tkt course modules 1 2 &3

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEModules1,2and3(Secondedition)

MarySprattAlanPulvernessMelanieWilliams

INTRODUCTION

*TheTKTCourseModules1,2and3

TheTKTCourseModules1,2and3isthesecondeditionofTheTKTCourse.Inthissecondeditionyouwillfindarangeofnewmaterialthatmakesthiseditiondifferentfromthefirstedition:

-Revisedandexpanded informationon thekeyconcepts related toeachareaof theTKTsyllabus

-AnadditionalunitonApproachestolanguageteaching'reflectingtheTKTsyllabus

-New tasks in each unit for the Follow-up, Reflection, Discovery and exam practicesections

-Newpracticetests

-AnexpandedglossaryreflectingtherevisedTKTGlossary

-Anewsectionon 'Tips forpreparing for theTKT',whichaims tohelpyoustudybyyourselvesandmakefulluseofallopportunitiesforworkingtowardstheTKT.

*TheTKTCourseModules1,2and3Online

TheTKTCourseModules1, 2and3 is alsoavailableonline. If you subscribe to theonline version at cambridgetkt.english360.com you will get all the material from the printeditioninaninteractiveformatplus:

- Six additional interactive TKT practice tests, matching the latest Cambridge ESOLTKTcomputer-basedtests

- 'Ask theauthor'videosgivinganexpertviewonclassroom issues focusedon in theReflectionsections

-AninteractiveGlossaryQuizcoveringtheTKTterms

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSE

-ExtrasupportforTKTtrainers.

*WhatistheTeachingKnowledgeTest(theTKT)?

TheTeachingKnowledgeTest (theTKT) isa testdevelopedbyCambridgeESOLforteachers of English to speakers of other languages. It is designed to test candidates'knowledgeof concepts related to languageand languageuse,and thebackground toandpracticeoflanguageteachingandlearning.

The TKT consists of sevenmodules: TKTModule 1, TKTModule 2, TKTModule 3,TKT: KAL (Knowledge About Language), TKT: CLIL (Content and Language IntegratedLearning), TKT: YL (Young Learners) and TKT: Practical. The modules can be takentogether, or separately, in any order and any number. With the exception of the TKT:Practical, thecontentof theTKT is testedbymeansofobjective tasks, suchasmatchingand multiple-choice, and each module consists of 80 questions. While the TKT: Practicalfocusesonclassroomskillsand theTKT:KALonknowledgeofEnglish languagesystems,theothermodulesfocusonknowledgeaboutteaching.

The TKT has no entry requirements, such as previous teaching experience and/ orteaching or language qualifications, but candidates are recommended to have at least anintermediate level ofEnglish,e.g.PET, IELTSband4,CEFR/ALTEB1 forall themodulesexceptKAL,forwhichtherecommendedlevelisB2.Candidatesforallthemodulesarealsoexpected to understand a range of over 500 terms describing the practice of EnglishLanguageTeaching(ELT).AselectionofthesetermsappearsineachTKTmodule.Alistofthe terms is provided in the TKT Glossary, which is on the Cambridge ESOL website:http://www.cambridgeesol.org/TKT

To help them prepare for the TKT and reflect on their teaching, candidates areencouraged to keep an online Teacher Portfolio: https://www.teacherportfolio.cambridgeesol.org/

*WhatisTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3?

TheTKTCourseModules1,2and3providessupportmaterialforModules1,2and3oftheTKT.

TheTKTCourseModules1,2and3hasfourmainaims:

1.TointroducereaderstotheconceptsandtermsaboutteachingandlearningthatarecentraltotheTKT,andtogivethemopportunitiestodoexampracticewithTKTpracticetesttasksandpracticeexampapers.

2. To introduce readers to the main current theories, approaches, practices and

activitiesinELTandtoassesstheirusefulnessfortheclassroom.

3. To sharewith readers details of some of themany resources, such aswebsites,grammar books, coursebooks and supplementarymaterials, available to English languageteachers.

4.Toprovidematerialsandactivities thatgive teachersopportunities forprofessionaldevelopmentandreflectionontheirownteachingbyexploringtheconceptswhichhavebeenintroduced.

*WhoisTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3writtenfor?

TheTKTCourseModules1,2and3iswrittenfor:

-TeachersintendingtotakeModules1,2or3oftheTKT.Theymaybestudyingforitonacourse,oraloneasself-accessstudents.

-Teachers following introductory teacherdevelopmentcourses in teachingEnglish,orretrainingtobecomeEnglishlanguageteachers,

-Teachersworking(bythemselves)toimprovetheirknowledgeofELT.

-Peopleconsideringbecomingteachers.

- Teachers already teaching in primary or secondary schools or adult learninginstitutions.

-BothfirstandotherlanguagespeakersofEnglish.

*WhatarethecontentsofTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3?

ThecontentsofTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3followthecontentsandorderoftheTKTsyllabusfortheTKTModules1,2and3.Thecoursecontains:

-Tips forpreparing for theTKT: the4Rs (Reading,Reference,Record-keepingandReflection).

-Threemodules,eachfocusingononemoduleoftheTKT.Eachmoduleisdividedintounits covering the contents of theTKT syllabus for thatmodule. The units focus on topicsfromthemodule,andthenprovidetasksandactivitiesexploringthetopicsandpreparingthereaderfortheTKT.

-Thirty-three inter-relatedunits.Theunits in thecoursebuildononeanother,so thatthe ideas introduced inoneunit provide the foundation for the ideas introduced in thenextunit.Similarly,eachmoduleprovidesafoundationforthenextmodule.

-TheELTtermsfromtheTKTGlossary.Termsarehighlighted inboldwhentheyaredefined.Theyarealsohighlightedinboldwhentheyappearinaunitforthefirsttime.

-ThreeTKTpracticetests,oneforeachmodule.

-ExamtipsfortakingtheTKT.

-AnswerkeysfortheFollow-upactivities,TKTpracticetasksandTKTpracticetests.

-Two listsofELT terms from theTKTGlossary that areused in thebook.The firstalphabetical listgivesthetermsthataredefinedandthepagewheretheirdefinitioncanbefound.Thesecondlistshowsthetermsthataredefinedineachunit.Theselistscanbeusedasanaidforworkingonaunit,orforrevisionpurposes.

ThelanguageusedinTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3isatthesamelevelasthelanguage used in the TKT test for Modules 1-3, i.e. intermediate level English atapproximatelyIELTSband4orCEFR(CommonEuropeanFramework)B1.Glossarywordsareadditionaltothis.

Thematerialinthebookisdesignedtoprovideapproximately70-100hoursofstudy.

*Howiseachunitorganisedandhowcanitbeused?

Theadviceinthistable is intendedforthoseusingthebookonataughtcourseorforself-accessreaders.Itcanalsobeadaptedforusebytrainers.

EachunitinTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3followsthesamestructure.

Section Purpose Suggestionsforuse

Starterquestion andanswer

To provide a definition ofthekey terms in the titleoftheunit.

Try to answer the questionbefore reading thecomments in theintroductoryparagraph

Keyconcepts

To introducethemain ideasof the topic of the unit andto explain the key ELTterms

There isa short questionatthebeginningofthissection.Try to answer it beforereadingthetextthatfollows.This section could be readoutsideclass

Keyconceptsand thelanguageteachingclassroom

To discuss how the keyconcepts influence Englishlanguage teaching andlearning.

Think about how each pointmight influencewhat youdointheclassroom

Follow-upactivities

Toallowthereadertoworkwith the key concepts inorder to understand themmorefully.

N.B. These activitiessometimes use tasks withdifferentformatsfromthoseusedintheTKT

These activities aredesigned for use in oroutside the trainingclassroom.Completingthemleads to a fullerunderstanding of the unit’skey concepts. There is ananswer key for theseactivitiesonpages237-244

Reflection

Toencourage the reader todevelop his/her opinions onthe key concepts byconsidering questions orcommentsfromteachers

Discuss these points withothers if possible. As thissection is about opinions, itdoes not have anaccompanying answer key.You could make use of theonline Teacher Portfolio torecord your thoughts:https://www.teacherportfolio.cambridgeesol.org/

Discoveryactivities

To help the reader find outmore about the keyconcepts, to experimentwith them in the classroomand to assess theirusefulness

These activities involvedoing things outside thetraining classroom, e.g.reading chapters frombooks, finding websites,seeing how key conceptsare applied in coursebooks,trying out ideas in theclassroom and writingreflective comments. Youwill see that the bookagainsuggests you make use ofthe Teacher Portfolio towrite up and keep a recordofyourcomments.

Thisportfolio isdesignedbyCambridge ESOL forteacher reflection, and iscompletely private. Youmay, of course, prefer tokeepyourreflectionsinyourownfolderornotebook

TKT practicetask

To review theunit’s contentand to help readersbecome familiar with theTKTtaskformatsandlevel.N.B. These tasks use thesame question formats andnumbers of questions as inthe corresponding sectionsoftheTKT

Dothesetaskstofamiliarizeyourself with the formats oftheTKTandtotestyourselfon the contents of the unit.Youcancheckyouranswersin the answer key on page245

We suggest that readers using this bookby themselves chooseanEnglish languageteachingcoursebookandthinkofaspecificgroupoflearnerstoworkwithfortheDiscoveryandReflectionactivities.

Wealso recommend readers to lookat the tips forpreparing for theTKT in thenextsection.

Enjoy your teaching and your reflection on your teaching, and good luck to all thosewhotaketheTKT.

TIPSFORPREPARINGFORTHETKT

FourhelpfulwaysofpreparingfortheTKTarethe4Rs:Reading,Reference,Record-keepingandReflection.

1.Reading

TheTKTCourseModules1,2and3alreadyprovidescorereadingfortakingtheTKT,but you can usefully supplement this by reading the books, magazines and websitesrecommended in the Discovery activities. Some examples of these are mentioned below.You could also try to combine your reading with your teaching, using your lessons as an

opportunity to investigatedifferentareasyouareworkingon in theclassroom,e.g.readingskills,classroommanagement,methodsofassessment.

-Booksaboutlanguage

LookatDiscoverEnglishbyRodBolitho&BrianTomlinson,Macmillan2005andAboutLanguage by Scott Thornbury, Cambridge University Press 2001. Both books consist oflanguageawarenesstaskswithkeysthatincludedetailedcommentsandexplanations.

-Booksaboutmethodology

There are a huge number of books about particular skills, types of material andteachingtechniques,butthemostusefulonesforpreparingfortheTKTarethosethatdealwith a wide range of aspects of methodology. These books are some that have beenrecommended.invariousunitsofTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3:

How to Teach English (Second edition) by Jeremy Harmer, Longman 2007 ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching(Fourthedition)byJeremyHarmer,Longman2007

LearningTeaching(Secondedition)byJimScrivener,Macmillan2005,

A Course in Language Teaching by Penny Ur, Cambridge University Press 1999TeachingandLearningintheLanguageClassroombyTriciaHedge,OxfordUniversityPress2000

TeachingPracticeHandbook(Secondedition)byRogerGower,DianePhillips&SteveWalters,Macmillan'1995

ChildrenLearningEnglishbyJayneMoon,Macmillan2000

-Teachers'magazines

Manyteachers'magazines includearticles, interviewsandreviewswrittenbytrainers,well-knownauthors,andteachers.Theydiscusssuccessfullessons,afavouritebook,anewteaching idea,etc. If there isa teachers'association in theareawhereyou live, theymayhavetheirown,magazineornewsletter,butyoucouldalsolookatsomeoftheinternationalmagazines, such as English Teaching Professional (http://www.etorofessional.com) orModern English Teacher (http://www.onlinemet.com), where you can find articles byteachersfromdifferentpartsoftheworld.

-Websitesanddiscussionlists

TherearemanywebsitesthatprovideusefulprofessionalreadingforEnglishlanguageteachers.Twositeswithshort informativearticlesbyELTspecialistsareOnestopEnglish(http://www.onestopenglish.com) and Teaching English (http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk)

Youcouldalsojoininternetforums,sometimescalleddiscussionlistsormessageboards,toaccess another kind of ELT reading, and exchange ideas and experiences by email withother teachers (for example, http://www.britishcoundl.org/morocco-english-teach-links-efl-organisation.htm).

-TKTpracticeandpreparationmaterials

You can find practice papers and preparation materials on the Cambridge ESOLwebsite (http://www.cambridgeesol.org/ resources/teacher/tkt.html) as well as in the TKTHandbook,whichtellsyouallabouttheTKT.

2.Reference

Make regular use of reference materials such as dictionaries and grammar bookswhen you prepare for your lessons. This will help you become familiar with their terms,approachesandideas/andgetyoureadyfortheTKT.

In addition, the TKT Glossary can be downloaded as a PDF document from theCambridge ESOL website (http://www.cambridgeesol.org). The glossary is arranged bytopic in thesameorderas in thesyllabus.Use this tostudy for theexam,butalsoasyoureadmaterialsonteachingmethodology,aspartofyourgeneralprofessionaldevelopment.

3.Record-keeping

AssuggestedinmanyoftheDiscoveryactivitiesinTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3,it'sagoodideatogetintothehabitofkeepinglessonplansandmakingnotesonmethodsandmaterialsthatyouhaveusedsuccessfully.Alsomakenotesaboutyourlessons,onwhatworkedwellandwhatyouwoulddodifferentlynext time.Lookingbackat thesenotes isagoodway of reminding yourself of all the knowledge you have about language and aboutteaching.

4.Reflection

IntheDiscoveryactivitiesthroughoutTheTKTCourseModules1,2and3wesuggestyou collect information (data) about your teaching from the classroom,make notes aboutyourfindingsandthinkabouthowyoumightwanttochangethewayyoudothings.WecanlearnfromthesereflectionstohelpbothwiththeTKTandwithimprovingourteaching.

Reflection isonestageof theclassroom researchcycle:westartby lookingatwhathappensintheclassroom(observation)andbycollectingdata,thenwetrytounderstandthedataanddecide(reflection)whatwecandotoimprovethesituation,andfinally,wetryoutourplans(action)intheclassroom.

For example, a teacher might want to improve the way they give instructions for

http://www.cambridgeesol.org

classroom activities. By collecting data from a number of lessons, they notice that theinstructionsareoftenquite longandconfusinganddecide to trygivingshorter instructions.Butwhentheydothis,theyseethatlearnersarestillquiteconfused.Sotheytryadifferentsolution:typingouttheinstructionsandgivingthemtolearnersonahandout.Thisseemstobemoreeffective.

Wecancollectdatainmanydifferentways,forexample:

-makingaudioorvideorecordingsoflessons

-givinglearnersquestionnairestocomplete

-interviewinglearners

-askinglearnerstokeepdiaries

-invitingacolleaguetoobservealesson

-makingourownnotesaboutalesson.

Reflectionisanimportantapproachtodevelopingasateacher,andaveryproductiveway to prepare for the TKT, especially if you are working alone, or do not have manyopportunities toexchange ideasandexperienceswithcolleagues.Remember towriteyourreflections inyourTeacherPortfolioathttps://www.teacherportfolio. carnbridgeesol.org/asthiswillhelpyoukeeparecordofyourreflectionssothatyoucanreferbacktothemlatertogetideasforteachingorwhenpreparingfortheTKT.

StudyfortheTKTbutalsouseyoureverydayclassroomteachingtohelpyouprepareforit.

Module1.LanguageandbackgroundtolanguagelearningandteachingModule2.LessonplanninganduseofresourceforlanguageteachingModule3.Managingtheteachingandlearningprocess

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


Part1.DescribinglanguageandlanguageskillsPart2.BackgroundtolanguagelearningPart3.BackgroundtolanguageteachingTKTModule1-Practicetest1.1

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Module1.Languageandbackgroundtolanguagelearningandteaching

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule1.Languageandbackgroundtolanguagelearningandteaching

Unit1.GrammarUnit2.LexisUnit3.PhonologyUnit4.FunctionsUnit5.ReadingUnit6.WritingUnit7.ListeningUnit8.Speaking

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM

Part1.Describinglanguageandlanguageskills

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule1.LanguageandbackgroundtolanguagelearningandteachingàPart1.Describinglanguageandlanguageskills

*Whatisgrammar?

Grammarreferstohowwecombine,organiseandchangepartsofwords,wordsandgroups of words to make meaning. We use grammar unconsciously when we speak,listen/readorwrite.Wealsouse it, particularlyas teachers, todescribe language.Wedothisby referring to its formsand itsuses.Grammar includesa largenumberof formsanduses.

*Keyconcepts

Whataregrammaticalforms?

These refer to how words are made up and presented in speech or writing. Forexample,theformofthepluralofregularnounsinEnglishis'baseword+s';theformofthegerundis'infinitive+-ing'.

We can identify grammatical forms in parts of speech, grammatical structures andwordsthatcontainprefixes(agroupof lettersaddedatthebeginningofabaseword)andsuffixes(agroupoflettersaddedattheendofabaseword).

There are nine parts of speech in English: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,determiners, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions and exclamations. A part of speech orwordclassdescribeshowwordsbehave insentences, i.e.how theyoperateandcombinegrammaticallywithotherwords.Forexample,inEnglish:

-anouncanactasthesubjectofaverbbutanadjectivebyitselfcannote.g.Thetallgirlranveryfast(v)butnotTallranveryfast(x)

- an adverb can combine with an adjective but an adjective cannot combine withanotheradjectivee.g.wellorganised(v),goodorganised(x)

-anouncancombinewithanothernoune.g.acarpark.

Theformofsomepartsofspeechvariesaccordingtothefunctionthepartsofspeechhave in a sentence. So, for example, these two sentences show different forms of theadjectiveold:Theboythoughthewouldnevergrowold;he'solderthanmostofhisfriends.

The table below shows the functions of the different parts of speech. It also showshowmostofthepartsofspeechcanbebrokendownintosubcategories.

Part ofExamples Function(s)

Some

Unit1.Grammar

speech subcategories

Nounschildrensugar

tonamepeople,places,things, qualities, ideas,or activities to act asthesubject/objectoftheverb

countable,uncountable,proper,

common, abstract,collective

Verbsseerun

takeofftoshowanaction,stateorexperience

transitive,intransitive, regular,irregular,participles,gerunds, infinitives,modals, multi-wordverbs, phrasalverbs, tenses,active voice,passive voice,imperative

Adjectives easy

to describe or givemore information aboutanoun,pronounorpartofasentence

comparative,superlative

Adverbscompletelyyesterdayattheend

tosaymoreabouthow,when, where, etc.something happens byadding information toadjectives, verbs, otheradverbsorsentences

degree, manner,time, focus,frequency, quantity,attitudemarkers

Determiners

my

the

this

both

to make clear whichnounisreferredto

possessiveadjectives, articles,demonstrativeadjectives;quantifiers

after toshowtherelationshiptime, place,direction, contrast,

Prepositions

at

in themiddleof

between a noun, nounphraseor pronoun, andanotherwordorphrase

exemplification,exception, causeand effect,dependent

Pronouns

she

mine

who

myself

to replaceor refer toanoun or noun phrasementioned earlier, orabouttobementioned

personal,possessive,relative,reflexive

Conjunctions

as

and

but

to join words;sentences or parts- ofsentences

reason, addition,contrast, time,condition, purpose,result

Exclamationser

ow

to show a (strong)feeling - especially ininformal spokenlanguage

feelingsof doubt orpain

We also see different grammatical forms in a grammatical structure, i.e. thearrangementofwordsintopatternswhichhavemeaning.Therearemanygrammaticaltermstodescribedifferentgrammaticalstructures.Herearesomeexamples:

Structure Form

Past continuous/progressive

subject+past tenseof verb tobe+ -ing formofverb

e.g.hewasrunning

Passivevoicesubject+tobe+pastparticiple(+by+agent)

e.g.theroadwasbuilt(bythecompany)

Comparative of ‘long’adjectives

more+longadjective(+than)

e.g.hewasmoreembarrassedthanhisfriend

Prepositionalphrasepreposition+(article/determiner/...)+noun

e.g.foranhour

subordinating conjunction of contrast + finiteclause

Contrastclauses e.g. Nobody listened although she spoke veryslowlyandclearly

As we can see from this table, we find grammatical structures not just in differentformsofthepartsofspeechbutalsoatthelevelofsentences,phrasesandclauses.

Wecanalso talkabouthowwordsare formed throughwordbuilding.One importantway in which English forms words is through the use of two kinds of affixes (a group oflettersaddedat thebeginningorendofabasewordwhichchange itsmeaning): prefixesandsuffixes.Affixescangivegrammatical information, showingwhetheraverb issingular,for example, or marking a tense, parts of verbs, the plural of nouns, possessives, e.g.talked, goes, going, books, girl’s.Many other prefixes and suffixes are used in English tomakenewwords,bychangingtheirpartofspeechandaddingameaningtothebaseword,e.g. disappear, careful, friendly. Some common prefixes in English are un-/dis-/re-/im-/in-/over-/un-/il-/pre-.Somecommonsuffixesare-ment/-ous/-able/-less/-ful/-tion/-ly.

Whataregrammaticaluses?

Grammatical uses refer to how grammatical structures are used to convey (orcommunicate)meaning.Aparticular grammatical structure, e.g. thepresent continuous (orprogressive),doesnotalwayshavethesamemeaning.Itsmeaningorusecomesfromthecontextinwhichitisused.Forexamplesheisdoingherhomeworkmightmean:

a) she is doing her homework now/at the moment: the present continuous used foractionsatthemomentofspeaking.

b)shehasdecidedtodoherhomeworkataspecifictimeinthefuture.Thereaderorlistenerunderstandsfromthecontext that thisrefers toanarrangement for the future,e.g.thequestionwhatisshedoingthisevening?,thepresentcontinuoususedforfirmplansandintentions.

c) she has improved her study habits and regularly does her homework, which shedidn't do before: the present continuousused for temporary actions happening around thetimeofspeaking.

Manygrammaticalformshavemorethanoneuse.Herearesomeotherexamples:

Structure Someuses

a)todescribeapresentstatee.g.IliveinLondon.

b) to describe actions or situations which happen

Presentsimple

repeatedly but which might not be happening at themoment

e.g.\readnewspapersandmagazines.

c)torefertothefutureinascheduledtimetable

e.g.Theplaneleavesat10:30.

d)totellastory

e.g.TheygettothebusstopearlyandStantalkingtotheotherpeople.Suddenly...

e)toprovideacommentary

e.g. Now here’s Jones. He shoots but the goalkeepermanagestosaveit-anotherluckyescape!

Presentperfect

a)todescribepastactionswhichhavesomeconnectiontothepresent

e.g.I'veseenthatfilm.

b) todescribeaneventorsituationwhich ispartofone’slifeexperience

e.g.I'vevisitedmostofthecountriesinEurope.

c) todescribea temporary stateoraction that started inthepastandstillcontinues

e.g. We’ve been staying in university accommodation allsummer

Adverbs

a)todescribehowsomethingisdone

e.g.Sheateherfoodquickly.

b)tofocusonsomething

e.g.Heonlylikespizza.

c)toshowanattitudetosomething

e.g.Theycan'tcome,unfortunately

*Keyconceptsandthelanguageteachingclassroom

Readthesetipsandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou.

-Grammar rules describe theway that languageworks, but language changes overtime, sogrammar rulesarenot fixed.They change, too.But grammar rulesandgrammarbooksdon'talwayschangeasquicklyas the language,so theyarenotalwaysup-to-date.For example, some grammar books say that we should use whom rather than who afterprepositions.But in fact, except in somesituations,who isgenerallyused,withadifferentwordorder,e.g. 'I'vejustmetthegirlwhoItalkedtoonFriday'ismuchmorecommonandacceptedthan'I'vejustmetthegirltowhomItalkedonFriday'.Teachersneedtokeepup-to-datewithwhatpartsofthelanguagearechangingandhow.

-Grammar rules traditionallydescribewritten language rather thanspoken language.Forexample, repetition,exclamationsandcontractions (twowords thatarepronouncedorwritten as one, e.g. don't, isn't, won't) are common features (important parts) of spokenlanguage,buttheyarenotalwaysdescribedingrammarbooks.Somegrammarbooksarenowavailablewhichdescribespokenlanguage,too.

-Veryoften, speakersofa languagecanspeakandwrite itwellwithoutconsciouslyknowinganygrammaticalrulesorterms.

-Teachersneedtoconsiderwhether it ishelpful to teachgrammarto learnerssimplybymakingthemawareofpatternsandpractising them,orbyalso teaching themgrammarrules and some grammatical terms. Learning some grammatical rules and terms makeslanguagelearningeasierforsomelearners.Otherlearners,e.g.youngchildren,maynotfinditusefulatall.

-Just learninggrammatical rules, termsandstructuresdoesn't teach learnershow tocommunicate, which is the main purpose of language. So, much language teachingnowadaysalsofocusesonfunctions,languageskills,fluencyandcommunication.

- It is important that exercises and activities focus on formand use to give studentspracticeofboth,e.g.howthesecondconditionalisformed,andthatthesecondconditionalis used to talk about situations that are unlikely to happen. Learners need to developaccuracyinbothformanduse.

See Units 9-14 for how we learn grammar, Units 15-17 for teaching grammaticalstructures,Units19,20and21forplanninglessonsongrammaticalstructures,andUnit32forwaysofcorrectinggrammar.

Follow-upActivities(Seepage237foranswers)

1.Put thesewords into the correct categorybelow.Somemaybelong tomore thanonecategory.

asreallytakeadvantagebothontheleftofoftenveryhardthat lovelyturnonLondondiningtableeitherhisbecauseofeventhoughmmmtheirsusualonlyfasternobody

Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Determiners

Prepositions Pronouns Conjunctions Exclamations

2. Use prefixes and suffixes to make maps, as in the example, from these words:decide,luck,able

Fortune:

-fortunate

-fortunately

-unfortunate

-unfortunately

-misfortune

3.Completethetablewithanexample,atermoradescriptionofform.

Examplesofstructures Term Form

AcolddayinPrague Nounphrase

Indefinite article +adjective + commonnoun + preposition +propernoun

Themostexpensive Superlativeadjective

ThegirlwhoIsaw lastnight

Definingrelativeclause

The present simplepassive

Verb+gerund

Ashedidn’tunderstand

Indirectcommand

Yououghttohurryup

4. Read through the text below and identify the uses of the grammatical formsunderlined.

A:Themostamazingthinghappenedtomeyesterday.Iwasleavingthehouseand

Inoticedthat itwasgoing torain,so I ranback inside formyumbrella.Assoonas Igotoutofthedoor,itstartedtopourdown.Itriedtoopentheumbrellabutitwouldn'topen.IfI’dstoodunderthebathroomshowerwithmyclotheson,

Iwouldn'thavegotanywetter!Then I feltsomething landonmyhead. Itwasbiggerandheavier thana raindrop. I lookedon thegroundand I couldn'tbelievemyeyes.Therewerelotsoftinyfrogsfallingintherain.

B:Ohno.Areyousure?

A:Absolutely!

B:I'veheardofitrainingcatsanddogs,butneverfrogs!

Reflection

Thinkabouttheseteachers'comments,whichdoyouagreewithandwhy?

1.Mystudentssaylearninggrammarisreallyboringanddoesn’thelpthemspeak.

2. Children don't learn grammar when they learn their first language but adults wholearnasecondlanguagereallyneedto.

3. We need to learn grammar terms to help us learn a language more easily andquickly.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Whatgrammar referencematerialsareavailable inyourschool?Do theydescribespoken or written English? Are they up-to-date? How could they help you with yourteaching?

2.Compareany twoof thesebooksongrammaror thegrammar informationon thetwowebsites.Whichdoyouprefer?Why?Aretheymoreusefulforyouoryourlearners?

TKTpracticetask1A(Seepage245foranswers)

Forquestions1-7,lookatthesentencesandthethreewordsfromeachlistedA,BandC.

Twoofthewordshavethesamegrammaticalfunctioninthesentence.OnedoesNOT.Choosetheletter(A,BorC)whichdoesNOThavethesamegrammaticalfunction.

1.Shetoldusitwasverycoldthere.

A.she

B.it

C.there

2.Itwasbuiltwhentheywereyoung,sotheydon’tremembertheoldbuilding.

A.was

B.were

C.don’t

3.NobodyunderstoodhisspokenFrenchbecausehisaccentwasso‘strong’.

A.understood

B.spoken

C.was

4.HestudiedITforhisjobbuthemadeveryslowprogresssohegaveup.

A.for

B.but

C.so

5.Theytookofftheircoatsandwenttothetablenearthewindow.

A.off

B.to

C.near

6.Shefounditreallyhardtoconcentrateasitwassonoisythere.

A.really

B.so

C.noisy

7.Theyoungcatrantoofastforthedogtocatchiteasily.

A.young

B.fast

C.easily

TKTpracticetask1B(Seepage245foranswers)

For questions 1-6, choose the best option (A, B or C) to complete each statementabouttheusesofthegrammaticalstructuresunderlinedinthesentences.

1.Youshouldarriveearlyifyouwanttomakeagoodimpression.Hereshouldisusedto

A.giveadvice.

B.talkaboutobligation,

C.speculate.

2.Hestoppeddrivingashewasworriedaboutpollution.Hereasisusedto

A.introduceacomparison.

B.introduceareason,

C.introduceatimeperiod.

3.Ican’tseethegirlwhoshe’stalkingabout.Herewhoisusedto

A.signalaquestion.

B.giveextrainformation.

C.introduceadefinition.

4.My holiday starts next week and I come back the week after, on the 10th. Herecomebackisusedto

A.refertothepresent.

B.refertothefuture.

C.refertothepast.

5.Idon’tknowifhe’scoming.Hereifisusedto

A.talkaboutacondition.

B.discussadoubt,

C.introduceareportedquestion.

6.Sheislivingwithhersisterwhileshe’satuniversity.Hersislivingisusedto

A.describeapermanentstate.

B.describeacontinuingaction,

C.describeatemporarystate.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatislexis?

Lexisreferstoindividualwordsorsetsofwords,forexample:tree,getup,firstofall,all'swellthatendswell,i.e.unitsofvocabularywhichhaveaspecificmeaning,

*Keyconcepts

Whatkindsofmeaningcanwordshave?

We often speak of the meaning of words. In fact words have different kinds ofmeaning.Firstly,thereisthemeaningthatdescribesthethingorideabehindthevocabularyitem,e.g.atreeisalargeplantwithawoodentrunk,branchesandleaves.Thismeaningiscalled 'denotation',andwespeakof 'denotativemeaning'.Thenthere is figurativemeaning.Wespeak,forexample,of'thetreeoflife'or'afamilytree'.Thisimaginativemeaningcomesfrom,but isdifferent from,aword'sdenotativemeaning.There isalso themeaning thatavocabulary itemhas in the context (situation) inwhich it is used, e.g. in the sentence 'Wecouldn't see the house because of the tall trees in front of it' we understand how tall thetreesarepartly fromknowingthemeaningof tallandpartly fromknowinghowtallahouseis,sothemeaningoftallinthissentenceispartlydefinedbythecontext.

The meaning of some vocabulary items can also come from their form, e.g. fromprefixes, suffixes or compounds (nounsmade from two ormore separatewords). Addingprefixes or suffixes to basewords (the basic words or parts of a word fromwhich otherwordscanbemade)can,forexample,givethemanoppositemeaning(e.g.unsafe,illegal)oracomparative(e.g.easy-easier),orsuperlativemeaning(e.g.new-newest). Itmayalsochangetheirpartofspeech(e.g. instruct-instruction.quick-quickly).Theprocessofaddingaffixes is called affixation. Compound nouns get their meaning from being together (e.g.telephonenumber,bookshop).Theyhaveadifferentmeaningfromtheindividualwordstheyaremadeupof.

There are also words that regularly occur together, such as collocations, fixedexpressions and idioms. Collocations are words that often occur together (e.g. to take aholiday, heavy rain, arrive at, depend on). There are many words which collocate in alanguage,and thedegreeofcollocationcanvary.Forexample,watchout isaverystrongcollocationasthesewordsveryoftenoccurtogether,whereaswatchavideoislessstrongand watch the postmen is not a collocation. The words in watch the postmen can occurtogetherbutdon'tdosooftenenoughtomakethemacollocation.

Unit2.Lexis

Fixedexpressionsareexpressionswhichcan't be changed (e.g. to tell you the truth,newborn,it'suptoyou).Idiomsareakindoffixedexpressionastheycan'tbechanged,buttheirmeaningisusuallydifferentfromthecombinationofthemeaningoftheindividualwordsthey contain (e.g. to be under the weather, to have green fingers, once in a bluemoon).Collocations, fixedexpressionsand idiomsarealldifferentkindsofchunks. 'Chunks' referstolanguagethatoccursin(semi-)fixedunitsandthatweusuallylearnasonepiece.Haveagood,trip,I'dliketo....howaboutmyname's...arefurtherexamplesofchunks.

Wordsalsohavedifferent relationshipswithoneanother.Theymay, for example, besynonyms (words with the same or similar meanings) or antonyms (words with oppositemeanings).Theymaybepart of the same lexical set (groupsofwords that belong to thesametopicarea,e.g.family,furniture,food).Theymayalsobelongtothesamewordfamily(words that come through affixation from the same base word, e.g. real, really, realistic,unreal):

Falsefriends,homophones,homonymsandvarietiesofEnglishareotherwaysinwhichwordscanrelatetooneanother.Falsefriendsarevery important in languageteachingandlearning. They are words which have the same or a similar form in two languages but adifferentmeaning.Embarazado,forexample,meanspregnantinSpanish.Itdoesnotmeanembarrassed, though it looks as if it does to an English speaker! Homophones andhomonymsare important, too, in language learning.Homophonesarewordswith thesamepronunciation but a different meaning or spelling (e.g. know-no; whether-weather; there-their).Homonymsarewordswiththesamespellingandpronunciationasanotherword,butadifferentmeaning,e.g. 'theysaton the riverbank', 'heputall his savings into thebank'.Words can also relate to one another through being examples of different varieties ofEnglish, i.e.different kindsofEnglishspokenaround theworld,e.g. Indian,Australian,us,South African, British. These varieties sometimes affect lexis as the same things can becalled by different names in different varieties, e.g. flat (British English), apartment (USEnglish),unit(AustralianEnglish),orcookie(usEnglish)andbiscuit(BritishEnglish).

Thetablebelowshowsexamplesofsomeoftheformandmeaningrelationshipsoftwowords.

Lexicalfeatures clear(adjective) paper(noun)

Denotations

1.easytounderstand

2. not covered orblocked

1.materialusedtowriteonorwrapthingsin

2.anewspaper

3. a document

3.havingnodoubt containinginformation

Synonyms

simple (of denotation1)

certain (of denotation3)

(none)

Antonyms/Opposites

confusing (ofdenotation1)

untidy, covered (ofdenotation2)

unsure (of denotation3)

(none)

Lexicalsetswell-written (ofdenotation1)

stone,plastic,cloth,etc.

Wordfamilies clearly,unclear,clarity (none)

Homophones (none) (none)

Homonyms (none) (none)

FalsefriendsFrench ‘clair’, i.e. lightincolour

possibly in somelanguages

Prefixes+baseword unclear (none)

Baseword+suffixes clearly,aclearing paperless

Compounds clear-headedpaperknife,papershop,paperback

Collocations clearskin,aclearday linedpaper,whitepaper

Figurativemeanings aclearheadon paper (e.g. Itseemeda good idea onpaper)

Idiomsto clear the decks (tostartafresh)

toputpentopaper

We can see from this table that words sometimes have several denotations. The

context in which we are writing or speakingmakes it clear whichmeaning we are using.Wordscanalsochangetheirdenotationsaccordingtowhatpartofspeechtheyare,e.g.theadjectiveclearandtheverbtoclear.Wecanalsoseefromthetablethatnotallwordshaveallthekindsofformormeaningrelationships.


Readtheseripsandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou:

-Fullyknowingawordinvolvesunderstandingitsformandmeaning,e.g.whatpartofspeech it is,howit ispronouncedandspelt,all themeanings itcanhave.Thiscannot takeplace the first time a learner meets a new word. It takes learners a long time to fullyunderstandanduseaword.Atfirsttheywillprobablyjustlearnitsmostfrequentdenotativemeaning,itsspellingandpronunciation.

- Learners need tomeet the same words again and again as they advance in theirlanguagelearning.Inthiswaytheirmemoryofthemwillbeconsolidatedandtheywillgettoknowmoreabouttheword,e.g.othermeanings,collocations,thelexicalsetstheyarepartof.Theycanmeetwordsagain in texts, or in vocabularyextensionactivities (i.e. activitiesthatgivemorepractice),suchasbrainstorming,labelling,categorising,makinglexicalsets,e

-Whetherwearelearningourfirstoroursecondlanguage,weoftenrecogniseawordbeforewecanuseit,andwecanoftenrecognisethemeaningofmanymorewordsthanwecanuse.Thewordswe recognisearecalledour 'receptive'vocabulary; thewordswecanuse are called our 'productive' vocabulary. A teacher usually teaches learners key(important) words and exposes them to many more. The learners pick these words up,initiallyonlyrecognisingtheirmeaning,theneventuallyusingthemproductively.

-Aswordscangetpartoftheirmeaningfromcontext,andcontexthelpstoshowthemeaningofwords, it isuseful to teach themincontext rather than in isolation,e.g. throughtexts,storiesordescriptionsofeventsthatwetellthestudentsabout.

- We can use the relationships in meaning between words (synonyms, lexical sets,wordfamilies,etc.)andthewaysinwhichtheycanbebuilt(prefixes,suffixes,compounds)to make activities to help our students extend their knowledge of words, e.g. makingopposites,buildingwordsthroughaffixation,brainstorminglexicalsetsandwordfamilies.

-When we teach learners new words we can check if these words have any falsefriends in their language or if these words are homophones or homonyms of others theyknow. Then we can point this out to the learners and help to save them frommisunderstandings.

- At beginner level and with young learners, we often teach general words forcategoriesfirst,thengraduallyintroducedifferentitemsfromthatcategory.Forexample,wemayteachclothesbeforeteachingjeans,shirt,T-shirt,etc.

-Alotoflanguageoftenoccursinchunks,e.g.collocations,fixedexpressions.Expertsthink that children learning their first language learn the chunks as a whole rather than inparts.Thishelps themtoremember thembetterandrecall (remember) themmorequickly.Asteacherswecanhighlight(drawlearners'attentionto)chunksoflanguageforlearners.

-Itisusefulforlearnerstokeepvocabularyrecordsinwhichtheyrecordthemeaningof the new words, their part of speech, examples of use, any collocations, theirpronunciation; any synonyms, etc. Students can return to add information about individualwordsastheylearnmoreaboutthem.


1. What does each of these sets of words have in common? Are they synonyms,antonyms,lexicalsets,compounds,idioms,collocations,wordfamilies,homophones,wordswithprefixesorwordswithsuffixes?

A.table,chair,sofa,bed,bookcase,chestofdrawers,desk

B.old-young,bright-dark,loud-quiet,fast-slow,first-last,long-short

C.tobeoverthemoon,allroadsleadtoRome,paythroughthenose

D.astraightroad,abrilliantidea,hardwork,noproblem,extremelygrateful

E.neat-tidy,precisely-exactly,todoubt-toquestion,nobody-noone

F.microwave,toothbrush,paperdip,lampshade,bottletop

G.illness,badly,useless,doubtful,affordable,ability,practical

H.imperfect,rewrite,unable,illiterate,incorrect,ultramodern

I.learn,learner,learning,learned

J.bear-bare,flour-flower,sea-see,which-witch,right-write

Reflection

Thinkabouttheseteachers'comments.Whichdoyouagreewithandwhy?

1. There are some advantages in using translation to teach meaning, but somedisadvantages,too.

2. I think it's really important-formy learners tokeepavocabularynotebook inwhichtheywritetheword,itsmeaning(s),itspronunciation,itscollocations,etc.

3.Gettingtoknowwordsislikegettingtoknowafriend-youlearnmoreaboutthembitbybit.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look up threewords from your coursebook in anEnglish-English dictionary.Whatkindsofinformationaregivenforeachword?Decidewhichinformationisimportantforyourstudents

2. Look at Chapter 7 ‘Vocabulary’ in Learning Teaching (second edition) by JimScrivener,Macmillan2005. It tellsyoumoreabout themeaningofwordsandgives lotsofideasforteachingvocabulary.

TKTpracticetask2(Seepage245foranswers)

Forquestions1-6,readthetextaboutthecityofYork.MatchtheunderlinedwordsandphraseswiththelexicaltermslistedA-G.

Thereisoneextraoptionwhichyoudonotneedtouse.

Lexicalterms

A.compound

B.wordfamily

C.lexicalset

D.multi-wordverb

E.synonym

F.wordwithsuffix

G.wordwithprefix

Text

Ifyouarelookingforaculturalexperienceora(1)weekendbreak,thenvisitYorkandbe inspired. Famous for its beautiful (2) architecture, streets and cathedral. York is fastdevelopinganactive,livelyculturallife.

Take time out to enjoy some of the country’s most talented street entertainers orsimply (3)watch theworldgobywhilehavingadrinkby the river. (4)Broadenyourmindwithavisit toworld-classmuseumsoravarietyof festivals forallagesand interestsheldthroughouttheyear.

Acityofcontrastsandexcitingdiscoveries,Yorkisaplacewheretheoldandthenewhave(5)met,andtheordinarymeetswiththe(6)unusual.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatisphonology?

Phonology is the study of the sound features used in a language to communicatemeaning. In English these features include phonemes, word stress, sentence stress andintonation.

*Keyconcepts

Doyouknowwhatthesesymbolsrepresent?

All thesesymbols representphonemes.Aphoneme is thesmallestunitof sound thatcanmake a difference tomeaning in a language. For example, the s in books in Englishshows that something isplural, so thesound /s/hasmeaningand isaphoneme.Differentlanguages use a different range of sounds and not all of them have meaning in otherlanguages.Forexample,thedistinctionbetween/s/and/sh/ isanimportantoneinEnglish,whereithelpsdistinguish(noticeorunderstandthedifferencebetweentwothings)betweenwordssuchassoandshow,sockandshock,soreandshore,etc.But inCantonese,youcan use either the /s/ or /sh/ sound in words without changing their meaning, i.e. inCantonesethesesoundsarenottwoseparatephonemes.

Thephonemesofalanguagearerepresentedinwritingbyphonemicsymbols,suchas/i:/, /ai/ and /I/.Eachphonemic symbol representsonlyonephoneme,unlike the lettersofthealphabetinEnglishwhere,forexample,thelettera'inwrittenEnglishcanrepresentthe/se/soundinhat,the/ei/soundinmadeandthe/a/soundinusually.Phonemicsymbolshelpthereaderknowexactlywhatthecorrectpronunciationis.

Thephonemicscriptisasetofphonemicsymbolswhichshowinwritinghowwordsorsoundsarepronounced,e.g.beautifuliswritten/'bju:tijl/,televisionis/'telivi3n/andyellowis/|jebu/.when the symbolsarewrittenoneafter theother to representawordor groupofwords theymakeaphonemic transcription.ThephonemesofEnglishareoftenshown inachart,calledthephonemicchart.

Thechartgroupsthesoundsintovowels(soundsmadewiththemouthpartlyopenandwheretheairisnotstoppedbythetongue,lipsorteeth,e.g.Id)inthetopleft-handcorner,diphthongs (amovement fromonevowelsound toanotherwithinasinglesyllable,e.g. thevowelsoundinmake/meik/orinso/sau/)inthetopright-handcornerandconsonants(theflowofair ispartlyblockedbythetongue, lipsor teethwhenthesesoundsaremade,e.g./b/) in thebottom three rows.The consonantsarearranged in anorder according to how

Unit3.Phonology

andwhere in themouth theyarepronouncedandwhether theyarevoicedsounds(spokenusing thevibrationofourvoice,e.g. /b/, /d/, /dg/, /g/)orunvoicedsounds (spokenwithoutusingourvoice,e.g./p/,/u/,/tj/,/k/).

Dictionariesalwaysgivephonemictranscriptionsofwordstoshowtheirpronunciation.They usually have a list of all the phonemic symbols at the beginning or end of the book,togetherwithanexampleofthesoundeachsymbolrepresents.Thereareseveralphonemicscripts with some small differences in the symbols they use. TKT and most learnerdictionariesusesymbols from the InternationalPhoneticAlphabet (IPA),asdoes thechartabove.

In the transcription of the word /stjuidant/ you can see phonemic symbols and alsoanothersignDictionaryentriesforwordsalsousethissymbol.Thesymbolisusedtoshowwordstress.Sometimesyouseewordstressmarked inotherways,e.g. /stiuidgnt/.Whenwegivewordstresstoasyllablewesayitwithgreaterenergyandusuallyhigher,i.e.withmore lengthandsoundon itsvowelsound.Compare thestress in thevowelsounds in theunderlined stressed syllables with the other syllables in these words: pencil, children,important.Wepronounce theothersyllableswith lessenergy,especially theunstressedorweaksyllables,whosevowelsgetshortenedorsometimesevendisappear,e.g. thevowelsoundinthelastsyllableof important,whichispronouncedasaschwahi.Therearemanylanguageswhich,likeEnglish,giveespeciallystrongstresstoonesyllableinaword,e.g.thePortuguesespokeninPortugal.Otherlanguagesgiveequallengthtoallthesyllables.

InEnglish,stressalsoinfluenceshowsentencesandgroupsofwordsarepronounced.Wesaydifferentpartsof thesentencewithmoreor lessstress, i.e.slowerand louder,orquickerandmoresoftly.This iscalledsentencestress.Normallyoneword in thesentencehasprimaryormainstress.This is thewordwhich thespeaker thinks ismost important tothemeaningofthesentence.Otherwordscanhavesecondarystress.Thisisnotsostrongasmainstressandfallsonwordswhicharenotsoimportanttothemeaningofthesentenceasthewordwithmainstress.Otherwordsinthesentenceareunstressed.Forexample,in'Shecamehome late lastnight'or 'Ican'tunderstandawordhesays', thewordswith themainstresswouldprobablybetheunderlinedones,thewordswithsecondarystresswouldprobablybecame,home,last,nightandcan't,understand,says,andtheunstressedwordsshe,I,aandhe.

Mainandsecondarystressusuallyoccuroncontentwordswhichcarrymeaningratherthan structural words. ContentWords are nouns, verbs, adverbs or adjectives, i.e. wordsthat give information.Structuralwords are prepositions, articles, pronouns or determiners,i.e.wordsweusetobuildthegrammarofthesentence.Forexample,inthesentence'The

girl ran to the sea and jumped in quickly' the content words are: girl, ran, sea, jumped,quickly.Theothersaregrammaticalwords.Youcansee thatnormally thesewouldnotbestressed. Of course, there are exceptions to this. It is possible to stress any word in asentenceifthespeakerthinksitisimportant.Puttingthestressonanunexpectedwordinasentence is called contrastive stress. For example, The girl ran to the sea and jumped inquickly.' This stresses that she ran towards the sea and not, for example, away from it.changingthestressofasentencechangesitsmeaning.Lookattheseexamples:

Thegirlrantotheseaandjumpedinquickly,(i.e.notanotherperson)

Thegirlrantotheseaandjumpedinquickly,(i.e.nottoanyotherplace)

Thegirlrantotheseaandjumpedinquickly,(i.e.notinanyotherway)

Sentencestressisacharacteristicofconnectedspeech,i.e.spokenlanguageinwhichall the words join to make a connected stream of sounds. Some other characteristics ofconnected speech are contractions, e.g. don't, haven't, vowel shortening in unstressedwordsandsyllables,e.g. theschwasoundhi inathome/athaum/orLondon /knctan/andweak forms (unstressed formsofwords,e.g. /kan/ for can).Thesecharacteristicshelp tokeep the rhythm (pattern of stress) of speech regular. The regular beat falls on themainstress,while theweakersyllablesandwordsaremadeshorter tokeep to the rhythm.Trysayingthesentencesaboveandbeatingoutaregularrhythmonyourhandasyousaythem.

Another feature of connected speech which helps to keep it smooth is linking. Inconnected speech we join (i.e. link) words, together at the word boundaries (where oneword ends and the next one begins) rather than saying them separately. This happensparticularlywhenonewordendsinaconsonantsoundandthenextonestartswithavowelsound,e.g.upabove,hedid it,orwhenoneendswithavowelsoundand thenextstartswithavowelsound,e.g.herEnglish,goaway.Linking isoften represented inaphonemictranscriptionasw.

Intonation isanother important featureof connectedspeech. It is thewaya speakerchangestheleveloftheirvoicetoshowmeaning,i.e.themeaningfultuneofasentenceoragroupofwords.Throughitwecanshowemotionsandattitudes,emphasise(i.e.givespecialforcetoaword)ormakelessimportantparticularthingswesay,andsignaltootherpeoplethefunctionofwhatvy.earesaying,e.g. thatwearestoppingspeaking,askingaquestionormakingastatement

Tohearsomeoftheseuses,trysaying'School'sjustfinished'withthesemeanings:

asastatementoffact

withsurprise

withhappiness

asaquestion

toemphasise'just'.

Youshouldhearthelevelofyourvoicerisingandfallingindifferentpatterns.

Forexample,whenyousaythesentenceasastatementoffact,yourintonationhasafalling toneas follows:school's just finished',whenyousay itasaquestion, ithasa risingtone,asfollows:school'sjustfinished',andwhenyousayitwithsurprise,youwillprobablysay itwitha fall-rise tone,asschool's just finished'.Different intonationpatternscanshowmany different meanings, but there is no short and simple way of describing how thepatterns relate tomeanings. If youwant to learnmore about intonation, look at the booksuggestedintheDiscoveryactivitiesonpage25.



- English has become a global language. Thismeans learners need to understand awidevarietyofaccentsinEnglisharidbeunderstoodbypeoplefrommanydifferentplaces.Listeningtorecordingsofspeakersfromarangeofcountrieshelpsthemwiththis.Theycanalso,ofcourse,trytolistentoTV,radioprogrammes,andsomewebsitesinEnglish.

- Learners need practice in hearing and recognising sound features before they areaskedtoproducethosefeaturesthemselves.

- A regular focus in lessons on different aspects of pronunciation helps to makelearners aware of its importance.This canbedoneaswe teachnew languageby askinglearnerstorepeatmodelsofthenewlanguage.Wecanalsoencouragedearpronunciationby correcting or asking learners to correct their pronunciation mistakes. We can useactivities, too,which focus just on e.g.word stress, sentence stress orminimal pairs, i.e.wordsdistinguishedbyonlyonephoneme,shipandsheep,hutandhat,thingandthink,chipandship.

-Teacherscanfindoutwhichphonemesareproblematicfortheirlearnersandfocusonthem.

-Manyclassroomshaveacopyofthephonemicchartonthewall.Thiscanhelpdirectlearners' attention to particular sounds when they learn new language or for correction.Learnersmay not need to learn all the symbols on the chart but just the sounds that areproblematicforthem.

-Teachersoften introducephonemic symbols to their classesa fewat a time ratherthanallatonce.Thiscanhelpthemrememberthembetter.

-Itistheteacher'sdecisionwhethertouse(someofthe)phonemicsymbolswiththeirclasses or not. Some learners, e.g. 5-year-olds or learners unfamiliar with English script,maynotfindthesesymbolsusefulatall.Olderlearnersmayappreciatethem,particularlyastheyhelpthemtomakegooduseofdictionaries.

-Teachers themselveswill probably find it veryuseful to knowall the symbols in thephonemicscriptas ithelps themusedictionarieswithconfidenceand in thepreparationoftheirlessons.

SeeUnits21and23 forhow to incorporate the teachingofpronunciation into lessonplansandtheresourcesthatcanbeusedtodothis.


1. Look at the phonemic symbols in the chart on page 21. Practise saying eachsymbol.Testyourselforacolleaguetoseehowwellyouknowthesymbols.

2.Lookatthephonemicchart.Trytothinkofwordswhichcontaineachsound.

3.Howmanyphonemesarethereineachofthesewords?Whatarethey?wordgameboardafternoonexercisethirty

4. Underline the main stress in each of these words: thirty vegetable impossiblepersuadeconnection

5.Onwhichwordwouldyouputthemainstressineachofthesesentences?

IliveinManchester,notLondon.

BrasiliaisinthemiddleofBrazil,notonthesea.

Thegirlwasverytall,butherbrotherwasreallyshort.

6.Say'Fantastic'withdifferentintonationstoexpressthesemeanings:

A.enthusiasm

B.doubt

C.surprise

Reflection

Thinkaboutthesecommentsfromteachers.Whichdoyouagreewithandwhy?

1.Idon'tthinkweneedtoteach'correct'pronunciationthesedaysbecausepeopleallovertheworldspeakEnglishwithdifferentaccents.

2.Youcan'timprovethepronunciationofadults-there'snopointintrying.

3.Knowingaboutphonologycanhelpteacherswhentheyplanandgivetheirlessons.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look at the phonemic chart on page 21 and underline. Check their pronunciationlearnersfinddifficulttosay

2.Choosefivewordsyouwillsoonteachyourlearners.Checktheirpronunciationinadictionary.Decidewhichsoundsmightbeproblematicforyourlearners.

3.LookatSoundFoundationsbyAdrianUnderhill,Macmillan1994.Ithaslotsofusefulinformationaboutdifferentaspectsofphonology

4. Do some of the pronunciation activities on this website:http://www.cambridgeonline.com/phonetics_focus

5. Do you know the meaning of these words: rhyme, strong form, contrast,discriminate?Useadictionaryand/ortheTKTGlossarytocheckyourdefinition

TXTpracticetask3(Seepage245foranswers)

For questions 1-8, look at the questions about phonology and the three possibleanswerslistedA,BandC.

Choosethecorrectanswer(A,BorC).

1.Whichwordcontainsaschwasoundinconnectedspeech?

A.fantastic

B.expert

C.photograph

2.Whichwordhastwovoicedconsonants?

A.side

B.tail

C.big

3.Whichwordcontainsadiphthong?

A.male

B.meat

C.music

4.Whichsetofwordsisaminimalpair?

http://www.cambridgeonline.com/phonetics_focus

A.sink-single

B.these-those

C.their-there

5.Whichsetofwordshaslinkinginconnectedspeech?

A.fishandchips

B.babyboy

C.nicefood

6.Whichisthecorrectphonemicscriptformagazine?

A./masgae'ziin/

B./masga'ziin/

C./ma:gi'zi:n/

7.Howmanyphonemesarethereintheworddangerous?

A.seven

B.eight

C.nine

8.Whichwordisstressedonthethirdsyllable?

A.alphabet

B.interrupt

C.decision

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatisafunction?

Afunctionisareasonwhywecommunicate.Everytimewespeakorwrite,wedosoforareason.Whatwesayhasapurposeorfunction.Herearesomeexamplesoffunctions:

apologising greeting clarifying inviting advising agreeing disagreeing refusing thankinginterruptingexpressingobligationexpressingpreferences

Wecandescribe language itself in termsof itsgrammaror its lexis.Functionsareawayofdescribinghowweuse language.Whenwedescribe the functionsof languagewefocus on the use of the language and its meaning for the people who are in the contextwhereitisused.

