassgraves,andthe
mountainsandforestsbehinditwerewitnesstomanybattlesandmuchdeath,
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bothduringandafterDemocraticKampuchea.Thelocalvillagechiefsandseveral
ofthecommunecouncilwereformercadre;somehadbeenresponsibleformuch
ofthehorrorsthathadoccurredinthearea.AllweremembersoftheCPP.
MylocalassistantwasSoth,areservedmanofaroundthirtywhohadgrownupin
thevillage.Afterfinishingworkeachdaywewouldplanthenextday’svisits:
wherewewouldgo,whowewouldsee.Appointmentswerenevermadeinthe
Cambodianvillages–wesimplyarrivedatpeople’shomesorworkplacesand
askedtotalk.Ifpeoplewerenotthere,orweretoobusytochat,wereturned
anotherday.Sometimesittookseveralvisitstosecureameeting,butusually
peoplewouldstoptogiveustime.OneeveningIaskedtoreturnthenextdayto
speaktoTaThom,oneofthevillagechiefs.Iwantedtoaskabouthisexperiences
immediatelyafterthefallofDemocraticKampucheaintheearly1980s.‘It’snot
possible’Sothtoldme,‘hewillbeattherally.’
Fourweeksearlieramediastormhadbrokenloosewhenarecordingwas
releasedinwhichKemSokha,deputyleaderandactingpresidentoftheCNRP,
allegedlydeniedtheveracityofTuolSlengasaprisonandkillingsiteduringthe
KhmerRouge.Duringtherecording,KemSokha(quotedinMenglengand
Zsombar2013)canbeheardsuggestingtheVietnamesestagedtheprisonasa
siteofpoliticalpropaganda:
TheVietnamesecreatedthisplacewithpictures[ofthevictims].Ifthisplaceis
trulyKhmerRougetheywouldhaveknockeditdownbeforetheyleft…ifthe
KhmerRougekilledpeople,wouldtheykeepittoshowtoeveryone?Ifthey
knewtheykilledmanypeople,whywouldtheykeepthisplace?
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 286
Therecording,releasedonMay26th,twomonthsbeforethe2013general
elections,provokedoutrage.Thedayafteritwasreleased,ChumMey214,a
survivorofTuolSlengheldapressconferenceatthesite,atwhichhethreatened
tosueKemSokhaifhedidnotretracthiscomments.Withinaweekthe
CambodiangovernmentbegandiscussinglegislationagainstdenialoftheKhmer
Rouge;followingthebanningof27oppositionlawmakersfromparliament,the
anti-genocidedeniallegislation(the‘LawagainstNon-RecognitionoftheCrimes
CommittedduringDemocraticKampuchea’)wasrushedthroughparliamentand
passedintolawonJune7th,12daysaftertheinitialreleaseoftherecording.
Althoughtheystatedthatitwouldnotbeusedretrospectively,thiswaslargely
heldtobeapoliticalmovebytheCPPintherun-uptotheelections.215Putting
thislegislationinplacewhileKemSokha’sallegeddenialwasstillfreshinpeople’s
mindsservedtwopurposes:itinstilledtheideathatKemSokhawasagenocide
denierand,therefore,acriminal;notsomeoneyouwouldtrustleadingyour
country.Atthesametimeitremindedthecountryofthesufferingcausedbythe
KhmerRouge,andreiteratedthenarrativethatonlytherulingpartycouldensure
Cambodia’scontinuedprotectionfromsucharegime–theoppositionobviously
couldnotbetrustedtosafeguardCambodiaiftheydeniedtheveracityofits
violenthistory.ThiswasmadeallthemorevividbythelocationKemSokhahad
214
ChumMeyisasurvivorofTuolSlengwhohaswrittenabookabouthisexperiences(Mey2012).ChumMeyhascommoditisedhissurvival;hemakesalivingatTuolSleng,wherehehasasmallboothatwhichhesellshisbooktotouristsandhashispicturetakenwiththem.BouMeng,anothersurvivor,alsosellshisownbiography(Vannak2010)atthesite.BothareofficersofKseanKmey,anassociationthatworkswiththeECCCtocollectvicimnarrativesforthecourtproceedings.AlthoughcommonlyreportedthatonlysevenpeoplesurvivingTuolSlengprison,morethan100peoplehavenowbeenidentifiedashavingpassedthroughtheprisonduringtheregime(Eng2013),however,onlyChumMeyandBouMengmaketheirlivingatthesite.
215InadditiontheArticle19LawProgrammeattheFreeWordCentreinLondonexaminedthislaw
andfoundittobeinviolationofinternationalhumanrightsonfreedomofexpression,andlabelledthelegislativeprocessbywhichitwaspassed‘deeplyflawed’(Article192013).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 287
allegedlydenied:TuolSleng;tortureanddetentioncentre,killingsite,massgrave,
andinternationalsymboloftheviolenceoftheregime.
WhilstthemediaconcentratedontherallyoccurringinPhnomPenh,protests
tookplaceacrossthecountry.BeinginKepatthetime,Iattendedtherallyat
WatKampongTralach,alongwithasomewhatreluctantSoth(whowasanxious
nottobeassociatedwiththeCPP),andmypartner,whowasalsoconducting
researchintheareaatthetime.
LikemanypagodasacrossCambodia,WatKampongTralachhadbeenusedasa
detentioncentreandkillingsiteduringDemocraticKampuchea.Followingitsfall
theKhmerRougeabandonedthesitebutleftitlitteredwiththecorpsesofthose
whodiedthere;‘therewerekhmouch(recentlydeceasedbodies)alloverthe
place.Theywereeverywhereinthepagoda,’aneldertoldmethefirsttimeI
visitedthesite).Aswithmanysites,afterthefallofDemocraticKampuchealocal
peoplehadcollectedthebodiesandpiledtheminap’teahkhmouchreplacedin
lateryearsbyaconcretecheddei.Thisconcretestupanowhousestheskeletal
remains,stackedneatlyontwoshelves.Thecheddeistandsatthebackofthe
pagodaandappearsasanyothermodeststupawithinthetemplegroundsifyou
donotknowwhattolookfor.Forsomeofthemonksatthepagoda,itis
relativelyunimportant.Itis‘somewheretolookafterthebonesofthosewho
havenorelatives’anelderlymonkcommented,butitwas,inhisopinion,no
differenttoanyoftheotherstupaacrossthewatcomplex.However,whenevera
politicalcampaigntakesplacethecheddei,ormorespecificallytheskeletal
remainswithinit,becamesignificant;inthiscaseitwastherallyagainstKem
Sokha.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 288
Attherally,overseventytrucks-officialgovernmentvehicles-eachjammedfull
ofpeople,drovethroughthedistrict,blastingdenunciationsofKemSokhafrom
loudspeakers.ArrivingatWatKampongTralach,peopleunloadedandmarched
tositinfrontoftheKhmerRougecheddei.Manyoftheteenagers,andsomeof
theadults,carriedplacardsbearingreactionaryslogans(figurefourteen):‘Wewill
rememberfortherestofourlivesthePolPotsoldiers’brutalactsonourvillage,’
‘KemSokhaisfightingagainsttheKhmerRougeTrial,’and‘KemSokhaismore
cowardlythanDuch216’.Theplacardshadidenticallettering,andthesame
statementsrepeatedoverandoveragain.217Asmypartnerlaterwrote:‘ithad
theappearanceandfeelofaregimentedspectacle’(Hull2013).
Figurefourteen:protestorsatrallyagainstKemSokha,June2013(source:theauthor)
216Thisplacardisparticularlyinteresting.DuchwascommandantofTuolSlengprisonduringDemocraticKampucheawho,afterbeinglocatedworkingforanAmericancharityinNorthernCambodiain1997,surrenderedhimselfuptothegovernmentforimprisonment.HistrialwasthefirstattheECCC,andin2010hewasconvictedofcrimesagainsthumanity,torture,andmurderandimprisonedforlife.ThenameDuchhasbecomeasymbolformanyoftheterrorandviolenceoftheKhmerRouge.
217SubsequentnewspaperarticlescoveringtherallyinPhnomPenhshowedthesameslogansrepeatedthere,againcarriedbytheCPPYouth(ChansyandZsombor2013)
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 289
Oncetheyarrivedinfrontofthecheddei,localCPPofficialsmadespeeches
condemningKemSokhaandtheCNRP.Thecheddeidoorsstoodopen,displaying
thebonesinside;thosespeakingstoodinitsdoorway,backedbytheskeletal
remainsofthosewhohaddiedduringtheKhmerRougeregime(figurefifteen).
Thestupahadbeencleanedanddecoratedinblackandwhite,asusuallydenotes
mourningorafuneral.Iaskedacaretakerwhetherthishappenedoften.‘Only
whenÂngkar(theorganization–meaningthegovernment)tellsus’hereplied.
Acoupleofthousandpeopleattendedtherally,andthenumbersimpliedthat
peoplewereangryandhurtbyKemSokha’sallegeddenialoftheKhmerRouge
actionsatTuolSleng(andbyinferencetherefore,acrossCambodia).Peoplein
thevillage,however,toldadifferentstory.Eachlocalvillagechief,allCPP
membershad,afewdayspreviously,beenorderedbythedistrictofficetosendat
least50villagerstotheprotest.Whenaskedwhatwouldhappeniftheydidnot
comply,onereplied‘it’snotachoice.’Thecommune,Sothtoldme,organisedthe
rally.TheteenagersattendingwerefromthelocalCPPYouth.ACPPofficialfrom
thelocaldistrictofficespokeattheevent;‘KemSokhamustbemadetoanswer
forhiscrimes’hesaid.‘HunSenhassavedthecountry.Wemustcontinueto
supporthim.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 290
Figurefifteen:Protestorslistentospeechesinfrontofthecheddeiofremains(source:theauthor)
LiketheremembranceceremoniesatChoeungEk,therallywasaneventseeking
toreanimatetheKhmerRouge,butalsoevidenceofhowpoliticsinCambodiais
performedinspheresofdistrust,violence,corruptionandmanipulation.
Spiritsofthefuture:fearandrumour
AtthestartofJulyImovedfromPhnomGrahomtoKohSop.LikeWatKampong
Tralach,KohSophadbeenthesiteofaprisonandkillingsiteduringDemocratic
Kampuchea;asanislanditwasanideallocationforcontainingpeople.Arrivingso
closetotheelections,manypeopleatfirstdidnottrustme;severalmembersof
thecommunityhadoriginallybeensuspiciousofme,supposingIwasworkingfor
thegovernment,recordinginformationaboutthevillagetoreportback.Forsome
ofthemorewarypeopleithadtakenseveralweeksbeforetheywouldtalktome
beyondsayinghello.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 291
Astheelectionsneared,tensionandfearbecamepalpableinthevillage.Afew
daysbeforetheeventIhadameetinginPhnomPenh.Thecitywascloseenough
thatIcouldtravelfortheday,andPhasy(myresearchassistant)decidedtocome
withmetovisitherfriendsinthecapital.WhenwearrivedatOmSrey’shouse
fordinnerthenightbeforewewent,themessagethatweweretravellingto
PhnomPenhhadreachedher.Asusual,afterdinnerwesatchattingonthe
bambooplatformatthefrontofherhouseasshesatonthestepsleadingupto
herhouse.‘AreyoureallygoingtoPhnomPenh?’sheaskedme;‘aren’tyou
scared?’
Theviolentdiscourseofthepre-electionscampaignswasstartlinglyeffectivein
raisingthetensionthataccompaniedKhmerelections.Rumoursstartedto
circulate,amongstbothKhmerandinternationalcommunitiesofimpending
violenceandchaos.InKohSopstoriesreachedusthroughrelativesworkingin
thecapital:thatthearmyhadbeendeployedtoPhnomPenh;thattherewere
tanksonthestreets218;thatHunSen’spersonalguard219hadbeenexpanded;that
oppositionsupporterswerebeingbeatenorkilled.OnestorywasthatDeputy
PrimeMinister,SokAn,wasthreateningtooverthrowHunSen,whichwould
undoubtedlyleadtohorrificviolence,andwar;itwas,afterall,theoverthrowof
anotherleader(LonNol)thathadmarkedthebeginningoftheKhmerRouge
regime.ThetensionwasheightenedbecauseofSamRainsy’sarrivalbackin
218Followingtheelections,withrumoursofelectoralcorruptionanddissatisfactionabouttheresultsmakingprotestsathreat,themediareportedthedeploymentoftanksinPhnomPenhonAugust9
th(CrothersandDara2013)andagainonAugust16
th(AsiaSentinel2013).Friendsin
PhnomPenhatthetimeneversawany,andIamuncertainwhetherthisstorywassimplyare-iterationofthestillcirculatingrumours.Simons(1995:53),whenwritingabouttheviolenceinMogadishuinthelate1980s,wrotethatrumoursbecomeknowledgeintheabsenceofotherinformationthatcouldbesubstantiated.Theremaybeanelementofthis.Nowreportedinthemedia,itappearstanksweredeployedinPhnomPenh.
219HunSenhasaunitof5–10,000personalbodyguardswithintheCambodianmilitarythathavebeenimplicatedinmanyviolentclashesoccurringovertheyears.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 292
Cambodia.TheleaderoftheCNRPpartyhadbeeninself-imposedexileinParis,
avoidinganeleven-yearprisonsentencethatmostcommentatorsagreedwas
politicallymotivated(Curley2014;Karbaum2012;Peou2011).Followingaroyal
pardon,hereturnedlessthantwoweeksbeforetheelectionandpromptlyset
aboutharnessingthedissatisfactionalreadyrifeamongstmanyKhmeryouth.
Theinsecuritypeoplefeltwasmanifestedinanumberofways.Manyofmy
informantswereafraidtodiscussmanyissues,particularlythosetheyconsidered
nottobethebusinessof‘ordinarypeople.’HunSenreportedlykeepsanetwork
ofspiesacrossCambodia.Ontherunuptotheelectionpeoplewerevisiblyafraid
oftheconsequencesofopposing,orbeingdeemedtooppose,therulingparty.
NeakSrey,ayoungwomanwhoworkedinthecity,wasanoppositionsupporter,
butastheelectionnearedshehunglargeCPPpostersacrossthefrontofher
house.HerCNRPstickerswerehiddenfromviewontheinsideofthelegs
supportingherhouse,displayedwhereonlytrustedfriendsandfamilywouldsee.
ApproachingtheoutskirtsofPhnomPenhinlateJune,thedriverofourtaxileant
overtotheglovecompartmentandwithdrewabaseballcapwiththeCPPlogo
embroideredonthefrontofit.Heplaceditinhiswindscreenprominently
displayinghisapparentallegiancetotheparty.Sothlaterexplainedthatpeople
wereafraid,notonlyofviolence,butalsoofthestructuralviolenceopposition
couldresultin.‘Theremightbeviolence,’heexplained,‘butitcanalsobeabout
administration.Iftheyvotefortheopposition,andthenwanttogetapassport,
ormaybesomepaperstheyneedforthehospital,itwillbeimpossible.Whatever
theywanttodointhefuturetheycan’t.’Thisanxietyexistedinsomeofmy
informants,whoclammedupiftheythoughtthesubjecthadgottoopolitical.Om
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 293
Yay,forexample,refusedtotalkabouttheretentionoftheskeletalremainsof
thosewhodiedundertheKhmerRouge:
It’shardformetotalkaboutthisbecausetheparty[theCPP]mightthreatenusif
wesaysomethingwrong.It’sdifficulttospeakoutnow….IfIsaysomething,
theremightbeaspy.IfIsaysomethingisnotgood,theymightarrestmeand
imprisonmeinPreySarprison220.It’shard.SoIdon’treallywanttotalkaboutit.