*Keyconcepts

Lookatthistable,whatdoyouthinkan‘exponent'is?

Context Exponent Function

A. boy wants to go tothe cinema with hisfriendtonight.Hesays:

'Let’sgo to thecinematonight.’

suggestionaboutgoingtothecinema

A girl meets somepeople for the firsttime, shewants to getto know them, shesays:

‘Hello. My name’sEmilia.’

Introducingyourself

A customer doesn’tunderstand what ashopassistant has justsaid. The customersays:

'Sorry, what do youmean?’

Asking for clarification(asking someone toexplainsomething)

Agirlwrites a letter toa relative thanking herfor a birthday present,shewrites:

‘Thankyou50muchformylovely…’

Thanking someone forapresent

Unit4.Functions

Thelanguageweusetoexpressafunctioniscalledanexponent.Thesentencesinthemiddle column in the table above are examples of exponents. In the third column, thefunctions are underlined. You can see from the table thatwe use the -mg forms of verbs(e.g.suggesting,asking)tonamefunctions.Thewordsafterthefunctioninthethirdcolumnarenotthefunction.Theyarethespecifictopicsthatthefunctionsrefertointhesecontexts.

An exponent can express different functions at the same time. It all depends on thecontext it is used in. For example, think of the exponent 'I'm so tired'. This could be anexponentofthefunctionofdescribingfeelings.Butwhoissayingit?Whoishe/shesayingitto?Where is he/she saying it?, i.e.what is the context inwhich it is being said? ImaginesayingI'msotired'inthefollowingdifferentcontexts:

Context Possiblefunction

Aboytalkingtohismotherwhilehedoeshishomework

Requesting (asking) to stop doinghomework

Apatienttalkingtohisdoctor Describingaphysicalstate

Oneexponentcanexpressseveraldifferentfunctionsbecauseitsfunctiondependsonthecontext.Onefunctioncanalsobeexpressedthroughdifferentexponents.Hereare fivedifferentexponentsof invitingsomeone to lunch. Inwhatdifferentsituationswouldyouusethem?

Informal

Lunch?

Comingforlunch?

Comeforlunchwithus?

Whydon'tyoucomeforlunchwithus?

Wouldyouliketocometolunchwithus?

Wewouldbeverypleasedifyoucouldjoinusforlunch.

Theseexponentsexpressdifferentlevelsofformality,i.e.moreorlessrelaxedwaysofsaying things.Generally speaking, formal (more socially distant) language is used inmoreofficial and important situations amongst people who do not know each other very well.Informal(moresociallycasual)languageoftenoccursinrelaxedsituations,amongstfriends,peoplewhoknoweachotherwellor treateachother inarelaxedway. Informalexponents

aresometimescolloquial,i.e.verycasualandconversational,suchasHe'soffhishead,i.e.crazy.Therearealsoneutralexponentswhichweusewhenwewanttoshowneithergreatrespectnor toomuchcasualness towards thepersonweare talking to.They fallbetweenformal and informal. 'Why don't you come for lunch with us?' is an example of a neutralexponent.

Peopleusuallychoosetousethe levelof formalitythatsuitsasituation.This iscalledappropriacy.Ateachergreetingherclasscouldchoosetosay'I'dliketowishyouallaverygoodmorning'or'Hi,guys!'.Bothofthesearelikelytobeinappropriate(unsuitable)inmanyclassroom situations, the first because it is too formal and the second because it is tooinformal. Itwouldprobablybeappropriate (suitable) for the teacher tosay 'Goodmorning,everyone' or something similar. Of course, we sometimes use inappropriate language onpurposetocreatesomeeffect,e.g.ashopassistantusinggreat formalitywithacustomermay be signalling that he would like the customer to leave. Language that reflects thesituation in which it is used is often referred to as register, 'Hi' is an example of informalregister,'Averygoodmorningtoyou'anexampleofformalregister.


Readthesetipsandtheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou

-Coursebooks in the1980sand1990swereoftenorganisedaround functions.Eachnewunit focusedonanewfunction,e.g.Unit IExpressinglikesanddislikes,Unit2Makingsuggestions,Unit 3Agreeinganddisagreeing.Thesebookswerebasedon theFunctionalApproach(seeUnit15).

-Afocusonfunctionsintheclassroomcanleadtoanemphasisoncommunicationandlearninglanguageinchunks,

-Writing issometimes taught through functions,e.g.when learning towrite lettersofcomplaint, learners can learn exponents for greeting, explaining your reason for writing,describingyourcomplaint,askingforsatisfaction,signingoff.

-Nowadays,weusually findfunctionstaught togetherwith thestructurestheycontainsothatlearnersdonotbecomeconfusedbymeetingawiderangeofgrammaticalpatternstogether at the same time.We can see this in the extract from a map of a coursebookbelow, in the third columna grammatical structure is given togetherwith exponents of thefunction'Expressinglikes'whichareexpressedthroughthisStructure.

Functions Grammar

Unit6 ExpressinglikesFirst and third person present simple

affirmative:Ilikehe/shelikes...

Unit7 ExpressingdislikesFirst and third person present simplenegative: I don’t like he/she doesn’tlike...

-Combiningfunctionsandgrammarhelpstogivegrammarmeaningandcontext.Italsohelps learners to learn functions together with grammatical structures that they can thentransfertoothercontextsforuse.

See Unit 15 for more on the Functional Approach, Units 16 and 17 for teachingactivities for functions,Units19and21 for lessonplanning,andUnits27-28 for classroomfunctions.


1. List at least three different exponents for each of these functions and choose adifferentregisterforeachexponent:agreeing,clarifying,givinganopinion,thanking.

2. Go through the list of exponents you made in 1 and mark them F (formal), N(neutral)orI(informal).Thinkofsituationsinwhichitwouldbeappropriateorinappropriatetousetheseexponents.

3. Look at your list of exponents. Which would you teach to classes of secondaryschoollearners,5-year-oldbeginners,advanced,businessstudents?

Reflection


1.Learnerspreferlearningfunctionstolearninggrammar.

2. Learning functions is more useful for intermediate or advanced learners than forbeginners.

3.Itisveryusefulforlearnerstolearnfunctionsforessaywritingandletterwriting.

4.Primarylearnersdonotneedtolearnfunctions.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Lookatyourcoursebook.Doesitteachfunctions?Why/whynot?

2. What kinds of activities are used in your coursebook to introduce and practisefunctions?Howdoesthecoursebookhelplearnersdealwiththegrammarofthefunctions?

3.InyourTeacherPortfoliolistsixfunctionsyourlearnersmightneedtohelpthemuseEnglishoutsidetheclassroom.Listthemostusefulexponentsforthem,too.

4. To find out more about functions and exponents, look at Chapter 5 of Threshold1990byJ.A.vanEkandJ.L.M.Trim,CouncilofEurope,CambridgeUniversityPress1998.

5 Here are some common functions: declining an invitation, enquiring, expressingobligation, expressing preference, expressing ability, expressing intention, expressing:necessity, expressing permission, expressing probability, expressing prohibition. Use adictionaryand/or theTKTGlossary to find theirmeanings.Canyou thinkof twoexponentsforeachone?


Forquestions1-6, read theconversationbetween two friends ina restaurant.MatchtheunderlinedsentenceswiththefunctionslistedA-G.


Functions

A.predicting

B.makinganexcuse

C.makingasuggestion

D.askingforclarification

E.ordering

F.agreeing

G.disagreeing

Conversation

Janet:Thismealreallyisn’tnice.Nothing’sfreshandeverythingtastesabitstrange.

Chris:Yes,you’reright.(1)Wecouldcomplaintothemanager.

Janet:(2)That’sabitrude,isn’tit?Maybewecouldaskthewaiterforsomethingelse.

Chris:(3)Areyousavingyou’dlikethesamedishagain?

Janet:No,that’snotreallyagoodidea.(4)Itwouldprobablybeasbadasthisone.

Chris:Butit’sbetterthandoingnothing.

Janet:(5)True.

Chris:OK,callthewaiterandtellhim.

Janet:Ohno,notme.(6)Ihatedoingthosekindsofthings.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatisreading?

Readingisoneofthefourlanguageskills:reading,writing,listeningandspeaking.Itisa receptive skill, like listening. This means it involves responding to text; rather thanproducing it.Verysimplywecansaythatreading involvesmakingsenseofwrittentext.Todo this we need to understand the language of the text at word level, sentence level orwhole-text level.Wealsoneedtoconnectthemessageofthetexttoourknowledgeoftheworld.Lookatthissentence,forexample:

Theboywassurprisedbecausethegirlwasmuchfasteratrunningthanhewas.

To understand this sentence, we need to understand what the letters are, how theletters join together tomakewords,what thewordsmeanand thegrammarof thewordsand the sentence. But we also make sense of this sentence by knowing that, generallyspeaking,girlsdonotrunasfastasboys.Ourknowledgeoftheworldhelpsusunderstandwhytheboywassurprised.

*Keyconcepts

Canyouthinkofreasonswhylearnersmayfindreadingdifficult?

A text is usually longer than just aword or a sentence, it often contains a series ofsentences, as in a letter or even a postcard. Connected text is referred to as discourse.Discourse is connected by grammar and vocabulary and/or our knowledge of the world.Readinginvolvesunderstandingtheseconnections.Forexample:

Theboywassurprisedbecausethegirlwasmuchfasterat runningthanhewas.Butafterhefoundout thathermotherhadwonamedal forrunningat theOlympicGames,heunderstood.

Thesecondsentencegivesusapossiblereasonwhythegirlwassogoodatrunning.Butwecanonlyunderstandthat this isareason ifweknowthatOlympicrunnersareverygood.Thismeansweneedtouseourknowledgeoftheworldtoseethesenseconnectionbetween these two sentences (coherence). The grammatical links between the sentences(cohesion) also help us see the connection between them. For example, in the secondexamplesentence 'he' refers to 'theboy' in the first sentence,and 'her' refers to 'thegirl',and linking the sentences there is the conjunction 'after'. So, understanding a written textinvolves understanding the language of each sentence and the relationship between

Unit5.Reading

sentencesusingourknowledgeoflanguageandourknowledgeoftheworld.

Readingalsoinvolvesusingdifferentreadingskills.Theyinclude:

Readingforspecificinformation(Scanning)

Readingfordetail

Deducingmeaningfromcontext

Understandingtextstructure

Readingforgist(Skimming)

Inferring

Predicting

Thesearesometimesreferredtoasreadingskillsandsometimesasreadingsubskills.Theyhelpusreadindifferentwaysaccordingtoourpurposeforreading,whenweread,wedonotnecessarilyneedtoreadeverythinginatext.Howwereaddependsonwhatandwhywe are reading. For example, we may read a travel website to find a single piece ofinformationaboutprices.Butwemayreadanovelingreatdetailbecausewelikethestoryandthecharacters,andwanttoknowasmuchaswecanaboutthem.So,ourreasonsforreadinginfluencehowweread,i.e.whichreadingsubskillweuse.

Ifwereada text just to findaspecificpieceorpiecesof information in it,weusuallyuseasubskill called reading for specific informationorscanning.Whenwescan,wedon'treadthewholetext.Weglanceovermostofituntilwefindtheinformationweareinterestedin,e.g.whenwelookforanumberinatelephonedirectory.

Anotherreadingsubskill isreadingforgistorskimming.This issometimesalsocalledreadingforglobalunderstanding.It involvesglancingthroughatexttogetageneral ideaofwhatitisabout.Forexample,youskimwhenyoulookquicklythroughabookinabookshoptodecide ifyouwant tobuy it,orwhenyougoquickly throughareferencebooktodecidewhichpartwillhelpyouwriteanessay,orglanceatanewspaperarticletoseeifitisworthreadingindetail.

Athirdreadingsubskillisreadingfordetail.Itinvolvesgettingthemeaningoutofeveryword and out of the links or relationships betweenwords and between sentences. If youread a letter from someone you love who you haven't heard from for a long time, youprobably read like this. Sometimes in books on English language teaching, but not in theTKT,thisskilliscalledintensivereading.

Inferringisanotherskillreaderssometimesusetogetmeaningfromatext.Whenthey

read,theyworkoutwhatthewriter'sopiniononatopicisorwhathis/herfeelingis.Toinferthesethingswenoticewhatwords,register,grammarorstylethewriterhasusedtorefertosomething.

There are other skills the reader can use. Deducing meaning from context involvesreadingthewordsaroundanunknownwordorthinkingaboutthesituationtheunknownwordis used in to try and work out its meaning. For example, imagine you see a text inPortuguesewhichyouknowgives factsaboutPortugal.Yousee thissentence:Lisboaéacapital dePortugal.You can probably deduce themeaning of Lisboa. To do this, you usewhatyouhavebeentoldaboutthistextandyoudeducefromyourknowledgeofEnglishthatcapital means 'capital' and Portugal means 'Portugal'! From your general knowledge youknowthatLisbonisthecapitalofPortugal,soyouworkoutthatLisboameans'Lisbon'.Andyouareright!Whenwereadwedon'talwaysknowthemeaningofall thewordswemeet.This skill helpsusunderstandunknownwordswithoutmakinguseof a dictionary or someotherreferenceresource.

Predictingmeansusingcluesbeforewebegin reading, toguesswhata textmaybeabout. We might, for example, look at a newspaper's headlines or photos, the title of achapterorunit,thenameofawriteroreventhestampandaddressonanenvelopetomakean informedguessabout thegeneralcontentsof the text.Predictionhelpsusdecide ifwewishtoreadthetext(ifthestampandaddressontheenvelopesuggestthetextisprobablyabill,wemaynotbesokeen),andtomakesenseofitwhenwestartreadingit,becauseitgivesustheopportunitytolinkthetopicofthetexttoourknowledgeoftheworld,andmoreespeciallytoourknowledgeofthetopicofthetext.Aswereadthroughatext,wecontinuepredicting,usingwhatwearereadingtosensewhatwillcomenext.

Understandingtextstructureinvolvesunderstandinghowcertaintypesoftextgenerallydevelop. For example, if we read a problem-solution essay, we expect that it will firstdiscusstheproblem,thensuggestasolution,thendrawaconclusion.Ifwereadaletterofcomplaint in English, we generally expect the first paragraph will say why the writer iswriting,thesecondwillgivethedetailsofthecomplaintandthethirdwhatthewriterwants,in answer to his complaint. Readers expect certain information to come in certainsequences.Theyusethisknowledgetoknowwheretheyare in thetextandfindtheirwaythroughit.Understandingthemeaningofconjunctionsisanimportantpartofthisskillastheyoftensignalhowanargumentwillcontinueorisabouttochange.

Extensive and intensive reading are ways of reading. Extensive reading, sometimescalled reading forpleasure, involves reading longpiecesof text, forexampleastoryoranarticle.Asyouread,yourattentionandinterestvary-youmayreadsomepartsofthetext

indetailwhileyoumayskimthroughothers,soyoumightuseavarietyofreadingsubskills.

Sometimes,especially in languageclassrooms,weask learners to read textsso thatwecanexaminethelanguagetheycontain.Forexample,wemightasklearnersto lookforall thewordsinatextrelatedtoaparticulartopic,orworkoutthegrammarofaparticularsentence.Theaimof theseactivities is tomake learnersmoreaware of how language isused.Theseactivitiesaresometimescalledintensivereading.

This way of reading does not involve reading for meaning or comprehension(understanding)of the text. It involves reading for languagestudy.Sometimes inbooksonEnglishlanguageteaching,butnotintheTKT,thisskilliscalledreadingfordetail.Whenwereadaboutreadingweneedtobequiteclearwhatskill isbeingreferredto inordernot togetconfused!

Understanding different text types is something else good readers can do. Someexamplesofwrittentexttypesareletters,articles,postcards,stories,informationbrochures,leafletsandpoems.All thesekindsof text typesaredifferent fromoneanother.Theyhavedifferentlengths,layouts(thewaysinwhichtextisplacedonthepage),topicsandkindsoflanguage.

Wecanseethatreadingisacomplexprocess.Itinvolvesunderstandingletters,wordsand sentences, understanding the connections between sentences, understanding differenttext types, making sense of the text through our knowledge of the world and using theappropriatereadingsubskill.Readingmaybeareceptiveskillbut itcertainlyisn'tapassiveone!



- If learnersknowhow to read in theirown language, theycan transfer their readingskills to reading inEnglish.Sometimes though, they find this difficult, especiallywhen theirlanguage level is not high, so they need help to transfer these skills. Teachers can checkwhichreadingsubskillstheirlearnersaregoodat,thenfocusonpractisingthesubskillstheyare not yet using well. They can also help them by pre-teaching vocabulary (teachingvocabularyfromthetextbeforethelearnersreadthetext),byaskinglearnerstopredicttextcontentandwithcertainkindsoflearner,encouragingthemtopredicttextstructure.

- To help learners bring their knowledge of the world to understanding a text theteacher can do lead-in activities before the class looks at the text. Lead-in activitiesgenerallyinvolvelookingatthepicturesaroundatextoratthetitleandtryingtopredictwhatthetextwillbeabout.Theycanalsoinvolveusingbrainstorming(thinkingofandlistingideas

orvocabularyaboutatopic)topredictwhatvocabularythetextmightcontain,discussingthegeneraltopicofthetextortalkingaboutexperiencesofit.

-Giving learners lots of opportunities for extensive reading, in or out of class, helpsthemtodeveloptheirfluencyinreading.Gradedreaders(bookswithlanguagemadeeasierfor language learners)area veryusefulwayof giving learnersextensive readingpractice,helping them build up their confidence in reading and consolidate the language they knowandgraduallyextendittoincludenewlanguage.Nowadaysyoucanfindgradedreadersonaverywidevarietyofsubjectsandatalargenumberoflanguagelearninglevels.

-Whichreadingskillsweneedtoteachdependsontheageandfirst languageofthelearners.Some learnersofEnglish, e.g. youngchildren,maynot yet knowhow to read intheir own language. They need to learn how letters join to make words and how writtenwordsrelatetospokenwordsbothintheirlanguageandinEnglish.OtherlearnersmaynotunderstandthescriptusedinEnglishastheirownscriptisdifferent,e.g.Chinese,Arabic.

-Wecanchoosetherighttextsforourlearners.Textsshouldbeinterestinginordertomotivate learners.Textsshouldalsobeat theright levelofdifficulty.A textmaybedifficultbecauseitcontainscomplex(complicated) languageand/orbecauseit isaboutatopicthatlearnersdon'tknowmuchabout.

-Tomakesure learnersgetusedtoarangeof text typeswecangivethemdifferentkindsoftextstoread,e.g.articles,stories,postcards,emails,brochures,leaflets,etc.

-Theactivitiesinareadinglessonoftenfollowthispattern:

1. Introductory activities: activities focusing on the topic of the text, pre-teachingvocabularyandpossiblyaskinglearnerstopredictthecontentofthetext.

2. Main activities: a series of comprehension activities developing different readingsubskills,focusinginitiallyongeneralthenmoredetailedcomprehension.

3.Post-taskactivities:activitiesaskinglearnerstotalkabouthowthetopicofthetextrelates to theirown livesor togive theiropinionsonsomething in the text.Theseactivitiesrequirelearnerstousesomeofthelanguagetheyhavemetinthetext.

-Notice that the listof readingskillsonpage31doesnot include readingaloud.Thepurposeof readingaloud isnot reading toget information fromawritten text,and it isnotsomethingthatauserOÍa languageusuallydoes.Readingaloudtakesplacemainly inthelanguageclassroomwhereitisoftenusedtochecklearners'pronunciationortochecktheirunderstanding of a text. Reading aloud well is a difficult thing to do as it relies onunderstandingatextverywellandonbeingabletopredictwhatwillcomenextinthetext.If

itisusedintheclassroom,itismostusefullydoneafterotherworkoncomprehensionofthetext has beer; completed successfully and the learners have a good understanding of thedetailsofthetext.


1. Look at these activities from a coursebook for intermediate level teenagers andyoungadultsandanextractfromthereadingpassagetheyaccompany,whichofthetermsaboutreadingintheboxmatchwhichactivities?

Scanning

Learningkeyvocabulary

Consolidatinglanguageorevaluatingopinionsinthetext

Relatingthetopictoyourknowledgeoftheworld

Readingfordetail

Lifestories

Presentperfectsimple

for,sinceandagoandPresentperfectcontinuous

Reading:Parallellives

Pronunciation:strongandweakformsofhave,Linking

Vocabulary:Describinglifeevents,Positivecharacteristics

Task:Talkaboutsomeoneyouadmire

Wordspot:take

Writing:Acurriculumvitae

Reading

1. Work in pairs. Have you got any brothers or sisters? In what ways are yousimilar/different? Which of your parents/grandparents do you take after? Think about thefollowingthings.

facialexpressions

opinionsandattitudes

health

personality

lookscastesandinterests

PeoplesayIlooklikemysister

I’mcompletelydifferentfrommymother–she’s…butI’m…

IthinkHakeaftermygrandmotherbecauseI'mvery...

2.Doyouknowany twins? If so,are they identicalornot?Whatkindof relationshiphavetheygot?

3.Readthetextquickly.Whichtwinsdoeachofthesestatementsreferto?

a.Theyseemedalmosttelepathic,

b.Theygotmarriedonthesamedaywithoutknowing,

c.Thesimilaritiesbetweentheirlivesweretrulyremarkable,

d.Theyhadtheirownspeciallanguage.

4.Checkthewordsandphrases in thebox inyourmini-dictionary.ThenreadthetextagainandtickthestatementsthataretrueaboutProfessorBouchard'sresearch!

tobeadopted

acoincidence

genes/genetic

toInfluencesomeone

tobeseparatedatbirth

yourupbringing/tobebroughtup

a.Hecontactedbothidenticalandnon-identicaltwinsseparatedatbirth.

b.HecollectedasmuchinformationaboutthemOShecould.

c.HefoundthatthesimilaritiesbetweenTerryandMargaretwereveryunusual,

d.Hefoundthattwinswhoarebroughtuptogetheralwayshavemoreincommonthantwinswhoarebroughtupseparately,

e.Hedoesn'tthinkupbringinghasanimportantinfluenceonpersonality,

f.Hehasfoundthatgenescaninfluence:

-thethingswedoinourfreetime.

-howintelligentweare.

-ourpoliticalopinions.

-theillnesseswehave’

-thethingswelikeanddislike..

5.Discussthefollowingquestionsinsmallgroups.

-WhichofthesimilaritiesbetweentheJimTwins'doyoufindthemostamazing?

- Which of the similarities do you think might be genetic, and which must be acoincidence?

- Which do you think is more important to our personality - our genes or ourupbringing?

Margaret Richardson and Terry Connelly have almost identical taste in clothes, bothhavefourchildrenofmoreorlessthesameage,andbothweremarriedonexactlythesameday. Not surprising, perhaps,Margaret and Terry are identical twinsWhat is surprising isthattheydidn'tevenmeetuntiltheywereintheirmid-thirties-aftertheirchildrenwereborn.

It is well known that twins are closer thanmost brothers and sisters - after ail theyspendmore time Ineachotherscompany.Occasionally, thisclosenessbecomesextreme:for example,GraceandVirginiaKennedywhoas children invented their own language; orGretaandFredaChapmanwhocanspeak thesamewordsat thesame time in thesamevoice,asiflinkedbytelepathy.

Butwhathappensif,likeTerryandMargaret,identicaltwinsareseparatedatbirthandbroughtup indifferent families?Will their backgroundsmake themcompletelydifferent, orwill theirsharedgenesstillmeanthattheyhavealot incommon?ProfessorTomBouchardfromtheUniversityofMinnesota,setouttofindtheanswertothisquestion.Hetracedmorethanahundredpairsof twinswhowereadoptedbydifferentparentsatbirth,sixty-fourofwhomwereidenticaltwins.Eachtwinwasthentestedandinterviewedabouteverydetailoftheirlifeandpersonality.

ItturnedoutthatMargaretandTerrywerenotunusual.Aswellaslookingverysimilar,manytwinshadthesameIQ,thesamehealthproblems,thesamehobbiesandinterests/thesameattitudesandeventhesametastes.Severalpairsoftwinsarrivedattheirfirstmeetingin the same clothes, and one pair ofmiddle-aged womenwere wearing identical jeweler.Othershadmadethesamecareer

(fromNewCuttingEdgeIntermediatebySarahCunninghamandPeterMoor,Longman2005)

Reflection


1.Ithinkreadingfordetailisthemostimportantreadingskill.

2. My learners really like me to read them stories, even if they don't understandeverything.

3. Some ofmy learners try to understand each newword in a text; then they oftendon'tunderstandwhatthewholetextisabout.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look at one reading text in your coursebook.What text type is it?What readingsubskillsdoitsexercisesandactivitiesfocuson?Isthetextinterestingandattherightlevelforthelearners?WriteyouranswersinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2. Teach a reading skills lesson. Put your plan and your materials in your TeacherPortfolioIncludesomecommentsaboutwhatwassuccessful/notsuccessfulandwhy.Alsocommentonhowyouwouldimprovethelessonnexttime.

3. Look at these websites. Would you recommend them to your learners?http://leamenglishkids.bHtishcoundl.org/short-stories - reading texts and activities forprimary-age learners http://kids.iuystcrynet.com - mystery stories to read and solvehttp://www.thcnewspaper.org.uk - newspaper extracts with sports, news and music forteenshttp://www.roythezebra.com/index.html-readingactivitiesandgames

4.Use theTKTGlossary to find themeaning of these, terms: theme, develop skills.Howdotheyrelatetotheteachingofreading?


Forquestions1-7,matchthereaders’statementswiththewaysofreadinglistedA-D.Youwillneedtousesomeoftheoptionsmorethanonce.

Waysofreading

A.readingfordetail

B.intensivereading

C.deducingmeaningfromcontext

D.predicting

Readers’statements

1.Sometimes I know from just looking at the photo beside a textwhether it’sworthreading.

2. Looking at words around a word you don’t understand can help you guess itsmeaning.

3.Ialwaysreadtheheadlineofanarticletohelpmedecidewhethertoreaditfurtherornot.

4.WhenI’mstudying,Ineedtomakesenseofeverybitofthewriter’sargumentssoIhavetoreadverycarefully.

5. Thinking about your knowledge of a subject can sometimes help you understandwords.

6 Sometimes I underline all the conjunctions in texts I read - it helps me follow thewriter’sargument.

7. I had toSian s contract lastweek so, before I read it, Imade sure I understoodcompletelyeverysentenceinit.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatiswriting?

Writing is one of the four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking.Writing and speaking are productive skills. That means they involve producing languagerather than receiving it, as in listening and reading. Very simply, we can say that writinginvolvescommunicatingamessagebymakingsignsonapage.Towriteweneed tohavesomethingtocommunicate,andusuallysomeonetocommunicateitto.Wealsoneedtobeable to form letters and words, to join these together to make sentences or a series ofsentencesthat link togetherandtocommunicateourmessage insuchawayas togetourmessageacross.Wewilllookathowwedothis.

*Keyconcepts

Makealistofwhatyouhavewritteninyourlanguageinthepastweek.

Maybeyouhaven'twrittenanything in thepastweek!Butperhapsyouhavewrittenashoppinglist,apostcard,abirthdaycard,someemails,yourdiary,sometextmessages,ormaybe a story. If you are studying, perhaps you have written an essay. All of these areexamples of written text types. You can see from this list that text types involve differentkindsofwriting,aseachtexttypehasdifferentcharacteristics,e.g.singlewordsonly,shortsentences or longer sentences; use or non-use of note form, addresses or paragraphs;different degrees of formality; different layouts; differentways of ordering information, i.e.structuring the text. When; we learn to write, we need to learn how to produce thesecharacteristicsforeachtexttypewewriteandtoknowhowtovarythecharacteristicswithintexttypesdependingonwhowearewritingto.Forexample,ifyouwritealettertoaclosefriend,youwillprobablyuseadifferentlayout,anddifferentlevelsofcomplexityofgrammar,registerandrangeofvocabularyfromthoseyouuseinajobapplicationletter.

Writingalsoinvolvesusingwritingsubskills.Someofthesearerelatedtoaccuracy,i.e.usingthecorrectformsoflanguage.Theothersrelatetocommunicatingourideas.

Thewritingsubskillsrelatedtoaccuracyarespellingcorrectly,formingletterscorrectly,joining letters togethercorrectly,writing legibly,punctuatingcorrectly,usingcorrect layouts,choosing the right vocabulary, using grammar correctly, joining sentences correctly andcorrectly usingparagraphs (apart of a longerpieceofwriting,which startsonanew lineandusuallyfocusesononeidea).

Thewritingsubskillsrelatedtocommunicatingourideasincludeusingappropriatestyle

Unit6.Writing

andregister,organisingideasinahelpfulway,usingthefeaturestypicalofthetexttypeweare writing, joining our words and sentences dearly and using appropriate functions toexpress our meaning, e.g. narrating (telling a story), complaining, requesting, thanking,summarising(expressingmainpointsorideasinafewclearwords),concluding.

Look at this extract (part of a text) from the contents page of a pre-intermediatecoursebook.Itshowsthewritingsyllabus.Noteontherightthedifferentaspectsofwritingitfocuseson.

Module1.WriteafactfilePunctuation->accuracy

Module 2. Linking ideas in Q narrative Linkers: but, so, because, then -> cohesionaccuracy

Module3.Writingaparagraph->cohesion

Module4.WriteaninvitationAletterofinvitation->texttypes

Module5.WriteanewspaperreportWritingadescription->texttypesfunctions

Module6.WriteapostcardMorepostcards->texttypes

Module7.Amini-biography->texttypes

Module8.GivingwrittendirectionsNotesgivingdirections->texttypesfunctions

Module9.Sayingthankyou->functions

Module10.TimewordsinnarrativesTimephrases->accuracy

Module11.Replyingtoinvitations->functions

Module13.CompletinganapplicationformErrorcorrection(1)->texttypesaccuracy

Module14.Payingonline->functions

Module15.WritealetterbacktoEarthErrorcorrection(2)->texttypesaccuracy

(adaptedfromNewCuttingEdgePre-IntermediatebySarahCunninghamandPeterMoor,Longman2005)

Thewritersofthiscourseboqkhavechosentofocushereontwoaspectsofcohesion:making use of linkers to link ideas andwriting a paragraph.Otherways ofmaking a textcohesive (linked together) include the use of reference words to refer backwards orforwardstootherwordsinthetext,theuseofalogicalwayoforganisingtheinformationinatextandtheuseofparagraphsandtopicsentences(asentencethatgivesthemainpointorsubjectofaparagraph).Therearemanyexamplesof thesecohesivedevices (waysoflinkingatext)inthisextractfromanarticleentitled'Myfavouritelesson',writtenbyateacher

ofEnglish.Somearehighlighted.

a)Topicsentence

b)Pronounreferringbacktoacademicsubjects

c)Conjunctionofreason

d)Conjunctionofcontrast

e)Pronounreferringbacktotheprevioussentence

f)Topicsentence

g)PronounreferringbacktoteachingEnglish

(a)I’mnotsureIcouldsaywhatmvfavourite lessonwas. Isortof likedeverything. Iliked academic subjects, and chose to take exams in (b) them, but I also liked practicalsubjectslikewoodworkandcookery.

Isupposehistorymusthavebeenmyfavourite,(c)becauseit’swhatIchosetodoatcollege.Maybeitsoundsstrange(d)butIwantedtounderstandtheworldandIthinkhistoryhelps. It’s definitely a way of understanding the world around you. Twenty years ago themapofEuropewasshapedbytheSecondWorldWar,andhowwouldyouknow(e)thatifyoudidn’tknowhistory?

(f) I studied French at school, too, and I’mmuchmore interested in languages nowthan I was then. I like theway that language reflects culture, and the otherway round. ItaughtEnglish inGuatemala forayear,and I found thatSpanish inSouthAmerica ismuchsofterthaninSpain.

I don’t seemy job as spreading English round the world - I would not want that tohappen,(f)ButIdoenjoymeetingthedifferentnationalitiesthatĨteachandwatchingtheminteracting.TheotherdayihadaFrenchCatholicpriest,MuslimsfromIranandTurkeyandBuddhistsinoneclassandtheywereallveryrespectfulofoneanother.

The national stereotypes do come out though, and they’re often true: getting theItalians or Spanish, for example, to stop talking and the Japanese and Koreans to saysomething.

ThebestthingaboutteachingEnglishisthat(g)itgivesyoutheopportunitytogetoutthereandlearnabouttheworld.

('Myfavouritelesson'byArloKitchingmanfromtheGuardian15.03.05)

A writer not only employs various subskills when writing, but also goes through a

number of stages ofwriting. These often involve, particularly for longer ormore importantpiecesofwriting,thestagesof:

-workingoutwhatyouwanttosay,i.e.gettingordevelopingideas

-workingouttheorderinwhichyouwanttosayit,i.e.planning/organisingideas

-drafting/writingthefirstdraft(thefirstversion(orform)ofapieceofwriting,thatmaywellbechanged)

-editing(correctingandimprovingthecontentofthetext)

-proofreading(checkingformistakesinaccuracyandcorrecting)

-re-drafting(writingasecond/finalversionofyourpieceofwriting).

Thesestages formpartof thewritingprocess.Wecansee from them thatwriting infact begins beforewe put pen to paper or startword processing, and that it involves thewriterincarryingoutseveralstepswhicheachleadintothenextoneandaimtoimprovethequalityofthefinalproduct.



-Thesubskillsofwritingthatwechoosetoteachwillvary,dependingonourlearners'ageandneeds.Atprimarylevelwemayspendalotoftimeteachinglearnershowtoformlettersandwords,howtojointhemtogetherandhowtowriteshorttextsofafewwordsorsentences,oftenbycopying.Learnersatprimary levelarenot just learninghowtowrite inEnglishbutalsohow towrite lettersandwords.Thismayalsobe true for learnerswhosefirstlanguagedoesnotusetheRomanalphabet.

-Atsecondary levelwemayneed to focusmoreonotherkindsofaccuracyand thecommunicationskillsrequiredtowritelongertextssuchasletters,emailsorcompositions.

-Beforetheystartwritingit'susefultoencouragelearnerstothinkaboutwhytheyarewriting(theirreasonforwriting)andwhotheyarewritingto(theiraudience).Thishelpsthemfocusonwhattheywanttosay(content)andhowtosayit(registerandstyle).

- Many activities exist to help learners practise accuracy in writing, e.g. labelling,copying, sentence completion, gap-filling, sentence transformation exercises, dividing textsinto paragraphs, putting punctuation into an unpunctuated text, proofreading exercises tocorrecterrorsintexts.

- Many activities exist to help learners practise communicating through writing, e.g.storycompletion,jumbledpicturestories,writingbirthdaycards,writingemailsofinvitation.

-We can support learners in their writing bymoving on to writing after doing somelistening, readingorspeakingona topic. In thisway, learnershavealreadyworkedon thelanguageofthetopicandmayhavedevelopedideasaboutit.

-Teacherssometimesworkwithmodels(clearexamples)oftexttypeswhenteachingwriting.Modelscanshowlearnerswhatpatternsoflanguage,vocabulary,registerorlayouttouse,orhowtostructuretheirwriting.Theycanalsohelplearnersgetideasaboutwhattowrite.Modelsareusedinguided/productwriting.

-Wecanalsoguideorsupport learners in theirwriting through theuseofaprocesswriting approach. With this approach the teacher gives learners the opportunity to workthroughthestagesinthewritingprocess.Theymovefromplanningtheirwork,todraftingit,andthenontoediting,re-draftingandproofreading.Thisapproachallowslearnerstofocusondifferentaspectsofwritingatdifferenttimes.

At the planning stage they focus on developing ideas and organising them. At thedraftingstagetheyfocusonfindingthelanguagetoexpressthemselves,andattheediting,re-drafting andproofreading stages they focus on evaluating (looking at the strengths andweaknesses of) their ideas, the organisation of their writing and the accuracy of theirlanguage.

SeeUnit16 for tasks for teachingwriting,Unit21 forplanninga lesson,andUnits29and32forwaysofcorrectinglearners’writing.

Follow-upActivities(Seepages238-9foranswers)

1.Gobacktothetext'Myfavouritelesson'.Findalltheotherpronoun:thatreferbackorforwardtootherthings,findalltheotherconjunctionsandanyothertopic

2. Look at thiswriting activity.Match the terms aboutwriting skills in the box to thedifferentsteps.Sometermsmaymatchmorethanonestep.

Extendingideas

Drafting

Practisingspelling

Structuringideas/planning

Providingamodel

Thinkingaboutyourreader

Developingideas

Understandingthetask

Worksheet2

A.Youaregoingtowriteyourownmagazinearticlerelatedtothistopic.

1.Readthetaskcarefully.

2.Beforeyoustartwriting,makenotesinanswertothesequestions:

a.WhatexactlyIsyourdream?

b.Howeasy/difficultwillitbetoachieve?

c.Whatdoyouplantodotohelpyouachieveyourdream?

d.Howwillyoufeelifyoudon'tachieveit?

3.Comparenoteswithapartner.Discussthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenyourdreams.

B.Referringtothenotesyouhavejustmade,organiseyourideasintoparagraphs.Trytointerest,involve,amuseorsurprisethereader.

Heroisapossiblefive-paragraphplanbasedonthenotesyouhavemade:

TitleGivethearticleacatchytitle.Remember,youwanttoattractpeople'sattentiontoreadthearticle.

Paragraph 1 Introduce your subject, you want to involve the reader, so your firstsentenceisveryimportant.youcouldstartwithàquestion.Saybrieflywhatyourdreamis.

Paragraph2.Sayhoweasyitwillbetoachieveyourdream.

Paragraph3.Saywhatyouwillneedtodotoachievethisdream.

Paragraph4.Saywhatyouwilldoandhowyouwillfeelifyoudon'tachieveit.

Paragraph 5. End in an interesting way, for example, with another question or adramaticstatement.

C.Writeyourarticle.Useyourparagraphplanandsomeoftheexpressionsbelow.Asyou write, also think about the style and tone of the article 'Why not do something lessboring?'

(fromAdvancedSkillsbySimonHaines,CambridgeUniversityPress20061

Reflection


1.Idon'twriteconfidentlyinEnglishmyself.Idon'treallyknowhowtoimproveeither.

2.WhenIteachwritingIusuallyfocusmoreonaccuracythanoncommunicatingideas.

3.Mylearnersfindwritingreallyboring.Idoitaslittleaspossible.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Gobacktothelistyoumadeoftexttypesyouhavewrittenthisweek.Besideeach,noteyour reason forwritingandwhoyouwrote to.Note, too,what characteristicsof texttypes you used, e.g. register, layout, order of information. Write your answers in yourTeacherPortfolio.

2.Writeanemailoranote toa friend.Asyouwrite,decidewhichof thesesubskillsyou used: developing ideas, ordering ideas, forming letters correctly, writing sentencesgrammatically,linkingsentences,proofreading.

3.Lookatthecontentspageofoneofyourcoursebooks.whataspectsofwritingdoesitfocuson,e.g.texttypes,functions,cohesion,findingideas,accuracy?

4. Look at these resources.Whichwould be useful for your learners? And for you?http://tqjunior.thinkquest.Org/5115/s_writing.htm

http://web.archive.Org/web/20050207033517/www.hio.ft.hanze.nl/thar/vvriting.htrnhttp://www.britishcouncil.org/kids writing-storymaker.htm Chapter 9, Learning Teaching(Second edition) by Jim Scrivener, Macmillan, 2005 Simple Writing Activities by Jill andCharlesHadfield,OxfordUniversityPress2001

5.What do these terms related to writingmean: note-taking, literacy?Use the TKTGlossarytocheckyouranswers.


For questions 1 -7, choose the best option (A, B orC) to complete each statementaboutwritingskills.

1.UsingcohesivedevicesdoesNOTrequireusto

A.replacenouns.

B.checktenses,

C.includeconjunctions.

2.ProcesswritingdoesNOTrequireusto

A.proofread.

B.summarise,

C.draft.

3.BrainstormingdoesNOTrequireusto

A.notedownideas.

B.thinkofideas,

C.editideas.

4.WritingatopicsentencedoesNOTrequireusto

A.includeexamplesinaparagraph.

B.writethemainpointofaparagraph,

C.focusonaparagraph’smeaning.

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*Whatislistening?

Listeningisoneofthefourlanguageskills:reading,writing,listeningandspeaking.Likereading, listening is a receptive skill, as it involves responding to language rather thanproducing it.Listening involvesmakingsenseof themeaningfulsoundsof language.Wedothisbymakinguseofcontext,languageandourknowledgeoftheworld.

*Keyconcepts

Listeninginvolvesunderstandingspokenlanguage.Spokenlanguageisdifferentfrom

Writtenlanguage Spokenlanguage

Stays on the page; doesn’tdisappear

Disappears as soon as it is spoken.Sometimes it is spoken fast andsometimesslowly,withorwithoutpauses

Usespunctuationandcapitalletterstoshowsentences

Indicates sentences and meaningfulgroups of words through stress andintonation

Consists of letters, writtenwords and sentences, andpunctuation joined- togetherintotext.

Consists of sounds, single words,sentences, utterances (complete senseunits) and incomplete sentences joinedtogetherinconnectedspeech

Oftenhasnovisualsupport

The speaker uses body language tosupport his/her communication; forexample, gestures (movements of handsor arms to help people understand us),and facial expressions (the expressionsonourfaces)

Is usually quite wellorganised: sentences arecomplete,followoneanotherin" a logical sequence andare joined to previous orfollowing sentences. Topics

Is not sowell organised; e.g. it containsinterruptions, hesitations (pausing whenspeakingbecauseyou’renotsurewhattosay or how to say it), repetitions and

Unit7.Listening

are usually separate fromoneanother

frequentchangesoftopic

Usually uses quite exactvocabulary and morecomplexgrammar.

Oftenusesrathergeneralvocabularyandsimplegrammar

As we can see, spoken language is generally less planned and less well structuredthanwritten language. There are very good reasons for this.Whenwe speakwe usuallydon'thavetimetoorganiseourthoughtsandourlanguagebeforehand,sowejustsaythingsaswethinkofthem.Alsowhenwelisten,weneedtolistentosimplystructuredmessages.Asspokentextsusuallydisappearassoonastheyaresaid,theyneedtobesimpleenoughforustoprocessandunderstand in thetimethat isavailable.Wecanseethatwrittenandspoken language have different features because they are produced and understood indifferentkindsofcircumstances.Theirfeaturesrespondtothesecircumstances.

Tounderstandspokenlanguageweneedtobeabletodealwithallthecharacteristicsofspoken language listed in the tableabove.Here isanexampleofspoken language.Youcanseethatitcanbelesswellorganisedandlessexactthanwrittenlanguage:

Father:How'syourhomework?Youknow,yourhistory?

Son:Easy.

Father:Yousure?

Son:It'sjust...Imeanallweneedtodois,well,justreadsomestuff.

Father:Butd'youunderstandit?

Son:Yeah.CanIgoandplaywithTom?

Theconversationcontainsexamplesof incompletesentences,utterances,hesitations,sudden topicchange,simplegrammarandgeneralvocabulary.Wemakesenseof itpartlythrough our understanding of language but also through making use of the context thelanguage is spoken in andour knowledgeof theworld. In this example, our knowledgeofrelationshipsbetween fathersandsons,andofchildren'sattitudes tohomework,maygiveus somehelp inunderstanding, but ifweknew theexact context of the conversation (e.g.whereittookplace,thefather'sandson'sbodylanguage,theirattitudestohomework,theirrelationship),wewouldunderstandmore.

Like written language, spoken language has different text types, e.g. conversations,

stories, announcements, songs, instructions, lectures and advertisements. Generally, theycontain different ways of organising language and information, different grammaticalpatterns, a particular range of vocabulary, different interaction patterns, fewer or moreparticipants, etc. Learning to listen involves learning to be able to understand a range ofrelevant(suitable)texttypes.

Listeningalsoinvolvesunderstandingdifferentspeedsofspeechanddifferentaccents.Somepeoplespeakmoreslowlyandwithmorepauses.Othersspeakfastand/orwithfewpauses.Featuressuchasspeedofdeliveryandaccentarepartofconnectedspeech, i.e.spokenlanguageinwhichwordsjointogethertoformaconnectedstreamofsounds.Otherfeatures of connected speech are word and sentence stress, linking sounds and wordstogether and the use of contracted forms. One reason why learners have problemsunderstanding spoken language is because they are not used to dealing with features ofconnectedspeech.

Butwedonotlistentoeverythinginthesameway.Thereareseveraldifferentlisteningsubskills.Which subskill we use depends on our reason for listening.Wemight listen forgist/globalunderstanding,specificinformation,detailortoinferattitude(listeningtoseewhatattitude a speaker is expressing). other ways of listening are listening intensively andextensively.Ourreasonfor listening influencestheamountandkindof informationweneedtolistenfor.So,forexample,whenlisteningtoatramannouncementforspecificinformationwe might simply need to hear some times, but when listening to the details of someimportant news we might want to make sense of every word to find out what exactlyhappened andwhy. SeeUnit 5 Reading, page 31 for an explanation of the terms for thesubskills.

We can see that listening involves doing many things besides understanding thegrammar, vocabulary and functions of what we hear. It also involves dealing with thecharacteristics of spoken language; using the context and our knowledge of the world;understanding different text types; understanding different speeds of speech and accents,makingsenseofconnectedspeechandusingappropriatelisteningsubskills.



- In theclassroom,wecangive learners theopportunity to listen tomanysourcesofspoken language, e.g. the teacher, other learners, visitors, CDs, DVDs. This exposeslearnerstoarangeofaccents,speedsofdelivery,texttypesandlisteningskills.

- When we listen to a recording we can't see the speaker's body language or the

contexthe/she isspeaking in,andwecan'taskthespeakertorepeatorexplainwhat theysaid.Thismakeslisteningtorecordingsmoredifficultthanlisteningtolivespeakers.Forthisreason, it is a good idea to help students listen to recordings by e.g. pre-teaching keywords,settingpre-listeningtasks,focusinginitiallyongist listeningtoestablishcontext,andplayingtherecordingasecondorevenathirdtime.

- Some listening texts in coursebooks are authenticmaterial, i.e. they contain all thefeatures of real spoken language.Other texts arewritten especially for language learnersandaregradedtomakethemsimpleenoughforparticularlevelsoflearners.Authentictextsallow learners to develop strategies for dealingwith the challenge of real language,whilesimplifiedtexts(textsthathavebeenmadeeasier)allowthemtobuilduptheirconfidence.

- Understanding and showing you have understood are not the same thing. Forexample,maybeyoucanunderstandallofastory,butyoucan't tell thestory.Thismeansthat learners may have understood something but be unable to explain what they haveunderstood.Taskssuchascompletingtables,true/false,tickingcorrectanswersinlists,andputtingeventsinorderallowlearnerstoshowwhethertheyhaveunderstoodornot,withoutneedingtousemuchlanguage.

- We have seen that there are many different aspects to listening, e.g. identifyingdifferentphonemesandother featuresofconnectedspeech.A teachercan focuson thesethroughalisteningtextormaysometimesprefertodoshortactivitiesjustfocusingononeofthese aspects, e.g. a 5minute activity onminimal pairs, word stress, sentence stress ordictation.

-Wecanmakeadifficult text easier for learners to understandbygiving themeasylisteningtasks,orwecanmakeaneasier textmoredifficultbygivingthemharder listeningtasks.

-Theactivitiesinalisteninglessonoftenfollowthispattern:

1. Introductoryactivities:an introductionto thetopicof thetextandactivities focusingonkeyvocabularyinthetext-topre-teachimportantvocabulary,andtoencouragelearnerstoactivatetheirknowledgeoftheworldinrelationtothetopic.

2.Mainactivities:aseriesOÍ listeningactivitiesdevelopingdifferent listeningsubskillsandmovingfromgeneraltomoredetailedlistening

3.Post-taskactivities:activitieswhichask learners to talkabouthow the topicof thetext relates to their own lives or give their opinions on parts of the text. These activitiesrequirelearnerstousesomeofthelanguagetheyhavemetinthetext.

- Youmay sometimes just want to ask learners to listen to something and not givethem any task, e.g. listen to a story, a song, an explanation. This gives learners theopportunity to listen in a relaxed way and enjoy the experience of listening to a foreignlanguage.

SeeUnit16forlisteningactivitiesandUnit21forplanninglessons.


Completethistablewithatleasttwoexamplesofeachcategory.

Characteristicsofspokenlanguage

Listeningtexttypes

Differentaccents

Featuresofconnectedspeech

Listeningsubskills

Reflection

Thinkaboutthisteacher'scomments,whichdoyouagreewithandwhy?

1.Toimprovetheirlistening,whatmystudentsneedmostistolearnmorevocabulary.Learninglisteningskillswon'thelpthem.

2.Idon'tthinkmylearnersshouldlistentomeforlisteningpractice.ThereisnopointinthemlisteningtoEnglishspokenwithmyaccent.

3.Mylearnersalwaystryandunderstandeverywordwhentheylisten,soIgivethemtranscriptstoreadastheylisten.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Findalisteningsectioninyourcoursebook.Teachittoyourlearners,andthenafterthelesson,completethistableinyourteacherPortfolio.

Whatthelearnersfoundeasyandwhy

Whatthelearnersfounddifficultandwhy

Whatwouldyoudodifferentlyifyoutaughttheseactivitiesagain?

2.Formoreinformationaboutlisteningandlisteningactivities,readChapter10ofHowToTeachEnglishby JeremyHarmer,PearsonEducationLtd1998,andUnit 3of LearningTeaching(secondedition)byJimScrivener/Macmillan2005.

3.Whichof thesewebsitescouldyouuse inclassoraskyour learners tobrowseat

home?

http://www:cslpaftyland.corn/teachers/nov/music.htm

http//www.lyrics.com

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/leamingenglish/teachingcnglish/watchandlisten/

http://stpjynory.com/

http://www.freewebs.com/nuanchawee/pronunciationlistening.htm


Forquestions1-7,matchtheteachers’commentswiththeaspectsoflisteninglistedA-H.


Aspectsoflistening

A.listeningforspecificinformation

B.listeningextensively

C.listeningfordetail

D.listeningforgist

E.activatingstudents’knowledgeoftheworld

F.workingwithauthentictexts

G.deducingmeaningfromcontext

H.dealingwithconnectedspeech

Teachers’comments

1. My students find it hard to recognise the pronunciation of individual words andsoundswhentheyhearpeoplespeakinthestreet.

2. Students only need to recognise words like numbers and names to practise thissubskill.

3. Ialwaysaskmystudentswhat information theycan tellmeabout the topicbeforewestartlistening.

4.Itellmystudentsthattheycanusethesituationtohelpthemunderstandmeaning.

5.It’sniceiflearnerscanjustlistentoastoryandenjoyitwithoutdoingataskonit

6.Some listening texts in thecoursebookareextracts fromrealTVprogrammesand

realconversations.Thestudentsthinkthey’rechallengingbutuseful.

7.ThefirstlisteningtaskIgivemystudentsisusuallyoneinwhichtheyhavetodecideonthegeneralmeaningofthetext.

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*Whatisspeaking?

Speaking is one of the four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking.Speakingandwritingareproductiveskills.Thatmeansthatunlikelisteningandreading,theyinvolveproducing language rather than receiving it.Very simply,we can say that speakinginvolvesusingspeechtocommunicatemeaningstootherpeople.Inthisunitwelookathowwedothis.

*Keyconcepts

Tickthethingsonthislistwhichweoftendowhenwespeak.

1pronouncewords

2answerquestions

3useintonation

4askforclarificationand/orexplanation

5monitorandcorrectourselvesstops

6takepartindiscussions

7useanappropriateregister

8takepartinconversations

9greetpeoplesayingthings

10planwhatwewillsay

11smile

12askforandgiveinformation

13usegrammarandvocabulary

14usewordandsentencestress

15startspeakingwhensomeoneelse

16tellstories

17uselanguageaccurately

18paraphrase,i.e.findotherwaysof

19interruptotherspeakers

Unit8.Speaking

20hesitate

Whenwespeakweusuallydoall these things,exceptwedon'tusuallyplanwhatwewillsay,nordoweuse languagecompletelyaccurately, i.e.usecorrect formsofgrammarand vocabulary. Aswe saw inUnit 7 Listening, pressure of time does not allow us to dothesethingswhenspeaking,unlesswemakepreparedspeechesorpresentations.Youcanseefromthislistthatspeakinginvolvesseveralsubskills:

-makinguseofgrammar,vocabularyandfunctionsemakinguseofregistertospeakappropriately

-usingfeaturesofconnectedspeech

-usingbodylanguage

-producingdifferenttexttypes

- oral fluency (speaking at a normal speed, with little hesitation, repetition or self-correction,andwithsmoothuseofconnectedspeech)

-using interactivestrategies (waysofkeepingpeople interestedand involved inwhatwearesaying).

Our purpose in speaking is to communicate meaning and we do all these things toachievethis.

Wecanseethatspeakinginvolvesalotmorethanjustusinggrammarandvocabularyaccurately in speech, when we speak we constantly have in mind the person we arespeaking to and our wish to communicate our meaning successfully to them. We useinteractive strategies to help us achieve this. These include using body language such asgestures, eye contact, facial expressionsandmovement toput ourmessageacrossmorestrongly and dearly, and functions such as clarifying our meaning (e.g. 'I mean 'What I'mtrying to say is asking for opinions (e.g. 'What do you think?')/ agreeing (e.g. 'Yes, that'sright') to keep the interaction (communication) going and check that it is successful. Turn-taking isanother interactivestrategyweuse. It involvesusing intonation, languageorbodylanguagetoshowyouwanttojoinaconversationorendone,keepspeakingorinviteotherparticipantstojoinin.Weuseittomakesurewegetourmessageacross.Paraphrasingcanalso be thought of as an interactive strategy. We paraphrase when we judge ourcommunicationcannotbeorhasnotbeenunderstood.Weuseotherwordstosaythesamethinginordertogetourmessageacross.

Speakingalso involvesmakinguseofall the featuresofconnectedspeech toconveyour message. We use intonation, word and sentence stress, accurate individual sounds,

linkingandcontractionstohelpconveyourmeaning.

Fluency, accuracy and appropriacy also play a major part in successful oralcommunication. Fluency helps ensure that our listener will keep on listening to us withoutgettingboredorirritatedbytoomanyhesitationsortooslowapaceofspeaking.Accuracyofgrammar,useofvocabularyandtheproductionofsoundshelpkeepourmessageclear,andappropriacy isanotherwayofkeepingour listeners involved.Weusetherightregisterto treat our listener with the appropriate degree of formality or informality in order not toupsetthemormakethemfeeluncomfortable.

Finally,aswiththeotherlanguageskills,speakingalsoinvolvesbeingabletodealwithdifferent text types,e.g. takingpart inconversations,discussionsor telephonecalls,givingpresentations,tellingstories.Allthesetexttypeshavedifferentfeatures.Buyingsweetsinashop, for example, involves different speaking skills from telling your friends about theexcitingthingthathappenedtoyouattheweekendorpresentingtheresultsofprojectworkto classmates. They involve using different functions, different levels of formality, differentamountsofspeaking,differentamountsOỈinteraction,differentstructuresandvocabulary.