I’mscared.
Alocalshopownerexpressedsimilarsentiments:
I’mafraidtotalkaboutthisissue.Irefusetotalkaboutit.
Everythingisconfidential….
I’mjustafraidthatthisrecordmightbeusedforsomekindofpoliticalissue.
Thesilenceextendsimpunity,engenderingfurtherpoliticalviolence,bothlocally
andnationally.However,mostofmyolderinformantscontinuedtovoteforthe
CPP.‘IremembertheKhmerRouge’OmSreytoldme.‘IwillkeepvotingforHun
Senbecausehekeepsussafefromthem.’ThememoriesofDemocratic
Kampucheamadethefearofthecountrydescendingintowarstrongerthanthe
fearofpoliticalviolence.HoweverbadHunSenandtherulingCPPwere,theyhad
‘saved’Cambodiaand,subsequently,developedthecountryandkeptitstable.
OmSreytoldmethatHunSenbuilttheroads,theschools,thehospitals.Whena
fireburntdownherhouseinthe1990s,itwas,shesaid,HunSenwhogavehera
220PreySarprisoninPhnomPenhisCambodia’slargestprison.Ithousesaround500inmates,(mostlymen)however,itisalsohometoseveralhighprofileandextrajudicialprisoners,includingseveralforeigninmates.ConditionsatPreySararenotoriouslypoor,withovercrowding,littlefoodordrinkprovision,highlevelsofcorruption,andpoorsanitation(LICADHO2015).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 294
tenttostayinandfoodtosurvivewith.HunSenandtheCPPdeservedtheir
support,sheexplained,becausetheyhadrescuedthem:
thepeoplewhorescuedthecountry[theCPP];weallsaidsolongastheyrescued
us,wewoulddoanything[forthem].
Inthedaysfollowingtheelectiontensionremainedhigh,particularlyasthe
resultsweredelayed.Rumourscontinuedtoaboundbutthistimeofelectoral
corruption:theindelibleinkthatmarkedvoter’sfingerswas,apparently,
washable,andsomepeoplevotedtwice.Insomeareas,doubleballotpapers
wereprinted.Inotherspeople(mostlyoppositionvoters)arrivedtovote,onlyto
discovertheywerenotregistered.Theresult,whichwasexpectedon1stAugust,
wasdelayed.Asthedayswentonweallwaitedanxiously:someinhope,somein
fear.OmBrohwasoneofthefewvillagerswitharadio,andheandothermen
fromthevillagewouldsitlisteningtoitintheevenings.Walkingpasthishouseon
ourwayhomefromdinnerwewouldstoptofindoutiftheresulthadbeen
announcedyet.Theycamelessthantwoweekslater,on12thAugust,butthat
twoweeksfeltinterminable.
ThoughthenumberofseatsheldbytheCPPdroppeddramatically(from90to
68),therulingpartyreportedthattheyhadwonthemajorityinallbutfourofthe
25Cambodianprovinces(CNRPwontheotherfourprovinces,and55seatsinthe
senate).221ItwastheCPP’sworstresultsinceelectionshadbegun,heightening
theanxietyalreadyfeltamongstmyinformants.Forweeksaftertheelectionsthe
circulatingrumourssparkedstoriesofpastviolences,maintainingtheever-
presentfearatalevelbubblingjustbelowthesurface.ThedistrictwhereKohSop221TheNationalElectionCommission,asupposedlyindependentagency,consistingentirelyofCPPmembers,subsequentlyinvestigatedtheelectionresults.Unsurprisingly,theresultheld.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 295
issituatedhadbeenwonbytheCNRP,andthismadepeoplenervous:‘wedon’t
knowwhatwillhappennow’anelderlymanexplainedwhenwechattedabout
this.Hisanxietyprovedtobegroundedinreality.Inthecapitalviolentclashes
occurredinaspeopleprotestedtheresult(HumanRightsWatch2014).Afterthe
floodsofAugustandSeptembermyresearchassistant,Phasy,returnedtoher
homeinBattambangprovinceforafewdaystohelpherfamily.Thereshe
discoveredthatwhenthefloodsdisplacedthousandsofpeople,aidfromthe
CambodiaRedCross(runbyBunRany,HunSen’swife)hadonlybeendistributed
tothosewhohadvotedfortheCPP.Administrativeviolencewasasthreatening
andcoerciveasdirectviolenceformanypeople.
Discussion
Derrida’sdiscussionofhauntologyrevolvesaroundcontemporarysystemsof
neoliberalism,anillusionofwhichisthatitsomehowexorcisesthespirits
hauntingitscreation(inthiscaseMarxism).TheKhmerRougefunctionssimilarly
incontemporaryKhmerpolitics,witheachpartyconstructingamyththattheyare
theonlyoneswhocanexorciseitspast.Derridashows,however,thatspecters
arenotsimplyhauntingpasts,butpaststhatformthepresent.‘Haunting’he
wrote(1994:34)‘belongstothestructureofeveryhegemony.’Khmerpolitical
hegemonyiscertainlybuiltonthebackofDemocraticKampuchea,andtheKhmer
Rougeandtheirviolencearepreciselythiskindofspecter.Toomitthemfrom
anykindofinteractionwithcontemporaryCambodiaisnotonlyimpossible,but,if
adheringtoDerrida’smoralargument,unjust.Theymustbeengagedwith,
becausetheyformtherealityinwhichweexistandcreatethatwhichwewill
enterinthefuture.Derrida(1994:13)wrote:
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 296
NotwithoutMarx,nofuturewithoutMarx,withoutthememoryandthe
inheritanceofMarx;inanycaseofacertainMarx.
ThesewordscouldjustaseasilyapplytocontemporaryCambodia,bysimply
replacingthewordMarx,with‘theKhmerRouge’:
NotwithouttheKhmerRouge,nofuturewithouttheKhmerRouge,withoutthe
memoryandinheritanceoftheKhmerRouge;inanycaseofacertainKhmer
Rouge.
ThecertainKhmerRougeisthatwhichcontemporarypoliticsandsociallifehas
created.‘Timecontinuestostretchmeaningsaswellassignificance,’Simons
(1995:57)wroteofthe1988-1989violenceinMogadishu.InCambodiathe
meaningsassociatedwiththeKhmerRougearecontinuallyreinterpreted.Forthe
CPP,theyremainusefulspiritswithwhichtomaintainpoweroperatedbyfear.In
theshadowoftheUN-backedtrials,thesespiritsarereshapedbytheCNRPto
demonstratethepushforjusticeandhumanrightsthattheydeemonlytheycan
produce.Whilstdoingsobothperforminpoliticalcirclesformedinthewakeof
theregimethatthereforerelyonitspresencefortheirveryexistence.
Derrida’sspectersexistwithorwithoutattentionbecausetheyarethebasisofall
imaginingsofcontemporaryandfuturewaysofliving.InCambodia,however,the
spectersarecaredfor,maintained,madestronger,manipulated,used,and
abusedbythoseadoptingthem.TallynGray,inhisthesisontransitionaljusticein
Cambodia,notesthatHunSenwinsvotesthroughthenarrativeof‘notbeingPol
Pot’(Gray2014:191).DavidChandlerhasarguedthatHunSen’semphasisofthe
termgenocideinhisdiscourseservestogivefascistimaginingstotheKhmer
Rougeregime(Chandler2008a:360).Indoingso,itprovidesaperfectopposition
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 297
tohis(supposedly)democraticrule.InthebookCambodia’sCurse:TheModern
HistoryofaTroubledLand(2011)JoelBrinkleyarguesthatthelegacyofthe
KhmerRougeservestolowernationalandinternationalexpectationsof
conditionsinCambodia,enablingHunSenandtheCPPtogovernwithimpunity
despitehorrifichumanrightsabuse,andhighlevelsofongoingdirectand
structuralviolence.ButtheKhmerRougeisnotsimplyalegacy.Spiritsin
Cambodiaaresocialbeingswhointeractinbothpositiveandnegativewaysto
engendersocialaction.ThespectersoftheKhmerRougeareequallyviablein
contemporaryCambodia,andthroughouttheelectioncampaignsbecamevisible
astheywerecontinuallyreanimatedandrevivedbythemainparties.Butthey
werenotonlyviablespecters;theregimehauntsinthewaycontemporaryKhmer
politicsisformedinrelationtoit,andperformsnewformsofpoliticalviolenceon
thepopulation.
Insecuritybubblesbelowthesurfaceofdailylivesformanyofmyinformants.
Memories(lived,imaginedandnarrated)ofpain,terror,tortureanddeath,of
violentrepressionsandpoliticalhorrorshavepermeatedthesocialmemoryof
manypeople,particularlythosewholivedthroughthedecadesofconflictinthe
1960s,70s,80sand90s.Throughoutthe1990s,MayEbiharaandJudy
Ledgerwood,anthropologistsfromtheUS,visitedSvay,thevillagewhereEbihara
hadundertakenheroriginalfieldworkinthe1960s.Writingofthesevisitsin
2002,theycommented‘Cambodianstodayhavea…generalizedfearabout
violencewithintheirmidst’(EbiharaandLedgerwood2002:283).Atthetimeit
wasfocusedonmilitarypersonnelstillpresentinthearea.Duringmyfieldwork
thisfearwasnolongerdirectedatmilitaryindividuals,buttothewiderpolitical
sphere.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 298
ItwasnotonlytheCPPwhoexecuteviolence.TheCNRP’selectioncampaigning
focusesonrhetoricsofhatredagainsttheVietnamese–theirleaderSamRainsy
regularlyreferstothescourgeofYuan(aderogatorynameforVietnamese),and
everyelectionpromisestoejectthemfromthecountry.Afterthe2013elections,
SamRainsycalledmassivestreetprotestsinresponsetotheelectionresults,and
implicitlythreatenedviolenceandpublicinsecurity,butstateditwouldbeHun
Sen’sfaultifsuchviolenceerupted(Vandenbrink2013).TheCNRPselection
campaigninggarneredanxietyamongstsomeofmyinformants,asdidthefact
thattheyhadneverruled.Myresearchassistanttoldmesheandotherswere
afraidoftheCNRPgettingpower:‘theCPPhavehadpowerforsuchalongtime,
theyalreadytookalot’shesaid.‘ButtheCNRPhaveneverhadpower.Maybe
they’llbeworsebecausetheywanttogetrichandrulethecountry.’
WritingaboutthefearthatherinformantsinGuatemalalivedwithdaily,Linda
Green(1994)commentedthatmanywomenspokefreelyabouttheirbrutalpasts,
butremainedsilentabouttheirpresent.Amongstmyolderinformantsasimilar
self-censorshipexisted:theywoulddiscusstheKhmerRougeperiod;thesuffering
theyendured,thepeopletheylost,wheretheyhadbeen,whattheyhaddone.
Theywouldspeakoftheirterror,andhowitresurfacedatremindersofthe
regime.Butindiscussingthecontemporarypoliticalsituationtheywereguarded.
Afewspokeofcertaindissatisfactions:thelandgrabsthatmanyhadbeensubject
toforexample,butmostattributedtheseactionstolocal,greedypoliticians
ratherthanexamplesofendemiccorruption.222Thissilenceremainsasyet
222Afewpeoplerecognizedthatsuchpoliticianscouldonlysucceedwithsupportoftheparty,by
payingintothepatronagesystem.Oneinformanttoldme:‘peoplewhoclimbtreestopickits
fruit;ifyougivethemthefruits,you’reOK.Ifnot,theywilldragyouoffthetree.Ifyoucanfindbenefitsforthem,theywillletyouclimbhigherandhigherupthattree.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 299
anotherspecter.DuringDemocraticKampucheano-oneknewwhocouldbe
trusted:childrenbetrayedparents,husbandsbetrayedwives,siblingsandfriends
betrayedeachother.Peoplelearnedtokeepsilent.TheKhmeridiomthat
developedduringtheregime,daumdorkoh–toplantamute[koh]tree–refers
tothissilencing:offear,ofobjections,ofpain,ofsorrow.‘Whateverwesaw,we
didn’ttalkaboutit.Whentheydidsomethingtous,westayedsilent,’OmSrey
toldme.‘ItwaslikethestoryofthebaldKing’OmBroh,anelderlyneighbour,
explained:
Thepeopleduringthattime,therewerenosmilesontheirfaces;wecouldnot
laughorsmileateachother.Husbandsandwivesonlyspokeafewwordsto
eachother.Why?Becausetherewerespiesunderourhouses,listeningtous,in
casewesaidsomethingbad,thatwehatedÂngkar.Thefeelingsofgrieffilledmy
chest.ItwasjustlikeinthestoryoftheBaldKing.Haveyouheardaboutthis
story?
No.
TheKinghadaconfidant.Sincethisconfidantcametoworkforhim,theKinghad
nevertakenoffhishat.Heevenworeitwhenhewassleeping.Theconfidant
wasverycuriousaboutthis.Oneday,whenthekingwasbathing,theconfidant
triedtoseehishead.HesawthattherewasnohairontheKing’shead;itwas
completelybald.Afterwards,theconfidantknewwhatwasunderneaththe
King’shat.Hefeltverytroubled,soheranuntilhesawaRangtreewithaholein
it.Theconfidantwenttoit,andshouted‘TheKingisbald!’Heshoutedintothe
hole.WhatIwanttosayisthatwefeltcompletelytrappedinourchestsbecause
wecouldnotsayanything.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 300
Thismutenessremains.Notknowinghowpeopleareconnectedmaintainsalevel
ofdistrustamongstneighboursandfriendsthatishardtobreak.Thisextendsto
localaffairs,aswellaspoliticalconnections.Oneeveningtwoofthemenfrom
KohSopgotintoadrunkenfight.TaSimtookanaxe,andusingitasaclub,
attackedTaSok.Hebeathimbadlyandbrokehisleg.Everyoneinthevillage
knewwhathadhappened;manyhadwatchedit.Whenthepolicecameto
investigate,however,peopleremainedsilent;‘Wedon’tgetinvolvedinother
people’sbusiness’OmSreytoldme.‘Itoldmychildren,whateveryousaw,don’t
tellanyone.TheymightknowNeakThom[importantpeople].’Thissilence,
evolvingoutoffear,extendsdistrust,whichprovokesfurtherviolenceofmany
villages.
ForpeoplesuchasOmSrey,OmBrohandothers,insecurityinthepoliticalsphere
existshiddenjustbeneaththesurfaceofeverydaylife,notassomething
continuallyterrifyingbutasubcutaneousanxietythatneedsonlyatinypinprickto
makeitburstforth.AviolentpoliticalspherethatmaintainstheKhmerRouge-
throughspokenrhetoricandembodiedpractice-hasbecomeaformofterrorand
amodeofpoliticalrepression.Therevitalizationoftheregimeisallthestronger
becauseofwherecampaigningoccurs:onmassgraves;materialmarkersofthe
violenceandterror;repositoriesofthedead.RemindersoftheKhmerRougeacts
asvisceraltransportersbacktotheregime,notbecausetheytakethemindback
totheperiod,butbecausetheregimeneverdied;eitherphysicallyor
metaphorically.Itspresencehasbeenmaintainedthroughouttheyears,as
articulatedbyoneofmyinformants:
EverytimetheycelebrateBon[aceremony],theyremembertheKhmerRouge.
EradicatetheKhmerRouge?How?Howcanwe?