Therearemanyaspectsofspeaking fora learner to learn.Wecansee thataswiththeotherlanguageskills,speakingisacomplexactivity.


Readthesetip5andticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou.

-Speakinginvolvesarangeofdifferentsubskills.Learnerscanbenefitfrompracticeineach of these to develop their speaking. We can help our learners get this practice byfocusing regularly on particular aspects of speaking, e.g. fluency, pronunciation,, register,grammatical accuracy, body language, interactive strategies, interactive speaking (e.g.conversations, discussions), speaking at length (e.g. presentations, giving points of view,etc.).

-Inmanyclassrooms,controlledpracticeactivities(activitiesinwhichthelearnersarerequired to repeatedlyuse the language that theyhave justbeen taught)makeupa largepartofspeakingpractice.Theseactivitiesincludedrills,repetitionandsayingthingslearntbyheart (thingsthatarememorised).Theyfocusonaccuracy inspeakingbyhelpingstudentsto use grammar,, vocabulary and pronunciation correctly. They can motivate learners bygiving them confidence that what they are saying is right. Controlled practice activitiesprovide useful, if limited, preparation for speaking, as they do not give practice in fluency,interactionorsuccessfullycommunicatingamessage.

- Fluency activities allow learners to choose the language they use to speak. They

includetaskssuchas information-gapactivities,problemsolving,projectwork,discussions;explainingsolutions.All these tasks involve learners incommunicatingnew informationwithone another. As they speak, learners need to try to get their message across to oneanother.Theseactivitiesgivelearnerstheopportunitytopractisecommunication,interactionandfluency.

-Pairandgroupworkincreasetheopportunityforcommunicationintheclassroomasmorepeoplespeak than if justone learner isspeaking to the teacherwhile the restof theclass listens. In bigger classes, and in classes that are not used to working in pairs andgroups, the teachermayneed to introduce theseactivitiescarefully tomakesure learnersseethepointofthemandmakegooduseofthem.

- In controlled practice activities, the teacher usually corrects learners' accuracy, asaccuracyisthepurposeoftheseactivities.Influencyactivities it isadvisablenottocorrectlearners immediately. In this way learners are given the opportunity to focus oncommunicatingtheirmessage.Theteachercannotedownmistakesandworkonthemwiththeclassaftertheactivity.

-Becausespeakingissuchacomplexskill,learnersintheclassroommayneedalotofhelpinpreparingforspeaking,e.g.practiceofnecessaryvocabulary,timetoorganisetheirideas and what they want to say, practice in pronouncing new words and expressions,practice in carrying out a task, before they speak freely. Or teachers may prefer to asklearnerstocarryouttasksandthenfocusonlanguageproblemsafterwards.Someexpertsbelieve that focusing on language after rather than before a task makes learners moreinterested in learningabout the language,as ithelps themsee thepurposeof focusingonthelanguage.

-Learners,especiallybeginnersandchildren,mayneedtimetotakeinandprocessallthe new language they hear before they produce it in speaking. In some classrooms,especiallyprimaryones,learnersareallowedasilentperiodatthebeginningofacourse,sothattheyhavetimetolistentoandprocessthelanguagefirst.

-Theactivitiesinaspeakinglessonoftenfollowthispattern:

1.Lead-in:anintroductiontothetopicofthelessonplusactivitiesincludingafocusonthenewlanguage.

2. Practice activities or tasks in which learners have opportunities to use the newlanguage - these activitiesmaymove from controlled to freer activities or a teachermaychoosetodothemintheoppositeorder,dependingontheclassandlearningcontext.

3. Post-task activities: activities in which learners do free speaking activities on the

topicand/orworkonthelanguageusedinthetasks.

- Reading, listening and integrated skills lessons (lessons combining use of severallanguageskills)alsogiveopportunitiesforspeakingpracticeas learnersfocuson languagebeforethetextanddiscussitstopic,andthenaftertheyhaveworkedonunderstandingthetexttheycangoontodospeakingactivitiesrelatedtoitstopic.

SeeUnits16and17forspeakingactivities,Unit21forplanninglessons,andUnits29and32for'correctingspeaking


Here is a list of titles for speaking activities from coursebooks. What aspect ofspeaking(A-F)dotheyfocuson?Somefocusonmorethanoneaspect.

A.Accuracy

B.Connectedspeech

C.Appropriacy

D.Fluency

E.Functions

F.Interaction

1.Wordandsentencestress

2.Languageforaskingforclarificationpolitely

3.Informallanguageforgreeting

4.Languageforsuggestingandrecommending

5.Usingconjunctionsandpasttensesinstories

6.Distinguishingminimalpairsofsounds

7.Usingintonationtoshowdoubt

8.Takingpartindiscussions

9.Gettingyourpartnertoagreewithyou

10.Tellingstories

11.Intonationintagquestions

12.Interruptingpolitely

Reflection


1.My students get really embarrassed talking andmakingmistakes in front of theirclassmates,soIdon'toftenaskthemtospeakinclass.

2. I likeaskingmyclass to telloneanotherstories - theygetso interested that theydon'tworryaboutthemistakestheymake.

3.Ican'tdospeakingactivitiesinmyclass-thestudentsmakesomuchnoisethattheteachersintheotherclassescomplain.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Lookataunit inyourcoursebook.Whichaspects(s)ofspeakingdoes it focuson?Whatotheraspectsofspeakingdoyourstudentsneedtofocuson?

2.FindaStoryyoulike,thenrecordyourselftellingthestoryinEnglish.Listentoyourrecording,thenrecordyourselftellingitagain.Howhaveyouimproved?Why?

3.Practiseyourpronunciationorfindoutmoreaboutspeakingat:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenolish/language/

http://teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowIedge-wlki/input

4. These resources have lots of speaking activities. Are there any you can usewithyourclasses?

Elementary Communication Games by Jill Hadfield, Pearson Education Ltd 1992SimpleSpeakingActivitiesbyJillandCharlesHadfield,OxfordUniversityPress1999

500 Activities for the Primary Classroom by Carol Read, Macmillan, 2009 Quizzes,QuestionnairesandPuzzlesbyMilesCraven,CambridgeUniversityPress2005

http://www.link2english.eom/english_secondary.asp#SPEAKING

http://www.onestopenglish'com7section.asp?catid=59893&docid=156005


Forquestions1-7,matchthetrainer’scommentswiththeaspectsofspeakinglistedA-D.Youwillneedtousesomeoftheoptionsmorethanonce.

Aspectsofspeaking

A.fluency

B.interaction

C.accuracy

D.appropriacy

Trainer’scomments

1.Thatstudentreallyhelpedthegroupworkbyinvitingpeopletospeak,summarisingideasandstoppingsomestudentstalkingtoomuch.

2.Thatstudentpausesandhesitatestoomuch.Heneedstosoundmoreconfident.

3. I’mafraidIcouldn’tunderstandwhathewassaying. Ididn’tknowifhewassaying/p/or/b/,or/I/or/n/,forexample.

4. Insomeways, that studentgaveanexcellentpresentationbuthe’ll need tospeakmoreformallywhenhepresentsittoalltheteachers.

5.Shekeptconfusinghertensessonobodyunderstoodwhatshewastalkingabout.

6. He was very good at continuing to speak smoothly even though he needed toparaphrasealot.

7.Ithinktheysoundabitrude.Maybeyoucanteachthemsomeotherexponentsforthesefunctions.

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Unit9.MotivationUnit10.ExposureandfocusonformUnit11.TheroleoferrorUnit12.DifferencesbetweenL1andL2learningUnit13.LearnercharacteristicsUnit14.LearnerneedsUnit15.Approachestolanguageteaching

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Part2.Backgroundtolanguagelearning

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule1.LanguageandbackgroundtolanguagelearningandteachingàPart2.Backgroundtolanguagelearning

*Whatismotivation?

Motivationisthethoughtsandfeelingswhichmakeuswanttoandcontinuetowanttodosomethingandwhichturnourwishesintoaction.Motivationinfluences:

-whypeopledecidetodosomething

-howlongtheykeepwantingtodoit

-howtheyworktoachieveit.

Motivationisveryimportantinlanguagelearning.Itisoneofthekeyfactorsthathelpsmakelanguagelearningsuccessful.

*Keyconcepts

whywere/areyoumotivatedtolearnEnglish?Listyourreasons

There are several different factors (things that influence) which can influencemotivation.Theyinclude:

- The usefulness to us of knowing the language well. Many people want to learn alanguage because it can help themachieve practical things such as finding a (better) job,gettingontoacourseofStudy/gettinggoodmarksfromtheteacher,orbookinghotelrooms,

- Our interest in the target language culture (the culture of the language we arelearning).Wemightwant toget reallygoodatRussian, forexample, so thatwecan readbooks by famous Russian authors, or understand the world which produced their greatartists and composers. This is learning a language because of interest in culture with acapital c, i.e. highculture.Manypeoplearealso interested in culturewitha small c.TheywanttolearnJapanese,forexample,sotheycanunderstandMangacomicsbetter,orlearnEnglish to read about their favourite celebrities.Wemay also be interested in the targetculturebecauseweactuallywant tobecomepartof thatculture,perhapsbecausewearemoving to the country. In this case we might be interested in aspects of the country'scustomsandlifestyle,andseethetargetlanguageasakeyto*understandingandbecomingpartofthatculture.

- Feeling good about learning the language. If we are successful at something, thatsuccess makes us want to continue doing it and achieve greater things. Managing tocommunicate in a foreign language can make us want to communicate more and better.Confidence (feeling that we can do things successfully), learner autonomy/independence

Unit9.Motivation

(feeling responsible for and in control of our own learning) and a sense of achievement(being successful at something we have worked at) are all part of feeling good aboutlearningalanguage.Ifwethinkwearegoodatsomething,wewanttodoit.

-Encouragementandsupportfromothers.Wemayliveinacountryorfamilyorgotoaschoolwherelearningaforeignlanguageishighlyvaluedandmuchencouraged.Thishelpsus to realise the importanceof the foreign languageandgivesusemotionalsupportaswelearn. Peoplewho live in a countrywhere people can't see the point of learning a foreignlanguagemayhavelittlemotivationtolearnaforeignlanguage.

- Wishing to communicate fully with people who matter to you. People may havefriends,boyorgirlfriends,businesspartners,etc.whospeakanother language.Theywanttodeveloptheirrelationshipwiththem.Thisisastrongmotivationtolearnalanguage.

-Ourinterestinthelearningprocess.Sometimeswewanttolearnaforeignlanguagesimplybecauseweenjoyour languageclass;weliketheteacher,howhe/sheteaches,theclassroomactivities,thecoursebookormaybethetopicstheclassdealswith.Allthesearefactorsrelatedtolearningitself,whichcomefromtheclassroom.

We can see that there are different kinds ofmotivation.Some come from inside thelearnerandsomecomefromthelearner'senvironment.

Learnersmaydiffer intheirmotivations;somemayhavestrongmotivationofonekindbut little of another, other learners' motivationmay be amixture of kinds. There are alsolearners,ofcourse,whoareunmotivated, i.e.whohavenomotivationoraredemotivated,i.e. they have lost their motivation. And motivation can change, too. A learner may, forexample, bequite uninterested in learningaparticular language, thenmeet a teacherwhohelps them love learning the language. Motivation can change with age, too, with somefactorsbecomingmoreorlessimportantaslearnersgetolder.


Tworesearchersinmotivation,Z.DornyeiandK.Csizer,havesuggestedtherearetenkeyareasinwhichtheteachercaninfluencelearners'motivation,andhaveprovidedalistofstrategiesformotivatinglearnersintheseareas.

Readthestrategiesandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou.

Theteacher

1. Show a good example by being committed andmotivated

2.Trytobehavenaturally

3.Beassensitiveandacceptingasyoucan

Theclassroomatmosphere

4. Create a pleasant, calm, secure and orderedatmosphereintheclassroom

5.Bringinhumourandlaughter,andsmile

Thetask6.Giveclearinstructions

7.Pointoutthepurposeandusefulnessofeverytask

Rapport 8.Treateachlearnerasanindividual

Self-confidence

9.Givepositivefeedbackandpraise

10.Makesureyourstudentsexperiencesuccess

11.Acceptmistakes-theyareanaturalpartoflearning

Interest

12.Selectinterestingtasksandtopics

13.Offeravarietyofmaterialsandactivities

14.Maketaskschallengingtoinvolveyourstudents

15.Use learners' interests rather than testsorgrades,toencouragelearning

Autonomy

16.Encouragecreativeandimaginativeideas

17. Encourage questions and other contributions fromstudents

18. Share as much responsibility for organising thelearningprocesswithyourstudentsaspossible

PersonalrelevanceGoal/Target(aim forlearners orteachers)

19.Tryandpersonalisetaskstomakethemrelevant

20. Set up several specific learning goals for thelearners

21. Encourage the learners to set goals and worktowardsthem

22. Do a needs analysis of the learners’ goals andneeds

Culture

23.Make learners familiarwith theculturalbackgroundofthelanguagetheyarelearning

24.Invitenativespeakerstosomeclasses

25.Findpenfriendsforyourlearners.

(adaptedfrom'Ten.commandmentsformotivatinglanguagelearners:resultsofanempiricalstudy'byZ.Dornyeiandk.Csizer,LanguageTeachingResearch,HodderArnold

1998)

Someofthesestrategieswillworkbetterinsomelearningcontextsthanothers.

For example, with young learners, it can be very helpful to give praise and positivefeedback aswell as bring examples of the culture into the classroom.Some classesmaylovegamesandcompetition:whileothersmayreactbadlytothem.Theteachercanchoosefrom the list the strategies for motivating students that are likely to work best for theirlearnersintheirlearningcontext.

SeeUnits31-33forhowmotivationinfluencesclassroommanagement.


1.Herearesomeclassroomactivities.Whichareasofmotivationfromthetableabovedoyouthinktheyputintopractice?

A.Readingwith the class a story about a social networking site because you knowmanyofthemloveusingthesesites.

B. Only teaching 10 new words in one lesson rather than the 20 suggested in thecoursebook.

C. Arranging to talk to a learner after a class about problems they are having withgroupwork.

D.Givinglearnerssomewebsitesformakingschoolpartnershippenfriends.

E.Givinglearnersatestwhichyouknowtheywilldowellin.

F.Puttingsmileyfacesonlearners'homeworkevenwhenit'snotverygood.

G.Askinglearnerswhichactivitytheywouldprefertodointheirnextlesson.

H.Planningaseriesofshortactivitiesforyourlessonratherthantwolongones.

I.ShowinglearnersTVprogrammesaboutstudyinginanEnglish-speakingcountry.

J.Givingademonstration-ofarole-playthelearnersaregoingtodo.

K.Returninghomeworkasquicklyaspossibleandincludinghelpfuladviceonit.

2.Arethereanystrategiesyouwouldliketoaddtothelistabove?

Reflection


1.Ihavesuchbigclassesthatit'simpossibleformetotrytomotivateeachlearner.

2. I always put my learners' work up on the wall even if their English isn't veryaccurate.

3.Youcangivegoalsto7-year-oldsbutnotto17-year-olds.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Lookattheseresources.Areanyofthemsuitableformotivatingyourlearners?

http://www.eslpartỵland.com/teachers/nov/music.htm

http://www.english-zone.com

http://www.jamiekeddie.com/

Beginner's Communication Games, Elementary Communication Games, IntermediateCommunicationGamesbyJillHadfield, Longman1999,Nelson1987,Nelson1990EnglishVocabulary In Use (Second edition) Elementary, byMichaelMcCarthy and Felicity O'Dell,2010, Pre-intermediate & Intermediate by Stuart Redman, 2003, Upper-intermediate byMichael McCarthy and Felicity O'Dell, Cambridge University Press, 2001, Advanced byMichaelMcCarthyandFelicityO'Dell,CambridgeUniversityPress2002

2. Watch a video of another teacher teaching, and note how he/she motivates thelearners.

3.Takeoneofyourlessonplansorácoursebookunitandlookatwhereandhowyoucouldbuild inmoremotivation.Put your ideas in yourTeacherPortfolioand/or share themwithacolleague.

4.Underline twostrategies in the tableonpages54-5 thatyouwill trynextweek (orverysoon).


Forquestions1-5, lookat theadvice formotivating learnersand the threeclassroomactivitieslistedA,BandC.

Twooftheactivitiesmatchtheadvice.OneactivitydoesNOT.

Choosetheletter(A,BorC)whichdoesNOTmatchtheadvice.

1.Promotelearnerautonomy.

A.Givelearnersadviceonhowtousestudyresources.

B.Goovertheanswerswiththewholeclass,

C.Givelearnersasetofgoalstochoosefrom.

2.Familiariselearnerswiththetargetculture.

A.Explainthatculturecoversmanykindsofactivities.

B.WatchanddiscusssoapoperasfromanEnglish-speakingcountry,

C.ShowtheclassphotosofyourlastholidayinLondon.

3.Personalisethelearningprocess.

A.Discusswithlearnersthepersonalhobbiesofsomefamouspoliticians.

B.Asklearnerstoevaluatetheopinionsinatextaccordingtotheirownexperience,

C.Givelearnersataskinwhichtheydrawandlabeltheirfavouritefoods.

4.Increasethelearners’awarenessoftheirgoals.

A. Ask learners to tick on a checklist the language functions they think they need tolearn.

B.Asklearnerswhattheywilllearnfromcompletingtoday’shomework,

C.Asklearnerswhichlearningstrategieshelpedthemlearnbest.

5Increasethelearners’self-confidence.

A.Asklearnerstopredictwhattheanswertoaproblemmightbe.

B.Allowlearnerstomovearoundtheclassroomwhenevertheywant,

C.Showlearnershowadictionaryisorganisedandwhatitcontains.

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*Whatareexposureandfocusonform?

Across the centuries people have studied how foreign languages are learnt. Manyexpertsnowbelievethatonemainwaywelearnaforeignlanguageisbyexposuretoit,i.e.byhearingand/orreadingitallaroundusandwithoutstudyingit.Theysaywethenpickitupautomatically,i.e.learnitwithoutrealising.This,ofcourse,isthemainwayinwhichchildrenlearntheirfirstlanguage(thelanguagetheylearnasababy).

Experts also say that to learn a foreign language, particularly as adults, exposure tolanguage is not enough. We also need to focus our attention on the form of the foreignlanguage,i.e.noticehowitispronouncedandwritten,andhowitsgrammarandvocabularyare formed and used. They say that to learn language we also need to use language tointeract.

*Keyconcepts

HaveyoulearntEnglishmoresuccessfullyfromformalstudyorjustbypickingitup?

Researchhasidentifiedthreemainwaysinwhichwelearnaforeignlanguage.Firstly,experts talk of us acquiring language, or language acquisition. This means the same aspickinguplanguage.Theysaythattolearnaforeignlanguagesuccessfullyweneedlotsofexposureto itandthatwelearnfrombeingsurroundedbylanguage.Weneedtohearandread languagewhich is rich in variety, interesting tousand justdifficult enough forus, i.e.justbeyondourlevel,butnottoodifficult.Acquisitionthentakesplaceoveraperiodoftimewithout our realising that we are learning.We listen to and read items of languagemanytimes before we begin to use them (silent period), unconsciously working out(calculating/deducing)theirmeaningandform.

Secondly, experts believe that to learn language successfully we need to use it ininteractionwithotherpeople.Weneedtouselanguagetoexpressourselvesandmakeourmeanings clear to them, and to understand them.Thepersonweare talking towill let usknow,directlyor indirectly, if theyhaveunderstoodusornot. If theyhavenotunderstood,weneedtotryagain,usingotherlanguage(paraphrasing),untilwemanagetocommunicatesuccessfully. It is this process of struggling to make meaning dear which helps learnersexperiment with language, forcing them to try out structures, chunks and vocabulary theyhavealreadylearnt,toseeiftheyhelpthemgettheirmessageacross.

Thirdly,researchshowsthatforeignlanguagelearnersalsoneedtofocusonform.This

Unit10.Exposureandfocusonform

means that they need to pay attention not just to themeaning of language but also to itsformalfeatures,e.g.pronunciation,wordorder,affixes,spelling,grammaticalstructures.

Nowadays, it is thought that, depending on our age and learning style, we learnlanguagebestbypickingitup,bvinteractingwithothersandbyfocusingonform.

This suggests that several approaches to language teaching which were commonlyused in thepastmaynot be sufficiently helpful to learners, e.g. theGrammar-Translationmethodwhichfocusedonlyongrammarandtranslatingtexts,theStructuralApproachwhichfocusedonlyonlearningandpractisingstructures,orcommunicativeapproacheswhichjustfocusedonusinglanguagefluentlyincommunication.Buttheresearchstillcontinues,andwedonotyetfullyunderstandhowforeignlanguagesarelearnt.



-Toacquire language, learnersneed tohearand readawidevarietyof languageatthe right level for them. They need exposure to language both inside and outside theclassroom. In theclassroom theycan listen to recordingsofe.g.storiesorsongs,or theycan read e.g. magazine articles - maybe without any accompanying comprehension orlanguagetasks.Outsideclass,theycanalsoreade.g.gradedreadersandmaybeusetheinternet to either reador listen to things that interest them -without tasks to complete sothattheycanjusttakeinthelanguage.

-Toacquirelanguageit isnotsufficientjusttolistentoorreadlanguage.Ithastobelanguageat the right level.Thismeans language that is justa littlechallenging for learnersbecauseit'sa littlebeyondtheircurrent level.Teacherscanchooserecordingsandreadingmaterialsattherightlevelofdifficulty.

-Learnersneedtimetoacquire language.Theymayneedasilentperiodbeforetheycanproducenewlanguageandwecannotexpectthemtolearnthingsimmediately.Learninglanguageisaslowprocessthatnecessarilyinvolvesmakingmistakes.

- Learners need to use language to interact. In the classroom this can be withclassmatesortheteacher.Thisgivesthemtheopportunitytoexperimentwithlanguageandfindouthowsuccessfultheircommunicationis.Pairandgroupworkgivetheopportunityforinteraction, as do problem-solving activities and project work. When they try tocommunicate, learners will often make mistakes. When classmates don't understandthese/the learners will be forced to paraphrase what they have said, which is a valuablelearningprocess.

- Learners can benefit from opportunities to focus on forms of language. There aremanywaysteacherscanhelplearnersnoticeforms(becomeawareofparticularlanguage),e.g. by presenting new target language to learners, by asking them to find certaingrammaticalpatternsinlisteningorreadingtexts,bypointingoutuseful languageaftertheyhavecompletedatask,andalsothroughcorrection,

-Somelearnersmay like to learnand/orareusedto learning inparticularways.Thismeans that teachersshouldconsider learners'age, learningexperienceand learningstyleswhendecidinghow to teach.Forexample, focusingon formbyasking learners tohighlightconjunctions in a text may be much more effective with older learners than with youngerlearners.Correctionmaybethemostsuitablewaytofocusonformwithyounger learners,butsomeolderlearnersmaydislikebeingcorrectedinfrontofclassmates.

SeeUnits12,13and14forthedifferentcharacteristicsandneed?oflearners,Unit15forapproachestolanguageteaching,andUnit17forwaysoffocusingonandpractising

language,andforexamplesofcommunicativetasks.


Put theseclassroomactivities into thecorrect column in the tableaccording towhichwayoflearningtheyencouragemost.Somemaygointomorethanonecolumn.

Acquisition

Interaction

Focusonform

1.Learnersproofreadandcorrectthefirstdraftoftheircompositions.

2.Agroupoflearnersexplainstotherestoftheclasshowtomakeapaperplane.

3.Alearnersays'Igotoseeagreatfilmyesterday';theteachersays'pasttense'.

4.Learnersusetheinternettofindrecipesforhowtomaketheirfavouritedishes.

5.Learnersexplain tooneanotherwhyacertainmultiple-choiceansweronareadingtextmustbecorrect.

6.Thelearnersseehowmanydifferentprefixestheycanfindinatext.

7. The learners complete gapped sentences with the right tense of the verbs inbrackets.

8.Thelearnerstelloneanotheraboutagoodbooktheyhavejustread.

9.LearnerslistentotwosongswhicharetheirfavouriteEnglishsongs.

10. Learners look at a map of their town and discuss where to build a new sportscentre.

Reflection


1. I learnt Russian at school through grammar translation. Then after I left school IwenttoliveinRussiaandjustpickeditup.ThetwowaysoflearningreallyhelpedmespeakRussianwell.

2. It's very difficult to bring interaction and acquisition intomy classes -1 havemorethan30studentsineachclassandveryfewresources.

3.Theexamsmystudentshavetotakefocusoncorrectgrammar,sothat'swhatwefocusoninclass.IknowI'mnotteachingmystudentsEnglish,butteachingthemtopassanexaminEnglish.

DiscoveryActivities

1. To read more about how languages are learnt, see Chapter 3, The practice ofEnglishLanguageTeaching(Fourthedition)byJeremyHarmer,Longman2007.

2. Watch your learners. Are there any who seem to prefer learning by acquisition,interactionor focuson form?Write down your observationsandput them in yourTeacherPortfolio...

3. Look at a unit from your coursebook. See what the focus of each activity isacquisition, interaction or focus on form? Does die overall unit focus suit your learners'needs?

TKTpracticetask10(seepage245foranswers)

Forquestions1-5, lookatthetermsabout languagelearningandthethreeclassroomactivitieslistedA,BandC.

Twooftheactivitiesareexamplesoftheterm.OneactivityisNOT.

Choosetheletter(A,BorC)oftheactivitywhichisNOTanexampleoftheterm.

1.Interaction

A.Thelearnerlistenedtoarecordingandwrotedownthewordshedidn’tknow.

B.Alearnerdiscussedwithhisteacherwhyhisanswerwascorrect,

C.Agroupoflearnersdesignedapostertogether.

2.Focusonform

A. The learners had to decide if certain verbs are followed by the gerund or theinfinitive.

B. The learners matched words to explanations of their meanings to complete anexercise.

C.Thelearnerstickedwhichwordtheyheardinsetsofminimalpairs.

3.Workingoutmeaning

A.Thelearnerscompletedagappedtextbyreadingthewordsaroundeachgap.

B. The learners listened to a recording and counted the stressed syllables in eachword,

C.Thelearnerslistenedtoshortdialoguesanddeducedwhothespeakerswere.

4.Exposure

A.Theclassinvitedanoutsidespeakertospeaktothemaboutthelifeofyoungpeopleinhercountry.

B.Thelearnerslistenedtotheirteacherreadthemadetectivestory,

C.Theteachergaveherstudentsanexampleofthetargetlanguage.

5.Paraphrasing

A.Thelearnersreadoneanother’semailsaridunderlinedandcorrectedthemistakes.

B. The learners used prompts to write new sentences with the same meaning butdifferentwordsfromtheoriginalsentences,

C.Thelearnersummarisedthecontentsofhisrecentpresentationforhisclassmates.

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*Whatistheroleoferror?

Makingmistakes plays an important and useful part in language learning because itallows learners to experimentwith languageandmeasure their success in communicating.Thisunitfocusesonthekindsofmistakeslearnersmakewhentheyspeakorwriteaforeignlanguage, why they make these mistakes and the part that mistakes play in languagelearning.

*Keyconcepts

Whatarethemainreasonswhyyourlearnersmakemistakes?

Mistakesareoftencategorisedintoerrorsandslips.Errorsoccurwhenlearnerstrytosay something that is beyond their current level of knowledge or language processing(workingonthelanguageunconsciouslytotrytounderstandandlearn it).Usually,becausethey are still processing or don't know this part of the language, learners cannot correcterrorsthemselvesbecausetheydon'tunderstandwhatiswrong.

Slipsaretheresultoftiredness,worryorothertemporaryemotionsorcircumstances.Wemake thembecausewearenotconcentratingonwhatwearesayingorwriting.Theyare not a result of incomplete language processing or a lack of knowledge. They happensimplybecauseourattention is somewhereelseat thatmoment.Thesekindsofmistakescanbecorrectedbylearnersthemselves,oncetheyrealisetheyhavemadethem.

There are two main reasons why second language learners make errors. The firstreason is influence from the learner's first language (mother tongue/L1) on the secondlanguage(L2).Thisiscalledinterferenceortransfer.Learnersmayusesoundpatterns,lexisorgrammaticalstructuresfromtheirownlanguageinEnglish.

The second reason why learners make errors is because they are unconsciously(withoutknowingorbeingaware)workingout,organisingandexperimentingwith languagethey have learnt, but this process is not yet complete. This kind of error is called adevelopmental error. These errors are common to all learners,whatever their LI, and areoften similar to those made by a young first language speaker as part of their normallanguage development.Common developmental errors in English are using the past tensefor thepresentperfect tense,ormakingmistakeswithpastverb forms.Forexample,veryyoung first language speakers of English as well as English language learners often saythings like 'I goed' instead of 'I went'. Errors such as this one, in which learners wrongly

Unit11.Theroleoferror

apply a rule for one item of the language to another item, are the result of overgeneralisation, i.e. applying a rule too widely. Once children develop their L1 languageabilities, these errors disappear, and as a second language learner's language abilityincreases,theseerrorsoftendisappear,too.

Errors play a necessary and important pan in language learning. They are part oflearners' interlanguage, i.e. the learners' own version of the second language which theyspeak as they learn. Learners unconsciously process, i.e. analyse and reorganise theirinterlanguage.Interlanguageisnotfixed.Itdevelopsandprogressesaslearnerslearnmore.Experts think that interlanguage isanessentialandunavoidablestage in language learning.Inotherwords,interlanguageanderrorsarenecessarytolanguagelearning.LIlearnersgothroughastagesimilar to the interlanguagestage:whenchildren learn theirmother tonguetheyseemtospeaktheirownversionofitforawhile,tomakeprogressonsomelanguageitems,thentogobackwards,andtomakemistakesforatimebeforethesemistakesfinallydisappear,usuallywithoutobviouscorrection.

Errorsareanaturalpartof learning.Theyusuallyshowthat learnersarelearningandthat their internal mental processes are working on and experimenting with language. Bymakingmistakesyou realise thatyoudon'tknowsomethingandyou try toput it right.Forexample, if you falloffabicycle throughyourown fault you realise thatyoudidsomethingwrong, and you make sure you don't make the same mistake again. Similarly, as wecommunicatewithothersandseethatourcommunication isn'tworking,wetryagain,usingotherwordsoraimingforgreateraccuracy.Wegothroughstagesoflearningnewlanguage,andeachnewpieceoflanguagewelearnhelpsuslearnmorefullyotherpiecesoflanguagethatwealreadyknow-likepiecesofajigsawpuzzlewhichonlymakefullsensewhentheyareallinplace.

Developmental and interference errors can disappear by themselves, withoutcorrection, as the learner learnsmore language. In fact, experts say that correctionmayonlyhelp learners if theyare ready for it, i.e. theyareat the right stage in their individuallearningprocess,or interlanguage.Thereare threemainwaysofhelping learnersdeveloptheir language. Firstly, learners need exposure to lots of interesting language at the rightlevel;secondly, theyneed touse language to interact;and thirdly, theyneed to focus theirattentiononlanguageforms.

Sometimes errors do not disappear, but get fossilised. Fossilised errors are errorswhichalearnerdoesnotstopmakingandwhichlastforalongtime,evenforever,inhis/herforeign language use. Fossilisation of errors often happens when learners, particularlyadults, are able to communicate asmuch as they need to in the foreign language and so

havenocommunicativereasontoimprovetheirlanguage.Thesefossilisederrorsmaybetheresultof lackofexposure to the12, theresultofa learner'sconscious(knowing/aware)orunconsciouslackofmotivationtoimprovetheirlevelofaccuracy,orthefactthattheycausenoproblemincommunication.



- It is important for teachers to think hard about whether, when and how to correctlearners.

-We can't expect instant or immediate (earning. Learning is gradual, and errorswilloccur.

- It's useful to think about what kind ofmistake the learner ismaking - a slip or anerror. If the mistake is a slip, the learner can correct him/herself, maybe with a littlepromptingfromtheteacheroranotherlearner.Or,theremaybenopointincorrectingaslip.

- Sometimes, particularly in fluency activities, it is better not to pay attention tolearners'mistakes, (i.e. ignore them), so that the learners have an opportunity to developtheirconfidenceandtheirfluency,andtoexperimentandmakemistakeswithlanguage.

- Some errors may bemore important to correct than others. Errors which preventcommunicationaremore important than thosewhichdonot, e.g.missing the finalsoff thethird person singular of a present simple tense verb doesn't prevent communication. Butusingthepresentsimpletenseinsteadofthepastsimpletensesometimesdoes.

- Some learnerswithin the same classmay need to be corrected,while othersmaynot,dependingon their stageof learning, learningstyleand levelofconfidence.Theymayalsoneedtobecorrectedindifferentways.

- Learners, particularly older ones, may find it useful to know that they makeinterference errors, and to be toldwhich they are. Knowing about interference errors canhelplearnersavoidthem,especiallyinwriting.

- Learners can react well to being told what their fossilised errors are, their dangerareas!Inthisway,theybecomeconsciousofthemandcantrytoavoidthem,particularlyinwriting.

-Waysofhelpinglearnersgetbeyondtheirerrorsare:

+ exposing them to lots of language that is just beyond their level of linguistic abilitythrough reading or listening. This provides an unconscious challenge to learners' languagelearningprocessesandhelpsfitthepiecesofthejigsawintoplace.

+giving themopportunities to focuson the formof language,e.g. throughexercises,reformulation(whentheteachercorrectswhatthestudenthassaidbyrepeatingtheirwordscorrectly,butwithoutdrawingthelearner'sattentiontotheirmistake)orcorrection.

+providing themwith time inclass touse language tocommunicateand interactandseeiftheycandososuccessfully.

-Errorsareuseful notonly to the learnerbutalso to the teacher.Theycanhelp theteacherseehowwelllearnershavelearntsomethingandwhatkindofhelptheymayneedinfuture.Errorscanshowthatalearnerismakingprogressandlearning.

See Unit 10 for processes involved in language learning, Unit 29 for categories' ofmistakes,Unit32forhowtocorrectlearners,andUnit33forhowtogivefeedback.


Here isanextract fromaconversationbetween two lower intermediate level learnersofEnglish.Theyaredoingafluencyactivityinwhichtheytalkaboutdatesthatareimportanttothem.ThewomanisJapaneseandthemanisItalian.

Readtheextractandnoticehowthelearnersaretryingtheirbesttocommunicate,andgiving one another help in communicating. Is it possible to say which mistakes are slips,developmentalerrors,interferenceerrorsorfossilisederrors?Wouldyoucorrectthem?

N.B.Thewords in italics in brackets (...) are spokenby the other speakerwhile themainspeakerisspeaking.

Man:Er,whatyoudoinginerNovember24thofertwoyearsago,threeyearsago?

Woman:Twoyearsago,yes,thisdayIwaserIgoingtomyhighschool(um)andumIbelongedtoumEnglishdramaclub.MaybeI,umIdidexercisetoo,yes,butI'mnotsure(inthemorning,inthemorning)Morning!

Man:No,Iaskyouinthemorning(ahyeah)you...you,go,youwenttotheschool?

Woman:Yes,yes,that'sright.

Man:Umme(mm)umat24(whatareyoudoing,yes?)I,Iwentto,ismybirthday(ah,isyourbirthday,oh)yes,birthday,ander is,was important formebecauseer (yes)whenum,inthisyearsI,Iwasereighteenyearsold(mm)andformeveryimportantbecauseerIlikeverymuchertodouminuminumbycaranderwhen(it'sapresent)yes,yes,for,formy,mypresentwasacar.

Woman:Oh,it'sgreatpresent.

Man:Yes,verygreatpresent.(laughter)

(adaptedfromEnglishfortheTeacherbyMarySpratt,CambridgeUniversityPress1994)

Reflection


1.Ifmystudentsmakemistakes,itmeansIhaven'ttaughtthemwell.

2.Mystudentslikemetocorrectalltheirmistakes;soIdo.

3.Teacherscanonlycorrecteachmistakeandeachstudentinthesameway.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look at a piece of writing or listen to a recording from one of your learners andidentifyallthemistakes.Whatmightbethecauseofthemistakes?Wouldyoucorrectthemall?WriteyourthoughtsinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2.Formoreaboutwhy learnersmakemistakesandhowwecancorrect them, readChapter8ofThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching(Fourthedition)byJeremyHarmer,PearsonEducationLtd2007.

3. What do these terms mean: ‘cognitive, natural order, independent study? Use adictionaryortheTKTGlossarytochecktheirmeaning.

TKTpracticetask11(seepage245fortheanswers)

Forquestions1-5,match the teachers’ commentswith the typesofmistake theyaretalkingaboutlistedA-F.


Typesofmistake

A.lexicalslip

B.lexicalinterferenceerror

C.pronunciationslip

D.grammaticalslip

E.lexicaldevelopmentalerror

F.fossilisedgrammaticalerror

Teachers’comments

1.Agoodstudentofminesaid,Thecloudsweresickand itwas raininga lotbuthequicklycorrectedhimselfandsaid‘thick’.

2.Ihaveseveralstudentsinmytopclasswhostillsaythingslikeisverynice;hedo;Iamdoctor.Ijustdon’tknowwhattodoaboutit.

3.Atthebeginning,allmystudentsusedtermslikeniceorgood,foranythingpositive,thentheygraduallystartedtouselanguagemoreprecisely.

4.Duringhispresentationthismorning,mybeststudentwassonervousthathesaid:Mymother,sheiscomingtovisitme.

5. Nearly all the students in that class who share the same language say brotherswhentheymeanbrothersandsisters.Idon’tknowwhy.

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*WhatarethedifferencesbetweenL1andL2learning?

Whenwelearnourfirstlanguage(LI)wearelikelytolearnitinadifferentcontextandindifferentways fromwhenwe learna second language (L2).Wearealso likely tobeadifferentage.

*Keyconcepts

What differences can you think of between L1 and L2 learning? Think about thelearners’age,waysoflearning,andthecontextthattheyarelearningin

Age L1learning L2learning(intheclassroom)

- Learning starts when thelearner is a baby, continuesthrough the early years ofchildhood, and lasts intoadolescence for somekindsof language and languageskills, e.g. academic writing(writing for school oruniversity).

- Babies learn language atthe same time as theircognitive skills (the mentalprocesses involved inthinking, understanding orlearning)develop.

- Learners aremotivated tolearnlanguageastheyneedtocommunicate.

- Usually starts in primary schooland/ or secondary school. It mayalsostartorcontinueinadulthood.

- Primary learners are stilldevelopingmanyof their cognitiveskills.

- Secondary school learners havealready developed many of theircognitive skills by the time theystart learning a foreign language.Their attitudes towards learningand learning the foreign languagemay or may not be mature (fullydeveloped).

- Adult learners have fullydeveloped cognitive skills. Theyare likely toshowmaturity in theirattitudestolanguagelearning.

- Adult and some secondarylearners may already haveexpectations (beliefs thatsomething will or should happen)

Unit12.DifferencesbetweenL1andL2learning

about how languages should belearnt, may have past experienceoflearningaforeignlanguage,andmayormaynotbefullymotivatedtolearnthelanguage.

Contextandwaysoflearning

-Byexposuretoandpickingup language, hearing thelanguage around him/her allthetime.

- By learning a lot oflanguageinchunks.

-Bywantingandneeding tocommunicate, i.e. withstrongmotivation.

- Through interaction withfamily.

- By talking about thingspresent in theirsurroundings, and by doingthings.

-Bylisteningtoandtakinginlanguage for many monthsbefore using it (silentperiod).

- By playing andexperimenting with newlanguage.

- By having lots ofopportunities to experimentwithlanguage.

- By getting lots of praiseand encouragement for

-Sometimesthroughexposurebutoften by being taught specificlanguageitems.

- Often by focusing on structuresandindividualwords.

- With strong, little or nomotivationtocommunicate.

- Through interaction with ateacher and sometimes withclassmates.

- Often by talking about lifeoutsidetheclassroom.

- Often by needing to producelanguage soon after it has beentaught.

- Often by using language incontrolled practice activities andbeing corrected, Sometimes byplaying and experimenting withnewlanguage.

-ThelearnerisnotexposedtotheL2 very much - often no moreThanaboutthreehoursperweek.

- Teachers vary in the amount ofpraiseorencouragementtheygivelearners.

- The learner may receive littleindividual attention from the

usingthelanguage.

- By hearing simplifiedspeech.

- By rarely being corrected.Instead people oftenreformulate what the childhassaid.

teacher,andnotinteractmuch.

- Teachers usually simplify thelanguagetheyuse.

- Teachers often correct learners.Learners are often asked toproduce correct language. Theymay or may not be givenopportunities to make mistakesandexperiment

It isnotalwayseasy todescribeL2 learning in theclassroombecause it happens indifferentwaysindifferentclassrooms.Thedescriptioninthetableabovemaynotbetrueofallclassrooms.

L2learningsometimestakesplaceoutsidetheclassroomwhenchildrenoradultspickup language. In this situation, L2 learning is more similar to L1 learning, except that thelearneroftendoesnotgetasmuchexposuretothelanguageastheL1learner,andmaynotbesomotivatedtolearn.

AnotherbigdifferencebetweenL1andL2learningisthatL1learningisnearlyalwaysfullysuccessful,whileL2learningvariesalotinhowsuccessfulitis.


Readthesetipsandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou

-Howweteachlearnerslanguagewilldependalotonwhatagetheyare.Theyoungerthey are the more they benefit from learning language in the same ways as L1 learnerslearn,i.e.throughexposure,interactionandlearningthroughdoing.Olderlearnerswithmoredevelopedcognitiveabilitiesareabletoandcansometimesbenefitfromalsofocusingontheformoflanguageinamoreabstract(lessspecific,notconcrete)orgeneralway.e

- Motivation is necessary for successful language learning, but learners may not beverymotivated,soteacherscanmakeuseofstrategiestomotivatetheirstudents.

- Learners are different from one another (in learning style, age, personality, etc.).Somemayliketoanalyselanguage,forexample;somemayhatedoingthat.Somemayloveto take risks and communicate, others may prefer not to make mistakes. It is useful forteachers to find out about their learners' learning styles, learning needs and expectations,and match their teaching to them. Teachers can do this by varying their teaching style,approaches,materials,topics,methodofcorrection,etc.

-Some learnersmay findasilentperioduseful,butsome learners,especiallyadults,maynot,astheyexpecttousethelanguagestraightaway.

- Exposure to language is important for learning.We can encourage learners to useEnglish as much as possible in their out-of-class time. They could, for example, listen toradioprogrammesorsongs, readbooksormagazines,usewebsites,downloadpodcasts,makeEnglish-speakingfriends,talktotourists,writeemailstoEnglish-speakingpenfriends,etc.

- Interaction is away of learning. Pair and groupwork or class presentations are awayofencouraginginteraction.

-Wecantrytosimplifyourlanguagetoalevelthatlearnerscanlearnfrom,andavoidcorrecting them toomuch. They need to build up their fluency,motivation and confidence,andhaveopportunitiestopickuplanguageandexperimentwithit.

- In the classroom, praising learners can be very motivating. Younger learners,especially, respond well to praise. We can also try to give learners as much individualattentionaspossibleandinteractwiththemonasmallgrouporindividuallevel.

SeeUnits9,13and14forfactorsaffectingL2learning,andUnit18forapproachestolanguageteaching.


1. Look at these twopictures.What differences that influence language learning canyouimaginebetweenthetwolanguagelearningsituations?Thinkofatleastfive.

2.Herearethreelearners.Lookatthelistbelow.WhichwaysdoyouthinkwouldhelpthemlearnEnglishbest?

Miriamis7.ShehasjuststartedlearningEnglishatschoolfor3hoursaweek.SheisfromTunisia.

Santiagois13.HeisinhissecondyearofEnglishatsecondaryschoolinArgentina.Hedoesn'tlikelearningEnglish.Hefindsitboringandirrelevanttohim.

Bao is 33 and is from Vietnam. He learnt English at secondary school but has notstudieditsince.HeneedstolearntospeakEnglishforhisnewjobasahotelmanager.

A.WatchingDVDs,playinggamesinEnglish,mimingEnglishsongs

B.UsingEnglishtoplaygamesintheclassroom

C.Doinglotsofextrahomework

D.Usingwebsitestochatonline

E.Studyinggrammarbooks

F.Doinglotsofcommunicativeactivities

G.Learningthroughinterestingtopics

H.Chattingtoforeigntourists

Reflection


1.MylearnersgetexposuretoEnglishwhentheylistentome.Thatshouldbeenoughforthem.

2. Grammar is a quicker way of learning than exposure. It works well with olderlearners.

3.Whenyoujustexposeyour learnerstoEnglish,youhavenoideaif they're learningornot.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look at a unit in your coursebook. Find some activities which encourage rinteraction,exposuretolanguage,focusonformormotivation.

2. Look at thesewebsites for articles on (inferences betweenL1andL2 learning orhowtoteachdifferentagegroups:

3.Watch a young child you knowwho is learning their first language.Make notes inyourTeacherPortfolioon thesimilaritiesantidifferencesbetweenhow.They learn theirL1andhowyourstudentslearnL2.Canyoulearnanythingusefulforyourteachingfromthis?

4. Do you know the meaning of these terms: linguistic, proficiency? Check theirmeaningintheTKTGlossary

5.Lookat‘EnglishteachersandtheirEnglish'at:http.//www.cambridge.org


For questions 1-5, choose the best option (A, B or C) to complete each statementaboutL1orL2learning.

1.L1learners’friendsandfamily

A.oftencorrectthelearners’mistakes.

B.oftenreformulatethelearners’mistakes,

C.oftendiscussthelearners’mistakeswiththem.

2.L1learners’motivationtolearntheirfirstlanguage

A.ispartoftheirwishtocommunicate.

B.variesaccordingtotheirpersonalities,

C.comesfromtheirwishtolearnschoolsubjects.

3.L1learners’longsilentperiodhelpsthem

A.avoidmakingmistakes.

B.producecomplexgrammaticalstructures,

C.becomefamiliarwithlanguagepatterns.

4.SomeL2learnerspreferformallanguagelearningtoacquisitionbecause

A.theyhaveananalyticallearningstyle.

B.theyliketakingrisks,

C.theylearnwellautonomously.

5.L2learners’errors

A.arealwaysverysimilartothosemadebyL1learners.

B.cansometimesfossilise.

C.needtobecorrectedimmediately.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatarelearnercharacteristics?

Learner characteristics include a learner's motivation, learning style, learningstrategies,maturityandpastlanguagelearningexperience.Theyarefactorswhichinfluencelearners' attitude to learning a language, how they learn it, how they respond to differentteachingstylesandapproachesintheclassroom,andhowsuccessfultheyareatlearningalanguage.

*Keyconcepts

Howmightyourmotivation,pastlearningexperienceandageinfluencehowyoulearnanewlanguage?

Learningstyles

Learning styles are theways inwhich a learner naturally prefers to take in, processandrememberinformationandskills.Ourlearningstyleinfluenceshowweliketolearnandhowwe learn best. Experts have suggested several different ways of classifying learningstyles.They relate to thephysical senseweprefer touse to learn,ourwayof interactingwith other people and our style of thinking. Here are some commonlymentioned learningstyles:

visual thelearnerlearnsbestthroughwatchingandlooking

auditory thelearnerlearnsbestthroughlisteningandhearing

kinaestheticthe learner learns best through being physical, whilemovingortouchingthings

group thelearnerlearnsbestthroughworkingwithothers

individual thelearnerlearnsbestthroughworkingalone

reflectivethe learner learns best when given time to considerchoices

impulsive thelearnerlearnsbestwhenabletorespondimmediately

analyticthe learner learns best when given the opportunity toanalysethings

autonomousthelearnerlikestodecidewhathe/shelearnsandhowto

Unit13.Learnercharacteristics

learn

Youcanseefromthesedescriptionshowlearnerswithdifferentlearningstyleslearnindifferentways, andneed to be taught in differentways.Wemust remember, though, thatlearners may not fall exactly into any one category of learning style as they may haveseveralstyles. It'salsotruethatdifferentculturesmayusesomelearningstylesmorethanothersandthatlearnersmaychangeordeveloptheirlearningstyles.

Learningstrategies

Learningstrategiesarethewaysthatlearnerschooseandusetolearnlanguage.Theyincludeways tohelp themselves identifywhat theyneed to learn,process, remember,andusenewlanguage.Usingtherightstrategyat theright timecanhelpus learnthe languagebetter, and help tomake usmore able to learn without depending on the teacher, i.e. tobecomemore independent or autonomous learners.Someexamplesof learning strategiesare:

-repeatingnewwordsinyourheaduntilyourememberthem

-experimenting/takingrisksbyusingjust-learntlanguageinconversations

-askingtheteacherorotherstogiveyoufeedbackonyourlanguageuse

-decidingtousetheforeignlanguageasmuchaspossible,e.g.bytalkingtotourists

-recordingyourselfspeaking,thenjudgingandcorrectingyourpronunciation

-askingaspeakertorepeatwhathe/shehassaid

-decidingwhatareaofvocabularyyouneedtolearnandthenlearningit

- thinking about how to memorise (remember) all the new words you meet in eachlesson

-decidingtowriteeachnewvocabularyitemonaseparatecardanddisplayitonyourfridge

-paraphrasing.

Different learners use different strategies. Experts think that the strategies thatlearners use most successfully depend on their character and learning style. This meansthere are no best strategies. But research shows that using strategies definitely makeslearningmoresuccessfulandthatlearnerscanbetrainedtousestrategies.

Maturity

Maturityinvolvesbecominggrownupphysically,mentallyandemotionally.

Children,teenagersandadultshavedifferentlevelsofmaturity,whichmeanstheylearnindifferentways.Herearesomeofthemaindifferencesinmaturitythatinfluencelanguagelearning.

Children Teenagers Adults

NeedtomoveStartingtokeepstillforlonger periods but stillneedtomove

Able to keep still forlongerperiods

Can concentrate forshorter periods (shortattentionspan)

Concentrationdeveloping

Can concentrate forlongerperiods

Learn throughexperienceanddoing

Beginning to learn inabstract ways, i.e.through thinking, aswellasexperiencing

Can learn in moreabstractways

Are not very able tocontrol and plan theirownbehaviour

Beginning to controland plan their ownbehaviour

Usually able to controland plan their ownbehaviour

Are not afraid ofmaking mistakes ortakingrisks

May worry about whatothersthinkofthem

May not be so willingto make mistakes ortakerisks

Are not aware ofthemselvesand/ortheiractions

Sometimesuncomfortably awareof themselves and/ortheiractions

Aware of themselvesand/ortheiractions

Pay attention tomeaninginlanguage

Pay attention tomeaning andincreasinglytoform

Can pay attention toform and meaning inlanguage

Have limitedexperienceoflife

Beginning to increasetheirexperienceoflife

Haveexperienceoflife

Developing cognitiveskills

Cognitive skillsgenerally believed tobe developed ataroundage15

Have mature cognitiveskills

Motivation to learnlanguage is part ofgeneral motivation tocommunicateandlearn

Motivation variesconsiderably and maynotbe fixedormaybeabsent

Motivation oftenconscious andcontrolled

Ofcourse,every learner isdifferent,soanyonelearnermaynotfitexactly intothesedescriptions. The descriptions are generalisations that show likely, but not fixed,characteristics. But from looking at these differences we can see that each age groupgenerallyneedstobetaughtindifferentways.

Pastlanguagelearningexperience

Teenage and adult learners may have learnt English before. They may be used tolearninginaparticularwayandhavedefiniteideasabouthowtolearnbest.Forexample,anadultmayhavelearntEnglishatschoolthroughlearninglotsofgrammarandmayhavebeensuccessfulinlearningthisway.Ifhethenfindshimselfinaclasswheretheteachingisdoneonly throughcommunicativeactivities (i.e. activitieswhere learners communicatewitheachotherinspeakingorwriting),hemayfeelheisnotlearning.But,hemay,ofcourse,preferit.Another adultmay have learnt by using translation at school and then come to a class inwhichtranslationisneverused.Hemayormaynotlikethischange.Teachersofadults(andsometimes teachers of teenagers) need to be aware of how their learners have learntpreviouslyandhowtheywanttolearnnow.Thelearnersmaywelcomeachangeinmethod,buttheymaywanttolearninthesamewayastheylearntbefore.

Other learner characteristicswhichcanvary from learner to learnerare their leveloflanguage,theirmotivation(seeUnit9),andtheirgeneralpersonality.Arethey,forexample,shy, outgoing, patient, curious, sensitive, etc.? All these qualities will affect how and howmucheachlearnerengagesindifferentkindsofactivitiesintheclassroom.



- It can be useful for teachers to become aware of their own learning styles, pastlearning experience and learning strategies, and to compare these with how they teach.Teacherssometimes teach in thesamestyle inwhich they themselves like to learn.This isunlikelytobethesamestyleasalltheirlearnersprefer.

-Somelearnercharacteristics,suchaspastlanguagelearningexperienceandlearningstrategies,aremorerelevanttoteachingteenagersandadultsthantoteachingchildren.

-Wecanfindoutwhatourlearners'characteristicsarebye.g.askingthem,observingthem, giving them questionnaires, asking at the end of a lesson whether they liked theactivitiesdoneinclassandwhy,andinwhatdifferentwaystheymightliketowork.

-Wecantrainlearnerstobecomeawareofandusedifferentlearningstrategies.Thisis part of learner training. We can, for example, give learners a list of strategies forrememberingwordsandaskthemwhichtheypreferandwhy;orwecanaskthemhowtheyarrivedatasolutiontoaproblemtoraisetheirawarenessofusefullearningstrategies.

-Teachersmayneedtodiscusstheirmethodswithlearnerswhoareunhappywithnewmethods.Theymayneed to introduce thenewmethodsgraduallyandexplain the reasonsfor them.This isalsopartof learner training, i.e.helping learnersadapt theirownwaysoflearning. Teachers may also need to change their teaching to make the learners morecomfortable and confident in their learning, if they see that learners can't orwon't changetheirlearningstyle.

-Teacherscanbuild into their lessonsactivitieswhichmatchdifferent learningstyles,e.g.a listeningactivity followedbyareadingactivity followedbygroupwork followedbyamingle(anactivitywhichinvolveslearnerswalkingroundtheclasstalkingtootherstudents),followedbyanexercise.

-When teachersconsider their learners'maturity itwill strongly influence their lessonplanningandwhattheydointheclassroom,e.g.howmanyactivitiestheydoinalesson,thelength of activities, how abstract the activities are, how much the activities involveexperiencinganddoing,howmuch to focusonmeaning rather than form,what featuresofmotivationtoworkwith,howmuchtheyaskstudentstotalkinfrontofothers.

-It isnotpossiblefortheteachertomatchthelearnercharacteristicsofeachlearnerall the time.Across a number of lessons teachers can try to vary how they teach so thattheycanmatchthelearnercharacteristicsofarangeoflearners.

SeeUnits19,20,21forplanninglessonsthatreflectlearnercharacteristics.


1. Look at these brief profiles of three learners of English. How might their learnercharacteristics influence how they like to learn and how successful they are at learningEnglish?

Hello.Myname’sRaquel. I’m fromPortugal and I'm6.1 lovesportsandplayingwithmyfriends.Idon'tlikereading-it’sreallyhard.

Hi. I'm Mahmoud and I'm from Egypt, I’m 16 and I’ve been learning English for 10

years.Ilikestudyinghardandlearningrules.Mathsandphysicsaremyfavouritesubjects.Idon’tlikeEnglishmuchasallwedoischat-that'snotseriouslearning.

Nicetomeetyou.Myname’sXiuXiuandI'mfromShanghai. I'm26andI’mabout tostart a new job as a sales representative in an international firm. I speak a little English,because I learnt itatschool.We learnt lotsofwordsand lotsofgrammarrules.Thatwasgood,butnowIneedtospeaktocustomers.Fortunately,I'maverysociableperson.

2. Look at these classroom activities and at the list of learning styles on page 72.Matchtheactivitieswiththelearningstylestheyaremostsuitablefor.

A.Givinglearnerslotsofthinkingtimetoanswerquestions

B.Touchingobjectswithyoureyesclosedtodescribethem

C.Solvingproblemswithothers

D. Looking at sentences containing the second conditional, and working out how toformthistense

EListeningtosongsandstories

F.Askinglearnerstodecideontheirownhomework

G.Askinglearnerstobrainstormanswersinoneminute

H.Doingarole-playactivity

I.Askinglearnerstoimagineasceneanddescribeittoyou

J.Askinglearnerstolabelapicture

Whichoftheseactivitiesaresuitableforbothadultsandyoungchildren?

Reflection


1.MylearningstyleisauditoryandIthinkmostofmyteachingisauditory,too.

2.Ispenttwolessonsexplaininglearningstrategiestomystudentswhentheystartedsecondaryschool.Theyjustweren'tInterested,soIhaven'ttrieditagain.

3.Someofmystudentsare reallygoodat learning thingsbyheart, but I think that'sold-fashioned.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Observetwoofyour learners,nextweekandworkoutwhichlearningstyle(s)theyhave.Writeadescriptionoftheirlearningstyle(s)andputitinyourTeacherPortfolio

2. What is your learning style? Find out at:http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html

4.Readmoreaboutlearningstrategiesat:http://www.oriestopenglishxom/settipn.asp?docid=155562


Forquestions1-5,lookatthelearners’characteristicsandthethreepossibleactivitieslistedA,Bandc.

Choosetheactivity(A,BorC)whichmatchesthecharacteristic.

1.Theselearnersaremainlykinaesthetic.

A.Thelearnersingroupstellastorybasedonaseriesofpicturestheylookat.

B.Thelearnersgoroundtheclassreadingpostersmadebytheothergroups,

C.Thelearnerslistentoarecordingaboutanathleteandfillinatable.

2.Theselearnershaveashortattentionspan.

A.Thelearnersspendthelessondoinglotsofdifferentchoraldrills.

B.Thelearnersspendthelessonreadinganarticleonthecomputeraboutafavouritetopic.

C.Thelearnersreadastory,thendiscussit,thendrawpicturesdescribingit.

3.Theselearnershavenotyetdevelopedtheirabstractthinkingskills.

A.Thelearnersreadastory,thenunderlinealltheverbsendingin-ed.

B.ThelearnerswatchaDVDabouthealthyeatingthendiscusstheiropinionsofit.

C.Thelearnersdescribetheirhousetooneanother.

4.Theselearnersdon’tliketakingrisks.

A. The learners write stories, practise reading first silently then aloud, and then tellthemtotheirpartners.

B.Thelearnerslookatpicturesofastoryandthentelltheirpartnertheirstory,

C.Thelearnerseachmakeupastonythentel!ittotheirpartner.

5.Theselearnersareage7-8.

A.Thelearnersexplainthedifferencebetweenguessinganddeducingmeaning.

B.Thelearnersgiveoneanothertheirhomeworkforproofreading,

C.Thelearnersusepicturestotalkabouttheirfavouritesport.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatarelearnerneeds?

Whena learner learnsaforeignlanguageheorshehasvariouskindsofneedswhichinfluencehis/herlearning.Theycouldbepersonalneedssuchasaneedforpraise,learningneedssuchasaneedtobecomemorefluent,orprofessionalneedssuchasaneedtolearnEnglish for giving presentations.Recognising and trying tomeet learner needs are part ofbeingagoodteacher.

*Keyconcepts

Lookatthistableandthinkhowthedifferentkindsoflearnerneedsmightaffectwhatateacherdoesintheclassroom.

LEARNERNEEDS

Kindofneeds Reasonforneeds

Personalneeds

e.g. security, challenge,support, praise, movement,goals, learning expectations,otherpsychologicalorphysicalneeds

age

gender

culturalbackgroundinterests

educationalbackground

motivation

personality

Learningneeds

e.g. specificways of learning,specific target language,specific language subskills,exam strategies, learnerautonomy, working at asuitablelevel

learningstyles

pastlanguagelearningexperience

learning gap (gap between thelearner’spresentlevel

and the target level of languageproficiency)

learninggoalsandexpectations for thecourse

levelofskillandknowledge

availabilityoftime

Unit14.Learnerneeds

exams

(Future) professional needse.g. specific subskills, specificvocabulary and grammar,specific functions,specific texttypes

professional language requirements foremployment,trainingoreducation

(basedon'Whatdoteachersreallywantfromcoursebooks?'byHitomiMasuharainMaterialsDevelopmentinLanguageTeaching,ed.BrianTomlinson,CambridgeUniversity

Press1998)

Learners'needscanaffectmanythingsrelatedtotheirlearning,e.g.whichmethodsorapproachestheyliketheteachertouse,whattopicsinterestthem,whatlanguageandskillsthey need to focus on, whatmaterials they prefer, etc. Tomeet learners' needs, schoolsoften provide different kinds of courses, e.g. activity-based courses for younger learners,medical English for doctors, study skills courses for learnerswishing to go to an English-medium(whereallsubjectsaretaughtinEnglish)schooloruniversity,

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) courses for students needing tolearn another subject in another language. Meeting learners' needs helps to motivatelearners,makingtheircoursemorerelevanttothem.



-Adults or older teenagerswith specific professional, general or academic goals forlearningEnglishneedcoursesthatmeettheirneeds.Here,forexample,aresomedifferentkinds of professional, general and academic English courses. Notice the differencesbetweenthem.

1. A 3-day intensive course on exam strategies for students taking a universityentranceexam.

2.Aseriesofone-to-onelessonsovereightweeksonbusinesspresentationskills.

3.Asix-monthcourseforfuturetouristsfocusingonsocialanddailysurvivalEnglish.

4. A year-long course onwriting academic essays and reading academic books andarticles.

5.Ashortsummercourse inanEnglish-speakingcountry for teenagers, involving lotsofsports,tripstotouristsitesandchattingwithEnglishteenagers.

6. A once-a-week course for a small group of accountants focusing on English foraccountancy,andheldinthelearners'company,alargeaccountancyfirm.

7.Afour-weekonlinecourseonwritingbusinesslettersinEnglish.

You can see that tomeet the future needs of learners these courses vary in length,frequency, class size, language skill focused on, type of English, teaching methods andactivities.

-Learnersatprimaryorsecondaryschoolmaynotyethaveprofessionaloracademicneeds,but theydohavepersonaland learningneeds.Primary' age learners, forexample,haveaparticularneedforpraiseandforplay,teenagelearnersmayhaveaneedformoreautonomyand recognitionof their individuality.Learnersmayalsohavespecialneedssuchasdealingwithdyslexia.

- Teachers can find out about learners' needs through observation, questionnaires orthroughdiscussingthemwithstudents.

- Some choices the teacher can make to help to address learners' personal andlearningneedsareshownbelow:

Learnerneeds Howtheteachercanaddresslearners’needs

Personalneeds

Choosing(a)suitable:

-materialsandtopics

- approach to teaching (e.g. activity-based ortopic-basedlearning)

-pace(speed)oflessons

-activities

-treatmentofindividuallearners

-skillsandlanguage

-interactionpatterns(e.g.wholeclass,group,pairor individual work) types of feedback (commentsonlearning)

Choosing(a)suitable:

-materialsandtopics

-approachtoteachingandassessment

-activities

Learningneeds -interactionpatterns

-languageandskills

-leveloflanguageandskills

-learningstrategies

-workload

-Meetinglearners'professionalneedsisespeciallyrelevanttoolderlearnerswhomayhegoingtostudyatanEnglish-mediumuniversity,getanewjoborstartnewjobduties.Alltheseareashavetheirownusesoflanguage.Therearemanybooksandwebsitesavailablethat have materials and activities for these kinds of needs, and that will help teachersunderstandwhatthelanguageandskillscharacteristicsoftheseareasare.

- Teachers cannot meet all their learners' needs all the time. Making use of varietywithin or across lessons can help though: for example, using different kinds of activities,differentinteractionpatterns,differentteachingapproaches.

SeeUnit 9 formotivation in teaching and learning, Unit;i3 for learner characteristics,Unit15forapproachestolanguageteaching,andUnit-21forlessonplanning.


1. Look at these descriptions of two learners.Make notes on their possible learningneedsintheEnglishclassroom.Whatwouldbethebestkindofcourseforthem?

Pilar

Age5,female,

Spanishfatherandmother,livesinItalyShy

Lovesreadinganddrawing

WillstartlearningEnglishatprimaryschoolnextyear

Kulap

Age25,female,

Thai,livesinThailand

Worksasashopassistant ina touristshop-speaksbasicEnglishwith tourists frommanydifferentcountries

NeedstoimproveherEnglishforhernewjobworkinginacallcentreforabankVery

sociable

Started learning English at age 7 in primary school Has excellent grammar, weakspeakingskills,goodreadingandwritingskills

KnowsverylittlebankingEnglishWantstolearnquicklyandtoahighlevelCanonlygotolessonsafterwork

2.Herearesometeacherchoices.Whichofthelearnerneedsonpages79-80dotheyaimtomeet?Somechoicesmayaimatmorethanoneneed.

A.Choosingtoplaytheclassanextractfromacomedyshow

B.AskingthelearnerswhattheyarelearningEnglishforandwhattheywanttodowithit

C.Decidingtodomoregrammarworkandfewercommunicativeactivitieswithaclassthisterm

D.Lettingonelearnerworkwithhisfriendforpairwork

E.Deciding that three learners should doaneasier taskwhile the others doamoredifficultone

F.Choosingtofocusonthelanguageofnegotiationwithaclassofbusinesspeople

G. Giving learners tips on how to domultiple-choice questions in preparation for anexam

H.Focusingonthespecificcommongrammarerrorsoftheclass

I.Askinglearnerstodecidewhattopicstheywouldliketofocusonthisterm

J.Decidingonlytofocusoncorrectingalearner'spronunciation

Reflection


1.Thereare40studentsinmyclass,butIcanstillfindwaysofmeetingsomeoftheirneeds.

2.SometimesmystudentsjustwanttochatinEnglishratherthanstudyfortheirexam.

3.Idon'tthinkmystudentshaveanyparticularneeds-theyjusthavetolearnEnglish.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Chooseoneofyourlearners,andoverthenextweekortwotrytoidentifyhisorherlearnerneeds.Youcouldinterviewthelearnertohelpyoudothis.Writeadescriptionofthe

learner'sneedsinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2.LookatsomebooksonEnglishforspecialgroups,e.g.Englishfordoctors,Englishfortourism,academicEnglish.Howaretheydifferentfromthebooksyouuseatschool?

3. How could you adapt some of the tasks in your coursebook units to meet yourlearners'needs?

4.Doyouknowthemeaningoftheseterms:intensivecourse,contribute,cooperation,learner-centred,energylevels,involvement,learnercontract,raiseawareness?UsetheTKTGlossarytocheckyourunderstandingofthem.

TKTpracticetask14(Seepage245answers)

For questions 1-5, choose the best option (A, B or C) to complete each statementaboutlearners’needs.

1. Bernardo keeps quiet most of the time because he hates making mistakes. Heneeds

A.accuracypractice.

B.paraphrasingtechniques,

C.confidencebuilding.

2.Chen’sgrammarandvocabularyaregoodbuthespeaksveryhesitantly.Heneeds

A.pronunciationpractice.

B.fluencyactivities,

C.sentencetransformationexercises.

3.Ahmedrarelyusesparagraphsorpunctuationinhiswriting.Heneeds

A.grammarexercises.

B.controlledpracticeactivities,

C.guidedwritingactivities.

4. Fatima’s English is really good but she still makes some elementary mistakes inwriting.Sheneeds

A.proofreadingtechniques.

B.peercorrection,

C.grammarrules.

5.Nooralwaysdoeswhattheteachertellshimbutisunwillingtotakedecisionsabout

hisownlearning.Heneeds

A.traininginautonomy.

B.traininginlearningstrategies,

C.traininginfluencyskills.

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*Whatisanapproachtolanguageteaching?

Anapproachto languageteachingmayrefer toourviewof languageandourviewofhow language learning takes place.Wemay think, for example, that language is a set ofgrammar rules, and that language learning takes place by learning those rules and usingthemtoworkoutthemeaningoftextsthroughtranslation.Sometimesapproachesalsoreferto theways ormethods of teaching thatwe use in the classroom and that are based ontheseviews.Supportersofcommunicativeapproaches,forexample,believethatlanguageisa tool to communicatemeaning, and that, generally speaking, we learn language best byusingitincommunicativeactivitiesthatfocusonfluency.

In thisunit the terms 'approaches'and/methods'willbeused interchangeably,as theyare in the TKT, to refer to views of language and language learning and the classroompracticesthatcorrespondtotheseviews.

*Keyconcepts

Here are some feature 5 typical of two approaches, what differences can you seebetweenthem?

StructuralApproach Task-basedLearning(TBL)

View oflanguage

Language is a systemof structures used tocommunicatemeaning

Language is a tool forcommunicating meaning throughuse of functions, vocabulary,structures,discourse

View oflanguagelearning

Language is learntthrough controlledpractice of simplerstructures, then morecomplicated ones.Mistakes should beavoided

Languageislearntbyusingit

Oral skills are learntbeforewrittenskills

Classroom activities are basedaroundaseriesofproblem-solvingtasks. To solve the problems,

Unit15.Approachestolanguageteaching

Classroompractice

Structures arepractised in controlledconditions.

learnersneedtocommunicate.

Grammar, vocabulary andpronunciation may or may not befocused on in class after the taskiscompleted

Youcansee that these twoapproachesdiffer in theirviewof languageand languagelearning and in their classroom practices. Approaches involve our beliefs about teaching,language and language learning and how we translate these beliefs into classroompractices.

As you can imagine, there aremany different approaches to teaching. These reflectpeople'sdifferentviewsonwhatlanguageismadeupof,howlanguagesarelearntandwhatclassroompracticeseffectivelybringabout learning.CertainapproacheshavehadagreatinfluenceonEnglish languageteachingpracticesandmaterials.Let's lookatsomeof themandtheirmosttypicalcharacteristics:

Presentation,PracticeandProduction(PPP)

Viewoflanguage:grammaticalstructuresandfunctionsarethemostimportantaspectoflanguage.

Viewoflanguagelearning:languageislearntbyfirstseeingnewlanguageinacontextwhich shows itsmeaning, practising it in controlled and guided conditions, then using it infreerconditionswhichgivethelearnerlesslanguagesupport.

Classroompractices-.

-Thesyllabusfocusesongrammaticalstructuresorfunctions.

- Lessonsmove from the presentation stage to the practice stage to the productionstage.

-Learnersshouldnotbeallowedtomakemistakesduringthepracticestage.

-Theteacherinputslanguage(providesexamplesandgivesinformationaboutit),andguidesstudents.

-Thelearnersareguidedbytheteacheranddonotmakedecisionsaboutwhatorhowtolearn.

-Typicalactivitiesaresituationalpresentationsandmimingat thepresentationstage,drills at the controlled practice stage, role-plays and information-gap activities at the

productionstage.

LexicalApproach

View of language: vocabulary is themost important aspect of language. Vocabularyconsistsof individualwordsanddifferentkindsofchunks(seeUnit2)suchascollocations,idioms,fixedexpressions.

View of language learning-, language is learnt by learning chunks as whole andcomplete units. Chunks need to be noticed by learners in order to be learnt, i.e. learnersneedtobecomeawareofchunksandfocusonthem.

Classroompractices:

-Thesyllabusfocusesonlexis.

-Learnersworkwithauthenticwrittenorspokentextsintheclassroom.

- Learners are given activities which encourage them to notice chunks in texts, e.g.notingthemdown,underliningthem.

-Afternoticingchunks,learnersareaskedtocarryouttaskswhichwillinvolvetheminusingthechunks.

FunctionalApproach

Viewoflanguage:functionsarethemostimportantaspectoflanguage.

Viewoflanguagelearning:asforPPP.

Classroompractices:

-Thesyllabusfocusesonfunctionsusuallygradedaccordingtotheirfrequencyofuseinpracticaldailylifeandtolearners'communicativeneeds.

- The Functional Approach, does not have any typical practices of its own. It oftenmakesuseofPPPstagesinlessons,orofcommunicativeactivities.

Communicativeapproaches

Viewoflanguage:communicationisthemostimportantaspectoflanguage.Meaningiscommunicatedthroughfunctions,grammar,vocabulary,discourseandskills.

Viewof language learning-, thebestway to learn language is touse it in interaction,ratherthantolearnaboutit.

Classroompractices:

- The syllabus focuses on tasks, functions and topic areas based on learners'communicativeneeds.

-Pairandgroupworkenablelotsofinteractiontotakeplaceintheclassroom,sotheyareakeypartofclassroomactivities.

-Communicatingmeaningisveryimportant.

-Fluencyismoreimportantthanaccuracy,classroomactivitiesfocusonfluencymuchmorethanaccuracy.

-Authenticmaterials(examplesofreallanguageusedforrealcommunication)provideusefulinputforlearnersandarethereforeoftenusedintheclassroom.

- In the classroom, learnersbecomeactiveusersof the language; the teacher's rolefocusesparticularlyonsettingupcommunicativeactivities,providingcorrectionafterfluencyactivities,andinputtinglanguagewhenneeded.

Grammar-Translation

Viewoflanguage-,languageismadeupofgrammaticalrules.

Viewof language learning-, language is learntbyanalysingandapplyinggrammaticalrules.

Classroompractices:

-Studyinggrammaticalrulespresentedthroughgrammaticalterms,thenapplyingtheminexercises.

-Workingoutwhatlanguagemeansbyapplyingrules.

-Learninglistsofwordsbyheart.

-Translatingtextsand/orisolatedsentencesfromLItoL2orviceversa.

-Emphasisongrammaticalaccuracy.

TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)

View of language: grammatical structures and vocabulary are the most importantaspectoflanguage.

Viewoflanguagelearning:

- Learners learn by being exposed to language. Comprehension comes beforeproduction.

- Learners often need a silent period (a period of time during which learners hearlanguage rather thanproduce it, asbabiesdo) to take in language, so theyshouldnotbeforcedtospeakbeforetheyareready.

-Languageislearntbestwhenitisaccompaniedbydoingthingsphysically.

-Learningtakesplacewhenlearnersarerelaxed.

Classroompractices:

-Usedmainlywithyounglearnersandbeginners.

-Thesyllabusfocusesongrammaticalstructuresandvocabularyinvolvedingivingandfollowinginstructions.

-Lessonsinvolvetheteachergivinginstructionsandthelearnersphysicallycarryingouttheinstructionsintheclassroom,e.g.'Walktothetable','Openthedoor'.

- At more advanced stages and after their silent period, learners give one anotherinstructions.

Guideddiscovery

Viewoflanguage:languagehaspatternsofmeaninganduse.

Viewof language learning: learners learn languagebest if theyworkoutpatternsandrulesoflanguagethemselvesratherthanbeinggiventhembytheteacher.

Classroompractices:

-Theteachergiveslearnersexamplesofatargetlanguagearea,e.g.atextcontainingseveral examples of the past tense, a recording containing several sentences each withdifferentpatternsofsentencestress.The teacher thenasks the learners toworkoutwhattherulesofuseseemtobeforthetargetlanguage.

- The teacher often gives the learners the rules after they haveworked themout orasksthemtocompletegappedrules.

- This approach is often used together with ppp, Task-based Learning and theFunctionalApproach.

Content-basedlearning

Viewoflanguage:grammaticallexical,functionalareasandskillsareallimportant.

View of language learning: language is learnt best if presented to learners throughinterestingtopicswhichhelpthemincreasetheirknowledgeoftheworld.

Classroompractices.

-Thesyllabusfocusesongrammar,lexis,functionsorskills.

-Usedmainlyinprimaryandsecondaryschools.

-Languageispresentedthroughtopicsrelatedtoschoolsubjectsorlearningabouttheworld.

ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearning(CLIL)

Viewoflanguage:

-Languageservestocommunicatemeaning.

- All aspects of language help communicate meaning, e.g. skills, discourse, lexis,grammar,functions.

Viewoflanguagelearning:

-Languageislearntmainlythroughacquisitionandthroughusingit.Languagedoesnotneedtobeobviouslyfocusedon.

-Languageislearntbestwhenyouuselanguagetolearnsomethingelse.

Classroompractices:

-Thesyllabusisbasedroundlearningaboutthesubjectmatterandcognitive(thinkingandlearning)skillsrelatedtoaschoolsubject,e.g.maths,history,art.

-TheschoolsubjectistaughtintheL2(L3/L4).

-Thespecifickindsoflanguagelearntarethelanguageneededforlearningaboutthesubject.

-Lessonsfocusonthesubjectratherthanonlanguage.

As you can see, the approaches outlined above vary in how specific they are aboutviewson languageand language learning and their typical classroompractices.Somearemore developed in some areas than others. While these features are typical of theseapproaches, they are not always totally accurate descriptions of them, as approacheschangeandindividualteachersusethemdifferently.

Many language teachers thesedaysdonot useone single approach.Theymayuseone approach one week and a different approach the next, or they may include in oneapproachpracticestypicalofanother.Forexample,yousometimesseelessonsinwhichtheteacheraskslearnerstocarryoutataskbeforegivingaPPPlessononthesamearea,oryouseeacommunicativelessoninwhichthelearnersareaskedtodoadrillonacommonmistake. This 'mix and match' approach is called an eclectic approach, i.e. an approachwhich mixes techniques from different approaches. Many teachers, coursebooks andsyllabuses use an eclectic approach because they think that it is not dear exactly howlanguagesare learnt so itmaynotbehelpful for learners touseonlyoneapproach.Also,different learners have different learning styles and different ideas about how languageshouldbe learnt.Usinganeclecticapproachcanallow the teacher to teach learnersmore

appropriately.Experienceshows thatsomeapproachesworkbetter insomecontexts thanothers.Whatworksinoneteachingcontextmaynotworkinanother.



- Many teachers want to know which approach to teaching is best. But in fact it isdifficult to say that one approach is better than another. For example, for a group ofmotivated upper-intermediate 18-year-oldswhoare learningEnglish for their future jobs inthe tourist industry, a communicative approach may well be very useful. However, foranother group of 18-year-olds taking a grammar exam to get into university a StructuralApproachmightbemoresuitable.

-Thebestapproachtousedependsonwhoyourlearnersareandwhatyourteachingconditionsare.Consider learners'age, levelofEnglish,motivation to learn,expectationsoflearning,previouslearningexperience.Think,too,abouttheaimsofthecourseyourlearnersareon,what resourcesareavailable to theclassroom, classsizeandnumberof hoursofEnglishinthecourse.

-Somepeoplebelieveinaneclecticapproachwhichusesclassroompracticesfromavarietyofapproaches/methods.Thiscanbeasuccessfulapproach,butitneedstobeusedcarefully. If youareconstantlychangingyourmethodsandapproaches,your learnersmaybecomeconfusedandbegin to think thatyouarenotverysureofyour teachingstyle. It isimportanttomixtechniquesinawaywhichiscoherent,sothatallactivitiesdevelopwelloutofoneanotherandworktowardsthelesson'saims.

See Unit 10 for the differences between acquisition, interaction and focus on form,Units 13 and 14 for different characteristics and needs of learners, Unit 16 for ways topresent language, and Unit Ự for ways of focusing on and practising language, and forexamplesofcommunicativetasks.-


Which teachingapproachwouldbebest for these learners?Match the learners (1-5)withtheapproachesA-C.

Approaches

A.Task-basedLearning

B.StructuralApproach

C.LexicalApproach

Learners.

1. A class of adult beginners They aremostly in their 30s and 40s and have neverlearntEnglishbefore.Theyareveryshyaboutmakingmistakesandlookingstupidinfrontoftheirclassmates.

2.Ạclassof14-year-oldsintheirthirdyearofEnglishwhohatelearninggrammarbutlovetalking,doingandfindingout.

3. A class of young adults whowant to go theUK/USA towork, study and see theworld.

4. A class of advanced teenage learners who are very, good at communicating butmake lots of mistakes. They need fluent and accurate English for their future jobs in thetouristindustry.

5.Aclassofbeginner11-year-olds.Their learningstylesvary:somearerisk-takers,someanalytical,somesocial,somekinaesthetic.

Whatfactorsmadeyoudecideinfavourofoneapproachoranother?

Reflection


1.Iwanttolookateachoftheapproachesandthinkaboutwhattheadvantagesanddisadvantagesareofeach.ThenImighttryoneout.

2.Iliketopickthebestoutofdifferentapproachestokeepmystudentsmotivatedandinvolved,andtomakemylessonsrelevanttodifferentkindsoflearners.

3.IsupposeIusethesameapproachmyEnglishteacherused,butI'mnotsurewhatapproachthatis.Itdoesn'treallymatterwhichapproachyouuse.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look at some units from two or three different coursebooks to work out whatapproachtheyuse

2. Read more about some approaches: search for them on these websites:http://www.onestopenglish.com

3.Findoutaboutthisapproach:Test-teach-test


Forquestions1-6,lookattheapproachesandthethreestatementslistedA,BandG.Twoofthestatementsmatchtheapproach.OnedoesNOT.

Choosetheletter(A,BorC)ofthestatementwhichdoesNOTmatchtheapproach.

1.TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)

A.Studentsheardialoguesthenrepeatthem.

B.Studentsfocusonunderstandingbeforespeaking,

C.Studentsmoveroundtheclassroomtocarryoutinstructions.

2.ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearning(CLIL)

A.Theteacherfocusesondevelopinglearners’cognitiveskills.

B.Studentsoftendoactivitiesthatfocusonlanguageaccuracy,

C.Languageisusedtocommunicateaboutschoolsubjects.

3.LexicalApproach

AGrammarislessimportantthanvocabulary.

BEachvocabularyitemmustbelearntbyheart,cStudentsneedtobecomeawareofchunksofvocabulary.

4Presentation,PracticeandProduction(PPP)

A.Teachersneedtofocuslearners’attentiononnewtargetlanguage.

B.Studentsneedopportunitiestogetlanguagerightbeforetheyexperiment,

C.Studentsalwaysstartlearninganewpieceoflanguagebydoingatask.

5.Grammar-Translationmethod

A.Languagemustbeanalysedinordertolearnit.

B.Drillsandpatternpracticehelpuslearnstructures,

C.Exerciseshelpusunderstandrules.

6.Task-basedLearning(TBL)

A.Tasksmustbedoneafterstudentshavepractisedtargetlanguage.

B.Theteacherdoesnotcontrolthelanguagethatstudentsuseintasks,

C.Tasksaimtoshowstudentswhatlanguagetheyneedtolearn.

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Unit16.PresentationtechniquesandintroductoryactivitiesUnit17.PracticeactivitiesandtasksforlanguageandskillsdevelopmentUnit18.Assessmenttypesandtasks

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Part3.Backgroundtolanguageteaching

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule1.LanguageandbackgroundtolanguagelearningandteachingàPart3.Backgroundtolanguageteaching

*Whatarepresentationtechniquesandintroductoryactivities?

Presentationtechniquesarethewaysusedbytheteachertofocuslearners'attentiononthemeaning,useandsometimesformofnew language,when introducing it to themforthefirsttime.Introductoryactivitiesareactivitiesusedbyateachertointroducealessonorteachingtopic.

*Keyconcepts

Lookat thepresentation stages (theareas that ore shaded) in thesedescriptionsoftwo lessonsforelementary-levelsecondaryschoolstudents.Howarethestagesdifferent?whatdifferentpresentationtechniques(waysofpresenting)dotheyuse?

Presentation,PracticeandProduction(PPP)lesson

Task-basedLearning(TBL)lesson

Aim: for students to learn thedifference between countable anduncountable nouns, andwhen to useaandsomewiththem.

Procedure:

1.Askstudentswhatfoodanddrinkstheylikeatabirthdayparty.

2. Stick on the board magazinepictures of different party foods (thepictures should be a mixture ofcountable and uncountable nouns,e.g. ice cream, sandwiches, cola,fruit, bananas, chicken legs, cake, aboxofsweets).

3. Ask students the names of thefood items and write the names ontheboardundereachpicture

4. Say to the students ‘I’m having abirthdaypartythisweekend.I’dlikea

Aim: for students to choose foodanddrinkforabirthdayparty.

Procedure:

1. Hold a discussion with thestudents about when theirbirthdays are, what presents theywould like, what good birthdayparties they have been to, andwhat they like to eat and drink atbirthdayparties.

2. Put students into small groupsand give them a worksheet with

Unit16.Presentationtechniquesandintroductoryactivities

box of sweets and a cake for myparty. And I’d like some ice cream,some cola and some fruit, somesandwiches, some bananas andsomechickenlegs!

5. Say ‘I’d like a box of sweets’, ‘I’dlikeacake’,I’d likesomeicecream’,etc. and ask the students to repeateachsentencechorally

6. Point out to the students that youcan count some nouns but you can’tcountothers.Theonesyoucancountare called countable nouns and theones you can’t count are calleduncountable nouns. You use a withsingular countable nouns and somewith uncountable nouns or pluralcountablenouns

7. Ask the students some conceptquestions, e.g. ‘Which of the fooditems on the board are,countable/uncountable/singular/plural?

8. Students do a written gap-fillexercise, filling the gaps with a orsome.

9. Students work in pairs with aworksheet of pictures of food anddrink Items. One student tells theotherwhat they’d like for their party,e.g. ‘I’d like some/a while the otherstudent takesnotes.Thentheyswaproles.

pictures,namesandpricesoffoodonit.

3.Tellthestudentstodothistask:choose the food and drink theywould like for a birthday party forten friends, keeping within a pricelimit,e.g.$10.

4. The students do the task whilethe teacher goes round the classlistening and answering anyquestions.

5Eachgrouptellstheothergroupswhatdecisionstheyhavemade

6. The students ask the teacherquestions;aboutanylanguagetheyneeded for the task, and/or diereadiertellsthestudentsaboutanylanguage she noticed they didn’tknowastheyweredoingthetask,e.g. the pronunciation of somewords,whentouseaandsome.

7. Students write a note to theirparentssayingwhatfoodanddrinkthey would like at their birthdayparty

Theselessonplansshowtwocommonanddifferentwaysofpresentingnewlanguage

items.Thereareseveraldifferencesinhowtheypresentthem.

Presentation,PracticeandProduction(PPP)lesson:

-Languageisaclearaimandfocusofthelesson.

-Theteacherfirstputsthetargetlanguage(thelanguageselectedforlearning)intoasituationwhichshowswhatitmeans(asituationalpresentation).(Step1)

- The teacher then makes sure that the students remember previously studiedlanguageneededtopractisethenewlanguagebyelicitingit,i.e.askingstudentstosaythelanguageratherthangivingittothem.(Steps2-3)

-Theteachernextmodelsthetargetlanguageandthestudentsjustlisten.(Step4)

- The students then repeat the target language in a choral drill, a very controlled orrestrictedpracticeactivity,i.e.oneinwhichtheycanuseonlythenewlanguageandwithoutmakingmistakes.(Step5)

-Theteachertellsstudentsaboutthegrammaticaluseofthenewlanguage.(Step6)

- The teacher asks the students concept questions, i.e. questions that check theirunderstandingoftheuseormeaningofthenewlanguage.(Step7)

- The students then do a controlled practice activity focusing on form (Step 8), thenfurtherpracticeactivitiesfocusingonmeaning.(Step9)

Youcansee thatat thepresentationstageofaPPP lesson (Steps4-7) the teacherfirstly sets up a context for presenting the new language that shows its meaning, thenmodels (providesamodel forstudents tocopy) the target language forstudents to repeatbeforehighlighting the formanduseof the language throughdrillsandconceptquestions /concept checking, which give students the opportunity to notice and focus on these. Thelessonthenmovesontoapracticestage.

Task-basedLearning(TBL)lesson:

-Theaimofthelessonisforstudentstocompleteatask.

-Theteacherstartsbycontextualisingthetopic(puttingitinasituationwhichshowsitsmeaning).(Step1)

-Theteachergivesthestudentstaskstodo.(Steps3,4,5)

-Theteacherandstudentsdiscussanyneworproblematiclanguagetheyneededforthetask.(Step6)

-Lastly,thestudentsdoatasktoconsolidatethelanguage.(Step7)

You can see that in a TBL lesson the presentation of new language (Step 6) in factfollowsthestageinwhichstudentsusethenewlanguage.Thisallowsthestudentstofocusfirstonthemeaningofthenewlanguageratherthanitsform.

APPPapproach topresentingnew languagefocusesdirectlyonboth themeaningoruseandformoftargetlanguageandgivesstudentsanopportunitytopractiselanguageinasafe learningenvironmentwhere it isdifficult tomakemistakes. Itcan thereforebequiteaconfidence-buildingapproachforstudents.But itmakesstudents learn languageitemstheymaynotbeinterestedinorreadytolearn,andgivesthemfewopportunitiestoreallyusethelanguageforcommunication.TheTBLapproach,on theotherhand,allowsstudents to findnewlanguagewhentheywantto,andtouselanguageexperimentallyandcreativelyforrealcommunication. In this way it puts second language learners in a situation which is quitesimilar to the one inwhich children learn their first language. Some learnersmay find thisapproachtolanguagelearningexcitingandchallenging.Othersmaywishformoreguidanceandstructuretohelpthem.

PPPandTBLarenottheonlywaysofpresentingnewlanguage.Itisalsopossible,forexample,topresentnewlanguagetolearnersaftertheyhavemetitinareadingorlisteningtext which is first used for comprehension. The teacher could ask students to underlineexamplesof the target language in the text and thenwork out themeaningor useof thatlanguage.Thisisanexampleofusingguideddiscoverytopresenttargetlanguage.Anotherpossibilityistodoanoralactivitysuchasadiscussiononatopicoratasksuchasdesigninganewplaygroundfortheschool,thenintroducenewlanguagewhilethediscussionortaskishappening.

Another way of focusing on new language is through Test-teach-test. In this, theteacher firstgives learnersa task that requires themtouse target language. If thisactivityshows that the students don't knowhow to use the target language, the teacherwill thenpresentthenewlanguage,thengivethestudentsanothertasktopractisethenewlanguage.If the first taskshows that thestudentsalreadyknow the target languagesufficientlywell,theteacherwillmoveontosomethingelse.

Youcanseethatallthepresentationtechniquescontextualisetargetlanguage,i.e.theyput the language in a context which shows its meaning. The context can be provided bybuildingasituation,usinga listeningorreadingtext,doingatask,usingrealia,mime(usingthebodyandnowordstoconveymeaning),explanations,visualsoracombinationofthese.Whenlearnerslearntargetlanguagetheyneedtoknowwhatitmeans.Contextualisingaimsto help learners to notice and understandmeaning.While all the techniques focus on themeaningof the target language, theymaynotall focussomuchon its form.Forexample,

PPPandguideddiscovery focuson formandmeaning,whereas task-basedpresentationsfocusmoreonmeaning.Teachers'differentbeliefsabouthowlanguagelearningtakesplace,theroleofformandmeaninginlanguagelearning,theirpreferredapproach(es)tolanguageteachingandtheageandneedsoftheirstudentswilldecidehowmuchtheyprefertofocusonform.

Introductoryactivitiesaredifferentfrompresentationtechniques.Theyaretheactivitiesa teacher uses to introduce a lesson or teaching topic, or sometimes to introduce newstudents tooneanother. Ifyou lookbackat thePPPandTBL lessonsonpages90-1youwill see that they, too, include introductory activities.Step1 in thePPP lessonprovides alead-in to thetopic,andsteps2and3a lead-in for languageneededfor the lesson'smainaim.IntheTBLlesson,steps1and2arelead-ins.

TheintroductoryStageofalessonhelpsstudentstosettleintothelessonandfocusonitscontent.Thereare twokindsof introductoryactivities:warmers,and lead-ins.Warmersareoftenusedtoraisestudents'energylevelsortomakethemfeelcomfortablebeforethemainlearningofthelessonstarts.Theyarenotalwaysconnectedtothetopicofthelesson;forexample,theycouldbeaquiz,gameorpairworkactivity.

Lead-ins introduce the content of the lesson. Their aim is to focus and motivatestudents and make a link between the topic of the lesson and the students' own lives(personalisation).Forexample,ifstudentsaregoingtoreadatextabouttheinternet,ratherthan giving them the text immediately, we could do one ormore lead-in activities such asdiscussing with students how often they use the internet, what they use it for, what theirfavouritewebsitesare,etc.Orifinanotherlessontheyaregoingtolistentoaconversationabout favourite televisionprogrammes, the lead-in activitiesmight bemakinga list of theirfavourite television programmes and discussing them with a partner. These activities willprobably involve pre-teaching (teaching language before students meet it in a text) keyvocabularyforthetextsandcomprehensiontasksthatfollow.

In some classes students don't know one another at the beginning of term, or newstudents often join the class. In this situation teachers sometimes do another kind ofintroductoryactivitycalledanice-breaker.Theaimofice:breakersisforstudentstogettoknowoneanothersothattheyallfeelcomfortablewitheachotherintheclass.Examplesofice-breakersaredoingaminglingsurvey(learnersfindoutinformationfromothersbyaskingquestionsorusingquestionnaires)abouttheclass'sinterests,andhobbies.Anotherisaskingstudents to work in groups to find out what they have in common, e.g. favourite TVprogrammes,favouritewebsite,favouritecolour.



-Presentingnewlanguageinvolvestheteacherinmakingvariouschoices:

- When to present the target language? Before (as in PPP) or after (as in TBL)learnerstrytouseit?

-Whatlanguageitemstopresent(whichnewgrammaticalstructures,newvocabulary,newlexicalphrases,newfunctionalexponents)?Howmanyofthesetopresenttogether?

-Whatcontext tochoosetopresent thetarget language in?Thecontextneedstobemeaningful (show themeaning of the new language), and personalized (connected to thestudent'slifeorthoughts)andrelevant(ofimportance)tothestudents.

- Whether to focus on meaning or also on some aspects of form (grammar,pronunciation, spelling)?This choicewill dependa lot onwho your learners are, e.g. theirage, learningpreferences.Aswehaveseenbefore,afocusonformisnotsoeffectiveforyounglearners,forexample.

-Whataidstousetohelpcreatethecontext,e.g.pictures,DVD,CD,aworksheet?

-Howtoshowthemeaningoruseofthetargetlanguage,e.g.explanation,translation,presentingthroughasituation?

- Using warmers as introductory activities makes the students feel comfortable andreadyfor the lesson. If learnersarriveata lessonreadyto learnandallat thesametime;youmaynotalwaysneedtodowarmers.

- Lead-ins introduce the content of the lesson. They give the learners a chance toremember their thoughtsandexperiencesof thecontentbefore theystartactuallyworkingonit.Inthisway,theyarebetterpreparedfortheworkthatfollows.

- The ways you present new language or introduce lessons will depend on yourlearners - their level interests, age, what language they already know, weaknesses andstrengthsinEnglishandlearningstyles,andontheresourcesavailabletoyouinyourschoolandtheapproachtopresentationusedinyourcoursebook.

See Unit J5 for approaches to language teaching, UnitỰ for types of activities andtasks,Unit21forselectinglanguageforpresentationandplanningalesson,Units25-26forresourcesandmaterialsuseful forpresentations,andUnit27 forclassroomfunctionsoftenusedbytheteachertopresentnewlanguage.


Lookat thetermsintheboxbelowandseewhichof thesevenpresentationactivitiestheycanbeusedtodescribe.

focusonform

contextualization

focusonmeaning

guideddiscovery

eliciting

conceptchecking

usingaids

modeling

noticing

textasinput

1.Thestudents reada text, then the teacherasks them to findandunderlineall theexamplesitcontainsofthesecondconditional.

2.Theteachershowsthestudentsavideoofsomechildrenfightingandasksthemtogiveherreasonswhytheymightbefighting,sheencouragesthemtosay'Itmight/couldbebecause

3.Theteachershowsthestudentspicturesofpeopledoing lotsofboringduties,e.g.washingup,washingclothes,shopping,cleaningthehouse.Aftershehastoldthestudentswhichoftheactivitiesshemustdotonight,shesays'AmItalkingaboutsomethingIwanttodoorsomethingIhavetodo?'

4. The students listen to a recording of a dialogue between a shop assistant and acustomer.Theteacherasksthestudentstotellherwhatlanguagetheyheard.

5. The students read a short advertisement advertising a new car. The teacher hasunderlinedallthesuperlativesinthetext,shethenasksthestudentstolookattheunderlinedwordsandworkoutwhenthe-estformisused.

6.Theteachershowsthestudentsfourdrawingsofwhatshedidattheweekendandtells the studentswhat shedid. she thenasks the students to draw four pictures showingwhattheydidlastweekend.Nextsheasksthemtotalkabouttheirpictures,helpingthemtousethecorrectformofthepasttense.

7. The teacher shows students a series of pictures showing the development of a

butterfly.Assheshows them,she tells thestudentswhat ishappening to thebutterflyandasksthemtorepeatthesentencesafterher.

Reflection

Thinkaboutthesecommentsfromteachers,whichdoyouagreewithandwhy?

1.IthinkPPPistoocontrolledbytheteacher-thestudentsfeelyouarebeingbossywiththem.

2.WhateverpresentationtechniqueIuse,Ialwaysfocusonpronunciationofthetargetlanguage.

3.Ifyoudon'tfocusonform,studentswillnevernoticeit.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Lookat aunit in your coursebook thatpresentsnew language.Whatpresentationtechniquesdoesituse?Doesitfocusonmeaningorformorboth?

2.Ifyouhavesuitableclasses,teachoneclassthePPPlessonatthebeginningofthisunit and the other the TBL lesson. Compare their reactions and write them up in yourTeacherPortfolio

3.Formoreideasonpresentingnewlanguage,readChapter12ofLearningTeaching(secondedition)byJimScrivener,Macmillan2005.

4. Here are some suggestions for warmers. Choose one suitable for one of yourclasses,thenteachitandnotetheeffectithadonthelearnersandthelesson.WriteupyourobservationsinyourTeacherPortfolio

http://elnotebook.blogspot.com

http://www.tefllogue.com

5.UsetheTKTGlossarytofindthemeaningoftheseterms:define,definition,illustratemeaning,teachingstrategy,visualisation,arouseinterest


For questions 1-6, look at the terms about presentation techniques and introductoryactivitiesandthethreepossibleexampleslistedA,Bandc.

Choosetheexample(A,BorC)whichmatchestheterm.

1.conceptquestions

A.Theteacherasksthestudentstorepeatthetargetquestionsafterher.

B.The teacherasks thestudentsAm I talkingaboutsomethingdefiniteorsomething

http://elnotebook.blogspot.com

http://www.tefllogue.com

possible?

C.Theteacherputsquizquestionsontheboardandasksthestudentstoanswertheminpairs.

2.asituationalpresentation

A. The teacher tells the students about something that happened to her one day atschool.

B.Theteacherasksthestudentstopresenttheirgroup’sideastotheclass.

C.Theteacherplaysarecordingthenthestudentsdoacomprehensiontaskonit.

3.modelling

A.Twostudentsdemonstratetotherestoftheclasshowtheirdesignworks.

B. The students copy the target language from their exercise books into theirvocabularyrecords.

C.Thestudentslistentothetargetlanguageontherecordingthensayitthemselves.

4.alead-in

A. The teacher starts the class by doing some revision before teaching some newlanguage.

B. The teacher chats to the class about what they did last weekend before playingthemasongtolistentoandthensing.

C.Theclassdescribepicturesofcapitalcitiesbeforelisteningtoarecordingonvisitingdifferentcities.

5.focusonform

A.Theteacherexplainsthemeaningofthenewvocabularybyusingsynonyms.

B.Theteacherelicitsthespellingofsomenewwordsthenwritesthemontheboard.

C.Theteachermimessomethingshecandoandsomethingshecan’tdo.

6.contextualisation

A.The teacher gives the students a history quiz thenuses this to introduce the pasttense.

B.Theteacherexplainstostudentsthatyouuseshouldtogivesomeoneadvice.

C. The teacher asks the students to discuss their favourite sport then corrects theirmistakes.

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*Whatarepracticeactivitiesandtasksforlanguageandskillsdevelopment?

Theseareactivitiesand tasksdesigned togive learnersopportunities topractiseandextendtheiruseof language,suchasnewvocabulary, functionalexponentsorgrammaticalstructures, or of the subskills of reading, listening, speaking or writing. There are manydifferentkindsofactivitiesandtaskswithdifferentnamesanddifferentuses.

*Keyconcepts

Herearethreewritingactivities,whatdifferencesaretherebetweentheminhowmuchchoicetheygivelearners?

Activity1 Activity2 Activity3

Complete these sentencesabout yourself with can orcan’t

1.I___swim.

2.I___speakMandarin.

3.I___playtheguitar.

4.I___useacomputer.

5.I___runveryfast.

Write an email to alanguage school askingthemabouttheircourses.

Findout:

-whenthecoursesare

- what the courses areabout

-howmuchtheycost

- how long the coursesare

Write an emailto a friendasking them tocome on holidaywith you thissummer

Wecansee that theseactivitiesgive learnersanopportunity touse language,bur indifferentways.

Activity1 Activity2 Activity3

- is acontrolled/restrictedpractice activity (i.e.the learners can onlyuse certain items of

- is a less controlled /freer practice activity(art activity in whichlearners have somechoice over whatlanguagetheyuse)

-isafreeactivity

Unit17.Practiceactivitiesandtasksforlanguageandskillsdevelopment

language)

- gives studentspractice in usinglanguageaccurately

- is an exercise, i.e. itfocuseson the formoflanguage

- gives studentspractice in usinglanguage accuratelyandincommunicating

- is a task (an activitywith a real-worldoutcome)

- gives studentspractice incommunicating

-isatask

Speakingandwritingactivitiescanbecategorisedaccordingtohowmuchtheycontrolstudents'useoflanguage.

Controlled<->freer<->free

Eachcategoryofactivityhasadifferentfocusandpurposeandusesdifferentactivitytypes.

Controlled activities give students repeated practice in accuracy and the form oflanguage,andallowthemtomakefewmistakes.Theyaremostlyusedtoguidestudentsinusingtheformoftargetlanguage.Someexamplesofcontrolledactivitiesarecopyingwordsorsentences,jazzchants,anddrills(guidedrepetition).

Indrillsstudentscaneitherrepeatsomemodellanguageasaclass(choraldrills)orasindividuals(individualdrills),replaceakeywordingivensentences(substitutiondrills)orusenewwordstocreatesentenceswithadifferentstructure(transformationdrills).

Freeactivities,bycontrast,allowstudentstousewhateverlanguagetheywishinordertocompleteatask.Infreeactivities,theteachermaynotbeabletopredictwhatlanguagethestudentswilluse,andsocan'tusetheseactivitiestogivepractice inspecific language.Theseactivitiesfocusonfluency,givingstudentspracticeinrecallingandjoiningtogetherthelanguage they know and giving them opportunities to try to interact and communicate.Discussions, problem-solving activities, sharing or comparing ideas, information orexperiences; rank ordering / prioritising (putting a list of things in order of importance),writingemails,stories,letters,invitationsorcompositionsareallexamplesoffreeactivities.

Between controlled and free activities are freer activities in which the teacher canpredict to someextentwhat language the studentwill need to use.For example, you cansee that in activity 2 above the students will need to use question forms, so the activityprovidespracticeofquestion forms.But thestudentswillalsouseother languagewhich isnotsopredictabletocompletetheemail.Theseactivitiesproviderepeatedpracticeoftargetlanguage, guiding students to use its form correctly and integrate new language with

languagestudentsalreadyknow.Examplesoffreeractivitiesarerole-plays,information-gapactivities,sentencecompletion,gap-fills,surveys.

Wecanseethatcontrolledactivitiesgivestudentslotsofguidanceandsupportinusinglanguageaccurately,freeractivitiesgivealittlelessguidanceandsupport,andfreeactivitiesdonotgivestudentsguidanceandsupportinthelanguagetheyuse.

It is not always possible to categorise activities as controlled, freer or free as itdependsonhowthe teacheruses them.Let's takerole-play, forexample.A teachercouldput students in pairs and ask them to reproduce a dialogue they have just heard on arecording.Thiswouldbeacontrolledactivity.Attheendofalessononaskingforandgivingpersonal information, students could doa role-play inwhich theymeet a newpersonat aparty and have to find out about them. As the students would be very likely to use thelanguage they had just learnt, this would be a freer activity. Imagine now a reading textwhichdiscussestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofsocialnetworkingwebsites.Afterthestudents have done language and comprehensionwork on the text, the teacher asks onegroupofstudentstolistideasinfavourofsocialnetworkingsitesandtheothergrouptolistall the arguments against. The teacher then pairs students from the different groups andasksthemtoargueintheirrolesabouttheadvantagesanddisadvantages.Thiswouldbeanexampleofafreerole-play,aswedon'tknowwhatlanguagethestudentswoulduse.

Therearealsomanyactivitiesand tasks thatarecommonlyused todevelop readingand listening skills. These can't be divided into controlled, freer and free as they practisereceptive,notproductive,skills.Herearesixactivities,what readingor listeningsubskilldotheyfocuson?Whatisthenameofthetypeofactivity?

1.Readthearticle.Isit:

amystery?

anadventure?

alovestory?

2.A.Listentotherecordingandchoosethebestanswer:

Thechildren’sschoolis:

a.neartheirhouse,

b.neartheshops,

c.oppositethepostoffi.ee.

B.Nowlistenagain.Arethesesentencestrueorfalse?

a.Theschoolisnew.

b.Theclassroomisbig.

c.Thelibraryhasmanybooks.

3.Inyourgroupslookatthesepicturesandthenreadthestory.Discussandagreeonthecorrectorderforthepictures.Writethecorrectnumber(1-6)undereachpicture.

4.Listentotherecording,andinpairsfillinthisform:

Girlsname:………………

Girl'saddress:…………………

Nameofgirlsfriend:……………………

5.Read the text on page 102 and answer the questions. Your partner will read theother part of the text on page 165 and answer questions. When you have both finishedreading,askoneanotherthequestionsyouhavenotfoundtheanswersto.

6.Listenthistatotherecordingandcompletethistable:

Population Location Languagesspoken

Delhi

Madrid

New

York

Herearetheanswerstothequestionsabove:

Activity Subskill Typeofactivity

1 Readingforgist

Choosing from a list / multiple-choice(an activity in which you choose thebest answer from three or morepossibleanswers)

2Listening for specificinformation

A.Multiple-choicequestions

B. True/false questions (an activity inwhich you decide whether statementsarecorrectorincorrect)

Reading for detail, Jumbled pictures (jumbled = in the

3 cohesion wrongorder)

4Listening for specificinformation

Formfilling

5Reading for specificinformationordetail

Jigsaw reading (whereeachstudent isgiven only part of a text and needs totellotherstudentsabouthis/herpartofthetext,sothatintheendeachstudenthasalltheinformationfromthetext)

6Listening for specificinformationordetail

Tablecompletion

We can see that these activities can differ in several ways: the skill or subskill theyfocuson; theirdesignandwhat interactionpatternstheyuse.Thekindsofskills theyfocuson and the interaction patterns they use are not fixed. So, for example, multiple-choicequestions could be used for reading, listening or grammar activities and can be doneindividually,inpairsoringroupsormingling.Similarly,formfillingcouldbeusedforreading,listeningorgrammarpractice,anddoneindividually,inpairsoringroups.

Activities3and5provideexamplesofanotherwayof categorisingactivities.Bothoftheseactivities involvean informationgap, i.e. thestudentsneed to talk tooneanother toexchangeinformationtheydon'tknowinordertocompletetheactivity.Thismeanstheyaretalking in order to communicate, not just to practise language or show they have got theanswersright.Freerole-playsandsurveysareotherexamplesofinformation-gapactivities.Thereisnoinformationgapinexercisesordrills.


Readthesetipsandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou:

-Whenselectingactivitiesforpractisinganddevelopinglanguageitisuptotheteacherto decidewhether to doa controlled practice, freer practice or free activity, or an activitythat focusesonaccuracyoroncommunication.Thechoicewilldependonstudents'needsandpreferences.

-Whenchoosingactivitiesandtasksfordevelopingskills,theteachercandecidewhichskillorsubskilltofocuson.Again,students'needsandpreferencesshouldhelpustomakethatchoice.

- Using several kinds of activities in our lessons adds variety. This helps to keeplessonsmoreinterestingandmotivating,sActivitiesinlessonsareusuallylinkedsothatthefirst one leads into and helps the next, etc. There are several different ways of linkingactivitiesinlessons.Thesearejustsomeofthem.

Language-focusedlessons:

1Presentation—>controlledpracticeactivities->freerpracticeactivities

2Lead-in->tasks->presentation->furthertasks

Skills-basedlessons:

Warmer and/or lead-in -> comprehension activities/tasks -> post-task activities.Comprehension activities for listening or reading often start by focusing on more generallevelsofcomprehension,thenmoveontosubskills involvingdetailedorspecificattentiontothetext,thentoafocusonthelanguageusedinthetext.

Example1:Alisteningskillslesson

Lead-in:discussingthetopicofthelisteningandlearninganyimportantnewvocabulary-> comprehension tasks: listening to the recorded conversation and answering multiple-choicegist questionsabout it -> listening to theconversationagainandcompletinga formwith specific information -> post-task activities: brief discussion of the topic of theconversation

Example2:Atopic-basedskillslesson

Lead-in:speakingabout the topicanddoingrelated languagework-> tasks: listeningto a recording about the topic -> reading a text about the topic -> post-task activities:discussing the topic and/or focusing on the language of the topic ->writing a compositionaboutthetopic.

This is an integrated skills lesson, i.e. a lesson that involvesworking on a variety ofskills,witheachleadingintothenext.

SeeUnits19,20and21forplanningforcarryingoutactivities.