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 301
ThiswaswhatwesawattheremembranceceremonyatChoeungEk,andthe
politicalralliesagainstKemSokha.Attheremembrancedaystheviolencewasre-
enactedatthekillingsite,infrontofthemassgraves,andinfrontofthestupa
holdingtheremainsofthousandsofthosetorturedandexecuted.Thedays
selected-17thApril(markingthedaytheKhmerRougemarchedintoPhnomPenh
andtookoverCambodia)and20thMay(commemoratingthedatein1976when
collectivisationbecamethedefactolifestyleinDemocraticKampuchea)–are
themselvesremindersofviolence,notliberationorpeace.223Talkingoftherallies
againstKemSokha,YoukChhang(MenglengandZsombar2013),directorofDC-
Cam,wasquotedassaying:
His[KemSokha’s]statementsremindmethatthingscanbeforgottenifwedon’t
keepremindingthepublic.
Thiswaswhattheralliesensured.
Therumoursweheardfunctioneddifferentlydependingontheroutesof
circulation.Amongstmyexpatcolleaguestheycirculatedthroughtheglobal
socialmediaspheres,providingaformofsocialcapitaltothosespreadingthem
(lookhowexcitingIam,livinginsuchadangerousplace).FormanyofmyKhmer
informants,however,therumoursreflectedfeelingsofgenuinethreatbecause
theyconsistedofthere-tellingofactionsandexperiencesfromthenottoo
distantpast.Indiscussingthe1988–1989violenceinMogadishu,Simons(1995:
57)wrote:
223December25
th,whenVietnaminvadedDemocraticKampuchea(in1978),andJanuary7
th,the
datewhentheyovercametheKhmerRouge(in1979),meanwhile,havenoceremoniesassociatedwiththemtoday(althoughJanuary7
thismarkedontheKhmercalendar).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 302
itispreciselythisfeltknowledge,thisexperiential,terrifying,time-warping,
never-completesenseofwhatwashappeningthenthathistorywillneverrecord
andthefuturecontextswilllack.
Whilethehistoricalrecordmaynotrecordsuchfeelings,thememoriesofOm
Sreyandothersdid.WhenremindedoftheperiodtheyrecalledDemocratic
KampucheainvisceraldetailasBuBrohexplained:
Iremembermypast.Irememberthesadnessandtheagony.Iremember,andI
amfrightened.
Thisfeltknowledgeissolidifiedbecausetheviolenceneverended.Thecurrent
regimeisbrutal.Theoppositionisracist.Politicallymotivatedkillings,
imprisonments,andexile,iscommon.Domesticabuseisrife.Conflictbetween
rivalgangsisfrequent.LifeinKohSopwhenIwastherewasfuelledwithalcohol
andviolence.
Rumoursoftenco-existwithpoliticalviolenceasformsofnarrativebywhich
peopleattempttowrestlecontroloffrighteningsituationsandassertauthority:
overthemselves;overtheirlives;overknowledge.Althoughtheyexistonthe
‘edgeofsilence’(Feldman1995),theyprovideameansforliftingthatsilenceand
gainingsomeformofempowerment.AsFeldman(1995:230)asserts,rumours
emergewhenpeoplearedisempowered,uniformed,and,often,frightened.224
Theyfunctionbeyondstory-tellingmythandlegendonlywithincirclesofviability,
andthatviabilityexistswherepriorexperienceremainsvibrantandvisible,
particularlyinthecollectivesphere:
224Theycanalsooccurasmodesofgainingsocialcapital:aspeoplecreate,narrate,andreiteratestories,theyassertthemselvesastheholdersofknowledge.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 303
Rumorisprognostic,notintermsofactualprediction,butintermsofaculturally
mediatedsenseofpossibility,structuralpredilection,politicaltendency,and
symbolicprojection.Itprovidesapreviewofhowhistoricaleventswillbe
culturallyandideologicallynegotiated,distorted,transformed,recollected,and
renderedintoallegory.
Thetensionwaspervasive,andinvadedmyownexperience.Onthetripto
PhnomPenhthatOmSreyandIdiscussedItriedtoaccessmyfacebookaccount,
butitwasdown.OtherinternetsitesIcheckedwereworking.InmyfieldnotesI
wrote:
I’mstartingtogetabitparanoidaboutsurveillanceetc.Facebookisdown;Ican’t
gettomypage.Foundmyselfwonderingifit’sbecauseIwaswritingtoafriend
criticizingthegovernment.ButIdeletedit.Surelytheycan’tfindit…?ThenI
startedtoworryaboutmyvisa.WhatwouldhappenifIwasthrownout?Worse:
whatifIwassetupandendupinsomejailwithasentencenoonecan
overthrow?
WritingofhisfieldworkinNorthernIrelandduringthetroubles,AllenFeldman
(1995:248)commentedonthewayhisperceptionswerealteredbyandthrough
theperceptionsofhisinterlocutors:
MyperceptionwasnolongermyownwhenIceasedtohavetelephone
conversationsthatlastedmorethanthirtyseconds,whenIneverusedpeople’s
namesoverthetelephone,whenthebackofmyscalpitchedasIfeltthe
patrollingBritishsoldierstrackingmymovementswiththebarrelsoftheir
automaticrifles,whenIleapedoffthefrontparlorcouchalongwithmyhostsata
carbackfiringinthenight,whenIabruptlyterminatedconversationsbecause
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 304
policevehicleswerecirclingtheneighbourhoodstreetswithmorefrequency
sinceIarrived…
Idonotknowhowmuchofmyownfearandtensionreflectedthatofmy
informants,buttheheightenedtensionandincreasedviolencecertainlyhadsome
impact.
Thepervasiveviolenceofthepoliticalspherecontinuestoday.InFebruary2015,
HunSenagainthreatenedthereturnoftheKhmerRougewhenthescopeofthe
ECCCwasexpandedbeyondthefivepeoplealreadyunderjurisdiction,
commenting:‘[Thecourt]expandsitsscope,nearlymakingpeoplefleebackinto
theforest225’(Naren2015).PoliticsinCambodiaischaracterizedbybrutality,
chaosandviolencebuiltfromtheashesofamercilessregimethatformedevery
subsequentimaginingandperformanceofpoliticsinpost-Democratic
Kampuchea.TheKhmerRougeisblamedforissuesasfarreachingasthe
crumblingoftrustincommunities(EbiharaandLedgerwood2002),sextrafficking
andotherhumanrightsabuses(Leakhena2012),theendemiccorruptionacross
thecountry(Brinkley2011),andthepooreducationalattainmentinthenation
(deWalque2004).Butitdoesmorethanjusthaunt:theKhmerRougeisthebasis
onwhichaction,interactionandanalysisareformedincontemporaryCambodia,
anditisreformedthroughcontinuedviolencewithinthepoliticalsphere.
225Theforest(prei)isnotonlyametaphorforthewild,untamedanduncontrollable,butwasalsoacommonmetaphorfortheKhmerRouge,whoinitiallyspentmanyyearsasguerillafightersintheforestsofCambodia.Whenworkingwithex-cadre,theywouldoftenalludetotheirKhmerRougemembershipbysaying‘Ifoughtintheforests.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 305
Conclusion
Takingsomerespiteoneweekend,mypartnerandItookatriptoSiemReapto
visitthetemplesofAngkor.Stretchingovermanykilometers,thetemple
complexesaretrulymagnificentfeatsofarchitecturebuiltbetweenthe9thand
13thcenturies.Attemptingtoavoidthecrowdsoneevening,wetookatuktuk
awayfromthemainsitestovisitthemoreremotesiteofPhnomKrom–asmall
andcrumblingruinontopofahillwithadramaticviewovertheplainstothe
TonleSapriver.Aswesatbreathingintheview,ayoungKhmermanapproached
us.Atfirstwetriedtolimittheconversation-wewereenjoyingthepeaceand
thesolitude-however,hepersisted.Theplatitudessoondiminishedandhis
reasonforapproachingusemerged.Cheawasaveryangryanddisillusioned
man;upsetwiththecurrentgovernmentofCambodiaandthewayhefeltitwas
ruiningthecountry.‘Cambodiausedtobeagreatnation’hetoldus.Thetemples
werehisproofofthat.Everydayhecycledthetwenty-oddkilometresfromhis
homejustnorthofSiemReaptovisitPhnomKromtemplewherehecould
contemplatethegreatnessofAngkorandwishforitsreturn.Cheaspoketousin
English:itwasonlybyapproachingforeignersinasecludedlocationthathecould
freelyventhisangerandfrustrationatcontemporarypolitics–ifhespokein
Khmerhecouldnotbecertainthathiscommentswouldnotbereported,even
amongstfriends.
PoliticsinCambodiaremainsrifewithcorruptionandviolence.Bothmajor
politicalpartiesuseviolentnarrativestomanipulatethepopulous,andthe
generalpopulationneithertrust,norfeelsafewithinthepoliticalsphere.Several
massgravesinCambodia,suchasChoeungEk,andWatKampongTralach,have
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 306
cometoservespecificallypoliticalpurposes,highlightedduringmyfieldworkby
politicalcampaigningoccurringonthemintherunuptothegeneralelection.As
markersofviolenceanddeath,reinforcedthroughthedisplayofhumanremains,
thesegravesitesenablethosewhoappropriatethemtoreanimatethespectersof
theKhmerRouge,revivingtheirviolence,andtheterrorwroughtwithinpeopleat
theirpresence.Thesearenotsimplymemories:theirimaginedpresenceholds
realviability,madeallthemoreconvincingbecauseoftheaffectivepowerof
maintainingthesespirits.Themoreoftenthecurrentgovernmenttellstheir
mythicaltale,themoredeeplyentrencheditbecomesinthecollectivenarratives
ofthepopulation:thattheKhmerRougecouldre-appearatanymoment,and
thatonlytheycankeepthemsafe.Everytimetheviolenceisre-presented,re-
enacted,orrepeated,peopleareremindedofthepainandsufferingcaused.
Everytimethepoliticalpartiesenactnewviolencestheyensureinsecuritywithin
thepoliticalsphere.ThisistheKhmerRougehauntology.
In1998,havingfinallypersuadedKhieuSamphanandNuonCheatomakepeace
anddefecttothegovernment,HunSenmadeastatementtothepressdeclaring
that:
Weshoulddigaholeandburythepastandlookaheadtothe21stcenturywitha
cleanslate(Mydans1998)
Hehimself,however,hasfailedtodothis.UsingtheKhmerRougeregularlyinhis
narrativessince1979,hehasmaintainedthemasagenuinethreatinpeople’s
imagination.Spectres,Derridaexplains(1994:39),arethreateningbecausethey
collapsetimeintoitself:thebordersoftimeandexperiencebecomeblurred,or
completelyobliterated,asthepastbecomesarealpresenceinthepresentand
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 307
future.Thepastdoesnotjustpaveapathtothefuture:itbecomesthefuture.If
youdonotvoteforme,HunSenargues,theKhmerRougewillreturn.Politicians
havehijackedtheKhmerRougeasatooltocreateaclimatewheresupporters
rallybehindthemfor‘protection’.Basedontheaffectivedimensionofreal,lived
experience,thisfearismadeallthemoreexplicitbecauseofwheremuchofthis
campaigningoccurs:onthespacesofdeath-thekillingfieldsofCambodia,the
massgravesandthedeadtheycontain.Buttheregimeneverreallyended;itwas
alwayspresent,shapingtheformofpoliticsinCambodiatoday.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 308
Conclusion:NowistheTimefortheLiving
Inheranalysisofdeadbodypolitics,KatherineVerderyassertedthatinthe
creationofnationsthesilentmanipulabilityofcorpsesarepoliticallyharnessedto
createnewcosmologies,cosmologiesthatnotonlyrelatetotheconstructionof
nationalidentities,butalsoworkonunderstandingsofkinship,relationshipsto
ancestors,religion,ritual,spaceandtime(Verdery1999:96).Usingmassgraves
asthelensthroughwhichtoviewit,thisthesisshowshowthesecosmologiesare
beingre-imaginedandre-constitutedtocreatea‘new’Cambodiafollowingthe
devestatingruleoftheKhmerRouge,andtoimagineitsfuture.Thishasinvolved
exploringlocalconnectionstothedeadaswellasstatelevelusesofthemand
theirgraves.
ByexaminingthesetwodifferentaspectsoflifeamongstthegravesinCambodia,
thisthesishasshownthatitisnotonlythedeadthatarepolitical,butalsotheir
spacesoftorture,pain,death,burial,anddisposal.Ithasalsoillustratedhowin
Cambodiaindividualrelationshipsandeverydayinteractionswiththedeadare
equallypoliticaltoextraordinaryandstateusesofthem,becausebothenable
socialrelationshipsandactiontobenarratedandperformedinmultipleand
overlappingways,andfollowingtheKhmerRougeregime,tobereconstitutedin
newandinnovativeways,waysthatnotonlyenablepeopletodealwiththepast,
butalsotocreateanewfuture.
Becauseofthis,theKhmerRougeregimehascreatednewspacesforimagining
lifeandcommunityincontemporaryCambodia,andhastriggeredare-imagining
ofcategoriesofsociallife,includingrelationshipswiththedead,kinship,religion,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 309
andrelationshipsbetweenthestateanditspeople,aswellasbetweenCambodia
andthewiderglobalcommunity.Massgraves,andthedeadtheycontain,are
centralcomponentsinthesereimaginingsbecauseasVerderyargues,social
relations,politicalhierarchies,religioussystemsandwiderunderstandingsof
whatitmeanstobeinaparticularplaceataparticulartimearemadevisibleby
changingrelationshipswithboth.
ThedeadhavebeenintegralintherebuildingofCambodia–inthesupportthey
gavetopeopleintheearlydays,inthesupporttheynowgivetothenationinits
economicdevelopmentandfuturestability,andintheimprintinthemindsof
thosewhoseethemthattheyleave,teachingtheworldaboutCambodia,itspast
andpresent,thatcausesthemtoengagewiththecountryanditspeople.Aswe
sawinthefirstsectionofthisthesis,thedeadinCambodiamakevisiblethe
politicalsituationoftheliving,notbecausetheyareareflectionofit,butbecause
theytooexperienceit.InCambodiathedeadaresociallysalientbeingswhose
livesparallelthoseoftheliving,andtheyaresubjecttomanyofthesamestresses
andtensionsthatthelivingendure.LifeafterDemocraticKampucheawaschaotic
andunstable;theinstabilitywaspartlynegotiatedbymanagingrelationswiththe
deadandneogitatingwaysinwhichthelivingandthedeadcouldnotonlyco-exit,
butsupporteachotherintherebuildingofCambodia.Thisnecessitatedfindinga
waybywhichthehundredsofthousandsofdeadcausedbytheKhmerRouge
regimecouldbecalmedandreintegratedintosociallife,butratherthanthrough
ritual,itwasprimarilythroughrelationshipsofsupport.Neogitatingreciprocal
relationshipswiththedead,thelivingwereabletoengagetheirhelp,andasthe
deadhelpedtheliving,thelivinghelpedthedead,wholikethemhadbeen
disconnectedfromtheirkinandtossedintochaosandconfusionbythemassive
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 310
displacementsthatoccurredduringtheregime.Asthelivingandthedeadbegan
tonegotiate,bothwereabletostartrebuildingtheirlives,theirsocialstatuses,
andtheircountry.Thedemiseofthedeadovertimehasparalleledthepolitical
stabilityofthecountryanditspeopleasithastransitionedfromawildand
chaoticcountrytoarelativelycalmandorderedsociety.