1.Match the activity to its name.Please note that someof these activities have notbeenmentionedbeforeintheunit

Name Activity

A.Brainstorming1. Tasks which involve discussing and/or gettinginformationinordertosolveaproblem

B. Sentencecompletion

2. Moving round the class to discuss or find outsomethingfromoneclassmateaftertheother

C.Extensiontasks3. Making or completing diagrams showingrelationshipsbetweenwords

D. Makingmind/wordmaps

4.Listingorshoutingoutideasorlanguagequickly

E.Surveys5.Imaginingwhatsomethingis like/buildingupapicture of something in your head prompted byanotherperson(usuallytheteacher)

F.Visualisation6.Activitiesusuallydoneat theendof the lessonto give further practice in target language or toconsolidatelanguagefromatext

G.Categorisation 7.Supplyingwordstofinishasentence

H.Problemsolving8. Finding out what others think about a topic,oftenbycompletingaquestionnaire

I.Mingling9. Putting words into groups according to afeaturetheyhaveincommon

2.Whatcolumndotheseactivitiesbelongin?Somemaybelongtomorethanone.

Controlledpractice Freerpractice Freepractice

A.choraldrillingofpronunciation

B.rankordering

C.chants

D.discussions

E.sentencecompletionexercises

F.storywriting

G.copyingwords

H.repeatingminimalpairs

I.learningconversationsbyheart

Reflection


1. I like tomixmy practice activities so that some focus on accuracy and some onfluency-especiallywithelementarylearners.

2. My learners don't like doing communicative activities. They prefer drills andcontrolledexercises,sothat'swhatwedo.

3.Youcan'tdofreeactivitieswithbigclasses.

4.Mycoursebookalwaysusesthesameactivitiesforreadingandlistening.Idon'tlikethat.

DiscoveryActitivies

1. Look through a unit of your coursebook. Can you name all the different kinds ofactivitiesitcontains?Whatisthepurposeofeachactivity?

2.Toseelotsofdifferentactivitiesfordevelopingskillsandlanguage,lookat:

http://www.britishcouncil.org/kids-topics;htm?mtklink=kids-topics-kids-popu!ar-offers

http:y/www.britishcouncil.org/central.htm?xntkiink-central-leamenglish-portal-main-promo

3. Look back over this unit arid "find a type of activity that you have never taughtbefore. Try it with one of your classes. Did it work well?Write up your thoughts in yourTeacherPortfolio.

4.Doyouknowthemeaningof theseterms:openand.closedquestions,substitutiontable, jigsaw listening, filler, chant, label,picturestory,problemsolving,projectwork, role-play,tasktype,open-endedtask?UsetheTKTGlossarytocheckyouranswers.


Forquestions1-7,lookatthequestionsaboutpracticeactivitiesandthethreepossibleanswerslistedA,Bandc.

Choosethecorrectanswer(A,BorC).

1.WhichactivitydoesNOTgivelearnerscontrolledpronunciationpractice?

A.listeningtowordsandtickingtheonesyouhear

B.sayingalistofwordsallcontainingthesameproblemphoneme

C.repeatingsentencesandbeatingtheirrhythmatthesametime

2.WhichactivitiesdoNOTdevelopinteractivespeakingskills?

A.role-plays

B.information-gap

C.substitutiondrills

3.WhichactivitiesdoNOTinvolveaninformationgap?

A.true/falsequestions

B.surveys

C.problemsolving

4.WhichactivitiesdoNOTallowlearnerstousethelanguagetheywant?

A.projectwork

B.controlledpracticeactivities

C.communicativeactivities

5.WhichactivitydoesNOTdeveloplisteningforgist?

A.listeningtochooseatitleforatext

B.listeningtodecidehowmanyspeakersthereare

C.listeningtodrawarouteonamap

6.WhichactivitydoesMOTfocusondevelopingideas?

A.brainstorming

B.jigsawreading

C.discussion

7.WhichactivitydoesNOTfocusonaccuracy?

A.gap-filling

B.rankordering

C.copying

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Whatareassessmenttypesandtasks?

Assessment means judging learners' performance by collecting information about it.We assess learners for different reasons, using different methods to do so. Assessmenttasks are the taskswe use for assessing learners.We can assess learners informally orformally.Informalassessmentiswhenweobservelearnerstoseehowwell theyaredoingsomethingandthenoftengivethemcommentsontheirperformance.Formalassessmentiswhenweassesslearnersthroughtestsorexamsandgivetheirworkamarkoragrade.

*Keyconcepts

Listallthereasonsyoucanthinkofforassessinglearnersformally.

Thereareseveralreasonswhywemightwanttoassesslearnersformally:

1.At thebeginningofacoursewemightgivethematest tofindout(diagnose)whattheyknowanddon'tknow.Thisiscalledadiagnostictest.Theinformationfromthistypeoftesthelpsusdecidewhattoteachandwhichlearnersneedhelpinwhichareasoflanguage.

2.Whenlearnersgotoalanguageschooloreveningclasses,theschoolmaywanttoknowwhat level the learners are at, so they give thema test. This is called a placementtest.Weusetheinformationfromaplacementtesttodecidewhatlevelofclassthelearnersshouldgointo.

3.Afterwehavefinishedteachingapartofacourse,wemaywanttofindouthowwelllearnershavelearntit.Atestforthispurposeiscalledaprogresstest.Aprogresstestlooksbackovera recentblockof thesyllabus,e.g.aunit from thecoursebooli, toseehowwellthe learnershave learntwhat itcovered.Weuse the information from the test todecide ifweneedtodomorework0X1thisareaofthesyllabusornot,andperhapstogivelearnersfeedbackon theirstrengthsanddifficulties in thisarea.Using information fromassessmenttofeedintoourteachingandmaybegivelearnersfeedbackiscalledformativeassessment.

4.Someteachersprefernottoassesstheirlearners'progressinatermthroughtestsbutthroughpiecesofworkgiventhroughouttheterm.Theymightsetacompositioninweek2,for instance,apresentationinweek4,anessayinweek6,etc.,thenbasethelearner'sfinalmarkontheaveragemarkforthepiecesofwork.Someteachersthinkthatthismethodof assessment (continuous assessment) gives a truer picture of howwell the learner haslearnt and is less threatening and more formative than an end-of-course exam. In young

Unit18.Assessmenttypesandtasks

learnerclassesthisformofassessmentissometimescalledclassroom-basedassessment.

Another way of assessing learners' work throughout the term is through a portfolio.Thisisacollectionoflearners'workdoneduringthecourse,whichthelearnerputstogetherduring or at the end a course and then presents to the teacher. Often ii also containscommentsontheworkwrittenbythelearnerorclassmates.

Likecontinuousassessment,portfoliosletlearnersproduceworkonanareajustafterithasbeentaught.Puttingtheportfoliotogethercanalsobeanopportunityforthelearnertorevise and improve their work. The portfoliomight contain, for example, different kinds ofwriting,theresultsofaprojectorrecordings,e.g.avideoofanintervieworapresentation.

5.At theendofa termorcourse,wemaygive learnersa test toseehowwell theyhave learnt the contents of the whole course. This kind of assessment is called anachievement test or a summative test. Learnersusually receivea scoreormark from thiskindoftesting.

6.Sometimeslearnerstaketeststoseehowgoodtheyareat language.Thiskindoftest is called a proficiency test. The contents of the test are not based on a course orsyllabusthatthelearnerhasfollowed.Thetestmeasuresthelearner'sgeneralskillorabilityinthelanguageasawhole(e.g.theIELTStest)orauseofit(e.g.Englishfornurses).

Diagnostic, placementprogress, summativeandproficiency testsareall examplesofformal testing.Theyaretakenunderexam-likeconditionswith learnersat theirowndesks,workingsilentlyandwithinatimelimit,consistofsettasksforwhichascoreisgivenandareadministeredbytheteacheroranofficial.

Therearemanydifferenttasksateachercanusetoassessherlearners,e.g.multiple-choicequestions, interviews,gap-fill (filling ingaps insentencesor texts), tablecompletionfor listening, or reading for specific information. The tasks a teacher chooses to use forformal assessment depend on what aspect of language or skills the teacher wants toassess.

Assessment tasks are often described as objective and subjective. The differencebetween objective and subjective tasks is how much the marker needs to use their ownjudgementtomarktherightanswer.Inanobjectivetaskthemarkerdoesnothavetojudgewhether an answer is right or wrong, or how right or howwrong the answer is, becausethere is only one answer. Multiple-choice, true/false, gap-fills and matching tasks are allexamplesofobjectivetasks.

Theadvantageofobjectivetestsisthatthereisnojudgementinvolvedintheirmarking.Thismeanstheyarequicktomark,andtheresultsareaccurate:importantfeaturesforboth

teachers and learners. The disadvantages of objective tests are that they are difficult towriteand that theydonot test realuseof the language,but rather theskillsorknowledgethatlanguageuseisbasedon.Wemayknowwhichlettertotick,(A,BorC),inamultiple-choicetestofourknowledgeofthepresenttense,butnotknowhowtousethesametensewhiletalking.

Inasubjective task themarkerneeds touse their judgment todecide ifananswer isrightorhowrightitis.Examplesofsubjectivetasksarerole-plays,essays,interviews,groupdiscussions;compositions.Therearemanythingstomarkintaskslikethis.Forexample,inanessay youcouldmarkgrammarand rangeof vocabularyuse, but you couldalsomarkqualityofideas,taskachievement,useofregister,organisation.Themarkerneedstodecidewhat aspects of the essay to mark and then how to distinguish, for example, betweenexcellent,good,averageandpooruseofgrammar.

Herearesometasktypesoftenusedinformalassessment.

Reading Writing

-True/falsequestions

-Yes/noquestions

-Multiple-choicequestions

-Opencomprehensionquestions

- Information transfer, e.g. tablecompletion

-Orderingparagraphs

- Choosing titles for texts orparagraphs

-Clozetests

-Copying

-Jumbledwords

-Labelling

-Formfilling

-Sentence/dialoguecompletion

- Completing the middle/end of astorysstorywriting

-Picture/diagramdescription

- Writing essays / compositions /emails / letters / postcards /reports

Listening Speaking

-True/falsequestions

-Yes/noquestions


-Opencomprehensionquestions

- Information transfer, e.g. table-Repeatingwords/sentences

-Respondingtoprompts/functions

completion

- Listen and complete thegaps/sentences

-Ticktheword/sentenceyouheard

- Following Instructions formappingaroute/drawingapicture,etc.

- Choose theadjective/picture/diagram, etc.which best describes what youheard

-Dictation

- Describing pictures/objects/films,etc.

-Giving(short)presentations

-Discussions

-Interviews

-Role-play

-Problem-solvingingroups

Grammar Vocabulary


-Sentence/dialoguecompletion

-Transformationexercises

-Errorcorrection

-Cap-filling

-Labelling

-Categorising

-Word-building

- Word maps/mind maps(diagrams showing relationshipsbetweenwords in thesame lexicalset)

-Matching

-Oddoneout

- Finding/giving synonyms /antonyms/definitions/lexicalsets

You can check your understanding of the terms in bold in this table in the TKTGlossary.

Unlikeformalassessment,informalassessmentdoesnotuseassessmenttasksandisrarelyusedtogivethelearneragrade,asthatisnotthepurposeofinformalassessment.Itisalsogenerallylessreliableoraccuratethanformalassessment.Informalassessmentcanbe carried out by the teacher or the learners.When carried out by the teacher it usually

involvestheteacherobservingthelearnersorparticularlearnerstofindoutmoreabouttheirlevelattitudesorlearnercharacteristics.

Ateachermightobserveaclassdoinggroupwork,forexample,tojudgetheirgeneralleveloffluency,orwatchthemdoingprojectworktoseehowmotivatedtheyareorhowwellthey work together (collaboration). The teacher might also just focus on how a particularlearnerisgettingon,observingthemastheydoe.g.writtenworkorpairworkinclass.Theteacher could use a checklist or take notes to help them remember what they haveobserved. Informal assessment of this kind helps the teacher learn about the needs ofindividual learnersandaboutgeneral levelsofabilityorattitudes inaclass.Heorshecanusethisinformationtoshapefuturelessons.

Informalassessment isoftenusedwithyounglearners,astheymaynotrespondwellto formal assessment.We can see that informal assessment is formative. It provides theteacherwithfeedbackthatcanfeed intofutureteachingorcouldbeusedtogiveadvicetolearnersonhowtoimproveinfuture.

Learnerscanalsocarryout informalassessment.Theycanassess themselves (self-assessment) or oneanother (peer assessment). They cando thiswith checklists toguidethem.Thereasonforusingbothpeerandself-assessmentistohelplearnerstounderstandtheir language use and performance better, and so become more autonomous. Informalassessment is often followed up by feedback from the teacher to the learners on thestrengthsandweaknessesoftheirperformance,andsuggestionsforhowtoimprove.

Whenateacherisassessinginformallyorusingformalsubjectiveteststheyoftenuseassessmentcriteria tohelpwith theassessment.Theseare thegeneral featuresofaskillwhich can be used as a basis for judging students' performance. For example, speakinginvolvesthesubskillsof:

-fluency

-usinglanguageaccurately

-usinglanguageappropriately

-interactivestrategies

-pronunciation

-vocabularyrange

-discourseorganisation.

The teacher can use these subskills or someof them (depending on the level of theclass)ascriteriaagainstwhich to judge their learners' speaking.Atbeginneror low levels

the teachermightwant to justusee.g.pronunciationandvocabulary rangeasassessmentcriteria in school tests, the assessment criteria should reflect the focus of what has beentaught. It is not fair in a progress or an achievement test to test students on e.g. theirorganisationofwriting,iftheyhaveneverbeentaughtthis.Assessmentcriteriahelptomakesubjective tests lesssubjective,because the teacherwillmarkall thestudents'workusingthesamecriteria.

Below isanexampleof someassessment criteria for speakingarrangedasasetofbands.Thecriteriahavebeenarrangedtodescribedifferentlevelsofability.

Accuracy Fluency Pronunciation

5Grammatical andlexical accuracyextremelyhigh

Speaks fluentlywithout hesitation orsearchingforwords

Very clear; stress andintonationhelptomakemeaningclear

4

Quite accurate;some errors/ butmeaning is alwaysclear

Some hesitation andsometimes has tosearchforwords

Generally clear;reasonable control ofstressandintonation

3Frequent errors;meaning is notalwaysclear

Quitehesitant; limitedrange of vocabularyandstructures

Frequent errors; notalwaysclearenoughtounderstand

2

Very frequenterrors; difficulty inmaking meaningclear

Extremely hesitant;very limited range oflanguageavailable

Very frequent errors;often very difficult tounderstand

1 Almostunabletocommunicate

Theseparticular bands cover awide rangeof ability.Whenworkingwith aparticularclassitmaybemoreusefulfortheteachertoworkwithanarrowerrange.Thebandscouldbe used in a formal assessment of speaking or to help a teacher carry out informalassessment. Informal assessment is sometimes used to assess students' behaviour,attitudes or learner characteristics rather than their language abilities. In this case theassessmentcriteriamightbee.g.motivation,degreeofparticipation ingroupwork, typeoflearningstyle,etc.


Readthesetipsandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou:

-Assessmentcanaffectwhatweteach,howweteachandourlearners'motivationforlearning.Itisveryimportantforteststohaveagoodinfluenceonteachingandlearning.

- Some assessment tasks are easy to write, e.g. essay titles, or mark, e.g.categorising tasks. But we need to check if they reflect what we have taught. It is not agoodideatouseaparticulartestingtaskjustbecauseitiseasytouseoreasytomark.Forexample, for administrative reasons, it is often difficult to assess learners' speaking, sospeaking is often not assessed, and as a result learnersmay start thinking that speakingisn't important. Speaking skills can sometimes be more easily assessed informally thanformally,

- To really reflect the level of learners' learning, the content and tasks included inprogressandsummativetestsshouldreflectthecontentandtasksinourteaching.Thismaymeanthatourtestsincludeamixtureofobjectiveandsubjectivetasks.

-Assessmentneedstobefair.Thismeansthatprogressandsummativetestsshouldonly test what has been taught and that they should be reliable and accurate in theirmarking.Usingbandstohelpusmarksubjectivetaskshelpsachievethis.

- Feedback to learners on what they got right or wrong, their strengths andweaknesses, and what they can do to improve, is very important. Through feedback,assessmenthelpslearning.

- Informalassessment isoftenmuchmoresuitable forassessingyoung learners thanformalassessment.Thisisbecauseyounglearners'waysofthinkingandlearningarebasedon-experiencingandcommunicating,andalsobecauseteachersofyounglearnersaxeofteninterestedinfindingoutmoreabouttheirlearners'attitudes,motivationandbehaviours.

-Ifinyourschool,severalclassesfollowthesamesyllabusorcoursebookanddothesame subjective / partly subjective test, it is useful for the teachers to use the sameassessmentcriteriaorbands.Itmaybeusefultoagreewhatmarkyouwouldgivetosomesamplesofstudents'writingbeforemarkingstarts.Eventhen,theremaybedisagreementsamongst teachers. At this point, it's useful to discuss exactly what the bandsmean. Thisprocesshelpsmarkingbecomefairerandmorereliable,

- Working with assessment criteria and bands helps the teacher grade all studentsagainst the same levels of achievement. This canhelp the teacher and the students knowmoreabout theirreal levelofability than if theteacher justranksthestudentsaccordingtotheirgrades.


1.Herearesixassessmenttasks.Canyounamethemandsaywhattheytest?

(1). The learners listen to a recording about buying food, and point to the correctpictureonthewallwhentheyhearthatfooditemmentioned.

(2).Thelearnerseachgiveamini-presentationabouttheirhouseandfamily.

(3). The learners read a text in which every seventhwordHas been taken out, andcomplete'theblanks.

(4).The learners takepart inadiscussionactivity inwhich theydiscuss theiropinionsonatopictheteacherhasgiventhem.

(5). The learners, as they leave the class,write a number from1-5 on the board toshowhowmuchtheythinktheyhavelearntinthelesson.

(6).Theteachermovesroundtheclassduringgroupwork,takingnotesonhowmuchindividuallearnerscontributeideasandonpronunciation.

2.Lookatallthereadingandwritingtasksinthetableinthekeyconceptssection,andlabelthemsubjective(S)orobjective(O).

3.Completethistable,makingsentencesaboutyourownteachingsituation:

Iwouldusea

proficiencytest

progresstest

portfolio

continuousassessment

diagnostictest

summativetest

placementtest

to… if…

Reflection


1. I just use the testsmy school givesme, so I don't have toworrywhether they'resubjectiveorobjectiveorabouttheassessmentcriteria.

2.The tests Iusearemainlyobjective - I think they're fairerand really testwhat the

studentshavelearnt.

3.Imuchpreferinformalassessmenttoformalassessmentandsodomystudents,sowedon'thavetestsinmyclasses.

DiscoveryActivities

1.FindexamplesofthetasktypesmentionedinthetableintheKeyconceptssection.Lookinyourcoursebookoratthesewebsites:

http://www.ehglish-online.org.uk/exam.htm

http://www.cambridgeesol.org/resources/teacher/yle.html

http://www.onestopenglish.com/section.asp?sectionType=Iistsuxranary&catid-58065

2.Lookatatestfromyourcoursebookoryourschool.

Whatdoesitaimtotest?

Doesituseobjectiveorsubjectivetasks?why?

Doesitfocusonaccuracyorcommunication?

Doesitmatchwhatandhowyouteach?

Isitfair?

3.Carry out some informal assessmentwith one of your classes by observing themand taking notes on an aspect of their speaking skills or of their behaviour. Do this overseverallessonsifnecessary.ReadyournotesandwriteupwhatyouhavelearntaboutyourstudentsillyourTeacherPortfolio.

4.Readupmoreonassessmentat:

http://wwwAeacliingenglish.org.uk/think/arlides/testing-assessment

http://wwvy.teachingeriglish.org.uk/think/anides/young-learnerrtesting

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/test-qi.iestic)nrtypes

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/artides/test-writing

5.Doyouknow themeaningof these terms: 'can-do' statements,oral test?Use theTKTGlossarytocheckyouranswers.


For questions 1-6, match the teachers’ descriptions of assessment tasks with theassessmenttaskfeatureslistedA,BandG.

Youwillneedtousesomeoftheoptionsmorethanonce.

Assessmenttaskfeatures

A.subjective

B.objective

C.formal

Teachers’descriptions

1. Ihave togivemystudentsa testat theendof theyearso thestudentscangetagrade.

2.Iaskedthestudentstodoamultiple-choicetestfromtheircoursebookthenmarkitthemselveswithananswerkey.Theydidn’tshowmetheirresults.

3.ThestudentsdiscussedatopicingroupsandIlistenedtogetanimpressionoftheirlevel.

4. The students listened to one another giving presentations then gave feedback onthem.

5.Ioftenaskmystudentstodoshortgap-filltaskswhichthereisonlyoneanswerto.Theykeeparecordoftheirscores.

6.Thestudentshandinpiecesofworkthroughoutthetermformetomark.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


Asampleanswersheetisonpage234.

Forquestions1-7, lookatthequestionsaboutlanguageandthethreepossibleanswerslistedA,BandC.

Markthecorrectletter(A,BorC)onyouranswersheet.

1.WhichsentencedoesNOTcontainacollectivenoun?

A.Themanagertoldhisstafftheycouldnotleaveearly.

B.Theteacheraskedherstudentstohandintheirexercisebooks,

C.Thespectatorscheeredtheirteamastheyscoredasecondgoal.

2.WhichsentencedoesNOTcontainadeterminer?

A.Thereareseveralexamplesinthetext.

B.Couldyoupassmethatpen?

C.I’mgoingonholidaynextmonth.

3.WhichsentencedoesNOTcontainaconjunctionofcontrast?

A.Shelikedskatingwhenherfriendswentwithher.

B.Whileshewasquitehard-working,hersisterpreferredwatchingTVallday.

C.Shewantedtotrysnowboardingthoughherhusbandwarnedhernotto.

4.WhichsentencedoesNOTcontainaverbthatisusedtransitively?

A.Ireallycan’texplainthereasonwhyIfeltthatway.

B.Hewantstoretireassoonashecan.

C.Nobodyknowswhatshe’sgoingtodonextyear.

5.WhichsentencedoesNOTcontainapossessivepronoun?

A.I’lltakeyours.It’smuchbetter.

B.Givemeonequickly,willyou?

C.Ipreferthishousetotheirs.

6.WhichsentencedoesNOTcontainanadverb?

A.Hetoldusweonlyneededtobringourpassports.

TKTModule1-Practicetest1.1

B.Fortunately,theyfoundthewallethe’dlost,

C.Nobodyknewthebookthathewasdescribing.

7.WhichsentencedoesNOTcontainanadjective?

A.Thereweresomanypeopleintownthatyoucouldn’twalkaround.

B.Theprogrammewasextremelywellorganisedandeveryoneenjoyedit.

C.Therearenomoreticketsavailableforthatshow.

Forquestions8-13,matchthemodalsintheexamplesentenceswiththeiruseslistedA,BandC.



Usesofmodals

A.toexpressobligation

B.togivepermission

C.togiveadvice

Examplesentences

8.Thehouseissodirty-Ireallymustcleanit.

9.Youcanborrowsomemoneyifyoureallywantto.

10.Ifyouwanttolooksmart,youshouldcutyourhair.

11.Wehavetoputthelightsoutbymidnighteverynight.

12.Tosavesomemoney,Ithinkheoughttoeatathomemoreoften.

13.Staffwishingtosmokemayusethegarden.

For questions 14-19, look at the terms about lexis and the three possibleexampleslistedA,BandC.

Choosetheexamplewhichmatchestheterm.


14.acollocation

A.verynice

B.freshnews

C.quicklyspoken

15.awordfamily

A.childlike,children,childish

B.delightful,wonderful,amazing

C.microwave,fryingpan,fridgefreezer

16.achunk

A.Wherewilltheysit?

B.Whatdoyouwant?

C.Whydoyoulistentoher?

17.awordwithaprefixandasuffix

A.cooked

B.disappearing

C.imagination

18.acompound

A.badidea

B.bookshelf

C.enjoyment

19.alexicalset

A.pair/pear

B.thing/think

C.young/old

For questions 20-27, look at the underlined words and the three possiblephonemictranscriptionslistedA,BandC.

Choosethecorrectphonemictranscription.


20.anadjective

A./ffitfektiv/

B./gdjektiv/

C./aed3ektiv/

21.asynonym

A./sinDmg/

B./sinanim/

C./smAnim/

22.vocabulary

A./vakaebuileari/

B./vakasbutari/

C./vskasbjuitari/

23.apreposition

A./prip/YZifn/

B./prepazijan/

C./prapgzijan/

24.aquestion

A./kestan/

B./kwestjbn/

C./kjestjran/

25.language

A./lsengwidy

B/laerjwrtjy

C./laerjgwidy

26.paraphrasing

A./pa;ra;frezig/

B./psrafreizig/

C./pasrafreisig/

27.connectedspeech

A./ksnektid/

B./kcnektsd/

C./ka:nektd/

For questions 28-33, look at the dialogue between two friends. Read thesentencesfromthedialogueandthethreepossiblefunctionslistedA,BandC.

Choosethecorrectanswer.


Dialogue

Jim:Whendidyougetback?

Tom:Latelastnight.(28)ThetrafficwastheworstI’veeverseenitonthemotorway.

Jim:It’salwaysterrible.(29)Butdidyouhaveagoodtime?

Tom:Notsobad; (30) itwas incrediblyexpensive though - Ihaven’tgotanymoneyleft.

Jim:(31)IthoughtthesamewhenIwasthere.Ijustcouldn’taffordtogoout.

(32)Butitisbeautiful.Iloveditreally.

Tom:(33)Yeah,itwasjustasbeautifulasyou’dsaid.Fantastic,infact.

28.ThetrafficwastheworstI’veeverseenit.

A.narrating

B.describing

C.expressinginability

29.Butdidyouhaveagoodtime?

A.drawingaconclusion

B.suggestinganidea

C.changingtopic

30.itwasincrediblyexpensivethough.

A.describingfeelings

B.blaming

C.complaining

31.IthoughtthesamewhenIwasthere.

A.reportinganevent

B.agreeing

C.explaining

32.Butitisbeautiful.

A.disagreeing

B.contrasting

C.encouraging

33.itwasjustasbeautifulasyou’dsaid.

A.comparing

B.reporting

C.clarifying

Forquestions34-40, lookatthequestionsaboutwritingandthethreepossibleanswerslistedA,BandC.



34.WhichstatementisNOTaboutprocesswriting?

A.Ialwaystrytoputlotsofcreativeideasintomywriting.

B.Ialwaysdoafirstdraftthenreadandeditagainlater,

C.WhenIcheckmywriting,IalwaysfindI’vemadelotsofsmallmistakes.

35.WhichstatementisNOTaboutcohesion?

A.Theparagraphwasfullofwordsfromthesamelexicalset.

B.Theparagraphusedsimplebutclearconjunctions,

C.Theparagraphonlycontainedthreeshortsentences.

36.WhichstatementisNOTaboutlayout?

A. Arranging your letter so that the addresses, etc. are in the right place makes iteasiertounderstand.

B.IalwaysputfullstopsattheendofsentencesbutI’mneververysurewheretoputcommas.

C.RecentlyI’vestarteddividingmywritingintoshortclearlymarkedparagraphs.

37.WhichstatementisNOTaboutproductwriting?

A.IliketofollowamodelwhenIwrite-itreallyhelpsme.

B. it’s useful to see how previous writers have structured their texts, and then copythem.

C. My friends sometimes give me feedback on what! write - that really helps meimproveit.

38.WhichstatementisNOTaboutcoherence?

A. Each paragraph had a clear topic sentence so you could easily see what it wasabout.

B.Allcomplaintlettersseemtofollowthesamepattern-whichmakesthemeasiertowriteandunderstand,

C.IalwaystrytoexplorenewideasinmywritingsoIcanlearnaboutnewthings.

39.WhichstatementisNOTaboutauthenticity?

A.Atschool,wehadaroughbookforwritingfirstdraftsanda‘good’bookforourfinaldrafts.

B.Atschool,wealwayshad todo things likewrite letters toour localnewspaperorsendemailstopenfriends.

C.Atschool, the teacherencouragedus touse language thatwasnaturaland in therightstyle.

40.WhichstatementisNOTaboutlanguageaccuracy?

A.Itdoesn’tmatterifyoumakepunctuationmistakesinemails-nobodyminds.

B.Thecontractcontainedmistakesaboutmyjobduties,

C.Ialwaystrytofindtimetoproofreadmywork.

For questions 41-45, match the learners’ comments with the terms aboutlanguagelearningthattheyrefertolistedA-F.

Markthecorrectletter(A-F)onyouranswersheet.


Languagelearningterms

A.acquisition

B.fossilisation

C.silentperiod

D.autonomy

E.interference

F.cognitiveskills

Learners’comments

41.Myteacheralwaystellsusaboutgrammarrules.They’remuchtooabstractformetounderstandandtheydon’thelpme.

42. When I try and speak English outside class I keep using words from my ownferriage.Idon’tknowwhy.

43.WhatIreallylikeiswhentheteacherdoesn’tteachusbutgivesustheaddressesofwebsites,sowecanfollowourownpreferences.

44. I’ve been learning for about 20 years and I’m totally fluent but I know I still getsomebasicgrammarwrong.

45.WhenIgotoaforeigncountryIliketojustlisten-itgivesmetimetobuildupmyconfidenceandgetusedtothesoundofthelanguage.

For questions 46-50, look at the learning strategies and the three learneractivitieslistedA,BandC.

Twooftheactivitiesareexamplesofthelearningstrategy.OneactivityisNOT.

Markthe letter(A,BorC)which isNOTanexampleof the learningstrategyonyouranswersheet.

46.usinglanguageawareness

A.The learnerworkedout themeaningof theword fromhis knowledgeofwhat thesuffix-lessmeant.

B.Thelearnerrepeatedthepasttenseoftheverbsaftertheteacherhadmodelledit.

C.Thelearneradded-edtothenewverbbecausehethoughtthatwashowyoumadethepasttense.

47.remembering

A.Thelearnercopiedthenewwordsintohernotebookwhentheteachertoldherto.

B.Everyday,shenamedalltheobjectsshecouldseeasshewalkedalongthestreet.

C.Aftereachlesson,hestuckonhisbedroomwallcardswiththechunksoflanguagetheyhadlearntinclass.

48.experimenting

A.When they’re on holiday in foreign countries, they just guess what the signs andmenusmustmean.They’reoftenright.

B. When he couldn’t find the right word, he used to paraphrase. He sounded very

fluent.

C.Whenshedidn’tunderstandaword,shealwaysusedadictionary. It reallyhelpedher.

49.noticing

A.Everytimehereadanarticle,heunderlinedallthenewwords.

B.Shealwayslistenedtoheardifferencesinthewaypeopiepronouncedwords,

C.HealwayslovedjusttoheartheforeignlanguagesoheusedtheradioandtheTValot.

50.cooperation

A.Shealwaysphonedherclassmatetodiscussideasforwhattoputinheressays.

B.TheclassmatesallwenttoEnglandtogetherintheholidays,

C.Inthegroupwork,theymanagedbetweenthemtowriteacompleteletterinEnglish-theywereveryproud!

Forquestions51-55,matchtheteacher’sstatementsaboutsomeofherlearnerswiththetypesoflearningneedslistedA-F.



Typesoflearningneeds

A.security

B.learningstyle

C.personalinterests

D.specificlanguageorskills

E.previouslearningexperience

F.motivation

Teacher’sstatements

51.Hedoesn’tseemtoknowwhyhe’slearningsohejustdoesn’tcarehowhegetson.

52.He’s reallygoodat grammarandvocabularybutweakat speakingand listening.Heneedstheseforhisnewjob.

53.Mostofthecourseisgiventhroughlecturesbuthelearnsmuchbetterbyreadinganddoing.

54.Thecourseisallaboutlearninggrammarbuthe’snotusedtothatsohe’sabitlost.

55.Heseemstoneedlotsofattentionandconfidencebuilding.

Forquestions56-61,matchthelearners’commentsabouttheirlessonswiththeapproacheslistedA,BandC.


Youwillneedtousesomeoptionsmoreihanonce.

Approaches

A.Task-basedbeaming

B.StructuralApproach

C.LexicalApproach

Learners’comments

56. In every lesson we learnt something new, then drilled it and did exercises. Weneverusedthelanguagefreely.

57.Yesterday, the teacheraskedus tounderlineall thechunksof languagewecouldfindinatext,thenseeifwecouldheartheminarecordingofaconversation.Itwasdifficult.

58. In groups we had to design a programme for a school trip to New York. Thenafterwardswediscussedwhatvocabularywehadneededtodothis.

59.Sometimesinclasswedoanactivity,thentheteachercorrectsourmistakes,thenwedotheactivityagain-Ifindthisreallyuseful.

60.Ilikethewayeachbitofgrammarwelearnbuildsonthelastbit.Itmakeslearningquiteeasy.

61.The teacheralwaysasksus toworkwithwhatshecalls ‘authenticmaterials’ likemagazines,newspapersandarticlesfromtheinternet.Weusethemtofindcollocationsandidioms.

For questions 62-67, match the steps from different lessons with thepresentationorintroductorytechniqueslistedA-G.

Markthecorrectletter(A-G)onyouranswersheet.


Presentationorintroductorytechniques

A.lead-in

B.providingacontext

C.warmer

D.guideddiscovery

E.conceptchecking

F.usinganinputtext

G.elicitation

Stepsfromlessons

62.Thelearnerslookatsevenexamplesentencesandworkouttheformandmeaningofthestructure.

63. The learners tell the teacher their experiences of using English to speak withtouristsbeforedesigningaposteronthesametopicintherestofthelesson.

64.Theteachershowsthelearnersaseriesofphotosofpeopleandatthesametimesayssomeadjectivesthatdescribetheirappearance.

65. The teacher asks the learners if the structure expresses permission, ability oradvice.

66.Theteacherpromptsthelearnerstousethetargetstructurebyaskingthemtotellherabouttheirholidayplans.

67.Theteacherasksallthelearnerstostandupandshakealltheirclassmates’hands.Shethenasksthemfortheirhomework.

For questions 68-74, look at the extracts from the practice activities and thethreepossibletermslistedA,BandC.

Choosethetermwhichmatchestheactivity.


68.Completethesentenceswithoneofthewords.

Theywenttoschool___bus.

A.with

B.on

C.by

A.substitutiondrill

B.multiple-choice

C.extensiontask

69.Whatwordsaboutfooddotheselettersmake?

RDABE

KLIM

AATSP

CEIR

TRWAE

A.brainstorming

Bjumbledletters

C.prioritising

70.Completethegapsinthetext.

John was watching television at home one___ when suddenly he heard a hugenoise___fromthekitchen.Heimmediatelygotup___rantoseewhathadhappened.All___the kitchen floor he saw huge pieces___ concrete and dust. He looked up quickly___realisedtohishorrorthatpartof___ceilinghadfallenin.

A.cloze

B.gap-fill

C.sentencecompletion

71. Find the answers to the first three questions in your article. Your partner has adifferentarticle.Askyourpartnerfortheanswerstotheotherquestions.

A.opencomprehensionquestions

B.jigsawreading

C.dictation

72.Lookatthewordsandputthemintotherightboxes.

A.categorisation

B.jumbledwords

C.labelling

73.Lookatthelistofitemsthatwouldbeusefulonacampingholiday.Choosethesixmostusefulones.Putanumber1-6againsteachitemtoshowwhicharemostuseful,thendiscussyouranswer.

A.visualisation

B.role-play

C.rankordering

73.Writedownallthereasonsyoucanthinkofthatsupportthissuggestion.Thenputthem into a logical order and use this plan to write your essay. After you havewritten it,makesureyoueditandproofreadit.

A.guidedwriting

B.processwriting

C.creativewriting

Forquestions75-80,lookatthetermsaboutassessmentandthethreeactivitieslistedA,BandC.

Twooftheactivitiesareexamplesoftheterm.OneactivityisNOT.

Marktheletter(A,BorC)whichisNOTanexampleofthetermonyouranswersheet.

75.formativeassessment

A.Theteacheraskslearnerstocompletesentenceswiththecorrectformofthewordinbrackets.

B.Theteacherusesherobservationsofgroupworktodividetheclassintothreenewgroupsaccordingtotheirability.

C.Theteachergivesdifferenttaskstodifferentlearnersbasedontheirresponsestoatest.

76.summativeassessment

A.At theendof thecoursetheteachergiveseach learneradviceonhowtocontinuetheirstudies.

B.Attheendofthecoursethelearnerstakeatestonthecontentoftheterm’swork.

C.At theendof the term the teachergives the learnersagrade forpresentationsoftheirprojectwork.

77.portfolio

A.The learnerscarryoutaprojectoverseveralweeks thengive theirsurveyresults,videos,andacommentarytotheteachertograde.

B.The learnersdoapieceofhomeworkeachweek,andgive it in to the teacher to

grade.

C. The learners put into a folder examples of theirwork throughout the term for theteachertograde.

78.diagnostictest

A. The teacher interviews each new learner and takes notes on the strengths andweaknessesintheirgrammar,vocabularyandpronunciation.

B.Theteacherusestheresultsfromatesttodecidewhichcoursebookisbestforhernewclass.

C. The teacher asks the class to discuss in groups what their problems are withlearningEnglish.

79.continuousassessment

A.Attheendofeverythirdweek,thelearnersfillinaquestionnairefortheteacheronhowgoodtheythinktheirEnglishis.

B. The teacher checks each week that the learners always proofread their writingbeforehandingitin.

C. The learners bring in a favourite toy eachweek and tell the others about it. Theteacherlistensandcompletesachecklist.

80.proficiencytest

A. The hotel always interviews all new job applicants to see how good their hotelEnglishis.

B.Theuniversityaskedallthestudentsapplyingtoenter,togiveapresentationtoseehowgoodtheiracademicEnglishwas.

C. The teacher interviewed all her students on a topic they had covered during theterm.

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Part1.PlanningandpreparingalessonorsequenceoflessonsPart2.SelectionanduseofresourcesTKTModule2Practicetest2.1

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM

Module2.Lessonplanninganduseofresourceforlanguageteaching

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule2.Lessonplanninganduseofresourceforlanguageteaching

Unit19.IdentifyingandselectingaimsUnit20.IdentifyingthedifferentcomponentsofalessonplanUnit21.PlanninganindividuallessonorasequenceoflessonsUnit22.Choosingassessmentactivities

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM

Part1.Planningandpreparingalessonorsequenceoflessons

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule2.LessonplanninganduseofresourceforlanguageteachingàPart1.Planningandpreparingalessonorsequenceoflessons

*Howdoweidentifyandselectaims?

Aimsdescribewhatwewant learners to learnorbeable todo (ordobetter)at theendofa lesson,asequence(i.e.aseries)of lessonsorawholecourse.Aimsmayfocus,forexample,onagrammaticalstructureorafunction,onthevocabularyofaparticulartopic,or on developing a language skill. Aims, especially for younger learners, may not alwaysfocusonparticularareasoflanguage.Forexample,theaimofalessoncouldbelisteningtoa story for pleasure or encouraging a positive attitude towards the foreign language. Toidentify and select the most appropriate aims, we need to ask ourselves these keyquestions:

Whatdomylearnersalreadyknow?(orWhatcantheyalreadydo?)

Whatdotheyneedtoknow?(orWhatdotheyneedtodo?)

*Keyconcepts

In order to identify and select the most appropriate aims for a particular group oflearners,weneedtoconsiderwhatwillhelpthemtotakethenextstepintheirlearning.Thismaybenewlanguage,furtherpracticeoflanguagetheyalreadyknow,skillsdevelopmentorpractice,or revisionof languagetheyhavemet in thepastbutarenotusingconfidently,oraccurately.

Look at the table. Can you work out what the difference is between main aims,subsidiaryaimsandpersonalaims?

Mainaim Subsidiaryaims Personalaims

To practise makingpolite requests in thecontext of makingholidayarrangements.

Exampleexponent:

Could you give mesomeinformationabouthotels?

Grammar: to revisemodal auxiliary verbs.Functional exponents;Could/Would you...?Vocabulary: toconsolidate lexis fortravel,accommodation.

Phonology: to focusonintonation.Speaking:togive controlled oral

To improve myorganisation of thewhiteboard.

To give clearerexamples

Unit19.Identifyingandselectingaims

practice

A main aim, like the one above, describes the most important thing we want thelearnerstoachieveinalessonorsequenceoflessons.Forexample,wemaywantlearnersto understand and practise using new language; to reinforce or consolidate (i.e. to makestronger)theuseoflanguagetheyalreadyknowbygivingthemfurtherpractice;ortoreviselanguagetheyhaverecentlylearnt.Ifthemainaimistoteachnewlanguage,thelessonplanshouldalsoincludeanexampleofthetargetlanguageweareplanningtoteach.

Aswellasamainaim,alessonmayalsohavesubsidiaryaims.Subsidiaryaimsshowthelanguageorskills learnersmustbeabletousewell inordertoachievethemainaimofthelesson.Intheexampleonpage127,themainaimistopractisemakingpoliterequests;the subsidiary aims describe the language and skill that learnerswill need tomake theserequests. Subsidiary aims usually contain language that is already known to the learners.Stating bothmain and subsidiary aims is a goodwayofmaking sure that our lessonplanfocusesonwhatwewantourlearnerstolearn,ortobeabletodo.Itenablesustoseehowthe lesson should develop, from one stage (or part) to the next, building up our learners'knowledgeorskillsinthebestpossibleorder.

Inadditiontothemainandsubsidiaryaims,alessonplanwillalsoincludeanumberofstageaims,describingtheparticularpurposeofeachstage(orshortsection)ofthelesson.Lookattheexamplesofstageaimsinthisextractfromalessonplan.

Procedure Stageaims

Show students pictures of variousholiday destinations. Ask them totalkabouttheirlastholiday

To contextualise the topic ofholidays

Tell two short stories aboutholidays (one true, one untrue).Invite students to ask questionsand then to guess which story istrue

To give students a model for thespeakingactivity

Allowtimeforstudentstoplantheirown story, which may be true ornot

To give students time to plan theirspeaking

Ingroupsstudentstelltheirstories. Togivestudentsfluencypractice.

The rest of the group askquestionsandguess if thestory istrueornot

Toprovideopportunitiestopractisethe sequence of tenses in aspokennarrative

Byidentifyingaseparateaimforeachstageofthelessonwecanbesurethatthereisaclearpurposeforeachactivitythatweplan,whichcontributestothemainaimofthewholelesson. Individual stage aims also help us to check that the activities in the' lesson arerelevanttoourmamaimandthattheyarearrangedinthebestpossiblesequence.Lookingthroughasequenceofstageaimsisaverygoodwaytounderstandthelearningprogressionofalesson.

Identifying and selecting main and subsidiary aims are the first steps in planning alesson.Oncewehavedecidedontheseaims,wecandesignorselectthemostappropriatestageaimsandactivities,puttheminthebestorderandchoosethemostsuitableteachingaidsandmaterials.Afterthelesson,wecanlookbackatthispartoftheplantoseewhetherwehaveachievedouraims,i.e.whetherwehavesucceededinteachingwhatweplannedtoteach.Thisalsohelpsustoselectthemostappropriateaimsforfuturelessons.

In addition to learning aims, wemay also want to think about our personal aims asteachers.Personal aimsshowwhatwewould like to improveor focuson inour teaching.Likethosegiveninthefirsttableabove,thesemightbeaboutimprovingthewaywehandlematerialsandteachingaids(thingswecanusetosupportourteachingintheclassroom)orparticular teaching techniques, or they might be about our relationship with the learners.Herearesomemoreexamples:

tomakemoreuseofthephonemicchart(aposterwithphonemicsymbols)

togetlearnerstoworkwithdifferentpartners

togetquieterlearnerstoanswerquestions.



- The syllabus (i.e. the course programme) and/or the coursebook will give us ageneraldirectionforplanningourteaching.Tospecifymainaimsforaparticularlesson(i.e.to sayexactlywhat theaimsare),we think about our learners' needsand the stage theyhavereachedintheirlearning.

-Aimsarenotthesameasprocedures.Aimsdescribewhatthelearnerswill learnorwhattheywillbeabletodowiththelanguage,whileprocedures-forexample,listeningtoa

recordingandansweringquestions -arewhat the teacherand learneidoateachstageofthelesson.

-Ourmainaimsshouldnotbeloogeneral.Aimssuchas'toteachthepastsimple'or'todeveloplearners'readingskills'donotsayenoughaboutthepurposeofthelesson.Morespecific(orexact)aimsmightbe'tointroduceandpractisethepastsimplefortalkingaboutpersonalexperiences'or'togivelearnerspracticeinpredictingcontent,scanningforspecificinformationanddeducingmeaningfromcontext'

-Anotherwayof lookingatmainaims is to thinkabout the lesson from the learners'pointof view. Insteadofusing infinitives todescribewhat the teacherplans todo (e.g. 'tointroduce 'topractisemanyteachersprefer todescribe the learners'objectives,or learningoutcomes(e.g.'Bytheendofthelesson,learnerswillbeabletousepoliterequeststoaskforinformation').

- Once we have identified the most appropriate main aim for a particular lesson, itshouldbeeasiertomakedecisionsabouteverythingelse,e.g.theselectionofmaterialsandactivities,theorganisationoftheclassroom,procedure,timingofdifferentstages,thestageaims.

- Learners of all ages find it helpful to knowwhy theyare do.ng things. It is often agoodideatoannounceourmainaims(ortowritethemupontheboard)atthebeginningofthelesson,and/ortorepeatthemattheend.

- Sometimes there may be good reasons for not announcing a lesson's main aimsimmediately. For example, you may want the learners to discover something about thelanguageduringthelesson,ortoidentifyaneedfornewlanguage,withoutknowingtheaimofthelessoninadvance.Inalessonlikethis,itwillbeimportanttoannounceorelicittheaimat theendof the lesson,so thatyoucanbesure the learnersknowwhat theyhavedone,andwhy.

-Foryoungerlearnerstheaimsofalessoncanbedescribedinverysimplelanguage,focusingon the things theywilldo in the lessonand the languageknowledge theywill takeaway from it: for example, Todaywe're going to read a story and learn how to describepeopleinEnglish'.

See Unit 20 for identifying the different components of a lesson plan, Unit 21 forplanninganindividuallessonorasequenceoflessons,andUnits24-26fortheselectionanduseofmaterials,activitiesandaids.


Theprocedures.in the tableshowasequenceofactivities fora lessonwith themainaimofdevelopingstudents'confidenceandskills inreadingauthentictexts.Thestageaimsfor the lesson (A-H)are in thewrongorder.Put them in the rightorderso theymatch theprocedures.

Procedure Stageaims

1. Students move around theclassroom to find partners withnewspaper headlines about thesamestory

A.4 topractisededucingmeaningfromcontext

2. In pairs, they exchange ideasabout what they find difficult inreadingauthentictexts

B. to check students’understanding of what they havereadandactivatelanguage

3. They say what they think theirstory will be about from theheadlines and make notes of themainpointstheyexpecttoread

C.

-toreadforgist

-tocheckpredictions

4. Pairs read the two newspaperstories and compare them withtheirnotes

D. to use limited information topredictpossiblecontent

5. They list the similarities anddifferences between the twonewspaperstories

E.

-togetstudentsactivelyinvolved

toputstudentsintopairs

6. They try to work out themeaningsofnewwords,using thelanguagethattheyknowinthetext

F. to read for more detailedinformation

7. They prepare and give a shortpresentationontheirarticlestotherestoftheclass

G.

-toreviewthewholelesson

-togivetheteacherfeedback

8. Teacher asks students to

H.

- to raise awareness of what the

summarisewhattheyhavedone lessonaimwillbe

- to encourage personalinvolvement

Reflection


1.Idon'thavetothinkaboutaims-they'reallthereintheteacher'sbook.

2.Iliketodiscovermyaimsduringthelesson-bylisteningtomystudentsandfindingoutwhat theyknow,andwhat theyneed to learn,oftenmyaimsaren'tdearuntilafter thelesson!

3.Studentswant to learnnewwordsandget thegrammar right - theydon'tneed toknowmyaims.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Thinkabout the last lesson you taught fromyour coursebook.Was theaimof thelessontheonegiveninthebook,ordidyouhaveyourownaim?MakenotesinyourTeacherPortfolio onwhy the aims given in your coursebookwere / were not appropriate for yourlearners

2.InyourTeacherPortfolio,yourmainaims;subsidiaryaims,stageaimsandpersonalaims for the last lessonyou taughtarid thenextoneyouareplanning for-thesameclass.Cantheybeimprovedinanyway?

3.Forusefulideasaboutselectinganddescribingaims,lookat:

Section 10.2.2 'Establishing goals and objectives' of Teaching and Learning in theLanguageClassroomby,TridaHedge,OxfordUniversityPress2000,

Chapter 6, Section 5 Lesson Aims' of Learning teaching (Second edition) by JimScrivener;Macmillan2005

Thefirstsection'Planning'ofActionPlanforTeachers-AGuidetoTeachingEnglishbyCallumRobertsonwithRichardAcklam,downloadablefreefrom:

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/try/resources/books/action-plan-teachers


Forquestions1-7,match the teacher’s instructionswith thestageaims fromdifferentlessonslistedA-H.


Stageaims

A.todeveloplearners’awarenessofintonationpatterns

B.togivelearnerslesscontrolledoralpractice

C.toencouragelearnerstorecycleknownvocabularyitems

D.toprovideanopportunityforpeerassessment

E.todeveloplearners’skillinlisteningfordetail

F.togivelearnerspracticeinlisteningforgist

G.toprovideanopportunityforself-correction

H.tochecklearners’readingcomprehension

Teacher’sinstructions

1. What words can you think of which are connected with the weather? With yourpartnermakealistofasmanyasyoucan.

2. Look at the first line of the dialogue in your books.Will theman’s voice go up ordown?

3. You’re going to hear three conversations and then tell me what the people aretalkingabout.

4.NowI’mgoingtoplaytheconversationagain.Putthepicturesintothecorrectorder.

5Practisethedialoguewithyourpartner,usingthepromptsontheboard.

6. Get together with another pair and listen to their dialogue. Make a note of anyfeaturesofconnectedspeechtheycouldimprove.

7.Practiseyourdialogueagainandmakeanychangesyouthinkwillimproveit.

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*Howdoweidentifythedifferentcomponentsofalessonplan?

Doyouthinkalessonplanismostlike...

aninstructionleaflet

aphotograph

astory

aroadmap

acomputerprogramme

aseriesofroadsigns

awrittensummarysomethingelse?

A lesson plan is a set of notes that helps us to think throughwhat we are going toteachandhowwearegoing to teach it. Italsoguidesusduringandafter the lesson.Wecanidentify themost importantcomponents(orparts)ofa lessonplanbythinkingcarefullyaboutour learners,whatwewantour learnerstodoandhowwewantthemtodoit.Soalessonplan isprobablymost likearoadmaporaseriesof roadsigns, i.e.something thatshows us where we are going and how we are going to get there - although we maysometimesfindthatduringthejourneywehavetotakeadifferentroute!

*Keyconcepts

Themaincomponentsofalessonplanshowuswhatthelessonisfor(theaims),whatthe teacher and the learners will do during the lesson and how they will do it (theprocedures).Other components of the plan, for example, the timing of different stages ortheprofileofthegroup,helpustothinkaboutpossibleproblemsandremindusofthingsweneedtorememberaboutthelearners.

Herearesomewaysalessonplanhelpstheteacher.

Before thelesson

Writingdowntheaimsandtheproceduresforeachstageofthelessonhelpsustomakesurethatwehaveplannedthe clearest and most logical sequence to enable us toachievethoseaims

During theTheplancanalsohelpus tochecktiming(theamountoftimeweplanforeachstage)andtocheckthatthelesson

Unit20.Identifyingthedifferentcomponentsofalessonplan

lesson is following the sequence we decided on and remind uswhattodonext

After thelesson

We can keep the plan as a record of what happened,making any changes necessary to show how the lessonwasdifferentfromtheplan.Wecanthenusetheplanandnotestohelpplanthenextlesson

Whenweplanalesson,weaskourselvesanumberofquestions.

Look at the lesson plan components and the questions below,which components doyouthinkshouldalwaysappear?Whichonesmayonlyappearsometimes?

Lessonplancomponents

Classprofile Whoareweplanningthelessonfor?

TimetablefitHow is the lesson connected to the lastlessonand/orthenextone?

Mainaim(s)Whatdowewantlearnerstolearnortobeabletodobytheendofthelesson?

SubsidiaryaimsWhatelsedolearnersneedtobeabletododuringthe lessontoenablethemtoachievethemainaim?

StageaimsWhat is the purpose of each stage of thelesson?

PersonalaimsWhat aspects of our own teaching do wewanttodeveloporimprove?

AssumptionsWhatdowe think learnersalreadyknoworcanalreadydorelatedtotheaims?

Anticipatedproblems

What may learners find difficult in thelesson? what may they not be used todoing? What may they not feel confidentabout?

PossiblesolutionsWhat action will we take to deal with theanticipatedproblems?

Teaching aids, materials,equipment

What should we remember to take to thelesson?

ProceduresWhat are the tasks and activities for eachstage?

TimingWhat length of time will we need for eachstage?

InteractionpatternsInwhichwayswilllearnersworkatdifferentstages, i.e. individually, in pairs, in groups,asawholeclass?

HomeworkWhat further work will learners need to dobeforethenextlesson?

Somelessonplansmaynotincludeallofthese,components.Butwhenwe'replanninglessons, it's always important to ask ourselves these questions. So all the componentstogethergiveusagoodwayofcheckingthatwehavethoughtaboutourlearnersandaboutthe lesson, and anticipated any difficulties thatmight arise. For example,wemight plan amingle as away of practising specific question forms, anticipate that studentsmay find aquickwayofcompletingthetaskwithoutpractisingthetargetlanguage,andworkoutsomeextrainstructionstoremindthemwhatthey-havetodo.


Look carefully at this lesson plan,which aims to introduce and practise language fordescribingpeople'Thenreadthepointsbelow.


Level and number of.learners/classprofile

24studentsatIntermediate(B2)level

TimetablefitStudents have already worked on simpledescriptionsofpeople

Mainaim(s)To extend range of vocabulary for describingpeopleOralfluencypractice

SubsidiaryaimsStudents use appropriate language for basicphysicaldescriptions

Studentscanusepresentsimple&pastsimple

Assumptions todescribehabitsandpastevents

AnticipatedproblemStudentsmay be unwilling to repeat the sametaskinthelaststageofthelesson

PossiblesolutionIf necessary, suggest that students reportdescription from their original partner ratherthanrepeatingtheirown

Timing Procedure StageaimsAids andmaterials

Interactionpattern

5minutesStudents talkabout theirfamilies

Warmer/lead-in: to getstudentstalkingand introducethetopic

Familyphotographsbrought in bystudents

Pairwork

10minutes

Studentsselectappropriateadjectives tocompletedescriptionsof familymembers intranscripts ofmini-dialogues

To introducenewvocabulary

Short gappedtranscriptsRecordeddialogues CDplayer

Individualwork ->pairwork

Theylistentothe mini-dialoguesand checkanswers

intensivelistening

Teacher ->wholeclass

Studentsexchange

To givestudentsfluencypractice:

Pairwork

10minutes informationabout theirown familymembers

describingpersonalities,habitualbehaviour andspecific pastevents

(none) (Teachermonitors)

10minutes

Teachergivesfeedback onlanguageused

To highlightneed for newlanguage

To introducenewlanguage

Teacher’snotesWhiteboard

Teacher ->wholeclass

Students dogap-filltask

To focus onaccuracy

WorksheetIndividualwork

10minutes

Studentsrepeat familydescriptiontask

To provide anopportunity forstudents toimprove theirspokenperformance

To givestudentsfurther fluencypractice

(none)Pairwork(newpartners)


-Whenwemakea lessonplan,weneed tobe sureabout the learning rationale (orreasons) for the plan, to ask ourselves how the procedureswill help to achieve ourmainaimsandtomakesuretherearestrongconnectionsbetweenthedifferentstages.