Religionisoftenacentralcomponentinthere-assertionofsocial,political,and
moraleconomiesfollowingwarandconflict.InCambodia,Buddhismand
animismhavebeencrucialinthis.Offeringameansbywhichpeoplecould
explainandnarratethechaos,deathanddestruction,Buddhisminparticularwas
centraltothewaymyinformantsrelatedtothedevastationwroughtbythe
regime.Forsomeitenabledthemtorepairtherupturesinkinandsociallifethat
thelossofuptoathirdofthepopulationcaused,forothersitgavethemwaysto
discussandenfoldtheeventsintotheKhmercosmology,becominganexpected
eventwithintheBuddhistcosmiccycleandconnectingtheperiodbeforethe
regimetothatfollowingit.Forothersitprovidedamodeofcosmicjustice,not
onlytotheperpetrators,butalsotothosewhodied.Inthisway,theviolenceof
theregimehasbeenincorporatedintotoday’slife,andratherthanbeing
remindersofterribleviolence,thegravesitresultedincanbeintegratedinto
everydaylivingspace.
Movingonfromrelationshipsbetweenindividuallivinganddead,thesecond
sectionofthisthesisexaminedhowthesymbolicpowerofthemassgravesand
theirdeadisharnessedinthewiderpoliticalsphere.Therulingpartyhastwo
primaryconcernsincontemporaryCambodia:developmentofthecountryand
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 311
retentionofpoliticalauthorityandpower.Thegraveshavebecomesignificant
toolsinachievingtheseaims.
Insomecountriesitisthedeadofthenamedandfamousthatperformpolitical
power(thecorpsesofLeninorMaoZedongforexample),butinlocationswhere
genocide,civilconflict,andwarhaveoccurreditisthemass,nameless,deadthat
performthemostusefulpoliticalfunctions.ThisisthecaseinCambodia,where
thosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRougearemostusefultothestateas
anonymousdeadwhocanbeharnessedasacollective:‘thedead,’‘thevictimsof
theKhmerRouge.’Controllingthelocationofthephysicalremainsofthedead,
andthestructureofnarrativesbehindthecreationofthesedeadandtheirgraves,
theCambodianstatelegitimatesandassertsitsauthority,presentingapolitically
salientnarrationoftheperiod:oneofinnocentCambodianvictims,ofanevil
perpetratedbyamythifiedcollective'theKhmerRouge.’Thisnarrativeincludesa
re-tellingofthestate’sroleintheemancipationofCambodiafromtheKhmer
Rouge,andthemaintenanceofrelativepeaceandstability,andbydoingso
assertsthePrimeMinister,HunSen’s,positionaspatronandprotectorofthe
country.Italsoreducestheculpabilityoftheregimetoahandfulofguilty
perpetrators,obsfuscatingthecomplexitiesbehindtheregime’srisetopower,the
placeofkeymembersofgovernment(includingthePrimeMinisterandParty
Chairman)intheregime,andtheongoingstructuralanddirectviolenceaffecting
Cambodiatoday.
Contemporaneously,DemocraticKampucheahasbeenpoliticizedin
contemporaryCambodia,andthoughmostofthegraveshavebeenreturnedto
everydaylivingspace,somehavecometoservepublicpoliticalfunctionsthatare
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 312
usedinthedualaimsofensuringeconomicdevelopmentinCambodiaand
ensuringtheongoingpoliticalhegemonybytheCambodianPeople’sPartyand
theirleaderHunSen.Throughthecommodificationofcertainsitesofdeath,in
particularChoeungEkandTuolSleng,theCambodianstatehasembracedthe
growingtrendofdarktourismtoitsadvantage.Itisnotonlythestatewho
exploitsthis.ThecentralroleofsuchsitesinCambodiantourismisdirectlylinked
intheimaginationsofthestaffandthestatetoeconomicprosperityand
internationalassistancetoCambodia.Astouristsvisittheyengageinreciprocal
relationshipswithCambodia,supportingitevenastheycausechangesinit.
ChoeungEk,andothermemorialsdisplayingthedead,havelargelybeenviewed
asexternallyfacedandthereforecontestedandconflictualspaces,however,as
thisthesishasshown,itwasnotviewedasabusivebymyinformants:neither
thosewhoserelativesandfriendswerekilled,buried,andarepossiblydisplayed
there,northosewhointeractwiththemdaily,athomeandforwork.Thiscomes
fromthefactthattheannonymousremainsareeveryone’sandno-one’sandrely,
therefore,onstatecareratherthanindividual.Withno-oneknowingwhosedead
werewhich,thecareofthephysicalremainswasdevolvedtothestate.Eventhe
deadareagreeblewithit–theygetvisitorsandareamongsttheirfellows;they
havebeenbroughtinfromtheforest.
ThepoliticallandscapeinCambodiaremainsasphereofviolence,hauntedby
DemocraticKampuchea.Powerisgainedandmaintainedthroughdirect,
structural,threatenedandrememberedviolence.Atthesametimeasmarketing
KhmerRougesitesfortourism,politicalpartiesusetheminthere-animationof
theregime.RemembranceinCambodiadoesnotmemorialisethosewhodied,
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 313
exceptinthewidest,mostabstractsense.Mostlymemorialsaretotheviolence
andterroroftheregime.Asmarkersofviolenceanddeath,reinforcedthrough
thedisplayofhumanremains,thesegravesitesenablethosewhoappropriate
themtoreanimatethespectresoftheKhmerRouge,revivingtheirviolence,and
theterrorwroughtwithinpeopleattheirpresence.Thesearenotsimply
memories:theirimaginedpresenceholdsrealviability,madeallthemore
convincingbecauseoftheaffectivepowerofmaintainingthesespirits.Whilst
claimingauthorityto‘exorcise’theKhmerRougeregimefromCambodia,both
mainpoliticalpartiesactuallymaintainthem.ThehauntingoftheKhmerRougeis
notonlythroughthismaintenance:itisinthewaypoliticstodayisformedoutof
theregime,andrecreatesandreinforcesapoliticalsphereimbuedwithfearand
distrust,inwhichviolentdiscoursesarethenormandauthoritarianruleis
maintainedundertheguiseofliberaldemocracy.
Thestructureofthisthesissuggeststhatthereisastraightforwarddichotomy
betweenthepoliticaluseofmassgraves(wherethedeadarereducedtoa
collectivemass,andsubsequentlyusedinpoliticalmanipulationforeconomic
prosperityandmaintenanceofpower)andindividualrelationshipstothese
spacesandthedeadwithinthem(wherethosewhodiedareremembered
throughindividualinteractionsandrelationshipswiththem).Thisfitswiththe
internationaldiscourseonmassviolence,whichisoneofenduringsufferinganda
contestationbetweenstateandindividualpolitics.Thismightbesoinsome
cases,butitisnotalways,andusuallyisnotclearcut,andevenwherethestate
andindividualsusethegravesfordifferentthings,theyarenotnecessarilyin
opposition.Oftenthesituationismessyandremainsinflux–nowseemingly
steady,itcouldre-emergeatanytime.Thetwoethnographicsectionsofthis
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 314
thesisareinextricablylinked,andmanyofthethemesofthisthesisoverlapand
influenceeachother.InCambodiapoliticsofthedeadisnotonlyrelatedtothe
waythedeadareusedbythestate,butalsohowtheythemselvesareintegrated
orexcludedfromthesociallifeoftheliving.Massgravesarenotonlyexploited
bythestate,butalsobyindividualsandlocalcommunities.Comparingchapters
fourandsixforexample,wecanseehowboththedeadandthelivingaresubject
tothewiderpoliticalspherewithinwhichtheyexist,andworktowardsfuture
aims.Chapterstwoandfive,meanwhile,showthattheoftencriticiseddisplayof
humanremainsaroundthecountryalsoservesasameanstocareforthedead
whohavenorelatives,orwhoserelativescannotrecognisetheirremains.