-Wealsoneedtobuildinvariety,i.e.howwecanusedifferentactivitytypes,languageskills and interaction patterns. Learners of all ages need variety, but this is especiallyimportantforyoungerlearners,whoneedfrequentchangesofactivity.

-A lessonplancan includestageswhichwecan leaveout ifnecessary.Wecanalsoinclude some different possibilities in a lesson plan, e.g. activities for differentiation or an

extraactivitytouseiflearnerstakelesstimethanexpectedtocompleteatask,orifwearenotsurehowwellpartsoftheplanwillwork.

-It'sagoodideatokeeplessonplansassimpleaspossible,sonotesarebetterthanfullsentences,andthere'snoneedtodescribeeverystepingreatdetail.However,wemaywant towrite down some important things in a complete form - for example, prompts fordrilling,questionstochecklearners'understanding,instructions,etc.

-A lessonplanshouldbedearandeasy to readduring the lesson.Differentcolours,boxes,underlining,etc.areuseful.Itisoftenhelpfultoincludedrawingsofthewaytheboardwilllookatdifferentstages.

- A lesson plan can be divided into two parts. These are called background andprocedure, and you can see this division in the lessonplanabove.The components in thebackgroundcome from thinking carefullyaboutwhoour studentsare,what theyneedandwhatcontextthathelpsustowritetheprocedurepartoftheplan.

SeeUnit19foridentifyingandsesequenceoflessons.


Some parts of this extract from a lesson plan aremissing. Put the notesA-E in thecorrectplacesintheplan.


Timetablefit 1

Mainaim(s) 2

Subsidiaryaim(s)3. To listen to authentic spokenEnglish

Personalaim(s) 4

Assumptions5. Students will find the topicmotivating

Anticipatedlanguageproblems6. Students may make lots ofmistakes

Possiblesolution 7

Procedures 8

A.Topractisegivinganinformalspokensummary.

B.Students listen twice to thestory, then in theirgroupsprepareaspokensummary.Groupspresenttheirsummariesandreceivefeedbackfromtherestoftheclass,

C.Berealisticabouttiming.

D.Correctonlyseriouserrors;ignoremistakesthatdon'tcausemisunderstanding.

E.Toconsolidateworkonreportedspeech.

Reflection


1.Iknowmyclasses,soIdon’thavetolistallthecomponentsineverylessonplan.

2. I always try to thinkabout timetable fit –whatwedid in the last lessonandwhatwe’regoingtodointhenextone

3.It’simportanttothinkaboutthingsthatmighttowrong,soIalwayswritesomethingaboutanticipatedproblems

DiscoveryActivities

1.LookatChapter8 (Whydid Ido it like this?)ofchildren learningEnglishbyJayneMoon, Macmillan 2000, for some useful examples of lesson plans in different styles andformats

2. Exchange ideas with colleagues on how to write a lesson plan. Try on differentapproaches to planning and make notes on what works best for you in your TeacherPortfolio

3.Forideasonlessonplanning,lookatChapter12(Howtoplanlesson)fromHowtoTeachEnglish(secondedition)byJeremyHarmer,Longman2007,andtwoshortarticlesonplanningbyCallumRobertson,BBCEnglishat:http://www.teachingenglish.org

4.Formoredetailedadviceonplanningand furtherexamplesofhow towriteaplan,look at Chapter 22, sections A, B1-3 and C of the practice of English language teaching(fourthedition)byJeremyHarmer,PearsonEducationLtd2007,andChapter8ofTeachingPractice Handbook (second edition) by Roger Gower, Diane Phillips and Steve Walters,Macmillan1995.

5. For lesson plans on a wide variety of topics that you can download free, visit:http://www.onestopenglish.com

TheBritishCouncilinRomaniaofferanELTlessonplanoftheweekwithlinkstoallthematerialsyouneedforeachlessonat:http://www.britishcouncil.org

TKTpracticetask20(seepage245foranswers)

http://www.onestopenglish.com

http://www.britishcouncil.org

For questions 1-7, look at the lesson plan components and the three extracts fromlessonplanslistedA,BandC.

Twooftheextractsareexamplesofthecomponent.OnesentenceisNOT.

Choose the letter (A, B or C) of the sentence which is NOT an example of thecomponent.

1.Personalaim

A.toimprovethetimingofthelesson

B.toincludeallthelearnersinfeedback

C.tocheckunderstandingofnewlexicalitems

2.Assumptions

A.LearnersmaycomefromChina,SpainandThailand.

B.Thetextwillbeausefulchallengeforthisgroup,

C.Learnersarefamiliarwiththetopic.

3.Procedure

A.Learnersmingletodoasurvey.

B.TheteacherpreparesaPowerPointpresentation,

C.Theteachercheckstheanswers.

4.Classprofile

A.Thelearnersareatpre-intermediatelevel.

B.Mostofthelearnershaveavisuallearningstyle,

C.Thelearnersareallreliable.

5.Anticipatedproblems

A.Learnersmayfindthetexttoolong.

B.Theaccentscouldbedifficulttounderstand,

C.Learnerscandeducemeaningfromcontext.

6.Interactionpatterns

A.pairwork

B.self-access

C.teacher/wholeclass

7.Timetablefit

A.toprepareforprojectwork

B.toconsolidaterevisionoftenses

C.tointroducenewlanguage

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Howdoweplananindividuallessonorasequenceoflessons?

Whenweplanan individual lesson,wethinkabout itsaims,howtoachievethem, the'shape' of the lessonand the kindof techniques that aremost appropriate for aparticulargroupoflearners.Forexample,ifweareintroducinganewgrammaticalstructure,wemightchooseaPresentation,PracticeandProduction(PPP)approachoraTask-basedLearning(TBL)approach.Skillslessons,too,haveregularshapesthatwecanusetoorganiselessonplans:forexample,forreceptiveskills,weusuallyplantasksoractivitiesfor learnerstodobefore, while and after reading or listening; for productive skills, there is usually anintroductory stage to set the scene (i.e. to explain the context), and maybe input newlanguage,andafeedbackstageafterthespeakingorwritingactivity.

We also think about the connections between the aims of the lesson and theprocedures we use to achieve those aims, as well as answers to the other backgroundcomponentsmentioned inUnit20.Theavailablematerials, the lengthof the lessonand theinformationwehaveaboutour learnersall helpus to identifypossibleprocedures.But themost important thing is tomakesure that thematerials, tasksandactivitiesweselectaretheonesthatwillhelpaparticulargroupoflearnerstoachievetheaimwehaveidentified.

A sequence of lessons is a number of related lessons that develop languageknowledge and/or language skills over a period of time. Sequencesmay develop a singletopic or language area, or may involve topics or language areas that are very closelyconnected.Herearethreeexamples:

StructuralsequenceIntegrated skillssequence

Projectworksequence

1.revision:pastsimple

2. revision: presentperfect

3.contrast:pastsimplevs.presentperfect

1. vocabularydevelopment:describing places(function:describing)

2. reading: choosing aholiday

3. writing: letter to afriend narrating holidayexperiences (function:

1.readingandlisteningabout free-timeactivities

2. class survey andresearch: sport andentertainment

3. preparation of aposter display to showresults of surveyabout

Unit21.Planninganindividuallessonorasequenceoflessons

narrating) free-timeactivities

*Keyconcepts

Planninganindividuallesson

Whenweplananindividuallesson,weaskourselvesanumberofquestions:

-Whatismyoverallaim?

-Willthetopicbeinterestingandmotivatingformylearners?

-Whatare the learningoutcomes?(i.e.Whatdo Iwant thestudents tohave learnedbytheendofthelesson?)

-Aretheactivitiesandteachingmaterialsattherightlevelforallthelearners?

-HaveIplannedenoughforthetimeavailable?DoIneedanyextramaterial?

-HaveIplannedtoolittleortoomuchforthetimeavailable?

- Does each step (nr stage) in the lesson help to achieve the aim9 Are there anystages1cancutifnecessary?

-Dothesteps/stagesdeveloplogicallyoutofoneanother/makelearningeasier?

-HaveIthoughtaboutexactlyhowtostartandendthelesson?

-ArethereanyaspectsofthelessonwhichIshouldstateaspersonalaims?

Theanswers to thesequestionswillhelp toensure thatour lessonplan ismotivating,coherentandattheappropriatelevel.Thequestionswillalsohelpustothinkaboutimportantcomponentsof theplan, suchasmaterials, stages, timing,andhow tostartand finish thelesson.

Here are two sets of notes from the procedure sections of lesson plans, one for alessonintroducingandpractisingnewlanguage,andtheotherforaskills-basedlesson,whatdifferencescanyouseeintheoverallshapeofthetwotypesoflesson?

Lesson 1 (Introducing newlanguage)

Lesson 2 (Developing readingskills)

1. Warmer/Lead-in: studentsdescribe contrasting pictures oftwocities.

2. Reading task: students readarticle comparing the cities in the

1. Warmer/lead-in: teacher asksstudents about topic (healthyeating)

2. Pre-teach vocabulary: pairscompleteworksheet

pictures.

3. Focus on form 1: studentsnotice forms used in text forcomparison.

4. Focus on form 2: studentsdeduce rules for formation ofcomparativeadjectives.

5. Controlled practice: studentsapply rules tocompleteworksheetexercise.

6.Speakingtask:inpairs,studentsmake further comparisons basedonpicturesofdifferentplaces.

7. Homework (writing): studentsproduce a similar text comparingsecondpairofpictures

3. Gist reading task (text: letterrequesting advice): identifyaddressee (magazine advicecolumn)

4. Detailed reading task 1 (textorganisation): students matchjumbled paragraph summaries tothetext

5. Detailed reading task 2(sentence-level comprehension):true/falsetask

6. Extension (speaking):discussion/brainstorm ideas torespondtoletter

7. Homework (writing): reply toletter

Although language lessons vary in the sequence of stages (perhaps, as in PPPlessons, focusing first on language, or, as in TBL lessons, starting with language in use),they always include some attention to formal features of language, with tasks that givelearnersmoreorlesscontrolledpracticeofparticularstructures.

Skills-based lessons,however,aimatdeveloping learners'abilities inreceptiveand/orproductive languageskills,and rather than focusingonparticular language items, theygivelearners the opportunity to work on specific subskills, though subsidiary aims and theirrelatedproceduresmaywellfocusonlanguage.

Planningasequenceoflessons

Aschemeofworkhelpsusplanasequenceof lessons in thebestway tocover theschool syllabusor theunitsofa coursebook in the timeavailable. It alsohelpsus to thinkaboutwhatwewanttoachieveandwhatmaterialswemightneed.Andithelpsustoincludeenoughvarietyacrossourlessons.Teacherandlearnersneedclearaimsbeyondthesinglelessonandneedtoseehowlessonsarelinkedtoeachother.

Herearesomeexamplesofschemesofwork:

SchemeA SchemeB SchemeC

Week3-Grammar

-Vocabulary

- Grammar revision(pasttenses)

- Vocabulary (free-timeactivities)

- Practice exercise(fromcoursebook)

- Class discussion ofadvantages anddisadvantages of livinginthecity

- Revise and extendvocabulary

- Focus on comparativeand superlativeadjectives and adverbs;practiceexercise

Week4-Listening

-Speaking

-Checkvocabulary

-Reading(emails)

- Speaking-fluencyactivities

- Reading: personalstories: students ordersectionsoftext

- Focus on textorganisation

-Writing: students’ ownstories

-Peercorrection(wherestudents correct oneanother)

Week5-Reading

-Writing

- Quick revision:work from weeks 3and4

- Listening (e.g.holidaystory)

- Grammar focus(reportedspeech)

- Writing (report ofstory)

- Listening: song-grouptranscription

- Grammar game(snakesand ladders) torevise work oncomparatives andsuperlatives

-Pronunciationpractice:focuson/e/

Week6 -Test- Speaking (role-play)

- Review of grammarandtopic

-Groupwork:producing

-Feedback sections of touristbrochure for students’town

Howdetailedshouldschemesofworkbe?

Schemes of work are not as detailed as lesson plans. Like any individual lesson, asequence of lessons should have a logical and learning-friendly progression (where onestage leads toanother inaclearorder)andagoodbalanceofapproachesandactivities.Like a lesson plan, a scheme of work helps us to identify our aims and make sure wechoosematerialsandproceduresthatmatchthoseaims.

A very detailed scheme of work (like example c above) gives us a dear sense ofdirection,but it isoftendifficulttopredicthowlearners'needsdevelop,sowemayneedtochangethescheme.Averybroadscheme(likeexampleA)withoutmuchdetail, leavestheteachermuchfreertorespondtolearners'needs,butdoesn'tgiveanyremindersofaimsormaterials for individual lessons. The most useful approach is probably one that includessomedetailandgives.Theteacherasenseofdirection(likeexampleB),butleaveshim/herfreetoaddtoitweekbyweektomakeitintoaseriesoflessonplans.


Varietyisveryimportantbothinasinglelessonandinasequenceoflessons.Ithelpskeeplearnersinterestedandinvolved.It'smuchbettertoavoidalwaysdoingthesamekindsofthingsinthesameorder,e.g.alwaysbeginningthelessonwithapersonalstoryoralwaysendingwitharole-play.Thereareseveraldifferentwaysofintroducingvarietyintolessons.

Hereisalistofthingswecanvarynotonlytomakeourlessonsinteresting,butalsotosuitdifferentlearningstyles:

pace->quickandfast-moving,orslowandreflective

interactionpattern->individual,pairs,groups,wholeclass

skill->productiveorreceptive

levelofdifficulty->non-demanding,orrequiringeffortandconcentration

content->changingfromonelanguagepointtoanother;fromonesubjecttoanother

mood->lightorserious,happyorsad;tenseorrelaxed

excitingorcalmingactivities->‘stirring’(livelyandactive)or‘settling’(quieteningdown)

(adaptedfromACourseinLanguageTeaching

byPennyUr,CambridgeUniversityPress1996)

Readthesetip'sandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou.

- Learnersmaywell requiremore frequent revision than the coursebook provides. Aschemeofworkisagoodwaytomakesurethatwerecyclelanguage(i.e.useitagain)andincluderegularrevisionactivitiesduringasequenceoflessons.

- Coursebook units are often arranged around a specific topic (such as sport orrelationships),whichmay be a usefulway of linking together a sequence of lessons. Thiskindofsequencegivesusthechancetodevelopparticularareasofvocabulary,butlearnersmayfeelthatthelessonsarerepetitive,soweneedvarietyoftextsandtasks.

-Whenplanninglessonswemayneedtothinkabouttheneedsofindividuallearnersorgroupsof learners,e.g. those thatalways finish first, those thatcan'tconcentrate for long,etc. A coursebook can't provide material and activities for needs that are specific to ourgroups of learners. This means wemay need to plan parts of the lesson that adapt thecoursebookorworkwithsupplementarymaterialsoractivities.

See Units 5-8 for discussion of skills-based lessons, Unit 19 for identifying andselectingaims,andUnit20foridentifyingthedifferentcomponentsofalessonplan.


Thelessonplanbelowaimsto introduceandpractise languagefordescribingpeople.Putthestagesofthelesson(A-G)intothecorrectorder(1-7).Onestagehasbeendoneforyou.

[]APresentnewvocabularyandcheckpronunciation:lexica]setsfordescribingpeople(flashcardsandboarddrawings)

[]BVideo(TVpolicedrama):consolidatelisteningandspeakingactivitiesandprovidemodelsforfreeroralwork

[]CSpeaking:role-playinpairs:policeinterviews-»whole-classcorrection

[3]DComprehension:matchingpicturestospokendescriptions

[]EControlledpractice:describe-and-drawactivity(pairwork)

[]FWriting:descriptionsofpeopleandplaces(freerpracticeoffunctionallanguage)

[] G Listening: listening to descriptions of people to contextualise and check newlanguage

Reflection


1. I just have to finish the coursebook by the end of the school year, so that's myschemeofwork.

2.PlanningasequenceoflessonshelpsmetoseehowI'mcoveringthesyllabus,andithelpsmylearners,too.

3.Idon'twanttodecidenowwhatI'llbedoingwithmyclassinthreeweeks'time,orevennextv/eek.Iprefertowaitandseewhattheyneed.

DiscoveryActitivities

1.Lookatthenextfewlessonsinyourcoursebook.Whatlinkscanyoufindfromoneunittothenext?Whatopportunitiesdoesthebookgiveyoutorecyclelanguage(i.e.tousethesamelanguageagaininadifferentcontext)andrevise?Iftherearenolinks,orveryfew,whatmaterialscouldyoubringtotheclasstoimprovetheconnectionsbetweenlessons?

2.For someverypractical ideasonplanning, lookatChapter7ofPlanningLessonsand Courses by Tessa Woodward, Cambridge University Press 2001, and PlanningClasswork:ATask-basedApproachbySheilaEstaireandJavierZanon,Macmillan1994.

3.Projectworkisagoodwayofplanningamotivatingsequenceoflessonswithplentyof variety. For ideas on planning project work and some good examples, look at thesewebsites:http://wiwv.teachingenglish.org

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/artides/project-work-teenagers

4. Find an example of a lesson plan (yours, a colleague's, on theweb) and analysewhythestepsareintheordertheyarein,whatthestageaimsareandwhytheinteractionpatternshavebeenselected;WriteupyouranswersinyourTeacherPortfolio.

5. Use the TKT Glossary to find the meanings 0Í these terms: encouragement,reinforce,specification.


Forquestions1-6,readthetwostepsfromeachlessonplanandchoosethenextstepfromtheoptionslistedA,Bandc.

1.Thelearnerslistentoadialoguebetweentwofriends.

Theylistenagainandanswertrue/falsequestions.

A.Thelearnerschecktheiranswersinpairs.

B.Thelearnershaveawhole-classdiscussionaboutfriendship,

C.Theteacherchecksunderstandingofinstructions.

http://wiwv.teachingenglish.org

2.Theteacherintroducesthecontextofadesertisland.

Theteacherputs learners inpairsandgivesthema listof itemsuseful for-survivalontheisland.

A.Thelearnerswriteastoryaboutlifeontheisland.

B.Thelearnersputtheitemsintorankorder,

C.Thelearnersdrawapictureoftheisland.

3.Theteachermimesastory.Thelearnersretellthestoryinpairs.

A.Theteacherchecksgistunderstandingusingatrue/falsetask.

B.Thelearnersdoajigsawreadingactivityonthestory,

C.Theteacherwritesthestoryontheboardasthelearnersdictateittoher.

4. The learners listen to the teacher telling a story about friendship. In groups, thelearnersworktogethertotellthestoryagain.

A.Theteacherchecksunderstandingoftargetlanguage.

B.Thelearnerswritethestory,

C.Thelearnerspractiseaskingforinformation.

5.Theteachermodelsthetargetlanguage.Thelearnersrepeatthemodel.

A.Theteacherintroducesnewvocabulary.

B.Theteacherannouncesthelessonaims,

C.Theteacherasksforindividualrepetition.

6. The learners listen to a description of three people and draw them. The teacherelicitsthevocabularysheusedinthedescriptionandwritesitontheboard.

A.Thelearnerslabeltheirpictures.

B.Thelearnersdrawapictureofthemselvesandlabelit.

C.Thelearnerscopythepicturesintotheirnotebook.

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*Howdowechooseassessmentactivities?

Assessment means collecting information about learners' performance, progress orattitudes in order to make judgements about their learning. We may choose to assessformally (through tests and examinations) or informally. We can carry out informalassessment during a lesson by monitoring (i.e. listening carefully) and observing learnerswhile they are doing ordinary classroom activities. To get other information about theprogressofindividuallearners,wecancarryoutformalassessment(e.g.aclasstest).

When planning assessment, we need to think first about our reasons for assessinglearners. Then we can decide when and how often to assess them, and choose whatmethodsofassessmentwearegoingtouse.

*Keyconcepts

In Unit 18 we looked at informal and formal assessment. We can summarise thedifferences between these two kinds of assessment under the headings of assessmenttasks,purposeandmarking:

Formalassessment Informalassessment

Assessmenttasks

-tests

-examinations

- normal classroom teachingandlearningactivities

-homeworktasks

Purpose

- toassessoverall languageability(proficiencytest)

- to assess learning at theend of a course(achievementtest)

- to assess learning at theend of part of a course(progresstest)

- to decide if learners cancontinuetothenextlevel.

- other, e.g. placement,

-feedbackfortheteacher(i.e.to find out how successful ourteachinghasbeen)

- to help the teacher improveproceduresorchoosedifferentmaterialsoractivitiesforfuturelessons

- feedback for learners aboutwhat they can do and whattheystillneedtoworkon

Unit22.Choosingassessmentactivities

diagnostic

Marking- learners receive grades(%,A-F,Pass/Fail,etc.)

- teacher keeps records ofprogress but does not givegrades

- learners keep records ofprogress

Look at these examples of formal assessment activities, what areas of languageknowledgeand/orskillscanweassesswiththeactivities?whichactivitiesproducethemostreal-lifeuseoflanguage?Whichactivitiesareeasierormoredifficulttomark?

Assessmentactivity Comments

Cloze test (Studentscomplete a text withevery nth word blankedout.)

Tests readingcomprehensionandknowledgeof grammar and lexis. May be difficult tomark, as gaps may allow more than oneanswer

Gap-fill (Studentscomplete a text withselected words blankedout.)

Tests knowledge of grammar and/or lexis.Theteacherhascontroloverwhichitemsaretested.Markingcanbedifficult,asgapsmayallowmorethanoneanswer

Reordering jumbledsentences

Tests grammatical knowledge, cohesion andawarenessofcollocation,objectivetask-type,easytomark

Sentence transformation('Complete thesentenceso that itmeans exactlythesame.’)

Tests knowledge of grammatical structuresandtherelationshipsbetweenthem

Proofreading (Studentscorrect mistakes in atext.)

Assesses learners’ awareness of error. Ahighly realistic task, which should encouragelearners to check their own writing.We canmake it easier by indicatingwhere there areerrors,ormoredifficultbyasking learners tofind the errors themselves and then correctthem

Multiple-choicequestions

Can test knowledge of grammar, lexis orother features of language, andcomprehension ofwritten or spoken text. Anobjectiveassessmenttypewithsinglecorrectanswers,andthereforeeasytomark

True / False / Don’tknow (T/F/DK)questions

Tests comprehension of written or spokentext. An objective assessment type withsingleanswers, and thereforeeasy tomark.Addingthe‘Don'tknow’optionmakesitmorechallenging,as learnerssearchawritten textmore thoroughly, or listen to a spoken textmoreattentively

Information transfer(from text to diagram,table,etc.)

Tests comprehension of written or spokentext.Easytoconstruct,butmaybedifficulttomark, as it may allow a range of possibleanswers

MatchingCan test lexis, other featuresof languageorcomprehension of written or spoken text.Easytoconstructandtomark

Sequencing (text orpictures)

Tests comprehension of written or spokentext. Good for testing understanding andproductionofnarrative.Easytomark

Dictation

Cantestawiderangeof language,i.e. lexis,grammar, listening,writing.Adirect testofacomplexcombinationofknowledgeandskills,butdifficulttomark

SummarywritingTests reading, writing and a wide range oflanguage knowledge. A realistic task, butdifficulttomark

Guided writing (inresponsetoinputtextorasetofinstructions)

Tests realistic written communication.Directedandcontrolledby the input textandinstructions,andthereforequiteeasytomark

Testsskillsofspokeninteraction.Canprovide

Interviewdirect assessment of learners’ ability to takepart in unplanned dialogue, testing listening,turn-takingandotherinteractiveskills,aswellas speaking in long turns (when someonespeaksinaconversationthisiscalledaturn)

Information-gap activity(students get missinginformation from apartner to complete atask)

Tests skills of spoken interaction. Creates areal need for communication. May producequite controlled language and so be easy tomark, or bemoreopen-endedand thereforesubjectiveinitsmarking

Everyassessmentactivityhasadvantagesanddisadvantages.Forthisreasonagoodformal test includes a variety of assessment activities. For example, activities such asmultiple-choice or true/false, which test single items, are easy to mark and give us clearinformation about specific areas of the learners' language knowledge. However, suchactivities,with a single focus, do not tell us anythingabout the learners' ability to producelonger samples of language. By contrast, activities such as interviews or summarywritingcangiveusmuchmoreinformationaboutlearners'languageknowledgeortheirabilitytousethelanguage.Butbecausetheseactivitiestestsomanythingsatthesametime, itmaybedifficultforustofocusonparticularareasofalearner'sperformance.

Single-focusactivities(e.g.multiple-choice,true/false)areverypracticaltodesignandcan give us reliable results, but they usually test knowledge about rather than use oflanguage,andsoareratherunrealistic,andcanhaveanegativeeffectonthewayweteach.Activitiesthatrequirelearnerstoproducewholetextsorlongersamplesofspokenlanguage,ontheotherhand,arefarlesspracticaltomarkandtheresultsmaynotbeveryreliable.Buttheyenablelearnerstoproducelanguagewhichisverysimilartothelanguagetheyneedtoproduceintherealworld.

Single-focusactivitiesareveryusefulforassessingreceptiveskills,wherewewanttocheck that learners have understood a text. We can best assess productive skills withextended activities (e.g. summary writing, interview). Although these are less practical tomark,theyhavetheadvantageofputtinglearnersinasituationwheretheyhavetousethelanguageinthesamewayasineverydaylife.

AsmentionedinUnit18,whenwedecidebetweensubjectiveandobjectivetesttypes,thereareadvantagesanddisadvantagestoconsider.Thesolutionisoftentousebothtypes

ofactivity.

The formal assessment activities discussed above are used to assess learners on asingleoccasion, likeaphotograph.Wecanuseaninformalassessmentactivity,continuousassessment or a portfolio, to assess students over time,more like a film. A portfolio cancontain all of the student's work for a period of time, or just a selection of the work.Sometimesitwillalso includesomekindofevaluationwrittenbythestudentofhis/herownwork.Bylookingatastudent’sportfoliowecanassesstheirprogressoveralongerperiodoftime.Portfolioscanbeusedbothforassessmentbytheteacherandforself-assessment.Thereareanumberofadvantagestoportfolioassessment:

-Portfoliosareeasytointegrateintoteachingandlearning,i.e.theycontainworkthatlearnersdoaspartoftheirnormalclassroomprogramme.

-Portfoliosareinclusive,i.e.theyincludethewholerangeoflearners'work,notjustafewtesttasks.

- Portfolios are informative, i.e. they provide a wide range of useful information forteachers, learners andparents, as they focusonproductive and receptive skills, and theyshowwhat learnerscandowith the language in theclassroomandoutside theclassroom,notjustintestsituations.

-Portfoliosaredevelopmental,i.e.assessmentiscontinuousratherthanbeingasingleevent, so they showhow learning is progressing, not justwhat the learner candoononeparticularday.

- Portfolios can also be reflective, when the owner of the portfolio (i.e. the student)writessomecommentsaboutthework,whichareincludedaspartoftheportfolio.

Portfolios can also have disadvantages: for example, the teacher may have a largeamount of marking at any one time and much of the marking may be quite subjective.Continuousassessment,inwhicheachpieceofworkthatthestudentgivesinthroughoutthetermcontributestoafinalmark,canovercometheproblemofhavinglotsofmarkingtodoatonetime.



-Whenwe use subjective tasks, such as oral interviews, letters and essays, to getinformationabout learners'generalability tousespokenandwritten language,wecanhelpmakethemarkingofthesetestsmorereliablebyusingassessmentcriteria(seeUnit18).

-Whenweprepareaclasstest,itisimportanttotestthemainthingswehavetaught,

and to includeanumber of different tasks, so thatweget a goodpictureof our learners'strengthsandweaknesses.

-Foryounglearners,weneedtochooseassessmenttasksverycarefully,makingsurethatthetasksarefamiliarandnottoodifficult,tooabstractortoolong.

-Theamountandtypeofinformalassessmentwedodependonanumberofthings:

+thesizeoftheclass

+theageof the learners(informalassessment isespeciallyuseful foryoung learnersforwhomformaltesttasksareoftentooabstract)

+thelanguageknowledge,behavioursorskillswewanttoassess

+thefrequencyofformaltestsorexaminations.

- It is important in informal assessment for learners to know that we are assessingthem,andtoknowhowandwhenwearedoingit.

-Tocarryout informalassessmentofproductiveskills in largerclasses,weprobablyneedtoassesssmallnumbersoflearnersindifferentlessons.Wecanobservetheclassorparticularstudentsandrecordouropinionsonarecordsheetorfill inachecklist.Weneedtoplaninformalassessmentandthinkabouthowwecanorganiseassessmentactivitiesaspartofourteaching.

- We can carry out informal assessment of receptive skills by checking learners'answerstoreadingorlisteningtasks,andtakingnotesontheirperformance.

- We can assess learners' grammatical and lexical knowledge informally by usinglanguage games or quizzes, or by monitoring practice activities and making a note offrequenterrors.Wecanthengivefeedbacktoindividualsortothewholeclass,orreturntotheproblemslaterinarevisionlesson.

-Wemayalsowish toassessother thingssuchasmotivationandeffort.Wecandothisbyobservationandalsobytalkingtolearnersabouttheirlearning.

- It is important tokeeprecordsof informalassessment,especially in largerclasses,so that we have the information we need to report or give feedback on our learners'progress. These records can be quite simple, with headings (for example) for grammar,vocabulary, language skills,motivation and general progress against each learner's name,whencompleted,theyprovidetheteacherwithausefullearnerprofile.

SeeUnit18forassessmenttypesandtasks.


Read the following statements and decide whether they are true (T) or false (F).Correctthefalsestatements.

1.Inclozetestswechoosethewordstoblankout.

2.Wecanmakeatrue/falsetestmorechallengingbyaddingathirdoption.

3.Portfolioassessmentcanincludeself-assessmentbythelearner.

4.Wecanuseinformation-transfertaskstotestlisteningskills.

5.Summarywritingisanobjectiveassessmentactivity.

6.Guidedwritingmaytestmorethanonesubskill.

7.Assessmentcriteriahelpustogivefairmarksforsubjectivetests.

8.Sentencetransformationisareal-lifeassessmentactivity.

9.Interviewsarechallengingbecauselearnerscanpreparealltheiranswers.

10.Proofreadingtestsskillsthatlearnerscantransfertoreal-lifesituations.

Reflection


1.Igivemylearnersregulartests,butonlyforgrammarandvocabulary.Iassesstheirlanguageskillsbyobservingthemintheclassroom.

2.Portfoliosarea reallygoodwayofassessing learners - youdon't have tohaveaspecial testoranythingbecausethey'vedonetheworkalready,andyoucanseehowtheyareimproving.

3.Youdon'talwaysneedtests toassessyour learners; Idoa lotofmyassessmentwhenstudentsaredoingnormalclassroomactivities.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Try out some of the assessment activities listed in this unit that you haven't usedbefore.MakenotesabouthowtheyworkinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2. Look at the next three units in your coursebook. what opportunities are there forinformalassessment?Keepa record inyourTeacherPortfolioof theassessmentactivitiesyouuse.

3. For detailed information on ways of carrying out informal assessment, look at,Chapters1and2ofAssessmentbyMichaelHarrisandPaulMcCann,Macmillan1994,and'ClassroomAssessment'byPaulineRea-Dickins,Chapter11inTeachingandLearningintheLanguageClassroombyTridaHedge,OxfordUniversityPress2000.

4.A languageportfolio isaverygoodwayof learnerskeepinga recordof-theirownprogress.Forauseful introductiontoportfolioassessment, lookat 'PortfolioassessmentinEFL'at:

http://wvvw.2lstcentiiry.com.ai/siory/48219.html

Anexampleportfolioforadultlearnersisdownloadablefree,togetherwithaTeacher'sGuide,from:

http://www.cilt.org.uk/further-and-adult-educatiori/teaching-and-learhing/resources/adult_elp.aspx

A junior version (for young learners) is available from:http://www.primarylanguages.org.uk/shop/product.aspx?id=37


Forquestions1-7,matchtheassessmentactivitieswiththeteachers’commentslistedA-H.Thereisoneextraoptionwhichyoudonotneedtouse.

Assessmentactivities

1.cloze

2.proofreading

3.sequencing

4.dictation

5.summarywriting

6.interview

7.information-gap

Teachers’comments

A.Whenstudentsactas‘theteacher’andhavetofindtheirownmistakes,theylearnalot.

B. It reallymakes students focusonwhat themost important information is ina textandhowtoexpressitclearly.

C.With just twoor three choices, students couldguesswhichoption is correct, so Ialwaysaskthemtoexplaintheiranswers.

D. I give the students the first paragraph without any missing words, so that theyunderstandthecontext,andthenItakeouteveryseventhwordintherestofthetext.

E.It’sagoodwayofassessingspeaking,butIfinditdifficulttolistenandthinkaboutthelanguageandinteractwiththestudentatthesametime.

F.Itfocusesonassessinglistening,grammar,vocabulary,spellingandpunctuation,butit’sreallydifficulttomark.

G.It’seasytomarkbut,ifstudentsgetoneiteminthewrongorder,itcanmakealltheotheritemswrong,too.

H.When partners exchange information, you can assess the speaking skills of bothstudents.

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Unit23.ConsultingreferenceresourcestohelpinlessonpreparationUnit24.SelectionanduseofcoursebookmaterialsUnit25.SelectionanduseofsupplementarymaterialsandactivitiesUnit26.Selectionanduseofteachingaids

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Part2.Selectionanduseofresources

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule2.LessonplanninganduseofresourceforlanguageteachingàPart2.Selectionanduseofresources

*Howdoweconsultreferenceresources?

Reference resources are all the sources of information about language and aboutteaching that we can refer to for help in lesson preparation. They include referencematerials, such as dictionaries and grammar books, books and articles in teachers'magazines about language, supplementary materials in a coursebook such as phonemiccharts or lists of irregular verbs, and websites on the internet. Reference resourcesmayalso includepeople, forexample, theheadofdepartmentor colleagueswho teach foreignlanguagesorothersubjects.Weconsultreferenceresourcesbyknowingwherewecanfindtheinformationweneedandhowtofindit.Thereisalotofinformationavailabletoteachersand it is important, therefore, to develop the ability to compare reference resources anddecideontheirqualityandusefulness.

*Keyconcepts

Therearemanyreasonsforusingreferenceresources.Thinkofatleastthree.

Checkingtheformanduseofgrammaticalstructures.

Some grammar books are written for teachers and have very detailed explanations.Others, designed for learners at different levels, use simpler language to give essentialinformationaboutgrammatical structures.Grammarbooks for learners canhelpus to seewhat information our learners need about grammatical structures and can provide uswithsuitable ways of describing or explaining grammar. The easiest books to use are thoseorganised inalphabetical,order,orwhichhaveadetailed indexor tableofcontents.Somegrammar books also include practice exercises, which teachers (and learners) often finduseful.

Some more recent grammar books are based on huge electronic collections ofexamples of spoken andwritten language in use (corpora). These books now tell us howpeoplereallyusethelanguage.

Checkingthespelling,pronunciationanduseoflexicalitems

Advancedlearners'dictionariesareveryusefulforteacherstousethemselves,astheyincludeexamplesentences,aswellasinformationabouttheformanduseofwords.Mostofthese are also available on CD-ROM and online on publishers' websites. Bilingualdictionaries(wherethewordanditsmeaningareindifferentlanguages),includingelectronic

Unit23.Consultingreferenceresourcestohelpinlessonpreparation

dictionaries,areusefulwhenlearnersarelookingforawordthattheydon'tknowinEnglish.But thesedictionariesusuallygivevery little informationabouthowtouseaword,so it'sagood idea for learners tocheck thewords they find inamonolingualdictionary (where thewordanditsmeaningareinthesamelanguage).Learnerdictionaries,likelearnergrammarbooks, can help teachers to find the most suitable ways of defining words and givingexamples of their use. All languages change over time, and because English is sowidelyspokeninsomanypartsoftheworld,itchangesfasterandmorefrequentlythanmanyotherlanguages.Soneweditionsofdictionariesarepublishedeveryfewyear's.Themostrecenteditionsofmonolingual learnerdictionaries includemanynew features,suchas informationabout collocation, synonyms, antonyms and relatedwords, indications of frequency, noteswarninglearnersaboutcommonerrorsandextraexamplesonaCD-orDVD-ROM,oronawebsite.

There isalsoawide rangeofspecialdictionaries,e.g.dictionariesofcollocations,ofidiomsandofphrasalverbs,pronouncingdictionaries,dictionariesofcultureanddictionariesof common errors, dictionaries of synonyms, picture dictionaries for younger learners anddictionariesofdifferentcurriculumsubjectsforsecondaryanduniversitystudents.

Developingyourownunderstandingoflanguage

There are a number of books for teachers which aim to increase our languageawareness(ourunderstandingofhowlanguageworks)andourawarenessofhowtoteachlanguage. They often include tasks that we can do by ourselves orwith a colleague, anddetailedexplanationsandcommentsaswellasanswerkeys.

Anticipatinglearners'difficulties

Referencematerials about learners' errors canhelp us anticipate particular languageproblemsthatourlearnersmighthave.Manydifficultieswithvocabularyorgrammararetheresult of interference from LI. Books or articles about specific differences between thelearner'sLIandEnglishcanhelptoexplaintheseproblems.

Looking for new approaches to teaching lessons and new classroom activities If weare looking fornewapproachesoractivities, or ifwewant togiveour learners somethingdifferent from their coursebook, there is a wide range of supplementary materials (i.e.materialsyoucanuse inaddition toor insteadofyourcoursebook), focusingongrammar,vocabulary and particular skills. There are also very many teacher's resource books withideasandmaterials forallkindsof lessons,aswellasagrowingnumberof freewebsiteswitharticles,ideasandactivitiesforteachersondifferentteachingtopics.

Finding out how to use the material in your coursebook Teacher's books provide

suggestions about how to use thematerial in the coursebook.Many teacher's books alsoinclude suggestions for alternatives to the procedures in the coursebook, as well asexplanationsof answers to exercises andextra resources (i.e. things teachers canuse tosupport their teaching in theclassroom),suchashomework tasksandactivities for furtherpractice. Many new teacher's hooks provide extra material such as supplementaryworksheets (pieces of paperwith an exercise or task for learners to complete), progresstests,photocopiables(practicematerial for teachers tophotocopy),andachoiceofeasierormorechallengingactivitiesforclasseswithmixedlevels.

Gettingadviceaboutparticularlessonsorteachingmaterials

Colleagueswho have taught at the same level or used the same teachingmaterialsmaybeabletoofferusefuladvice.Aswiththesuggestionsinteacher'sbooks,acolleague'sapproachmaynotsuitus,butmayhelpustothinkaboutourownplanning.



-Somegrammarbooksanddictionariesmaycontaindearerexplanationsorexamples.So when checking a language item, we should try to look at more than one referenceresource,

-Languagechanges,asnewwordsappearandpeoplestopusingsomeolderwords.Grammaticalusage, too,changesslowlyover time.Oneway tokeepup-to-date is tousethemostrecentlypublishedgrammarbooksanddictionaries.

- Dictionaries on CD- or DVD-ROMs have many extra features, such as practiceactivities,collocationsearchesandaudiorecordingsofpronunciation.


Lookat the resources1-7 below.Workingwith the resources themselvesor just thetitles,decidewhichpurpose(A-G)theyaresuitablefor.

1. http://www.yourdictionạrỵ.com/ Free online resources: definitions, sentenceexamples,synonymsandmore.

2.500ActivitiesforthePrimaryclassroombyCarolRead,Macmillan2007

3. Discover English: a language awareness workbook by Rod Bolitho & BrianTomlinson,Macmillan2005

4.TeachingTenses:ideasforpresentingandpractisingtensesinEnglishbyRosemaryAitken,NelsonELT1991

5. Learner English: A teacher's guide to interference and other problems byMichaelSwanandBernardSmith,CambridgeUniversityPress2001

6. Dictionary skills by Tim Bowen at: http://www.onestopengiish.com/ This series ofworksheetsisaimedattraininglearnersindictionaryuseanddevelopingtheirvocabulary.

7. Grammar Practice Activities (Second edition) by Penny Ur, Cambridge UniversityPress2009

A.Checkingtheformanduseofgrammaticalstructures

B.Checkingthespelling,pronunciationanduseoflexicalitems

C.Developingyourownunderstandingoflanguage

D.Anticipatinglearners'difficulties

E.Helpingstudentstobecomemoreindependentlearners

F.Lookingfornewapproachestoteachinglessonsandnewclassroomactivities

G.Findingpracticalteachingideastousewithyounglearners

Reflection


1.Englishchangesso fast thesedays that languagereferencebooksareoutofdateas soon as they're published. Online grammars and dictionaries are a far more usefulreferenceresource.

2.Idon'tallowstudentstobringbilingualorelectronicdictionariestotheclassroom.Iinsistonthemalwaysusingmonolingualdictionaries.

3.Colleaguesarethebestreferenceresources.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Teachersareresources,too!shareideaswithyourcolleaguesaboutresourcesthatyouand theyhaveused.Keepasimple record in yourTeacherPortfolioof resourcesyouhaveusedandtheirstrengthsandweaknesses.

2.Lookat the teacher'sbook thatcomeswithyourcoursebook.Tryoutsomeof theadditionalideasinthebook('Ideasforfurtherpractice',‘Extensionactivities',etc.)Comparethemwith the tasksandactivities in thecoursebook.Keepa recordofyourconclusions inyourTeacherPortfolio.

3. For some good advice on using reference resources for finding information aboutlanguage,lookatChapters13and14OÍThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching(Fourth

edition)byJeremyHarmer,PearsonEducationLtd2007.

4.For ideasonbuildingup your own library of resources, lookatUnit 12 'BuildingaResourceBank'ofLanguageAssistantbyClareLavery,downloadablefreefrom:

http://www.britishcouncil.org/languageassistant/about

5.Averyusefulwebsitewith largenumbersof links toother siteswith lessonplans,games,ideasaboutteachingandmanyotherresourcesis:http://iteslj.org/links

6. Here are two teachers' magazines with lesson ideas from teachers all over theworld,aswellasarticlesbywell-knownauthorsandtextbookwriters.YoucansubscribetoModem English Teacher (http://www.onlinemet.com/) in print and to English TeachingProfessional(http://www.etprofessional.com/)inprintand/oronline.

7.UsetheTKTGlossarytofindthemeaningoftheseterms:consult,crossreference,entry,headword,thesaurus.


For questions 1-7, look at the statements about reference resources and the threeoptionsforcompletingthemlistedA,BandC.

Twooftheoptionscompletethestatementscorrectly.OneoptiondoesNOT.

Choosetheletter(A,BorC)whichdoesNOTcompletethestatementscorrectly.

1.Alanguageawarenessbookcanhelpteachersto

A.checktheirownuseoflanguage.

B.improvetheirpronunciation,

C.varytheirmethodology.

2.Ateacher’sresourcebookcanhelpteachersto

A.tryoutnewteachingideas.

B.improvetheirlanguageknowledge,

C.monitortheirownuseoflanguage.

3.Abilingualdictionarycanhelpteachersto

A.checkhowL2wordsaresaidintheL1.

B.findL1explanationsofL1words.

C.checkthemeaningofwordsintwolanguages.

4.Apicturedictionarycanhelpteachersto

A.showthemeaningofsomecommoncompoundnouns.

B.explainnewwordstobeginners,

C.reviseabstractvocabularywithbeginners.

5.Alearner’sgrammarbookcanhelpteachersto

A.learnhowtoteachstructures.

B.findsimplewaysofexplainingusesofgrammar.

C.checktheirownknowledgeofgrammar.

6.AmonolingualdictionaryintheL2canhelpteachersto

A.seeallthemeaningsofaword.

B.checkthepronunciationoftargetlanguage,

C.teach,studentsaboutrhythmandstress.

7.Abookaboutinterferencefromdifferentfirstlanguagescanhelpteachersto

A.identifyfalsefriends.

B.findideasformotivatinglearners,

C.designrelevantexercises.

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*Howdoweselectandusecoursebookmaterials?

Coursebookmaterialsareallthematerialsinacoursebookpackagethatweuseintheclassroomtopresentandpractiselanguage,andtodeveloplearners'languageskills.

Acoursebookpackageusually includesastudent'sbook,a teacher'sbookandaudioand/or video recordings. The teacher's book often includes the tapescript, audio script ortranscript, i.e. the written version of exactly what the learners hear on these recordings.Often there is alsoaworkbookor activity book (abookwithextrapracticematerial), andthere may also be a CD-ROM, material for use with an interactive whiteboard or extramaterialonawebsite.

Teachers often base their selection of teaching materials (coursebook orsupplementary materials) on a 'needs analysis', i.e. a study of learners' level, languageneeds and interests, using questionnaires, interviews or diagnostic tests. This informationhelps to build up a class profile (a description of all the learners in the class) and showswhatthelearnershaveincommonandhowtheydifferfromeachother.Theteacher'staskisthentoselectthematerialthatbestmatchesthisprofile.

*Keyconcepts

Whatquestionsshouldweaskwhenselectingteachingmaterials?

Wemaynotbeable tochooseourcoursebook,butwecanstillmakechoicesaboutwhatmaterials in it touse.Decisionsaboutwhether-andhow-tousethecoursebook,orpartsofit,willdependontheanswerstoanumberofquestions:

- Is the material visually attractive? Is it visually clear (e.g. using different colours,differentfonts,headings,etc.)?Doesthevisualmaterialhelplearnerstounderstandcontextandmeaning?I

- Is thematerial well organised? Can you and your learners follow the 'logic' of thematerialandfindyourwayquicklyandeasilyaroundthepageortheunit?

-Isitculturallyappropriate?Willthecontext(s)befamiliartolearners?

-Isitsuitableforyourlearners'ageandtheirneedsandinterests?

- Will the topic(s) be motivating to suit the age, gender, experience and personalinterestsofyourlearners?

Unit24.Selectionanduseofcoursebookmaterials

- Is the material at the right level? Does it provide a clear enough context and/orexplanationsforlearnerstounderstandnewlanguage?

-Doesitgivelearnersenoughopportunitiestousethelanguage?

Iftheanswertoanyofthesequestionsis'No',thenwehavetwochoices:

- to replace the coursebook material with materials with the same focus/aim fromanotherbookorresource,suchasateachers'websiteorsupplementarymaterials

- toadapt thecoursebookmaterial, i.e.change it insomewaytomake itsuitable forourlearners.

There are a number of ways to adapt material that is not suitable for a particularteachingsituation.Herearesomeideas:

Strategies Problems Possiblesolutions

Extendingmaterial

- The task or exercise istooshort.

-Thelearnersneedmorepractice.

-Writeextraitems,followingthesamepattern

Shorteningmaterial

- The task or exercise istoolong,

-The learnersdon’tneedsomuchpractice

-Useasmuchasyouneed,but do not feel you have touseitall.

-Give different parts of thetext or task to differentlearners

Changing themethodology

-Thetaskdoesn’tsuitthelearners’learningstyle.

- You want a change ofpace.

- The coursebook oftenrepeats the same kind oftask

- Change the interactionpattern,e.g.useamatchingtaskasaminglingactivity(inthis case learners movearoundtheclasstofindtheirpartners).

Changing the- The texts or tasks are

- Make material morechallenging,e.g.learnerstryto answer comprehensionquestionsbeforereading.

level of thematerial

tooeasy,ortoodifficult - Make material lesschallenging, e.g. breakupalong text into shortersections

Reorderingmaterial

-Theactivitiesintheunitsin thebookalways followthesamesequence.

- The learners need tolearnorpractise things inadifferentorder

- Change the order of thematerial, e.g. ask learnersto cover up a page or partof a page, so that theyfocus on what you wantthemtodofirst.

Making use ofall theresources inthebook

- There is not enoughpractice material in aparticularunit.

- The learners need toreviseparticularitems.

- You want to previewmaterialinafutureunit

- Use extra material fromthe book: grammarsummaries, word lists, listsofirregularverbs,etc.

- Give whole-book tasks,e.g. searching through thebook for texts, pictures,languageexamples



-Theremaybegoodreasonsfor leavingoutpartofaunit,orevenawholeunit.Butthe coursebook is one of themain sources of learning (and revision) for our learners. Sotheymayfinditconfusingifwedothistoooften.

- The coursebookwill normally provide themain content for a lesson, whilematerialthatneedstobemorepersonalisedforthelearnerswillprobablycomefromtheteacher(orfromthelearnersthemselves).Forexample:

Coursebookprovides Teachercanprovideadditional

-situation/context -warmers

-pictures -instructions

- dialogues (conversations-role-plays

betweentwopeople)andtexts

-tasksandexercises -homeworktasks

-Ifweplantoreorderthematerial inthecoursebook,wemustmakesurethatthisispossible,i.e.thatatask/exercisedoesnotdependonapreviousone.sWecanchangetheorder of activities in the coursebook in order to introduce variety in one of the followingareas:pace,interactionpattern,sequenceofskillspractice,levelofdifficulty,content,mood,etc. t We should think about how to make material more attractive and interesting forlearnersandhowtobringmaterialtolife,e.g.usingmime,pictures,realia(realobjectssuchasclothesorfood),etc.

SeeUnits14and15forlearnercharacteristicsandneeds,Unit25fortheselectionanduseofsupplementarymaterials,andUnit26fortheselectionanduseofaids.

Follow-upActivities(Openanswers)

Look at the extract from a coursebook for teenagers. How could you adapt thismaterial if youwanted to use it with a group you are teaching? Think about the followingcriteriaandusethequestionsintheKeyconceptssectiononpages156-7:

-Visualattractiveness

-Visualclarity

-Visualsupporttounderstandcontextandmeaning

-Organisation

-Culturalappropriateness

-Languagelevel

-Familiarityofcontext(s)

-Suitabilityforlearners'age,needsandinterests

- Motivating topic(s) to suit age, gender, experience and personal interests of yourlearners

- Clarity of context and/or explanations for learners to understand new language 'Opportunitiestousethelanguage

Reflection


1. My' students always complain if I leave things out or change the order in the

coursebook,soItrytodoeverythingintheordergiveninthebook.

2.I'dlovetoteachwithoutacoursebook,butthestudentsexpecttohaveone.

3. I've used the same coursebook for three years. I know how it works and I don'twanttochange.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Whatcomponentsareavailablewithyourcurrentcoursebook?Whichonesdoyouuseandwhy?Whatismissing?MakenotesinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2. For further ideas on using coursebooks, look at Chapter 4 of Teaching PracticeHandbook (Second edition) byRogerGower,DianePhillips andSteveWalters,Macmillan1995 and Chapter 5, Part 2 of Planning Lessons and Courses by Tessa Woodward,CambridgeUniversity Press 2001. For ideas on using othermaterials, look at Chapter 3,Section 1 of Learning Teaching (Second edition) by Jim Scrivener, Macmillan 2005 andModule 13, Units One, Two and Three of A Course in Language Teaching by Penny Ur,CambridgeUniversityPress1996.

3.Forideasaboutteachingwithfewmaterials,ornone,lookatTeachingUnpluggedbyLukeMeddingsandScottThornbury,DeltaPublishing2009and

http://wvm.thomburyscott.com/tu/portal.htm


For questions 1-7, look at the incomplete statements about adapting coursebookmaterialsandthethreeoptionsforcompletingthemlistedA,BandC.


Choosetheletter(A,BorC)whichdoesNOTcompletethestatementcorrectly.

1.Ifthematerialistooyoungfortheageofthelearners,wecan

A.replacecartoonswithphotographs.

B.findmoremotivatingtexts.

C.introducemorekinaestheticactivities.

2.Ifthematerialisculturallyinappropriate,wecan

A.makethematerialmorechallenging.

B.adaptunsuitabletasks,

C.useadifferentcontextforpresenting.

3.Ifthegrammarrevisioninthebookisn’tenoughforthelearners,wecan

A.writesomeextramaterial.

B.changetheinteractionpatterns,

C.adaptexercisesfromearlierunits.

4.Ifthepracticematerialistooeasyforsomestudents,wecan

A.findextensionorsupplementaryexercises.

B.providelistsofkeywords,

C.findnewtextsonothertopics.

5.Ifthereisn’tenoughcontrolledpracticematerial,wecan

A.re-usethesamematerial.

B.extendexercisesinthebookfollowingthesamepattern,

C.usethepicturesinthebookforfurtherpractice.

6.Ifthepracticematerialispresentedwithoutanyclearcontext,wecan

A.addvisuals.

B.suggestthatlearnersconsultadictionaryofculture,

C.addasentenceortwotoprovidebackground.

7.Ifthereisn’tenoughreadingskillsdevelopment,wecan

A.setupaclasslibraryofgradedreaders.

B.askstudentstoreadthetextsaloud,

C.findanappropriatesupplementaryskillsbook.

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*Howdoweselectandusesupplementarymaterialsandactivities?

Supplementarymaterialsarebooksandothermaterialswecanuse inaddition to thecoursebook.Theyincludeskillsdevelopmentmaterials,grammar,vocabularyandphonologypractice materials, collections of communicative activities, teacher's resources and webmaterials.Supplementarymaterialsmayalsocomefromauthenticsources(e.g.newspaperand magazine articles, video, etc.). Some coursebook packages include supplementarymaterials and activities specially designed to fit the coursebook syllabus, and websiteswhereyoucandownloadsupplementarymaterials.Weselectsupplementarymaterialsandactivities first by recognising that we need something different from the material in thecoursebook,andthenbyknowingwheretofindthemostappropriatekindsofmaterial.Weuse supplementary materials and activities to provide something that is missing from thecoursebook, to give learners extra practice, or just to bring something different to ourlessons.

*Keyconcepts

Make a list of all the different reasons you can think of for using supplementarymaterials and activities, and any advantages or disadvantages you think supplementarymaterialsmayhave.

There are various reasons why we might want to use supplementary materials andactivities.Someofthemainreasonsareasfollows:

-toreplaceunsuitablematerialinthecoursebook

-toprovidematerialmissingfromthecoursebook

-toprovidesuitablematerialforlearners'particularneedsandinterests

-togivelearnersextralanguageorskillspractice

-toaddvarietytoourteaching.