Onlyrecentlyhasmuchattentionbeenpaidtosocio-culturalrelationshipswith
massgraves,andthisthesisaimstocontributetothisgrowingbodyofwork.
Muchworkthatdoesexistconcernsthemissing,andessentialisesmassgravesin
whichtheirbodieslieasnegativeandtraumatic,becausethedeadtheycontain
almostinvariablyresultfromsomedreadfulevent,whetheritbeconflict,
violence,anendemic,ordisaster.Thesymbolicpowerofthedeadmeansthat
theyretainconnectionstotheseterribleeventslongaftertheresultshave
stoppedbeingvisibleelsewhere.Andbecauseoftheconnectionstheyretain,
attentionpaidtomassgravessomehowreviatlisestheeventfromwhichthey
died.Thisis,ofcourse,oftenthecase.Aroundtheglobeweseeanguishand
despairwheremassgravesabound,andmoreandmorecountriesaroundthe
worldarebeginningtoinvestigatethesegraves;returninglonglostremainstothe
kinandcountryfromwhichtheycome.
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 315
ButthemassgravesinCambodiaaresomewhatdifferenttothoseofother
conflictssuchasBosnia-HerzegovinaorRwandabecausetheywerecausedby
KhmeronKhmer.Therewasnoeasilyidentifiableforeignothertolaytheblame
atthefeetof,andthosecausingthegravesaremostlystillatlarge,manyin
positionsofresponsibilityinthelocal,regional,andnationalgovernment.There
isnopoliticalmotivation(nationalorlocal)forexcavatingthegraves.The
governmenthaveasmanyremainsastheyneedtotellataleofvictimhoodand
theirsaving.Thereisnosocialuseforvictimidentityrelatedtothedeadofthe
KhmerRouge–everyoneisavictimoftheKhmerRougeinthisnewlynarrated
storyofblameandthesubsumationofblameunderPolPot.Eventhosetriedat
theECCC,withreamsandreamsofevidenceagainstthem,usedthisnarrative.
Neitherdothegravesneedunearthingtodisclosepoliticalviolences;theywere
neverclandestine,neverdenied226,andthedeaddidnotneedunearthing
becausetheycouldbeproperlycaredforandmoveontotheirnextlifewithoutit.
Theunearthingofmassgravesisoftenusedintheformationofanewstate–
gravesmarkthelandandtheirunearthing,bybringingthedeadbackintothe
embraceofthestate,dividesthosewhomadethegravesandthosewhodisclose
them.Assuchtheyoftenreconfiguretime–creatinganeweraandlifewithinit.
AlthoughtheCPPworkedhardtopresentanewtemporality,formostofmy
informants,ratherthananewera,theconnectionsallowedbyBuddhismand
animismcollapsedtemporaldistinctionsandallowedconnectionstobemade
betweentheperiodsbeforetheregimeandthatwhichcameafterit.Viewedasa
periodofdestructionthathadtohappenduetocyclicaltime,theKhmerRouge
regimebecameanexplainableeventofKhmerBuddhistcosmology.Becauseof
226ExceptbrieflybytheKhmerRougeinthe1980s(FawthropandJarvis2005).
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 316
this,mostoftheKhmerpeopleIencountereddidnotpresentthemselvesas
victimsoftrauma.TheKhmerRougeperiodwasseenasaterriblehistory,butas
onebelongingtoaparticulartimeandcontext,exceptwhereitwasusefully
harnessedinthepresentoritsmemoryprovokedbysomeevent.However,itis
integraltocontemporaryCambodia,notonlyasaterriblehistoricalperiod,but
becauseallimaginingsandrelationshipswithinthenewKhmerstateareformed
fromit.ThefracturesitcausedinallaspectsofKhmerlifeweredevastating,and
neededrebuildingfollowingitsfall:politicalstability,moralorder,social
relationships,religiousunderstanding.Thishasbeencriticaltothebuildingofa
newCambodia,creatingspacesfornewimaginingsofCambodianlife,kinship,
religion,ritual,politicsandCambodia’splaceintheglobalsphere.
WhilesomescholarshavearguedthatprivilegingtheKhmerRougeperiodin
academicconsiderationlimitsdiscoursesonCambodia,andreifiesparticular
presentationsofthecountryanditspast,thisthesishasshownthatthisisnotthe
case.NorhasthepoliticisationofDemocraticKampuchea,itsdead,andtheir
graves,providedastagnatednarrative.Whilethedeadappeartoonlymeanone
thing,asthisthesisshows,theyareplurivocalandsignificant(andsymbolic)ina
multitudeofways.Theirsignificanceistemporallyandcontextuallyvariable,and
althoughitoftenvariesbetweenthegovernmentandeverydaypeople,their
narrationsandtheworktowhichtheyputthem,sometimesthesecollide.
Thoughthisthesiscentresontwomainfieldsitesitwasfedanddeveloped
throughresearchatfifteenothers.Assuch,althoughitcannotclaimtobea
holisiticstudyofmassgravesinCambodia,itcandrawsomegeneralthemes,as
havebeenexploredherein.However,mytimeatsitesbeyondthesecentralones
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 317
wasshort,andfurtherresearchatotherlocationsoutsideChoeungEkandTuol
SlengwouldbenefittheunderstandingofmassgravesinCambodia.Oneofthe
largestomissionsfromalmostallconsiderationsofthemassgravesinCambodiais
thenumberofcadrecontainedwithinthem.Whileitistruethatallwhosebodies
liewithinthegravesarevictimsoftheregime’sviolenceanddestruction,many
KhmerRougecadrehaveaveryparticularrelationshiptothemassgraves,having
beentheircreators,aswellaspotentiallyhavingkinwithinthem.Thiswouldbe
aninterestingavenueoffurtherexplorationthatmayenablefurther
problematisationofthesimplisticdichotomiesbetweenperpetratorandvictim
thatareoftenpresentedwithregardtoDemocraticKampuchea.Inaddition,in
myresearchIworkedmostlywithKhmerpeopleofCambodianancestry.
Relationshipsbetweenthedeadandthelivingareconsiderablydifferentforthe
Khmer-Chinesecommunity,andwouldproveastimulatingavenueoffurther
exploration.Finally,comparativeworkbetweenthegravesinCambodiaand
othercommunistregimes,boththoseinAsiaandbeyond,wouldprovidean
interestingavenueofstudyformoregeneral,widerstatementstobemade.
Thestorytoldinthisthesis,emphasisingmassgravesandthedeadoftheKhmer
Rouge,evolved,ofcourse,frommyowninterestsandresearchagenda.Its
emphasisonthesesubjectsimpliestheyarecentralandomnipresentinpeople’s
dailylivesandimaginations,asiftheseareatopicofcontinualthought,reflection
andconversation.Thisisnotthedaily,livedrealityformostofmyinformants,
althoughithasbeenmylivedrealityforthelastfouryears.Duringfieldwork
thesetopicsappearedonlysporadicallyineverydaylife,however,these
occasionalappearanceswereindicativeoftheongoingimaginedpresenceofthe
KhmerRougeandtheimprintoftheirviolenceincontemporaryCambodia.As
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 318
suchamultitudeofotherencountershavebeenlostintheether;Ihopeoneday
theyre-emerge.Thosethatremaindosomething,Ihope,towardsilluminating
theencounterswithmassgravesandthosewhodiedundertheKhmerRouge
regimeofmyinformantsandmyselfincontemporaryCambodia.Cambodiahas
manyghosts,butlifecontinueschanging,andtheymaynothauntitforever.As
SreySreysaidtothedeadonedayaswewalkedaroundChoeungEk:‘youhave
alreadydied.Nowisthetimefortheliving.’
Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 319
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Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 341
Appendixone:DC-CamListofMassGraves
http://www.d.dccam.org/Projects/Maps/Mapping.htm