Goursebooks are organised according to a syllabus, and they are often carefullygraded(i.e.grammaticalstructures,vocabulary,skills,etc.arepresentedinalogicalordearsequence for learning),so that learners'knowledgeof the languagebuildsupstepbystepthroughthebook.Supplementarymaterialsandactivitiescanprovidevarietyinlessonsandusefulextrapractice,buttheyarenotalwaysgraded,soitisimportanttomakesurethatwechoosetherightmaterialsandactivitiesattherighttime.Therightmaterialsandactivitiesfit

Unit25.Selectionanduseofsupplementarymaterialsandactivities

into the learners' programme, are suitable for the class andmatch the aims for particularlessons.

Herearesomeofthepossibleadvantagesanddisadvantagesofusingvariouskindsofsupplementarymaterials:

Supplementarymaterials

Possibleadvantages Possibledisadvantages

Class library ofreaders

- encourages extensivereading/ reading forpleasure

- gives learnersconfidence

- allows learners tochoose

-needforrangeoflevelstosuitdifferentlearners

- content may not bemotivatingforolderlearners

Skills practicebooks

-focusonindividualskills- may not fit coursebook/syllabus

Teacher’sresourcebooks/downloadableworksheets

-newideasforlessons -maynotsuitlessonaims

Websites-varietyof lessonplans,teachingmaterials, otherresources

- sometimes difficult to findthe right material for thelearners

- school may not haveenoughcomputerstations

- learners may not havecomputerskills

DVDs

-providevisualcontext

- source of culturalinformation

-showbodylanguage

- equipment may notalwaysbeavailable

- language may not begraded (suitable for thelevelofthelearners)

-extrapractice

Languagepracticebooks

- learners can workalone without teacher’shelp

-repetitiveexercises

-littleornocontext

Electronicmaterials

-motivation

- familiar technology forlearners

- difficult for teacher tocontrol how learners areworking

- little or no humanfeedback

Games-enjoyment

-languagepractice

- may not be suitable forolderlearners

- preparation may take alongtime

- classroom managementmaybecomplicated



Selectionofsupplementarymaterialsandactivities

- Get to know what supplementary materials are available in your school. Useobservation,aquestionnaireorinterviewsforanalysisofyourlearners'needs(seepage78)atthebeginningofthecoursetofindoutwhatyouwillwanttoaddtothecoursebookwhenyouareplanningyourschemeofwork.

-Supplementarylanguagepracticematerialsarenotusuallyaccompaniedbyteacher'sbooks,andtheaimsofsomeactivitiesmaynotbeclear.Somematerialsandactivitiesmaylookveryattractive,buttheymaynotbeappropriateforthestageorthelevelthatlearnershavereached.So it isalways important to thinkaboutexactlyhowsupplementarymaterialwillreplaceorimproveonmaterialinthecoursebook.

- It may be useful to use authentic material (which is not designed for a particularlevel), in order to give learners the experienceofworkingwithmore challenging texts andtasks.

-Theactivitiesinmaterialsdesignedtodevelopindividualskillsoftenincludetheuseofotherskills,e.g.learnersneedtoreadatextbeforetheycarryoutalisteningtask,ortodo

somewritingasa follow-upactivityafteraspeakingactivity.Whenselectingmaterialsandactivities,itisimportantforustothinkcarefullyaboutalltheskillsthattheyrequirelearnerstouse.

-Manypublishersproducematerialsforpractisingseparatelanguageskillsatdifferentlevels. Teacher's resource books, too, usually list tasks and activities according to level.Before we decide to use these materials, however, the first step is to consider howappropriate the level is for our learners, and to thinkabout the language theywill need tounderstandortoproduce.

Useofsupplementarymaterialsandactivities

- Learners get used to the methodology in their coursebook. If we are usingsupplementary materials with procedures that are different from those used in thecoursebook,wemayneedtogivespecialattention,toinstructions.

-Wecanadaptmanysupplementarymaterialsforusewithclassesatdifferentlevels.The texts used in thesematerialsmay not be graded, but we can grade the activities bymakingthelearners'tasksmoreorlesschallenging.

-Gamesandextracommunicativeactivitiescanprovidevarietyandmakelearningfun.Butunlesswethink,carefullyaboutourreasonsforusingthem,our lessonmaynothaveaclear purpose. Older learners especially may want to know why they are doing theseactivities.

-Inamixedability/mixedlevelclass(i.e.onewherelearnersareatdifferentlanguagelevels),ifthematerialinthecoursebookistooeasyortoodifficultforsomeofourlearners,supplementarymaterialsandactivitiescanalsohelpustoprovideappropriatematerialsfordifferentlearners.(Thisisknownasdifferentiation.)Wecangivedifferenttaskstodifferentgroups,pairs,orindividualswhicharemoresuitedtotheirlevel.

- We may need to input new vocabulary or language, patterns before we can usesupplementary materials or activities. We just need to make sure our students have thelanguagetheyneedtomakethebestuseofthematerialsoractivities.

SeeUnit23forconsultingreferenceresourcesandUnit24fortheselectionanduseofcoursebookmaterials.


Lookattheextractfromasupplementarybookofcommunicationactivities.Thinkaboutthefollowingquestions:

1.What could this activity be useful for? Make a list of different possible aims and

learningoutcomes.

2.Wherecouldthisactivityfitinalesson?Whatlanguagewouldstudentsneed?

3.Howcouldyouleadintotheactivity?

4.Wouldyoufollowtheproceduresuggestedintheextract,orwouldyouchangeit inanyway?

5.Howwouldyoufollowuptheactivity?Whatwouldyoudointhenextstage,orinthenextlesson?

3Dirtyjobs?

Whichoftheseorganizationswouldyouworkforifyouhadlittleornoalternative

(1)Apharmaceuticalcompanywhichhelpitsbeautyproductsonanimals

(2)Amultinationalwhichtradeswiththegovernmentofpoliticallyoppressedpeople

(3) An arms producer of a company whose products can be used for militarypurposes.

(4)A fast foodchain thatopens 'restaurants' inbeautifulsquares in theoldquartersoftowns

(5)Anuclearpowerstation

(6)Atobaccocompany

(7) How honest were you in answering these questions? If you had no otheropportunities for getting a job, is there noway youwould reconsider?Howmuch is onereallycontributingtotheproblembyworkingforsuchcompanies?

Teacher'snotes

3Dirtyjobs?

-Askstudentstocoverquestion7.

- Students make their decisions individually, and then discuss in groups. Studentsshouldthenreformulatetheirdecisionsonthebasisofthefollow-upquestion7.

Writing

- (a) Write 3 letter to the managing director of one of these companies, trying toconvincehim/hertochangethecompanypolicy,

(b)Writeapressreleasefromoneofthesecompanieswhichwantstosetupinyourarea.Thestatementshouldjustifywhy.,forexample,testingbeautyproductsonanimalsis

neededandisnotimmoral.

(adaptedfromDiscussionsA-ZIntermediatebyAdrianWallwork,CambridgeUniversityPress1997)

Reflection


1. My coursebook is good, but each unit follows the same pattern, so I needsupplementarymaterialstogivethestudentssomevariety.

2.Idon'tseewhysupplementarymaterialshavetofitintothesyllabus.Sometimesit'sjustgoodforlearnerstohaveachange-andhavesomefun.

3. You can't expect the coursebook to do everything for you - I often needsupplementarymaterialsforextrapracticeorformaterialandactivitiesthatthecoursebookdoesn'tprovide.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look at the contents pages ('map of the book') of a coursebqok you have usedWheredidyouneedtousesupplementarymaterials?MakenotesinyourTeacherPortfolioonwhyyousupplementedthecoursebookandhow.

2.Exchangeinformationwithyourcolleaguesonsupplementarymaterialsandactivitiesyouhaveusedrecently.MakenotesinyourTeacherPortfoliooillanguagelevel,preparationneededandanyproblemsyouexperienced.

3.Forideasonusing-andmaking-supplementarymaterials'lookatModule13,UnitsHouraridFiveofACourseinLanguageTeachingbyPennyUr,CambridgeUniversityPress1996; chapter 16r Sections 2-4 and 8-9 of Learning Teaching (Second edition) by JimScrivener,Macmillan 20D5;Chapter 4 of Teaching practiceHandbook (Secondedition) byRogerGower,DianePhillipsandSteveWalters,Macmillan1995andDave'sESLCaféat:

http://www.eslcafe.com/ideas/index.html

Therearealsoalargenumberoffreepracticematerialsat:

http://www.nonstopenglish.com/

4.Threeveryusefulseriesofphotocopiablesupplementarymaterialsare:

Timesaver Resource Books, published by Mary Glasgow Magazines. This seriesincludes cross-cultural lessons, grammar, vocabulary, skills development' game's and

communicative activities. Sample activities are downloadable free from:http://www.maryglasgowmagazinescom

The Copy Collection, published by Cambridge University Press. This series includesgrammar, vocabulary, skills development,' Business' English, materials for teenagers andyoung learners. Sample activities are downloadable free from:http://www.cambridge.org/elt/ccc/

PenguinEnglishPhotocopiables,publishedbyPearsonLongman.Thisseries includespairwork, group work; grammar games, vocabulary games, reading games and 'instantlessons'.


For questions 1-7, match the supplementary materials with the teachers’ commentslistedA-H.


Teachers’comments

A.Icanuseittotestthemeaningofvocabularyinanenjoyableway.

B.It’sreallyusefulbecausethere’snofocusonproblemsoundsinmycoursebook.

C.Icangoroundandmonitormystudents’accuracywhiletheyhavealotoffun.

D.Mystudentscanchoosebooksthatareeasierormoredifficultforthem.

E.ithelpsmyyounglearnersgetusedtotherhythmofthelanguage.

F.Mystudentscanchoosetheirownexercisesandchecktheiranswers.

G.Ithelpsmyvisuallearnerswhenwe’relearningnewvocabulary.

H.It’sfullofideasfordiscussions.

Supplementarymaterials

1.Abookofgrammargames

2.Awebsitethathelpstheteachermakequizzes

3.Abookoffluencyactivities

4.Acollectionofpoemsandsongs

5.Abookpractisingphonemes

6.Acollectionofgradedreaders

7.ACD-ROMofreadingtextsandtasks

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Howdoweselectanduseteachingaids?

Teaching aids are the resources and equipment available to us in the classroom, aswellastheresourceswecanbringintotheclassroom.Theyincludeinteractivewhiteboards,computers,CDplayers,DVDplayersandoverheadprojectors(OHPs)(i.e.equipmentwithalight in it that canmake images appear larger on a screen), visual aids (pictures that canhelplearnersunderstand),realiaandtheteacherhimself/herself!Weselectanduseaidsbythinkingcarefullyaboutthemainaims,thesubsidiaryaimsandstageaimsofalesson,andthenchoosingthemostappropriateaids.

*Keyconcepts

Look at the following list of classroom equipment.What teaching purposes can youthinkofforeachitem?

Classroomequipment Teachingpurpose

boardwriting up planned vocabulary, grammarexamplesandexplanations

overhead projector(OHP)

displaying prepared exercises on overheadtransparencies(OHTs)(plasticsheets)

CDplayer listeningpractice

DVDplayerlistening practice with added visualinformation

computer grammarexercises

Language laboratory(i.e. a room wherelearners can listen torecordings and recordthemselves)

grammardrills

All of theseaids canbeused formanydifferent purposes.Someexamplesof thesepurposesaregivenhere.

Board DVDplayer

Unit26.Selectionanduseofteachingaids

- recording words and ideas thatcomeupduringthelesson

-drawingordisplayingpictures

- building up ideas in diagrams,wordmaps/mindmaps (diagramsshowing vocabulary on the sametopic),etc.

- for learners to writeanswers/ideas

-forwhole-classcompositions

- information-gap activities (e.g.with one learner viewing and onejustlistening)

- viewing without sound andguessingthelanguage

- pausing and predicting thelanguage (i.e. saying what youthinkiscomingnext)

- with a camera, filming learners’performance

Overheadprojector

-displayingresultsofgroupwork

-buildingup informationbyputtingonetransparencyontopofanother

- covering up or graduallyuncovering parts of thetransparency

- displaying pictures and diagramsonphotocopiabletransparencies

Computer

- narrative building with a wordprocessor

- supplementary materials forcoursebooks

-onlinelanguagetests

-usingonlinedictionaries

-usingCD-ROMsandDVD-ROMs

-emailexchanges

-onlinecommunication(chatting)

- online newspapers andmagazines

-projectworkusingtheinternet

-viewinganduploadingmaterialontheinternet

CDplayer

- presenting new language indialoguesandstories

- giving models for pronunciationpractice

- recording learners’ oral

Languagelaboratory

-pronunciationpractice

-extensivelistening

-monitoringandgivingfeedbacktoindividuallearners

performance

-listeningforpleasure

-developingspeakingskills

Otheraidsare:realia,flashcards(cardswithwords,sounds,sentence'sorpicturesonthem, that the teacher shows the class) cue/prompt cards (cards small enough for theteachertoholduponeafteranother,orforstudentstouseinpairworkwithsimpledrawingsor singlewords or phrases on them), puppets (models of people or animals that you canmovebyputtingyourhandinsidethem),charts(diagramsthatshowinformation),magazinepictures-andtheteacher.

Whatdifferentusescanyouthinkoffortheseaids?

Herearesomeofthemostcommonuses:

Realia

Real objects that we can easily bring into the classroom can be used to teachvocabulary, as prompts for practising grammatical structures or for building dialogues andnarratives,forgamesandquizzes.Realiaalsoincluderealtexts,suchasmenus,timetables,leaflets,etc.

Flashcards

Like realia, flashcards can be used for teaching individual words or as prompts forpractisinggrammaticalstructures.

livingroom

kitchen

shower

television

Puppets

Puppetsareanexcellent resource for teachingyoung learners.Forexample,wecanintroducenewlanguageindialoguesbetweenpairsofpuppets(orbetweenonepuppetandtheteacher).Childrencanalsomaketheirownsimplepuppets.

Charts

Wecanusepostersandwallcharts(drawingsorgraphsthatcanbeputonthewallofaclassroom)todisplaylarger,moredetailedpictures,oraseriesofpicturestellingastoryorshowing relatedobjects ina lexicalset.Aphonemicchartshows thephonemicsymbols

andthepositionsinthemouthwherethedifferentsoundsaremade.Theteachercanpointatthesymbolstopromptlearnerstocorrecttheirpronunciation.(SeeUnit3foranexampleofaphonemicchart.)Wecanalsousecharts todisplaydiagrams,prepareddrawingsandtablesofirregularverbs,ortobuildupaclassdictionary.

Theteacher

The teacher can use hand gestures, facial expressions and mime (actions whichexpress meaning without words) to elicit vocabulary items, clarify meaning and createcontext.Wecanalsobuildupasetofsignals,suchas in fingercorrection,which learnersrecogniseaspromptstocorrecttheirownmistakes.


Itisagoodideatodividetheboardintodifferentsectionsfordifferentpurposes,asinthisexample:

Referencematerial(e.g.keytexts,modelsentences,grammarrules,etc.)

Lesson materials (e.g. pictures, key grammatical structures, dialogues, etc.) atdifferentstagesofthelesson

Vocabularycolumnfornotingallnewwords

Youcanincluderecordslikethisinyourlessonplanfordifferentstagesofthelesson.

Readthesetipsandticktheonesthatareimportantforyou.

-Thinkabout thebestways tousedifferentaids(e.g.using flashcards togivequick,clearprompts,orusingtheoverheadprojectortoshowcorrectionstothewholeclassorforstudents to use for presentations). Different aids have different advantages anddisadvantages.Makesureyouchoosethebestoneforyourspecific teachingpurposeandcontext.

-Aidsthatyoucanprepare inadvance, likecharts, flashcardsandtransparenciesfortheoverheadprojector,willhelpyou tomakesure thatproceduresoutlined in lessonplansmatch your aims. Another advantage IS that you can save such aids and re-use them infuturelessons.

-Makesurethatyoucheckanyequipmentbeforethelesson.Ifyouusecomputersorthe language laboratory, advance preparation is essential. It is important to plan all yourinstructionsverycarefully,aswellasthesequenceofactivitiesforusingtheaids.

- Learners may also make use of a self-access centre, a place with books,worksheets,computersandCDs,wheretheycanstudybythemselves.

See Unit 24 for the selection and use of coursebook materials and Unit 25 for theselectionanduseofsupplementarymaterialsandactivities.


Complete the following comments from teachers about classroom aids, using thewordsintheboxbelow.

1. I like using the ___ because it gives all the students a chance to practice theirpronunciation,,listentotheirownvoicesandimprovetheirpronunciation.

2. The___ gives me the opportunity to show corrections to the whole class withoutdoinglotsofwritingontheboard.

3. I collectall kindsof___wherever Igo - restaurants,hotels, railwaystations -so Icanbringauthenticmaterialsintomylessons.

4.___enablemetogivepromptsfordrillswithoutsayinganything.

5.Ialwayskeeponepartofthe___forlistingnewvocabularyitems.

6.Thegreatthingabout___isthatstudentsgetthechancetoobservebodylanguageandfacialexpressionsaswellaslistening.

7. If you know how to search - and if you have a computer - you can find almostanythingonthe___

board/flashcards/internet/language/laboratory/OHP/realia/DVDs

Reflection


1.Ithinktheteacheristhebestvisualaid.

2.Idon't liketodependontechnologybecausesomethingcanalwaysgowrong.Themostreliableaidsaresimple,likeflashcardsandthewhiteboard.

3.IlikeusinganOHPbecauseyou'realwaysincontrolofwhatstudentsarelookingat,youcanaddtowhatyou'vewrittenandstudentscanuseit,too.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Think about a lesson you taught recently and the aids you used. Plan the samelessonagain,thistimeusingdifferentaids(e.g.theboardinsteadofanOHP)ornoaidsatall(e.g.readingoutatextyourselfinsteadofusingarecording).Inwhatwayswouldthesechangesmakethelessondifferent?MakenotesinyourTeacherPortfolio

2.Whatgeneraladviceaboutaidswouldyougivetoacolleagueoratraineeteacher?

Andwhatspecificadvicewouldyougiveaboutparticularaids?

3.Forsomeveryusefulideasontheuseofaids,lookatChapter11ofThepracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching(fourthedition)byJeremyHarmer,PearsonEducationLtd2007,Chapter3ofTeachingPracticeHandbook,(secondedition)byRogerGower,DianePhillipsand Steve Walters, Macmillan 1995, Chapter 10 of Children Learning English by JayneMoon, Macmillan 2000 and Chapter 5 section 7 and Chapter 16 section 1 of LearningTeaching(secondedition)byJimScrivenerMacmillan2005.


Forquestions1-7,lookattheincompletestatementsaboutteachingaidsandthethreeoptionsforcompletingthemlistedA,Bandc.



1.Theoverheadprojectorcanbeusefulfor

A.preparinglessonmaterialsinadvance.

B.students’projectpresentations,

C.showingrealobjectsonascreen.

2.Thelanguagelaboratorycanbeusefulfor

A.listeningpractice.

B.checkinguseofcohesivedevices,

C.improvingstudents’intonation.

3.Flashcardscanbeusefulfor

A.checkingknowledgeofvocabulary.

B.tellingtheclass'astory.

C.practisingscanning.

4.Aself-accesscentrecanbeusefulfor

A.givingeverystudentindividualwork.

B.helpingkinaestheticstudents,

C.studentsworkingindependently.

5.Aphonemicchartcanbeusefulfor

A.oralfluencypractice.

B.improvingstudents’pronunciation.

C.highlightingcontrastingsounds.

6.Cuecardscanbeusefulfor

A.givingpromptsforsubstitutiondrills.

B.givingintensivereadingpractice,

C.encouragingtheuseofparticulartargetlanguage.

7.Avideoclipcanbeusefulfor

A.givingintensivelisteningpractice.

B.noticinggesturesandbodylanguage,

C.visualisationactivities.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM



Forquestions1-7, lookatthesequenceofteacher’s instructionsandthethreepossiblestageaimsfromalessonlistedA,BandC.

Choosethestageaimwhichmatchestheinstruction.


1.Inyourgroups,decideontheverybestwaytospendyournextholiday.

A.topractisepresentationskills

B.togivelearnerspracticeinnegotiating

C.topractiseturn-takinginaformaldiscussion

2.Inpairs,brainstormasmanywordsasyoucanthinkofconnectedwithairtravel.

A.toactivelyengagelearnersinthetopic

B.tofocusonthepronunciationofnewlexicalitems

C.togetlearnerstoworkwithdifferentpartners

3.PutthewordsfromcolumnAinthesetstheybelongto.

A.tochecklearners’accuracyinspelling

B.topractisededucingmeaningfromcontext

C.tocategoriselexicalitems

4.Readthedescriptionofanairportandlabelthediagram.

A.toselectandtransferinformationfromatext

B.toidentifymistakesinatext

C.tocarryoutinstructionsfromatext

5.Listentotheannouncementandnotedownthepassenger’sflightdeparturetime.

A.topractiselisteningforgist

B.tolistenforspecificinformation

C.todeducethespeaker’sattitude

6.Lookattheexamplesfromtheannouncementand,withyourpartner,trytoworkoutaruleforformingthepassive.

TKTModule2Practicetest2.1

A.torevisetheuseofthepassivevoice

B.toencouragelearningthroughguideddiscovery

C.togivelearnersfluencypractice

7. Write a letter of complaint about the mistakes the passenger’s travel agent hasmade.

A.topractisewritinganinformalletter

B.togivelearnerscreativewritingpractice

C.topractisewritingforaspecificpurpose

Forquestions8-14,lookattheproceduresfromdifferentlessonsandthethreestageaimslistedA,BandC.

Twoofthestageaimsareappropriatefortheprocedure.OnestageaimisMOT.

Marktheletter(A,BorC)ofthestageaimwhichisNOTappropriateonyouranswersheet.

8.Showpicturesandfindoutwhatlearnersknowaboutthetopic.

A.tobuildonlearners’knowledgeoftheworld

B.tocontextualisethetopic

C.toappealtoreflectivelearners

9.Learnersbrainstormvocabularyconnectedwithafamiliartopic.

A.toreviselexicalsetsfrompreviouslessons

B.toencourageautonomouslearning

C.tolead-intoatext

10.Learnerslabelatimelineonthewhiteboard.

A.tohelplearnersdiscoveragrammarrule

B.toclarifymeaning

C.toappealtoalllearningstyles

11.Askconceptquestionsabouttimeandtense.

A.tomakesurethatlearnershaveunderstoodanewlanguageitem

B.togiveexamplesofdifferentexponentsoflanguage

C.tohelplearnersnoticetheuseoflanguage

12.Doasubstitutiondrill,changingsubjectpronounandverb.

A.togivelearnersrestrictedpractice

B.topractiseinteractivestrategies

C.topractisewordorder

13.Role-playawrittendialogueinopenpairs,theninclosedpairs.

A.togivelearnersopportunitiesforfluencypractice

B.togivelearnersguidedpractice

C.todeveloplearners’confidenceaboutspeakinginEnglish

14.Learnerswrite,thenperformtheirowndialogues.

A.togivelearnersintegratedskillspractice

B.togivelearnersanopportunitytorecyclelanguage

C.togivelearnerspracticeinprocesswriting

For questions 15-20, match the general syllabus aims with the learningoutcomesfromateacher’slessonplanslistedA,BandC.



Genera!syllabusalms

A.topreparelearnersforanexamination

B.toequiplearnerswitharangeofusefulfunctions

C.toprovideexposuretoauthenticlanguageuse

Learningoutcomes

15.Learnerswillbemoreenthusiasticaboutreadingnarrativefiction.

16.Learnerswillimprovetheirabilitytowritewithinstrictwordlimits.

17.Learnerswillhavepractisedmakingrequestsandaskingforinformation.

18.LearnerswillbemoreconfidentaboutwatchingfilmsinEnglish.

19.Learnerswillhaveusedlanguageforaskingforandunderstandingdirections.

20.Learnerswillbefamiliarwithstandardtasktypes.

Forquestions21-27,matchthelessonplancomponentswiththeextractsfromateacher’slessonplanlistedA-H.

Markthecorrectletter(A-H)onyouranswersheet.



A.Timetablefit

B.Mainaim

C.Procedures

D.Stageaim

E.Personalaim

F.Assumptions

G.Anticipatedproblems

H.Possiblesolutions

Lessonplanextracts

21.Revisetheformationanduseofcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectives.

22.Althoughthetopicisunfamiliar,learnersshouldfinditmotivating,

23.followingalessononconditionalsentencesandpreparingforaclasstest

24.Somelearnersmaynotrememberthevocabularyfromthelastlesson,

25.tomakeclearerconnectionsbetweenonestageandthenext

26.tochecklearners’understandingofnewlexicalitems

27.Giveinstructionsinwrittenformiflearnershavedifficultiesunderstandingthem.

Forquestions28-33,readthestagesofanintegratedskillslessonandfillinthemissingstagesfromtheoptionslistedA-F.


Stages

A.Groupsreadatranscriptanddiscussthepossiblecontentofthemissingsections.

B.Teachergivesfeedbackonlanguageerrors.

C.Learnersreadanarticleaboutsportstraining.

D.Eachgroupproducesaplanforanewsportscentre.

E.Eachgroupdecideswhichplantheythinkisbest.

F.Teacherusesvisualstointroducethetopic.

Lessonplan

-Warmer:learnersmingletoformgroups.

28.…………………………

-Ingroups,learnersbrainstormvocabularyrelatedtosports

29.…………………………

-Learnerslistentothedialoguetochecktheirpredictions.

30.…………………………

-Learnersanswerdetailquestionsaboutthetext.

31.……………………………

-Groupspreparethengivetheirpresentations.

32.………………………

-Thewholeclassdiscussestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofalltheplans.

33.……………………

For questions 34-40, look at the assessment aims and the three instructionslistedA,BandC.

Twooftheinstructionsmatchtheassessmentaims.OneinstructiondoesNOT.

Marktheletter(A,BorC)whichdoesNOTmatchtheassessmentaimonyouranswersheet.

34.tochecklearners’understandingofrecentlytaughtvocabulary

A.Putthewordsintogroupsundertheappropriateheadings.

B.Completethespacesinthetext,usingthewordsinthebox.

C.Checkthemeaningsofthesewordsinyourdictionaries.

35.toassesslearners’interactivespeakingskills

A.Discusstheadvantagesanddisadvantageswithyourpartner.

B.Repeatthischantwithyourclassmates,

C.Usethepromptcardstoguideyourrole-play.

36.totestlearners’accuracyandcontrolofgrammaticalstructures

A.Putthesentencesintothesameorderastheeventsinthepictures.

B.Completeeachsentencesothatitmeansexactlythesameastheonebeforeit.

C.Putthewordsintothecorrectordertoformsentences,

37.toassesslearners’readingskills

A.Choosethesentencewhichbestsummarisesthetext.

B.Decide if the followingstatementsare true (T)or false (F),or if the information isnotmentioned.

C.Correcttheunderlinedgrammarmistakesinthefollowingsentences.

38.toassesslearners’awarenessoffeaturesofconnectedspeech

A.Underlinethesyllablesthatyouexpecttobestressed.

B.Listentothetenwordsagainandunderlinethewordsyoudon'tunderstand,

C.Drawalinetoshowwherethereislinkingbetweenwords.

39.toassesslearners’listeningskills

A.Writeamessagetoyourfriendaboutthephonecallyou’vejustHeard,

B.Tickthetopicsthatarementionedbythespeaker,

C.Readthequestionsandsaythemwiththecorrectintonation.

40.toassesslearners’writingskills

A.Listentotheconversationandnotedownthenamesyouhear.

B.Completethetopicsentenceforeachparagraph,

C.Completetheformwiththeappropriatepersonalinformation.

For questions 41-47,match the dictionary entries with the types of dictionarylistedA-C.

Markthecorrectletter(A-C)onyouranswersheet.


Typesofdictionary

A.Dictionaryofidioms

B.Dictionaryoflanguageandculture

C.Dictionaryofphrasalverbs

Dictionaryentries

41.togivesomeonethecoldshoulder(vt)tobeunfriendlytosomeoneonpurpose

Example:Wife:Whydoyoualwaysgivemymotherthecoldshoulderwhenshecomes

tovisitus?

Husband:Becauseshealwayscriticisesme!

42.breeze

shootthebreeze

Ifyoushootthebreeze,youtalkwithotherpeopleinaninformalandfriendlyway.

43.RaceRe.la.tionsAct, the/…/a lawpassedintheUKin1976toprotectthelegalrightsespeciallyofblackandAsianpeople,and tomakesure thatpeopleofall racesaretreatedfairlyandequally

44.takedownsthortakesthdown

towritesomething,especiallysomethingthatsomeonesays.

Thepoliceofficertookmynameandaddressdownandsaidthathewouldcontactmeshortly.Didyoutakedownthatnumber?

45.pe.tro.dol.lar techanAmericandollarearnedby thesaleofoil, especiallyby theoil-producingcountriesoftheMiddleEast

46. family tree /…/naplanordrawingshowing therelationshipof themembersofafamily,especiallyone that coversa longperiod. InBritainand theus,manypeople like tospendtimefindingoutabouttheirfamilytree.

47.meltingpot

inthemeltingpot

If something is in themelting pot, it is constantly changing, so that you do not knowwhatwillfinallyhappentoit.

NOTE:A‘meltingpot’isacontainerinwhichmetalismelteddownbeforebeingmadeintonewobjects

For questions 48-54, choose the best option (A, B or C) to complete eachstatementaboutreferenceresources.


48.Themainpurposeofusingadictionaryofcollocationsisto

A.gettoknowwhichwordsgotogether.

B.discoverthemeaningsofnewwords,

C.learnhowtopronouncewordscorrectly.

49.Themainpurposeofworkingwithabilingualdictionaryisto

A.findtranslationsofnewwords.

B.practiseusingnewvocabulary,

C.finddefinitionsinyourownlanguage.

50.Themainpurposeofusingateacher’sbookaccompanyingacoursebookisto

A.identifylearners’revisionneeds.

B.planfromlessontolesson,

C.designmaterials.

51.Themainpurposeofusingalanguageawarenessbookforteachersisforteachersto

A.improvetheirknowledgeofthelanguage.

B.checkthecommoncollocationsofwords,

C.findpracticematerialfortheirstudents.

52.ThemainpurposeofusingabookaboutL1interferenceisto

A.anticipatelearners’likelyerrors.

B.findsupplementaryteachingmaterials,

C.checklearners’understanding.

53.ThemainpurposeofusinganL2monolingualdictionaryisto

A.lookupdefinitionsintwolanguages.

B.checktheregisterofnewlanguage,

C.seeexamplesofmeaningincontext.

54.Themainpurposeofusingagrammarreferencebookwhenplanninglessonsisto

A.keepuptodatewithnewwordsandexpressions.

B.findpracticeexercisesforlearners.

C.helpidentifytheuseoftargetlanguage.

Forquestions55-61,lookattheincompletestatementsaboutadaptingmaterialsandthethreeoptionsforcompletingthemlistedA,BandC.


Mark the letter (A,BorC)whichdoesNOTcomplete thesentencecorrectlyonyour

answersheet.

55.Ifapracticeexerciseinthecoursebookistooshort,Ioften

A.writesomemoreitemspractisingthesamestructure.

B.usethesameitemsagainwithdifferentlearners,

C.findasimilarexerciseinasupplementaryresourcebook.

56.Ifareadingtextincludesout-of-dateinformation,Ioften

A.lookforanothertextonthesametopic.

B.findthelatestinformationtobringthetextuptodate,

C.useitanywaybecausethelearnerswon’tknowit’sout-of-date.

57.Ifthereisn’tenoughlisteningpracticeinthecoursebook,Ioften

A.lookforalisteningtaskattherightlevelontheweb.

B.makemyownrecordingofareadingtextfromthebook,

C.givethelearnersanextrareadingtaskinstead.

58.Ifaunitinthecoursebookistoolong,Ioften

A.justdothefirsthalf.

B.leaveoutactivitiesthataretooeasyortoodifficultforthelearners,

C.setsomeexercisesforhomeworkinsteadofdoingtheminclass.

59.Ifthecoursebookunitsallfollowthesamesequence,Ioften

A.askthelearnerstowritetheirowncomprehensionquestions.

B.dosomeoftheactivitiesinadifferentway.

C.replacesomeoftheactivitieswithsimilaronesofmyown.

60.Ifsomelearnersfindthecoursebooktoodifficult,Ioften

A.givedifferentpracticematerialstodifferentgroups.

B.lookformorechallengingmaterialsinateacher’sresourcebook,

C.askthestrongerlearnerstohelptheweakerones.

61.Ifthecoursebooklessonsailseemtohaveasimilarpace,I

A.useadifferentinteractionpatternforsometasks,

B.makesomeoftheactivitiesmorevisual,

C.givestricttimelimitsforsometasks.

Forquestions62-67,matchtheteachers’commentsaboutcoursebookswiththeusesofacoursebooklistedA,BandC.



Usesofacoursebook

A.contextualising

B.explaining

C.practising

Teachers’comments

62.There’saveryusefulgrammarreferencesectionatthebackofthebook.

63.Thereare lotsofopportunities for learners touse the languageand the textsaremotivating.

64.Myyounglearnerslovethecartoonsitusestosetthesceneineachunit.

65.Ilikethewayitusessituationsthatarerelatedtoteenagers’livesandinterests.

66.The simple language it usesmakesall thenew ideasand concepts clear formystudents.

67.There’sareallygoodnumberofactivities.

For questions 68-74, look at the incomplete statements about supplementarymaterialsandthethreeoptionsforcompletingthemlistedA,BandC.


Marktheletter(A,BorC)whichdoesNOTcompletethestatementcorrectlyonyouranswersheet.

68.Arangeofgradedreaders

A.giveslearnersthechancetoreadattheirownpace.

B.providesavarietyoftextstomotivatelearners,

C.allowsthewholeclasstoreadthesamebooktogether.

69.Apronunciationpracticebook

A.enableslearnerstoworkonindividualsounds.

B.helpslearnerstoimprovetheirstressandintonation,

C.helpslearnerstopractisetheirinteractiveskills.

70.Aboardgame

A.canfocusonparticularareasoflanguage.

B.canhelplearnerstoanalysehowlanguageisused,

C.isamotivatingwaytogivelearnerslanguagepractice.

71.ADVDfilmwithsubtitles

A.enableslearnerstoreadandlistenatthesametime.

B.helpslearnerstocomparesoundandspelling,

C.makeslisteningcomprehensionmorechallenging.

72.Interactiveexercisesonacomputer

A.aredesignedforadvancedlearnersonly.

B.arehighlymotivatingformanylearners,

C.provideusefulextensionwork.

73.Skillspracticebooks

A.areausefulwayofsupplementingthecoursebook.

B.helplearnerstochecktheirownprogress,

C.exposelearnerstoadditionallanguage.

74.Exampracticebooks

A.focusonmotivatinglearners.

B.familiariselearnerswithstandardtesttypes,

C.oftenincludeanswerkeys.

Forquestions75-80,matchtheteachingaidswiththeteachingfunctionslistedA-G.Markthecorrectletter(A-G)onyouranswersheet.


Teachingfunctions

A.tomonitorandgivefeedbackonlearners’spokenlanguage

B.toshowsituationsgivingculturalinformation

C.toprovideawiderangeofreferenceresourcesandtextsforprojectwork

D.torecordnewvocabularyanduseforposteractivities

E.tohelpvisuallearnerscorrecttheirpronunciation

F.tobringthingsfromtheoutsideworldintotheclassroom

G.tointroduceyounglearnerstonewlanguagethroughgamesanddrama

Teachingaids

75.phonemicchart

76.DVD

77.schoollibrary

78.languagelaboratory

79.flipchart

80.realia

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Part1.Teachers’andlearners’languageintheclassroomPart2.ClassroommanagementTKTModule3.Practicetest3.1

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM

Module3.Managingtheteachingandlearningprocess

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule3.Managingtheteachingandlearningprocess

Unit27.UsinglanguageappropriatelyforarangeofclassroomfunctionsUnit28.Identifyingthefunctionsoflearners’languageUnit29.Categorisinglearners’mistakes

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM

Part1.Teachers’andlearners’languageintheclassroom

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule3.ManagingtheteachingandlearningprocessàPart1.Teachers’andlearners’languageintheclassroom

*Howdoweuselanguageappropriatelyforclassroomfunctions?

Classroom functions are the purposes for which we use language in the classroom.Thesefunctionsaremanyandvaried,forexampleexplainingandinstructing.

Foreachclassroomfunction therearedifferentexponentswecanuse.Thechoiceofexponentdependson the learningcontextandpurpose, the learners'needs, theirageandlevel.Whenwechooselanguagethatisrightforthesituationandouraudience,wesaythatweuselanguageappropriately.

*Keyconcepts

Whataresomeofthemorecommonclassroomfunctionsofteacherlanguageandtheirexponents?Listthem.

Hereisasampleofclassroomdiscoursefromabeginnerclassofyounglearners.Howmanyoftheclassroomfunctionswhichyoulistedcanyoufind?

Teacher: Stand up, Adam. Stand up, Evi. OK, Adam will ask and Evi will answer.(pointstodialogueonboard).Um,yes,readthisone.

Adam:MayIborrowyourpencil,please?(readsfromboard)

Evi:Hereyouare.

Teacher:Nowcomeon,Evi,lookatAdam.(Eviislookingfixedlyattheboard).

Adam:Thankyou.

Evi:Youarewelcome,(turnsroundandlooksshylyatAdam).

Teacher:Oher,Shona(pause)and(pause)Brenda(pause).Comeon,Shona,ask...(pause)

Shona:MayIborrowyourpencil,please?

Teacher:Brenda,lookatShona.

Brenda:Youarewelcome.

Teacher:Welcome(teacherisnotsatisfiedwithpupil'spronunciation)

Brenda:Welcome(pupilrepeats)

Teacher:May Iborrowyourpencil,please'.Brenda,abit louder.LookateachotherwhenyouaskQuestions.

Unit27.Usinglanguageappropriatelyforarangeofclassroomfunctions

(fromChildrenearningEnglishbyJayneMoon,Macmillan2000)

Let's look at the some of the functions and exponents of teacher language in thesampleindetail.

Gettinglearners'attention.Standup,Adam.Standup,Evi.(Line1)

Theteacherisgettingthelearners'attentionatthebeginningofthesequence.

TheteacherwantseveryonetolistenandwantsAdamandEvitostandup.Therearedifferenttimesinalessonwhenweneedtogetthelearners'attention,forexamplewhenweclose an activity or when we want learners to look at the board.We usually keep theseutterancesshortandveryoften teachersdevelop theirownexponents forgettingattentionwiththeirdifferentclasses.

Instructing.OK,AdamwillaskandEviwillanswer,(line1)/readthisone.(line2)/lookat Adam, (line 5) /Brenda, look at Shona. (line 11) /Look at each other when you askquestions,(line16)

Theteachergives learners instructionsthroughouttheteachingsequence:beforetheystart,duringtheactivity(theinstructionsatthispointareaboutnon-linguisticbehaviour)andattheendasareminder.Thelanguageof instructionsoftenusestheimperative,evenwithhigher-level/olderlearners.

Modelling.Welcome(line13)/MayIborrowyourpencil,please?(line15)

Theteachermodels(givesadearexampleofthetargetlanguage)attwopointsinthisteachingsequence. It is important,whenwemodel languageorally, thatwesayonlywhatwe want learners to repeat, as the teacher does here. In the first example Brenda (thelearner)repeatsthewordwelcomeaftertheteacherhassaidit.Inthesecondexample,theteacher provides a model of the structure for the whole class, but they don't repeat itimmediately.

Inthisteachingsequencethemodellingisoral.Wealsomodellanguageinwriting.Wecan guess that there is a written model on the board in this teaching sequence as theteachersaysreadthisone.

Encouragingandinstructing.Nowcomeon,Evi,(line5)/Brenda,abitlouder,(line15)Learnersareoften lacking in confidenceandshyabout speaking in front of the class.Wecanencouragethembyusinglanguagewhichmakesthemfeelpositiveaboutwhattheycandoandwhichreducestheirlevelofanxiety.Wesometimesalsohavetotellthemwhattodo(instructing).

NominatingOh-er,'Shorn(pause)and(pause)Brenda(pause),(line8)

This is justoneexampleofnominating (choosingandnamingone learner tospeakordo a particular task) in this teaching sequence.We use learners' names for a number ofreasons, for example to get their attention, tomake them feelwe knowwho they are, tomakesurethatdifferentlearnersanswer.

Promptingalearnertocontinue.Comeon,Shorn,ask...(lines8-9)

Prompting (helping learners thinkof ideasor rememberawordorphraseorwhat todo) can sometimes be quite similar to encouraging.When we prompt we provide words,phrases, ideas or even time to help the learner continue or remember what to say. Thismeanswesometimes leaveourutteranceunfinished for the learner to finish it forus,as inthisexample.

There is a range of different exponents for each classroom function. The exponentsthatteacherschoosedependonthecontext,ageandlanguagelevelofthelearnersandtheformality or informality of the teaching situation. The exponents that teachers use mustalwaysbeappropriatefor thesituation.Herearesomeexamplesofexponentsforeliciting.You can see that some would be more appropriate to use in certain classrooms or withcertainstudentsratherthanothers.

Kyoko?

Answer,please?

What'snumberfour?

Cananyonetellmetheanswertonumberfour?

Mr.Giuliani?

Wouldanyoneliketotryansweringnumberfour?

Mostofthetime,teachersareabletocommunicatetheirmessagesuccessfullytothelearnersusingthetarget language,accompaniedbygestureswhereappropriate.However,insomesituations,particularlywithyounglearnersandwithbeginnerorelementarylearners,itmaybenecessaryfortheteachertousethemothertongueorL1fromtimetotime.Thesesituationsinclude:

- problemswith discipline, for example the teacher needs to quickly stop a situationfromgettingoutofcontrol

-possibleinjuryordangertoalearner,forexampletheteachernoticesthatalearner'schairisbroken

-lookingafteralearner,forexamplealearnerisveryupsetforpersonalreasons

- repeating instructions in L1 after they have been given in the target language, forexamplewithabeginneryounglearnergroup

-checkingunderstandingofmoreabstractvocabulary, forexamplewithanadvancedclass.

ItisnotagoodideaforteacherstousemoreL1intheclassroomthanisnecessary.Iftheydo, learnerscanbecomemoreunwilling touse the target languagebecause theyareusedtohearing(andperhapsusing)L1.



-Exponentsusedintheclassroommustbeappropriatefortheclassroomfunction,forthe learning context and purpose, and for the level and age of the learners. Examples ofwhenexponentsmightbeinappropriateare:ifthelanguageisabovethelearners'level;ifthelanguageistooinformalordirectandmightseemimpolite,forexample:'Sitdownandgetonwithyourwork'spokentoalearnerinabusinessclass.

- Language should be graded to suit the-language level and age of the learners.Gradinglanguagemeanschoosingexponentsthataresuitablefor the languagelevelof thelearners.For example,withbeginnersweuse simplewordsandphrases, butwithhigher-levellearnersourlanguagecanbemorecomplex.Gradingmeansusinglanguageattherightlevelforthelearnerstounderstand.

-Languageneeds tobesequencedappropriately toprovide learnerswitha rangeoflearning opportunities. Sequencing means using language in a logical order. This isparticularly important for explanations and instructions, for example: Listen.Work with apartnerratherthanWorkwithapartner.Listen.Weusuallygivelongersetsofinstructionstolearnersinsectionsasandwhentheyneedthem.

-Learnerscanlearnchunksoflanguage,justbyhearingthemagainandagain.Soitisuseful to use a fixed range of exponents for classroom functions at the early stages oflearning,forexample:Openyourbooksandlookatpage...Oncelearnersarefamiliarwithasetofexponents,wecanextendtherangetosuittheirlevel.Withmoreadvancedlearners,we can take the opportunity to expose them to a wide range of language through thefunctionalexponentsweuse.

- Choosing which exponents we're going to use for classroom functions before thelessonisimportant.Ifwedonotplanorthinkaboutwhatlanguagetouse,wemightusethe

LI,orlanguagewhichistoocomplexortoosimple,orlanguagewhichdoesnotrespectthelearners.

SeeUnit4forfunctions.

Follow-upActivities(Seepages242-3foranswers)

1. Look at this transcript froma lesson. For eachunderlined section of teacher talk,identify theclassroomfunction.Afteryouhavedone theactivity,decidewhat levelofclassthisis.

Teacher: OK... who can make the first sentence here?... Who wants to make asentenceaboutPenny...orabout...Abdullah,makeasentenceaboutPenny,please.

Student1:WhatdoesBenn

Teacher:No.noquestionsyet...justmakeasentence.

Student2:Whichone?

Teacher:No,noquestions.

Student2:Ah,it'sBenny?

Teacher:Yes.tellmesomethingaboutPenny.

Student2:Bennywashing

Teacher:ISwashing.PennyISwashing.

Student2:uh,shirt...er...onthelastday...thelastday...onthelastday...no.

Teacher:Yesterday?

Student2:Yes.

Teacher:OK...Whatdidshewashyesterday?

Student2:Shewaswash...erShewashing.

Teacher:Mohammed,canyouhelphim?

2.Lookatthesethreesetsofteacherinstructions.Ineachexample,oneofthe

instructions (A,B, c, orD) is out of sequence.Decidewhichone is out of sequenceandthenorderthesetofinstructionscorrectly.

1/

A.Ready?I'mgoingtoplaytheCD.Listen.

B.Takeoutyourstudentbooksandturntopage50.

C.Lookatexercise3.

D.Readthefivetrue/falsequestions.

2/

A.Onyourown,writealistofwhatyouateforbreakfast.

B.Workwiththepersonsittingnexttoyou.

C.Takeitinturnstotellyourpartnerwhatyouate.

D.Don'tshowyourlisttoyourpartner.

3/

A.Ingroupsoffour,brainstormsomeideasaboutyourpersonalheroes.

B.Choosesomepointstouseinyouressay,

C.Writeadraftofyouressay.

D.Readthemodelessayinyourstudentbooktoremindyouoftheorganisation.

Reflection


1.Idon'tneedtothinkabouttheexponentsI'mgoingtouseinmylessons.I justsaywhat comes intomy head, for example when I'm explaining some language or setting upgroupwork.

2. My learners speak the same L1 as I do. So it's quicker and easier to set upactivities,checkunderstandingandthingslikethatinthemothertongue.

3.Ilistenedtoanaudiorecordingofoneofmylessons.InoticedthatIalwaysusethesameexponents.Idon'tthinkthisisagoodidea.

DiscoVeryActivities

For useful examples of classroom language for young learner classrooms, look atEnglish for Primary Teachers by Mary Slattery and Jane Willis, Oxford University Press2001.TheclassroomlanguageisalsoonCD.Ithasbeentranslatedintoseverallanguages.

Audio-recordashortsectionofoneofyourlessons.ListentoitandwritedowninyourTeacherPortfoliosomeofthelanguageyouusedtomanageeventsintheclassroom.Whatdoyounoticeaboutthelanguageyouused?Doyouthinktheexponentsareappropriateforthelearningpurpose,context,ageandlevelofthelearners?Ifnot,whatcouldyouchange?

3. Use the TKT Glossary or a dictionary to find the meaning of these terms for

classroomfunctions:swap,setaquestion,stimulatediscussion,reportback,exchange.


Forquestions1-7,lookattheexamplesofteacher’slanguageinaclassofelementarylearnersandthethreepossibletrainer’scommentsonthelanguagelistedA,Bandc.

Choosethetrainer’scomment(A,BorC)whichmatchestheteacher'slanguage.

1.Ifanyofyoudon’tunderstandwhattodo,Icanrepeattheinstructionsforyou.OK?

A.Youneedtogradeyourlanguagebetterforthisclass.

B.Trytalkingtothewholeclasstogether,

C.Whydon’tyoupromptthemhereratherthanelicit?

2..WhocanhelpJuanwiththeanswer?

A.Youcouldignorehisanswer.

B.Canyouthinkofanotherwayofcheckingunderstanding?

C.Thatwasagoodexampleofelicitinghelpfrompeers.

3.Now,we’regoingtodoabrainstormingactivitytogetherandbuildamindmapontheboard.Ready?

A.Canyourevisethenewvocabularyinstead?

B.Wasn’tthesequencingofyourinstructionsabitconfusing?

C.Howcanyoureformulatethatsolearnerswillunderstand?

4.Listen,...comfortable.Nowrepeattogether.

A.Becarefulwithstyle.Thiswasalittletooformal.

B.Youpausednicely.Thisgavestudentstimetofocus,

C.I’mnotsureeveryonewasreadyforthelisteningcomprehensionactivity.

5.Nowlet'ssee.Thefamilyliveina....

A.Yourpromptingworkedthistime.Thestudentsrememberedtheword.Yes-flat.

B.Rememberit’simportanttogeteveryone’sattentionbeforegivinginstructions.

C.Trypraisingstudentsalittlemore.You’llfindtheyrespondwell.

6.Class.Shutup.Bernardisspeaking.

A.Good.It’simportantthatstudentslearntolistentoeachother.

B.It’snotappropriatetosaythattostudents.Whatelsecouldyousay?

C.Whenprompting,waittoseeifthestudentscanhelpbeforeyoumakesuggestions.

7.Thai’snottherightanswer.Tryagain.Thequestionasksforthreenames.

A.Yourfeedbackwasveryuseful?Ithelpedthestudentunderstandwhatwaswrong.

B.Whenyoucorrectstudents,tryadifferenttechnique.Youuseechocorrectionalot.

C. Prediction activities are a good way of activating students’ vocabulary. They givethemconfidence.

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*Howdoweidentifythefunctionsoflearners’language?

Thefunctionsof learners' languageare thepurposesforwhich learnersuse languageintheclassroom.Thesepurposesincludetakingpartintasksandactivities,interactingwiththeteacherandwitheachother.Learnersmakeuseofawiderangeof languagefunctionsas they take part in different aspects of a lesson, for example greeting, explaining,suggesting, checking instructions, negotiating (having a discussion in order to reachagreement), agreeing, disagreeing, prompting. The exponents they use to express thesedifferent language functionswill vary according to their needs, age, level and the learningcontext.

*Keyconcepts

Whataresomeofthefunctionslearnersuseatdifferentpointsinalesson?Listthem.

Readthrough thestagesof this lesson.Thereareexamplesofsomeof the functionslearnerscoulduseateachstage.

OutlineofthestagesofalessonLearners’ possible languagefunctions

1.Theteacherentersanoisyclassroomand asks the learners to be quiet. Theteacher greets the learners (e.g. sayshello) and they reply. The teacherquickly checks through the homeworkwiththeclassbeforecollectingit

greeting, apologising,explaining,checkinganswers,accepting a correction,expressingdoubt/surprise

2.Theteacherhandsoutareading text(a story)andgives learners instructionsforthepre-readingdiscussiontask.Thelearners check the instructions with theteacher and then do the task in pairsbeforeclassfeedback

asking for clarification,suggesting, giving reasons,negotiating, checking,repeating

3.Theteachersetsthequestionsforthereading task. Learners do the task

negotiating, confirminganswers, agreeing,disagreeing, asking for an

Unit28.Identifyingthefunctionsoflearners’language

individually, then check in pairs beforetheteachercheckswiththeclass.

opinion,providing information,acknowledging (showing youhavenoticed)

4. The teacher asks the learners toretell the story in their own words,checkingunderstandingofvocabularyatthe same time.The teacher focusesonpronunciationofnewvocabulary

retellingastory,summarising,explaining, giving a definition,speculating (making a guessusing information about thesituation), repeating, self-correcting

5. The teacher sets homework for thefollowingday.Thelessonends.

checking instructions, askingfor clarification, confirminginformation,sayinggoodbye

Thefunctionslearnersuseareoftenthesameasthoseusedbyteachers,forexampleclarifyinginstructions(repeatingorchangingthemsothattheyaredear),givingadefinition,checking instructions.This isbecauseof the interactivenatureof theclassroom.However,teacherswilltendtodomoreinstructingthanlearners,andlearnerswilltendtousedifferentexponentstoexpressthesamelanguagefunctions.Theexponents learnersusetoexpressdifferent language functionswill vary according to their age, learning needs, level and thelearningcontext.

There is a range of different exponents for each classroom function. The exponentsthat learnerschooseandusewill vary.We teachour learners touseexponentswhichareappropriate for the context in which they are learning and in which they will be using thelanguage, for example in a business situation. Here are some examples of a range ofexponentsforsuggesting.Youcanseethattheywouldnotallbesuitableforteachingtoalllearners.

This?

Let'sdothis.

Whydon'twestartwiththispicture?

Waitaminute.Howaboutwebeginhereand then it'llbeeasier todo therestof thetask.

I'vegotan idea.Whatdoyouall think ifwebeginourdiscussion ingroupsand thenafterfiveminutes,wecanshareourideastogetherasawholegroup?


Readthesetipsandricktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou.

-Learnersneedarangeofexponentssothattheycaninteractappropriatelywitheachother and with the teacher. In most classrooms, learners will use exponents which areneutral in style. 'However, in some learning contexts, for example with business orcommercial students, it isuseful for learners to learnexponentswhichare less formal, forexample for use in a classroom/social context, or exponents which are more formal, forexampleforuseinbusinessmeetings.

-Studentscanlearnexponentsaslanguagechunks.Theydon'tneedtounderstandthegrammar of the utterance. They need to know when to use it and what it means; forexample:It'smyturn./It'syourturn./I’llfirst./Afteryou/I’vewon.

-Setsofusefulexponentscanbedisplayedontheclassroomwallsasareminderforlearners.

-Exponents for common language functions shouldbe introducedona step-by- stepbasis.Ifweencouragelearnerstousetheseexponentsregularlyduringlessons,theysoonget used to using English as the medium of interaction. Many coursebooks or textbooksintroduceexponentsforclassroomfunctionsonaregularbasis.

- Elementary learners, both adults and children/may not have sufficientEnglish to beable to communicate the range of language functions in a typical lesson in the targetlanguage.Thismeansthateithertheycan'tcommunicateastheywantto(inEnglish)orthattheyuseL1.It'simportanttohaveaclearpolicyaboutuseofL1inclass:whenlearnerscanuseitandhowmuchweletthemuse.

-Exponentscanbeintroducedtolearnersbyteachersmodellingthemaspartoftheirownclassroomlanguage.Forexample,byusingtheexponentDoyouagree?whenelicitingstudents'opinions,weprovidethemwithanexponentwhichtheycanusewhenelicitingeachother'sopinionsinpairandgroupwork.


Lookatthistranscriptofpartofadiscussionactivitybetweenstudents.Therearetwospeakers.Identifythemainlanguagefunctionofeachoftheexponentsunderlined.

Maria:Mynext-doorneighbour...hemakemuchnoisy...Ican'ttelltohimbecausehe'sverygood...um...kind.

Sylvia: You don't want to say anything because get angry. Me do the same thingbecause I'vegot oneneighbour inmyplace, anddo somethingbadbut I don't like to say

because...

Maria:Makeupsetting...upset.

Sylvia:Yeahmakeneighbourupset,

Maria:Igetworry...

Sylvia:Tosaysomethingofcourse,likeeveryone...

Maria:Er...no.Notthat.Inot likethemtoseewhatI'mdoing-whenIcominghome.That'snogood.Theywanttocheckeverything.

Sylvia:Check?

Maria:Yeah,youknow,learnwhatIdo.whencoming...

Sylvia:OhIsee...it'sadifficult...yeah,difficult.

Reflection


1. If I tried to teachmystudentsall theexponents theyneed foreverydayclassroomfunctions,I'dneverhavetimetoteachthemthelanguagefromthecoursebook!

2.My learnersusuallyuse theirL1when theywork ingroupsandwhen theyaskmequestions.Idon'tthinktheyneedtouseEnglishforthesepartsofthelesson.

3Myintermediatelearnershavetheirfavouriteexpressions,likeIagree.Goodidea.Ithinktheyshouldusemorecomplexlanguageattheirlevel.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Look in your coursebook at a lesson you are going to teach this or next week.Chooseoneinteractiveactivityfromthelesson.Brainstormthelikelylanguagefunctionsyourlearnerswillneedtobeabletocompletetheactivity.Thenforeachfunction,writedownatleast one exponent that they don't know but dial is appropriate for their level/age/context.Thinkhowyouaregoing to introduce themto thisnew languageandhelp themtouse it illthe activity. Teach the lesson, introducing the exponents as you have planned. After thelesson,reflectontheoutcomesinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2.Choosetwolanguagefunctionswhicharecommontoteacherandlearnerlanguage,e.g. encouraging prompting, correcting in your Teacher Portfolio, list four examples ofexponentsforeachone,twowhichareappropriatefortheteachertouseandtwowhichareappropriateforthelearnerstouse.Areanyoftheexponentsapplicablelobothteachersandlearners?


Forquestions1-7,matchtheexamplesoflearnerlanguagewiththefunctionslistedA-K.Thereisoneextraoptionwhichyoudonotneedtouse.

Functions

A.expressingdoubt

B.expressingsupport

C.highlightingagrammaticalstructure

D.givingreasons

E.negotiating

F.requestingclarification

G.reformulating

H.organisingideas

Examplesoflearnerlanguage

1.Let’slookatthewebsitefirst.IsthatOK?

2. I think your answer should be ‘he’s seen’, not ‘he saw’. It should be the presentperfect.

3.OK,sohegotup,hehadashower-no,hehadbreakfast,thenhehadashower-then...er...hegotdressed.Right,nowI'mreadytowriteit.

4.I’mnotsure.Ireallydon’tthinkit’sright.

5. I think theyshouldn’t allowmobilephones in schoolsbecause theycandisturb theclass.

6.That’sagoodidea.

7.WhenIwasonholidaylastsummerIhavetried...I triedsnowboardingforthefirsttime.

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*Howdowecategoriselearners’mistakes?

Mistakes are either errors or slips. There are twomain reasonswhy learnersmakeerrors: LI interference and the stage of the learner's development. Mistakes result inproblems of accuracy, i.e. students not using the correct form of the language; ofappropriacy, i.e.studentsnotusing languagesuitable for thecontextor thesituation;orofcommunication, i.e. students notmaking theirmessage clear.Wecan categorise learners'mistakes in accuracy and appropriacy in a number of different ways. We can refer, forexample,towhatismissingfromaword,sentenceorutterance,whatiswronglyused,whatis unnecessary andwhat is inappropriate (seeUnit 11 formore information on the role oferror).

*Keyconcepts

Whatkindsofmistakesdolearnersmake?

Herearesomeexamplesofthewaysinwhichwecancategoriselearners'mistakes.

Categories Examples Descriptions

Inaccuracy:pronunciation

There was a terribleflood./flu:d/

Incorrect pronunciation of/fl^d/

Inaccuracy:grammatical

- We swum in the lakeeverysummer

- He have taken morethan 100 photos la Stweek.

- News are reported 24hoursaday.

-I’mpleasedthatyouareinterestedofthestory.

- Do you come from theCanada?

-Wrong/incorrectverbform

- Unnecessary auxiliaryused as part of the wrongtense / wrong subject-verbagreement

- Wrong/incorrect subject-verbagreement

- Wrong/incorrect(dependent)preposition

-Unnecessaryarticle

Inappropriatestyle/register

Givemeacupof coffee.(usedinacafétoordera Inappropriateregister

Unit29.Categorisinglearners’mistakes

coffee)

Inaccuracy:lexical

My grandfather is aseniorman

Wrong/incorrectadjective

Inaccuracy:spelling

Theleafswereabeautifulcolour

Wrong/incorrect spelling(pluralleaves)

Inaccuracy:punctuation

Wheredoeshelive Inaccurateuseoffullstop

Mistakescanofcoursebeoralorwritten.Wecanseesomefurtherexamplesofthemintheseextracts.

Oralmistakes

Hereisanexampleofspokenlearnerdiscoursefromtheclassroom.Twostudentsarecheckingtheiranswersfromalisteningactivity.Themistakesareunderlined.

StudentA:Whatyouhave for thisone? Ihave 'thesupermarket'.Hewants foodanddrink.

StudentB:Yes,supermarket.Andnumbertwo?Ithinkitishisbirthday,buthetalksforthebirthdayoffriendalso.

StudentA:Yesfriend'sbirthday.Heissixty,

StudentB:Sixty...?Ithinktheyarefriendsinschool.

StudentA:No,sixty(/’siksti/)...asmeandyou...

StudentB:(laughing)Sixteen...notsixty...youspeakbad.

StudentA:That'snokind…numberthree...Ihave...

Nowreadaboutthekindsofmistakesthestudentsmade.

Whatyouhaveforthisone?Thisutterance(unitofspeech)ismissingtheauxiliaryverbdoandisanexampleofgrammaticalinaccuracy.

he talks for thebirthdayof friend There are several grammatical inaccuracies in thisutterance: thepreposition forafter talk is incorrect; thepossessiveadjectivehis ismissingandthephrasethebirthdayoffriendshouldbeconstructedusingthepossessive's'(hetalksabouthisfriend'sbirthday).

as me and you In this utterance the adverb as is used incorrectly, in place of theprepositionlike.Thisisanexampleofgrammaticalinaccuracy.sixteen...notsixty.StudentA

pronouncestheperson'sageincorrectly,makingthefriend60,not16.

you speak bad This utterance is an example of inappropriate language andgrammatical inaccuracy. This is inappropriate language for one student to say to anotherstudentbecauseitisimpolite.Inaddition,thestudenthasnotformedtheadverbcorrectly.

That'snokind In this utterance, the student hasusedan incorrect prefix tomake theadjectivekindnegative.Thecorrectformofthisadjectiveisunkind.

Themistakeshereare indifferent kindsofaccuracy (grammaticalandpronunciation)andinappropriacy.

Writtenmistakes

Hereisaninformalletterwrittenbyanintermediatelearner.Thenumbersinthemarginrefertotheunderlinedmistakesineachline.

DearJanet

Thanks for your letter. I’m absolutely excited that you are coming to visit me inBrighton.IhopeyoucanstayforaweekforIwanttoshowyouthetown.TherearealotofthingstodoinBrighton.Ilikeshopping.We’vegotallthebig,famousshopshereandtherearealsomanysmallshops.YoulikeclassicmusicIthink.Iwilllookafteraconcertforustosee

Seeyousoon

Yourssincerely

Sarah

Nowreadaboutsomeofthemistakesthestudentsmade.

1.Incorrectintensifier(line1):weuseabsolutelywithextremeadjectives,forexampleabsolutelyexhausted.Verywouldbebetterhere.

2. Inaccurate conjunction (line 2): for is incorrect here. Because would be moreaccurate.

3.Spelling(line3):shapingisnotspeltcorrectly.

4.Lexicalinaccuracy(line4):theadjectiveclassicdoesnothavethesamemeaningasclassical.Classicalwouldbecorrecthere.

5. Lexical inaccuracy (line 5): look after is not the correct phrasal verb to use here.Lookforwouldbeaccurate.

6. Inappropriate register (line 6): Yours sincerely is the close for a formal, not an

informal,letter.YoursorBestWisheswouldbemoreappropriatehere.

Thesemistakesareinaccuracy(grammatical,lexicalandspelling)andappropriacy.

Wecanseethatinspeakingandwriting,mistakesinaccuracyrelatetomisusingformsof language and include grammatical, lexical spelling, punctuation and pronunciationmistakes.Mistakesinappropriacyrelatetomisuseofregister.



-Learnerscan losemotivation ifwecorrecteverymistake theymake.Theybecomeanxious and, more unwilling to take risks and this can have a negative effect on theirlearning.Weneedtothinkcarefullyaboutwhat,howandwhenwecorrect.

-Whencorrectinglearners'writtenwork,itispossibletouseacorrectioncode.

Thisusessymbols,forexamplespforspelling,whichtellslearnersthetypeofmistaketheyhavemade.Thiscanhelp learnerautonomybecause it raises learners'awarenessofthe typesofmistakes theymakeandencourages them to correct their ownmistakes. It'snotpossibletouseacorrectioncodewithveryyounglearners,becausetheyarenotabletocategoriselanguageinthisway.

(SeeUnit32formoreonusingcorrectioncodes.)

-Howwe identify and categorisemistakes influences thewaywe correct them. Forexample, learnersmaynothave learnt thewordor thestructureyet; theymaybeusingawordorstructurefromtheirfirstlanguagebymistake(L1interference);theymayhavegreatdifficultymakingcertainsounds,whichisanotherkindofL1interference,ortheymayneedmoretimetocheckandedittheirwriting.

- It is important not only to focusonmistakesof accuracy (e.g. grammarand lexis).Mistakesofappropriacyneedcorrectingaswell.Mistakesofappropriacycanoftencausemoremisunderstandingandlackofcommunicationthanmistakesofgrammarandlexis.

- Mistakes can be a very positive aspect of learning. They show us that learning istakingplaceandthatlearnersaretakingriskswiththelanguage.

- Some mistakes matter more than others. Mistakes that cause a breakdown incommunication or cause miscommunication are more significant than those which do not,e.g.leavingoffpluralsisunlikelytocauseacommunicationbreakdown,whileusingthepastinstead0Ígoingtoislikelyto.

- It is useful to identify and categorise our learners' mistakes. We might identify

common mistakes made by many students, or focus on mistakes made by individualstudents.Wecanusethisinformationwhenweplanourlessonstomakesurewefocusontheproblemsthatourstudentshave,andhelpthemdevelopwaystoimprove.

-We can get information on our learners'mistakes and their needs from homeworktasks,informalassessments,observationchecklistsandsoon.

-Studentsmayalsomakemistakes incommunication,e.g. inspeaking, theymaynotbe very fluent or may not have good interactive strategies, and in writing they may notorganise their writing according to accepted structures. Learners' mistakes can be inaccuracy,appropriacyorcommunication.

SeeUnitpforcorrectinglearners.


Look at the table in the Key concepts section of the ways in which we categoriselearners' mistakes. Think of at least two more examples for each category of typicalmistakesyourlearnersmake.Includeexamplesfromtheirwrittenworkaswellasfromtheiroralwork.

Reflection


1. I find ithard tocategorisemy learners'mistakes. Iknowsomething iswrongbut Ican'texplaintothelearnerswhatitis.

2. It's very confusing for learners whenwe talk about inappropriate this or incorrectthat.Whensomething'swrong,it'swrong!

3.Icanidentifywhenthere'saproblemwithwordorderbutIdon'talwaysknowwhyit'swrong.

DiscoveryActivities

1. Correct some of your learners' written work, and identify which are the mostcommontypesofmistakeandcategorisethem.Thinkaboutwhytheymightbemakingthesemistakes.Whichmight be a result of L1 interference andwhichmight be developmental?WriteaboutwhatyouhavelearnedinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2Audio-recordashortextractofyour learnersdoingataskintheclassroom.Identifythecommonmistakesandcategorisethem,asyoudidforactivity1.ReflectonthereasonsfortheirmistakesandnoteyourideasinyourTeacherPortfolio.

3.Formoreinformationoncategorisinglearners'mistakes,lookat:Chapter9,Section

4ofLearningTeaching(Secondedition)byJimScrivener,Macmillan2005

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/thmk/artides/error-correction-1

http://vvvvvv.teachmgenglish.org.uk/think/articlcs/error-correction-2

Alsolookat'Correctingwrittenwork'at:http://wwTV.cambridge.org/elt/tkt


Forquestions1-7,matchthelearners’mistakeswiththeareasofgrammarlistedA-D.Youwillneedtousesomeoftheoptionsmorethanonce.

Areasofgrammar

A.adverbs

B.articles

C.verbforms

D.prepositions

Learners’mistakes

1.Mysisterwantstobedentistwhenshegrowsup.

2.IfIseenhim,Iwouldhavetoldhim.

3.Heisverykeenofbecomingamusician.

4.Mysisterandherhusbandalwaysarrivedlately.

5.I’mlookingforaccommodationtoliveonnextyear.

6.Oneofthestudentswerelateforclasstoday.

7.IreallywanttovisittheOxfordUniversitynextweek.

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Unit30.TeacherrolesUnit31.GroupinglearnersUnit32.CorrectinglearnersUnit33.Givingfeedback

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM

Part2.Classroommanagement

THETKTTEACHINGKNOWLEDGETESTCOURSEàModule3.ManagingtheteachingandlearningprocessàPart2.Classroommanagement

*Whatareteacherroles?

Teachersneed tobehave indifferentwaysatdifferentstagesofa lesson tomanagetheclassroomandtosuccessfullyguidelearnersthroughthelesson.Thesedifferentwaysofbehavinginandmanagingtheclassarecalledteacherroles.Teachersadopt(use)anumberof different roles in every lesson. Teacher roles vary depending on the teaching approach(way of teaching) used and on the teachers' and learners' preferred learning styles andlearningneeds.

*Keyconcepts

Whatrolesdoteachersadoptduringalesson?Listfour.

Herearesomerolesteachersoftenadopt.

Role Theteacher:

1.Plannerprepares and reflects on the lesson beforeteaching,anticipatesproblemsandselects,designsandadaptsmaterials

2.Manager

organises the learning space, makes sureeverythingintheclassroomisrunningsmoothlyandsets up rules and routines (i.e. things which aredoneregularly)forbehaviourandinteraction

3. Monitor /Observer

goes around the class during individual, pair andgroup work activities, checking learning andprovidingsupportasnecessary.

4.Facilitatorprovidesopportunitiesforlearning,helpslearnerstoaccessresourcesanddeveloplearnerautonomy

5.Diagnostician worksoutthecausesoflearners’difficulties

6. Languageresource

can be used by the learners for help and adviceaboutlanguage.

7.Assessorevaluates the language level and attitudes of thelearners by using different means of informal andformalassessment

Unit30.Teacherroles

8.Rapportbuilder triestocreateagoodrelationshipwithandbetweenlearners.

You'll notice how teacher roles match with different aspects of teaching and withdifferentstagesofalesson.Wecanbeplannersbeforethelesson,rapportbuildersduringthewarm-upand lead-inphase, languageresourcesduringthe language inputandpracticephase, monitors during role-play, pairwork activities or writing, and assessors during thelesson,both formallyand informally,andafter the lessonwhenwearecorrecting learners'work.

The teacher roles we adopt have to be appropriate for the teaching and learningcontext,theteachingapproach,thelessonaims,thestageofthelesson,thetypeofactivityand the age, level and attitude of the learners. A teacher using a PPP approach will, forexample,atdifferenttimesofthelesson,actasacontroller,amodelandaguide.However,these teacher rolesarenotsoappropriate fora teacherusingacommunicativeapproach.Teacher roles more suitable for a communicative approach include facilitator, resource,provideroflanguage,prompter.

Effective classroom management, i.e. organising the classroom and the learners, isdependentontheteacheradoptingappropriateroles.Forexample,whenlearnersarrivelateinclassormisbehave, the teacherneeds todealwith thesituationappropriately toensurethat the learners understand that this is not acceptable behaviour. In this situation, theteacher's role is primarily tomaintain discipline. If, on the other hand, the teacher adoptsinappropriateroles,thiscanhaveanegativeeffectontheirclassroommanagement.Imagineasituationwhereonelearnerisdominatingtheinteractionintheclassroom,resultinginotherlearnersbecomingannoyedandbeingunwillingtoparticipate(takepartinsomething).Iftheteacherletsthelearnercontinueinadominatingrole,heorshecouldlosetherespectoftheotherstudentsandwillbelessabletofacilitate(makeeasier)their learningHowever, iftheteachersetsoutdearclassroomroutinesandcodesofconductinwhichlearnerstaketurnsto participate and listen to each other's contributions, he or shewill build rapportwith theclassandprovidethelearnerswithamoresupportivelearningenvironment.

Thereareseveralcommonsituationsinwhichateacherhastoadapthisorherroleasappropriate to encourage smooth classroom management. These include learners notcompletinghomework,monitoringlearnersduringpairandgroupactivities,learnersfailingtounderstandinstructions, learnerschattingduringpairorgroupworkandnotfocusingonthetask.

The roles that teachersadoptalsodependon theneedsof the learners.Withyounglearners,wemighttakeontheroleofaparentorafriendwhenayoungstudentisunwellorunhappy. With teenage or adult learners, two of the key teacher roles are those ofmotivating students and maintaining discipline (establishing a clear system of rules andcodes of behaviour).With adult students the teacher's roles are often those of facilitator,languageresourceanddiagnostician.



- What we say, how we say it and what we do make our teacher roles clear tolearners.Whenplanninglessons,itisusefultofirstidentifytheroleswearegoingtotakeonduring the lessonand then to thinkaboutwhatwearegoing tosayanddo toconvey thatroleclearlytothelearners.

- It takes practice and experience to knowwhich teacher roles are appropriatewithwhich classes and for which activities. Less experienced teachers may feel comfortableusingalimitednumberofrolesatfirstandthengraduallyextendingtheirrange.

- Some problems with classroom discipline, classroom management and facilitatinglearningarearesultofteachersnotadoptingappropriateteacherroles.

-Learnerstaketimetogetusedtotheteacherworkingindifferentroles.Forexample,learnerswhoaremorefamiliarwithateacherintheroleofmanagermightbeconfusedbyateacherwhotakesontheroleoffacilitator.It isusefultoprovidesomelearnertrainingandtointroducethenewrolesslowlysothatlearnersgetusedtonewwaysofworking.

- It is important tobe flexible in teacher roles.Sometimes rolesneed tobechangedbecauseofcircumstances in the lesson.Forexample,whenwearemonitoringa taskandrealisethatlearnershavenotunderstoodthekeylanguage,wetakeontheroleoflanguageresourcetoclarifythelanguagepointsothatlearnerscancontinuewiththetask.

- It issometimesnecessary to takeonroleswedonotalwaysfeelcomfortablewith.Whenlearnersdonotcompletehomeworktasks,forexample,teachershavetobefirmerinmanagingthelearnersthantheyusuallyare.Theabilitytotakeonappropriaterolesinclassis important for establishing class rapport andmaintainingapositiveandeffective learningenvironmentintheclassroom.

(Seepage243foranswers)


Hereisanexampleofaclassroomsituation.Readanddecidewhichrole(A,B,orC)

you think is themost appropriate for the teacher to adopt. Think about what the teachermightsay(theexponents).

1. The teacher has just introduced the first conditional to a group of teenage, pre-intermediatestudents througha reading textandwants to findout if theyunderstandwhatthestructuremeans.

A.Languageresource

B.Assessor

C.Monitor

2.Herearefourclassroomsituations.Readandchoosewhichclassroommanagementchoice(A.BorC)ismostappropriateineachcase.Whydoyouthinkit isthebestcourseofaction?

(1) The teacher has planned to start the lesson by going over homework set in thepreviouslesson.However,onlyhalftheclasshavedoneit.

A.Theteacherstartsthelesson,bygoingoverhomeworkashehadplanned.

B.Theteacherputsthestudentsintopairs,one:whohasdonetheHomeworkandonewhohasn'tandgoesoverhomeworkwiththewholeclass,

C.Theteachercollectsthehomeworkfromthestudentswhohavedoneitandtellstheotherstudentstobringtheircompletedhomeworktothenextclass.

(2)Theteacherhasfinishedwhatsheplannedtodointhelessonbuttherearestillfiveminutesoftheclassleft?

Ạ.Theteachertellsthestudentstheycanleavetheclassearly.

B.Theteacher tellsstudents toclosetheirbooksandto tryandremembersixof thenewwordsfromthelesson,

C.Theteacherplaysthelisteningtextfromthelessonagainandtellsstudentstolistenmorecarefully.

(3) Half the students always arrive late for the lesson because they have gymimmediatelybeforehand.

A.Theteachergivesaworkbookexercisetothestudentswhocomeontime.

B.Theteacherpunishesthestudentswhocomelate.

C.Theteacherpreparesagameonthetopicofthelessonforthestudentswhocomeontime.

(4)Thestudentsarepassiveandalwayswaitfortheteachertotellthemtheanswersandtogiveexamples.Hewantsthemtoparticipatemoreactivelyinthelessons.

A.Theteacherletsstudentscheckanswersandideasinpairsbeforeelicitinganswersfromtheclass.

B.Theteachertellsthestudentsthattheymustparticipatemore,

C.Theteacherasksaquestionorasksforanexampleandthenwaitsuntilastudentanswers.

Reflection


1. I likemy class to be veryorganisedand I like to be in control. I believe themainrolesofateacheraretomanageandassess.

2. I think of myself as a facilitator in my classroom because I want my learners tobecomemoreindependent.

3. I'm inmy twenties.Mystudentsare thesameageasme. I like theclasses tobeinformal,soIdon'tthinkmanyoftheteacherrolesareappropriateforme.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Thinkaboutalessonyouhavetaughtrecentlyandlookatthelessonplan.Whichoftheteacherrolesinthisunitdidyouuse?Wereyoueffectiveinmakingtheserolescleartothelearners?Ifnot,whydoyouthinkthatwas?Arethereanyteacherrolesthatyoudidn'tuseandwhich, on reflection, you thinkwould havebeenappropriate?Write your thoughtsandreflectionsinyourTeacherPortfolio.ReadAnA-ZofClassroomManagementbySimonBrown,EnglishTeachingPublications,Issue62,KeywaysPublishing


Forquestions1-7,lookattheincompletestatementsaboutteacherrolesandthethreeoptionsforcompletingthemlistedA,BandC.



1.Whenactingasamonitorinpairwork,theteacher

A.standswatchingthelearners.

B.movesaroundtheclassroom.

C.partnersalearner.

2.Whenactingasalanguageexpert,theteacher

A.maintainsdiscipline.

B.explainsmeaningtolearners,

C.providesmodels.

3.Whenactingasafacilitator,theteacher

A.findsoutlearners’names.

B.developslearnerautonomy,

C.encouragestheuseoflearningstrategies.

4Whenactingasamanager,theteacher

A.organiseslearningresources.

B.presentsnewlanguage,

C.setsupgroupwork.

5.Whenactingasạ.diagnostician,theteacher

A.evaluatestestresults

B.checkslearners’homework,

C.introducesnewlexis

6.Whenactingasarapportbuilder,theteacher

A.usesacorrectioncode.

B.motivateslearners,

C.givespositivefeedback.

7.Whenactingasaresourcelearners,theteacher

A.givesinformationonlanguage.

B.giveshomework,

C.advisesonlearningstrategies.

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*Whatdoes‘groupinglearners’mean?

Therearedifferentwaysinwhichwecanorganiseourlearnersintheclassroom.

Forexample, learnerscanworkon theirown,asawholeclass, inpairs, in teams, ingroups.Organising learners into different working patterns is what wemean by 'groupinglearners'.

*Keyconcepts

Whatshouldweconsiderwhengroupinglearners?

Whenplanning our lessons,we decidewhichway of grouping learners or interactionpatterns to use. The interaction patterns we choose depend on the learners and theirlearning styles, our own teaching style(s) and preferences, the teaching approach, thelearningcontext,thetypeofactivity,theaimorlearningpurposeoftheactivityandthestageinthelesson.Therearemanydifferentinteractionpatternstochoosefrom,e.g.wholeclass(the teacher leads theclassand the learners focuson the teacher), individuals,openpairs(two learners do a pairwork activity in front of the class), closed pairs (learners all do anactivity at the same timeworkingwith a partner), groups, teams,mingles.Very often, theactivityitselfsuggestsaparticularinteractionpattern.

Herearesomeexamples:

Activity InteractionpatternReason for using interactionpattern

Brainstorming

1.Groupsorpairs:studentsworkingwithotherstudents.

2. Students to the teacher(feedback)

Reviewsandsharesstudents’knowledge of vocabularyand/orstructureandthetopicor context; develops learningstrategies; energises thestudents and gets them allinvolved

Bingogame1. Whole class: teacher tothestudents.

2.Studenttotheteacher

Reviews students’understanding of vocabulary;givesachangeofpace;givesthe teacher feedback;

Unit31.Groupinglearners

energises

Reading andfilling in achart

1. Individuals (studentscomplete thechartson theirown).

2. Pairwork: student tostudent.

3. Open pairs (checkinganswers),studenttostudentwiththeteacherfacilitating

Calms studentsdown, allowsstudents to practise scanningin their own time; enablesstudents to check their worktogether to give confidencebeforetheclasscheck

Classsurvey

1.Minglingactivity: studentsmove around the classroomasking questions of otherstudents.

2.Groupsorpairs(studentscompare and discuss theiranswers).

3. Teacher asks differentstudents in the class whattheyfoundout(feedback)

Gives students practice in allfour skills and in managingtheir learning; givesopportunities for largeamounts of practice; gives achange of pace; developslearner autonomy; everystudent in the class is activeandinvolved

Appropriate learnergroupingshaveapositiveeffectonclassorgroupdynamics (therelationships between the learners in the class or group) and on the teacher's ability tosuccessfullymanagetheclassandfacilitatelearning,whole-classactivities,suchasmingles,enableallthestudentstopractisethelanguageatthesametime.Theseactivitiesaregoodfor increasing confidence, especially amongst shy or weaker learners. Individual activitiesgivestudentsachancetoworkattheirownpaceandtofocusandorganisetheirthoughts.Pairandgroupactivitiesprovidestudentswithopportunitiesfordevelopinglongerturnsandfluency through interaction. They also help with confidence building and give studentsopportunitiesforpracticeinanonthreateningenvironment.

On theotherhand,poorlychosengroupingscan result inproblems in theclassroom.Hereareafewexamplesofclassroomproblemswithpossiblereasonsforthem:

Classroomproblems Somepossiblereasons

Groups are too big; talkative

Learnersmisbehave,e.g. theyusetheirmothertongue,becomenoisy,don’tdotheactivity.

learners are grouped with othertalkative learners; friends aregroupedwithfriends

LearnersareboredLearners are always in the samelearnergroupings

Learners are very teacher-dependent

Whole class work and individualwork are the main learnergroupings used; the teacher doesnot encourage or facilitate learnerautonomy

One or more learners dominate(has/have a strong influence onwhat happens / other learners getlesschancetoparticipateactively).

In whole-class or individualactivities, the teacher allows thesame learner(s) to answer; in pairand group work, dominatinglearners are paired with learnerswho allow themselves to bedominated

Oneormorelearnersdon’twanttojoininorparticipate

There are few pair and groupactivitieswherelearnersarepairedwith other ‘shy’ learners or withlearners with whom they feelcomfortable

Some learners have nothing to dobecause they have finished theactivitymorequicklythanothers

Possible fast finishers are allgrouped together -rather thanbeing mixed with learners ofdifferentworkingspeeds

Some learners are frustratedbecause they do not have time tofinishtheactivity

Slower learners are paired withslowerlearners

Teachers are unable to monitorlearnersandlearningsuccessfully

Theaboveproblemsmeanthattheteacher has to manage the classanddealwithdifficultiesratherthanmonitorandpromotelearning.

Youcanseefromthetablehowmuchlearnergroupingscanaffectwhathappensintheclassroom.Overall, it's important tohaveabalanceandvarietyof learnergroupings inanyonelesson.



-Itisusefultoincludeavarietyofinteractionpatternsinalessontokeepthestudentsinterestedandmotivatedandtogivethemdifferentkindsofpractice.

-Younglearnersdonothavesuchfixedlearningstylesasadultsanditisanimportantaspectoftheirdevelopmentforteacherstointroducethemtoarangeoflearnergroupings.

-Allclassesaremixedability:studentsareatdifferentpointsintheirlanguagelearning,havedifferentlearningstrengthsanddifferentintelligences.

-When grouping students in young learner classes, it is important to consider then-cognitive and physical development. Young learners of the same age may not be at thesamepointintheseaspectsofdevelopment.

-Most of the time learnersworkwell together in different groupings, but sometimesindividual learner characteristicsmean that some learners find it difficult towork together,e.g.onelearnerisshyandanotherisquitedominant.

-Withaclassofbetween20and30 learners,wecanmanagearangeof interactionpatterns quite easily.With classes ofmore than 30 learners, interaction patterns such aspairs,groups,mingles,teamsarepossible,butneedmorecarefulplanning.

-Gradual introductionofpairandgroupwork is importantwhen learnersareused toworking as a whole class, It is useful to start by doing short, quite structured pairworkactivitiesandgraduallyintroducelongerandmorevariedgroupings.

-Activitiesdonotalwayshave tobedone in thesame learnergroupings.Discussionactivitiescanbedoneinteamsratherthaningroupsorasawholeclass,androle-playsingroupsratherthanpairs.

- Learners can be absent from class. It is frustrating when we plan groups for anactivityandoneormoreofthelearnersareabsent.Soit'simportanttoconsiderhowwewillmanage,forexample,ifthepredictedclassof20(5groupsof4)isaclassof18ontheday.

-Sometimesastudentarriveslateforclassafterwehaveorganisedthegroupingsforthe activity. You can deal with this by putting the student in a group and have the group

explainquicklytohimorherwhattheyaredoing.

(Seepage243foranswers)


Hereisalessonplanfromamethodologybookforprimarylearners.Studythelessonplan and decide on appropriate learner groupings for each stage. What aspects will youhavetoconsiderwhengroupingthelearners?

Time Teacher’sactivity Pupils’activity

5-10minutes

1. Warmer: brief revision ofcolours

Pupils stand in lines behindflagsofdifferentcolours.Theteacher says a colour.Pupilsbehind the flag of that colourputuptheirhands

10minutes

2. Bring in a goldfish or apicture of a fish to introducethetopictopupils.Discussthefish - what it looks like, itscolour, its parts. Check whohasafishathome

Pupils gather round the tankand say what they knowabout fish. They tell eachother something about theirownfish

3. Tell pupils you are going totellthemastory.Pupilspredictwhat the story will be. Getfeedbackfromthepupils

Pupils talk together to try toguess what will be in thestory

10minutes

4. Explain the activity, i.e.pupils have to colour their fishasthestoryrequests.Giveoutcolours and photocopies of afishdrawing

Croup monitors give outcrayonsandblanksheets

5minutes

5.Tellthefirstpartofthestorywith actions and pictures.Continue the story withinstructionsforcolouring

Pupils colour in the fishdrawings, followinginstructions

6. Get the pupils to comparedrawings

Pupilscomparedrawings

5minutes 7.Elicit fromdifferent learnersthecoloursofthelittlefishUsesentence prompts, e.g. Hisfaceis...

Pupils talk about the coloursofthefishtothewholeclass,e.g.Hisfaceis...

5minutes

8. Ask pupils what theythoughtaboutthestory,inL1ifnecessary. Ask whether thebig fish was right not to givethelittlefishcolourforhislips

Pupils give their opinions totheclass

(adaptedfromChildrenLearningEnglishbyJayneMoon,Macmillan2000)

SeeUnit13formoreinformationonlearningstylesandotherlearnercharacteristics.

Reflection


1. My classes are only 45 minutes long, and it takes time to arrange students intodifferentgroupingsfordifferentactivities.Ithinkit'sawasteoftime.

2.Whenmystudentsworkinpairsandgroups,theclassroombecomesanoisyplace.Otherteacherscommentonit inthestaffroom.ItmakesmefeelasifI'mnotdoingagoodjob.

3.Iteachgroupsofbusinesspeopleandtheypreferworkingontheirown.I'mnotsureifIshouldincludeotherlearnergroupingsornot.

DiscoveryActivities

1.Tryoutsomelearnergroupingsthatyouhaven'ttriedbeforeandwriteuptheresultsinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2.YouwillfindsomeusefulinformationongroupingyounglearnersinChapters7and8ofChildrenLearningEnglishbyJayneMoon,Macmillan2000.

3. Formore information on practical aspects of grouping learners and on interactionpatterns; look atModule: 16 of ACourse in Language Teaching by PennyUr, CambridgeUniversityPress1996.


For questions 1-7, match the teaching strategies with the problems with group orpairworklistedA,BandC.


Problemswithgrouporpairwork

A.Somestudentsdominate.

B.Somestudentsalwaysfinishfirstandgetbored,

C.SomestudentsusetoomuchL1.

Teachingstrategies

1.Planshortextensionactivitiesandhavethemreadytohandouttostudents.

2.Planlearnergroupingscarefullybeforethelessonsothatalllearnerscantakepart.

3.Makesurestudentsknowthekeyexpressionstouseintheactivities.

4.Demonstrateactivitiestoprovidestudentswithmodelsoflanguagetheyneed.

5. Make sure that activities are differentiated so that some students are challengedmore.

6. Be ready to change learner groupings if some students are stopping others fromtakingpart.

7.Makeonestudentineachgroupresponsibleformonitoringlanguageuse.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Howdowecorrectlearners?

Wecorrectlearnerssometimeswhentheyhavemadeamistakeandwewanttoshowthemthatsomething iswrong.There isarangeofcorrectionstrategiesandtechniqueswecanuse to indicate (show) that there is amistake, and theoneswechoosedependonanumberofdifferent factors, forexampletheaimof theactivity, theageof the learnersandthelanguagelevelofthelearners.

*Keyconcepts

What strategies and techniques can we use for correcting learners’ oral and writtenmistakes,andwhendoweusethem?

Oralcorrection

1.Timelines.Wecandrawatimelineontheboardtoshowlearnerstherelationshipbetweentheuseofaverbtenseandthetimeoraspect.Thistechniqueisparticularlyusefulfor mistakes such as 1 have seen that film two weeks ago. The time line to show thismistakemightlooklikethis.

Past<-Now->Future

Thisreminds learners that,becausetheevent is in thepastandthetime isspecified,theycannotusethepresentperfect.ThecorrectsentenceisIsawthatfilmtwoweeksago.

2. Finger correction. This shows learners where in an utterance they have made amistake.Wecanindicatewherethemistakeiswithoutspeakingandpromptlearnerstoself-correct.We show one hand to the class and point to each finger in turn aswe say eachword in theutterance.This technique isparticularlyeffectivewhen learnershave leftoutaword inanutterance,becausewecan indicate thatsomething ismissingandtheycanseewhereintheutterancethemissingwordshouldgo.Itisalsohelpfulwhen,wewantthemtouseacontraction, forexample I'mworking rather than Iamworking.Webring two fingerstogether to show thatwewant them to bring the twowords together. (See illustration onpage168.)

3. Gestures and/or facial expressions are useful when we do not want to interruptlearners,but stillwant to show them that theyhavemadeaslip.Aworriedorquestioninglook from the teacher is often enough to indicate to learners that there is a problemwithwhat theyhave said.Aswell asusing facial expressions, it is possible to usegestures toindicatedifferentkindsofmistake.Onegesture that teachersoftenuse to remind learners

Unit32.Correctinglearners

thatapasttenseisneededistopointbackovertheirshoulder.Thegesturesthatteachersusedependonwhatisappropriatefortheircultureandteachingsituation.

4.Phonemicsymbols,when learnersarefamiliarwithphonemicsymbols,wecanusethemtofocusonmispronouncedsoundsbypointingattherelevantsymbolsonthephonemicchartorwritingtherelevantsymbolontheboard.Forexamplewhenastudentusesalongvowel /u:/ when they should have used a short one /u/, or when they mispronounce aconsonant.

5. Echo correcting means repeating what a learner says with rising intonation.Repeating with rising intonation will show the learner that there is amistake somewhere,because the rising intonation sounds like a question. This technique is effective whenlearnershavemadesmallslipswhichyoufeelconfidenttheycancorrectthemselves.

6. Identifying the mistake. Sometimes we need to identify the mistake by focusinglearners' attention on it and telling them that there is a problem. This technique is morecommonlyusedwitherrors.Wemightsay'Areyousure?'toindicatethatthereisaproblem.Wecouldthengoontoprovidethecorrectversion.

7.Delayedcorrection.Sometimes it isbestnot to indicateorcorrectmistakesat thetime they aremade, for examplewhen learners are taking part in role-plays or other oralfluency activities. As we monitor fluency activities we can make a note of any seriousmistakeswehear.Attheendoftheactivity,wecansaythemistakesorwritethemontheboardandasklearnerswhattheythinktheproblemsare,andtosuggestcorrectionswithouttellinglearnerswhomadewhichmistakes.

8.Peer and self-correction.Peer correction involves learners correcting each other'smistakes.Self-correctioniswhenlearnerscorrecttheirownmistakes.Sometimesweneedtoindicatethatthereisamistakeforthelearnerstocorrectit.Wecanprovidelearnerswithprompts, forexample repeatingpartof theutteranceandstopping justbefore thepartwewant them to correct. Other prompts we can use are gesture and facial expressions.Sometimes learners notice the mistake themselves and quickly correct it. Peer and self-correctionhelplearnerstobecomeindependentoftheteacherandmoreawareoftheirownlearningneeds.

9. Ignoringerrors.We ignore errors that are above the learners' language level. Forexample,anelementarylearnertellingusaboutwhathedidattheweekendmightmakeanincorrectguessabouthowtotalkaboutpasttimeinEnglish.Wedonotcorrectthismistakebecause the past simple is not a tense the learner has been taught yet. We mightreformulate(see10below)partofthelearner'sutterancebutwedonotexpectthelearner

tocorrectthemistake.Wemayalsodecidetoignoremistakesmadebyaparticularlearnerbecausesheisweakorshy.Finally,weoftenalsoignoreslipsaslearnerscancorrectthesethemselves.

10. Reformulating. This is a technique which parents use when their young childrenmake language mistakes. They correct the mistake by repeating the utterance correctly,withoutdrawingthechild'sattentiontothemistake.Forexamplethechildsays'Wegoedtothezooyesterday'andtheparentresponds'Yes,that'sright,wewenttothezooyesterday'.We can also use this technique in the classroom, particularly when we do not want tointerruptalearnerorstoptheflowoftheinteraction.

11.Recasting.Sometimeswerecastastudentutterancebyrewordingitandsayingitbacktothelearnerinitsimprovedform,forexamplethestudentsays'Iamnotofthesameopinionasmyfriend'andtheteachersays'Oh,youmeanyoudon'tagreewithhim'.

12.Givingtheruleandanexampleordefinition.Insomesituations,itcanhelplearnersifweprovidethegrammarruleandthengiveorelicitanexampleandadefinition.Thiswouldnotbeappropriate inaclassofyounglearnersbutmightbeappropriate inaclassofadultlearnersatanhighintermediatelanguagelevel.

Writtencorrection

Look at this storywritten by a learner. In themargin, there is a codewritten by theteachertoshowdifferentkindsofmistakes.Canyouworkoutwhatthecodemeans?

MyBestFriend

IgoingtotellyouaboutmybestFriend.HernameisBetty.Sheistallandhasgotlonghair dark.Her favourite food is chocolate and her favourite drink is cola.Her hobbies arewrittingshortstoriesandlookingatTV.AttheweekendwegoshoppinginthemallandmeetourFriends.It’sFun!

The teacher has used a correction code to indicate the types of mistakes that thelearner has made. This enables learners to make their own corrections. Here is anexplanationofthelettersandsymbols:

[]=wordmissing

There is amissing auxiliary in the first line. The learner haswritten 'I going' when itshouldbe'Iamgoing'.

[wo]=wordorder

Thereisawordordermistakeinline2.Thesentence'Sheistallandhasgotlonghairdark'shouldbe'Sheistallandhasgotlongdarkhair'.

[Sp]=spelling

Thereisaspellingmistakeinline3.Theword'writting'shouldbe'writing'.

[V]=vocabulary

There is a vocabulary mistake in line 4. The learner has used 'looking at' when thecorrectwordis'watching'.

[P]=punctuation(comma,fullstop,etc.)

The learner has used the wrong punctuation in line 5. The learner has written 'Its'withouttheapostrophe.Thecorrectversionis'It's'.

Otherexamplesofsymbolsinacorrectioncodeare:

[v]=goodsentenceorexpression

[?]=Askme(Idon'tunderstand)

[prep]=preposition

[T]=verbtense

[ag]=agreement

Wecancorrectstudents'writtenworkusingothertechniques.Forexample:

-Teachercorrection.Theteachercorrectsthelearners'mistakesbywritingthecorrectword(s)onthelearners'work.

-PeercorrectionThelearnersreadeachother'swrittenwork,inadraftorfinalversionand give feedback. Learners can also correct each other's work or discuss possiblecorrectionswitheachother.

-Self-correction.Thelearners,usuallywiththehelpofaguidancesheetonwhattypesof mistakes to look for, find and correct mistakes in their own work. This is helpful fordevelopinglearnerautonomyandforhelpinglearnersdeveloptheabilitytoeditandre-drafttheirownwork.Itisanimportanttechniqueforexaminations.

- Ignoring themistake.As in9above,sometimeswechoose to ignoremistakes thatlearnersmakeintheirwrittenwork.

Whenusingacorrectioncodeormarkingstudents'writtenwork,werarelycorrectallthemistakes that studentsmake because correcting all of them can be demotivating andconfusing forstudents.Wecorrectmistakes,whichare the focusof thepieceofworkandmistakeswhichwe do not expect students of this level tomake (e.g. structures and lexistheyarealreadyveryfamiliarwith).


Readthesetipsandticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou

- It is important to be aware of the range of correction techniques and strategiesavailableintheclassroom.Wechoosethetechniqueappropriatefortheteachingapproach,thelearningpurpose,theactivity,thelearnerandthecontext,

-Over-correction can result in learnersnotwanting to sayanything in classbecausethey are afraid ofmakingmistakes. So we choose carefully what to correct and what toignore.

- Indicatingmistakes and slips to learners so that they can self- or peer-correct willhelpthembecomemoreautonomousintheirlearning.

-Wecantrytoextendourrangeofcorrectiontechniquesandstrategies.Ifweusethesametechniqueallthetime,forexampleechocorrecting,learnerswillnothaveopportunitiestocorrectthemselvesorbecomeawareoftheirownerrors.

-Conceptquestionscanbeawayofchecking if learnershavemadeanerrorofuseratherthanform.Forexample,thelearnersays'I'llgotothebeachattheweekend'.Thisisgrammaticallycorrect,butifwethinkthelearnerhasalreadyplannedthetripandshouldbeusing the present continuous or going to future, we can use concept questions such as'Whendidyoudecidetogotothebeach?Didyoudecidenoworbefore?’tocheck.

-Whenseverallearnersmakethesamesignificantmistakeduringoneormorelessonsitsometimesmeansthattheclassneedsfurtherpracticewiththatareaoflanguageinfuturelessons.Iftheyareminorerrors,thisisprobablynotnecessary.

If only a few learnersmake the error, we can provide those learners with individualwrittenororalpractice.

SeeUnit11forth?roleoferrorandUnit29forcategorisinglearners'mistakes.

Follow-upActivities(Seepage243-4foranswers)

Read through the following classroom situations and decide which might be mostappropriatecorrectiontechniquestouse.Theremaybemorethanonepossibility.

1. The teacher is presenting a new structure to an elementary class and is askingstudents to repeat the target sentence in small groups, she notices that some of thestudentsarenotusinganappropriaterhythmintheutterance.

2.Ateacherisworkingwithaclassofyounglearners.Hehasaskedthemtotakeitinturnstotalkbrieflytotherestoftheclassabouttheirfavouritetoy.Learnershavebroughtin

realia to help them. The first learner to speak makes mistakes with adjective order andcomparatives.

3. The teacher has collected an essay which her intermediate students wrote forhomework. She wants the students to become more aware of their own errors andmistakes.

4. Students in an intermediate young learner class are preparing posters on the unittopicfordisplay.Theteachernoticesthatthereareseveralerrorsontheposters.

Reflection


1. I’d like to usedifferent strategiesand techniques for correctingmy learners, but IfindthatintheclassroomIautomaticallyuseechocorrectionwithoutthinking

2.Mystudentsareallteenagers.Iencouragethemtousepeerandself-correctionbuttheypreferitwhenIcorrectthem

3. I always correct allmy students’mistakes in theirwrittenwork. I don’t think it’s agoodideatoleaveerrorsintheirtexts

DiscoveryActivities

1. Try using some different correction techniques and strategies in your classes andwriteupinyourTeacherPortfolioyourreflectionsonhowthelearnersreactedtothemandhoweffectingyouthinktheywere

2.Forsomemorepracticalideasondifferentcorrectiontechniques,lookatChapter12in Tasks for Teacher Education: Trainers’ Book by Rosie Tanner and Catherine Green,PearsonEducationLtd1998

3.Observe one ormore colleagues and noticewhat correction techniques they use.Use or adapt the Observation Sheet on page 249 of A course in Language Teaching byPennyUr,CambridgeUniversitypress1996

4.LookatCorrectingwrittenworkat:http://www.cambridge.org/elt/tkt

TKTpracticetask32(.Seepage245foranswers)

Forquestions1-6,matchthecorrectiontechniqueswiththeteacher’saimslistedA-G.Thereisoneextraoptionwhichyoudonotneedtouse.

Teacher'saims

A.toexposestudentstocorrectionswithoutthembeingconsciousofit

B.tofocusonpronunciation

C.tofocusonfluencyandgivestudentsencouragement

D.todevelopunderstandingoflanguageusebyusingavisualrepresentation

E.tofocusstudentsonfeaturesofconnectedspeech

F.toencourageself-correction

G.toencouragepeercorrection

Correctiontechniques

1.Theteacherdecidedtoignorethemistakeswhichsheheardstudentsmakingintheirrole-plays.

2. The teacher used finger correction, highlighting what the missing word in thequestionwas.

3.Theteacherreformulatedayounglearner’sutterance.

4.Theteacherputstudentsintogroupsandaskedthemtoreadandcommentoneachother’swrittensummaries.

5.Theteacherpointedatasymbolonthephonemicchart.

6. The teacher drew a time line on the board showing the difference between thepresentsimpleandpresentcontinuousafterseveralstudentshadusedthewrongtense.

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM


*Whatisgivingfeedback?

Feedback is giving information to someone about their learning and/or showing themthatyouhaveunderstood(ornot)whattheyhavesaid.Intheclassroom,teacherscangivefeedbacktolearners,andlearnerscangivefeedbacktotheteacher.

When teachers give feedback to learners, they give them information about theirlearning.Teacherfeedbackcanfocusonlearners'languageorskills,theideasintheirwork,theirbehaviour, theirattitude to learningor theirprogress.Sometimeswegive feedback tothewholeclass,atothertimeswegivefeedbacktosmallgroupsorindividuallearners.Wecan give oral feedback or written feedback. The purposes of feedback are to motivatelearners, to encourage learner autonomy and to help learners understand what theirproblems are and how they can improve.When learners give feedback to each other onaspects of their learning this is called peer feedback. Learners can also give feedback toteachers,forexampleondifferentaspectsofthecourseandthelessons,suchasmaterials,methodology(methodsandprocedures)andactivitiesusedinclass.

*Keyconcepts

Thinkof fourexamplesof feedback, twooralandtwowritten,youhavegiventoyourlearnersrecently.Whataspectsofspeakingorwritingdidtheyfocuson?whydidyougivethemthisparticularfeedback?Howdoyouthinkithelpedthemtoimprove?'

Herearesomeexamplesofteacherfeedbacktolearners.

Example Focus Purpose

Oral: ‘Well done. That wasvery good. It was muchbetter than last time. Youreally thought about thepresentation.’

Progress,effort,achievement

Encouraging the learner andtelling her she did well(praising).

Oral: ‘Have another look atnumber four. There’s aproblem with spelling and Ithink there are more thantwopeople.’

Languageandcontent

Identifyingwheretherewasaproblem and prompting whatthe learner needs to do tocorrectherownanswer

Unit33.Givingfeedback

Oral: ‘Let’s lookat thenewstructure on the boardagain. I think some of youhave misunderstood howweuseit

Language.Reviewing a problematiclanguageareawith thewholeclassinanencouragingway

Written: ‘What an amazingstory! You’ve usedadjectives very well thistime, but there were a fewproblems with past tenses.Havea lookat the irregularverb list at the back of thetextbook.’

Content,ideas,language,bothstrengthsandweaknesses

Givingapersonalresponsetothe piece ofwork in order toencourage the learner.Identifying a positive aspectof the work (adjectives) andalso giving exact informationabout one problem area andaboutwherethelearnercouldfindusefulreferencematerial

Oral: ‘You’ve made goodprogress in all your workthis month. Your writtenwork is much moreaccurate.’

Languageandprogress

Informing the learner of herprogress and identifying anarea where particularprogress has been made;encouraging

Written: ‘B/70%. Have alook at grammar section 5at the back of thecoursebook and checkagain the difference inmeaning between the pastsimple and the pastperfect.'

Language.

Giving a grade and informingthe learner of what theproblem was with their workand telling them exactlywhattheyneedtoreviewandhow.

Oral: ‘You've done thepairworkactivitiesquitewellthis week, but I heard toomuch Spanish and notenoughEnglish.’

Language,achievementandbehaviour.

Encouraging learners, butalso informing them aboutinappropriate behaviour.Monitoring students’behaviour over severallessons to give feedback onchanges, e.g. improvementsin behaviour or worsening of

behaviour.

Teachers can also elicit feedback from their learners. This feedback can giveinformationonwhetherlearnerslikewhattheyaredoing,whethertheyareinterestedinthematerialsoractivities,orwhethertheyarehavingproblemswiththelanguage.Learnerscanalsomakesuggestionsformaterialsandactivitiestouse.Teachersoftenusequestionnairesorlearnerdiariestofindoutinformationfromtheirlearners.

In learner diaries, students write their feelings or comments on various aspects ofteachingandlearningasguidedbytheteacher,e.g.lessoncontent,activities,methodology,theirown learningstyles.Diariescanbewritten inLIor in the target language.Diariesarecollected by the teacher on a regular basis. The teacher reads the comments andwritessomethinginresponsetothecontentofwhathe/shehasread:he/shedoesnotcorrectthelanguage.Learnerdiariesarenot readbyother learnersorbyother teachers. In thiswayteachersandlearnerscangiveandreceivefeedbackwithinasafeandsecurecontext.

Feedbacktolearnerscanbelinkedtoformalorinformalassessmentandcanbegivento learners in the classroom or during individual tutorials (small meetings between theteacherandonestudentorafewstudentstodiscusstheirlearning).

Wecanalsowrite regular feedback in the formof comments,gradesormarksonalearner'srecordsheet.Thelearnercankeepthissheetintheirportfolioorwemightkeepitwithourrecordsoftheiroverallprogressandachievement.Wecanusethisfeedbackwhenwemakeourend-of-courseassessment.

Learners can also give feedback to their classmates. This is called peer feedback.Peer feedback can be oral or written, and can cover the same focus areas as teacherfeedback. Peer feedback is useful for all learners. The learners who give the feedbackreflect on (think about) the work their classmates have done. The learners who receivefeedbackaregiveninformationonhowtheycanimprove.Thelearnersareoftenguidedbyafeedbackobservationsheet.Younglearners,though,arenotabletogiveverydetailedpeerfeedbackbecausetheyarenotyetabletothinkabouttheirclassmates'workverycarefully.Peer feedback can have a positive effect on classroom dynamics and can help to trainlearnersinskillstheyneedtobecomeautonomous.


Readthesetipsaridticktheoneswhicharemostimportantforyou,

-Whereverpossible,feedbackshouldbebalanced,focusedandhelpful.Itneedstobe

balancedsothatthereiscommentonpositiveaspectsofalearner'sworkaswellasareashe/sheneeds to improve; focusedso that the learner knowsexactlywhat thegoodpointsare and what the problems are; helpful so that the learner knows what steps to take toimprove.Thisisparticularlyimportantforweakerorlessconfidentlearners.

-Feedbackcanbegivenatdifferentstagesofa lesson,forexampleatthebeginningof the lesson when we comment on work we have marked, during an activity, while wemonitor learners doing pairwork or group work, at the end of an activity when we telllearnershowtheydid,orcorrecttheircommonerrorsattheendoforafterthelessonwhenwearemarkingsomewrittenwork.

-During class or individual feedback it is possible to revisit or recycle language thatlearners are having problems with, by providing learners with written exercises, or byincludingthelanguageforreviewinanoralactivityinthefollowinglesson.

-Small-group feedback sessions are useful for the teacher and learners to give andreceivefeedbackonclassesandonteachingandlearning.

- Feedback which is particularly personal or sensitive should be given to learnersprivately and not in front of the whole class, eWritten or oral feedback can be given tolearners after formal assessment in addition to a mark or grade. This feedback shouldincludeguidanceonhowlearnerscanimprovetheirwork.

-Learnerdiariesprovide teacherswithanopportunity for individual,private two-wayfeedback(learnertoteacheraswellasteachertolearner).

-Learnersoftenneedguidancetohelpthemprovideteacherswithfeedback.Ifwesayto learners, for example, 'Write some feedback for me about the lesson and about yourlearningstylesinyourlearnerdiaries.Youhavetenminutes/ it is likelythat learnerswillnotbeabletoprovidemuchusefulfeedbackbecausethetaskistoogeneral.Itisbettertogivelearnersguidanceoraframeworktoworkwith.Forexample,wecanreviewtheactivitiesinthe lesson, what they did in each activity and the types of interaction. We can then asklearners towriteaboutwhichactivities theypreferredandwhy.Overanumberof lessonswecan introduceotherelementsso that learnersbecomemore familiarwith reflectionandwithgivingfeedback.

SeeUnits18and22forassessment.


Look at this section of a lessonplan.What is the purposeof each of the underlinedfeedbacksections?Feedbackmightbeteachertostudents,studentstoteacherorstudent

tostudent.

Timing Procedure

10-15minutes

Listening:

TellstudentsthegistquestionandplaytheCD.Studentscompare theiranswers inpairs.Elicitanswers from theclass

10minutes

Tell students to read the true/false statements silently.Check keywords. Play theCD again. Students decidetrue or false for each statement. Check answers withtheclass.

5minutesElicit from students the strategies they used to do thetrue/falseactivity.Remindthemtheyhavethesametaskintheexam

5-10minutes

Havestudents takeout theirnotebooks.Theycompletethe vocabulary exercise in their notebooks. Monitorstudents as they do the activity. Remind them to lookbackinthebookandcheckwiththeirfriends

5minutesEnd the lesson by eliciting feedback from students onwhat they did in the lesson and what they think theylearnt

Reflection


1.My learnersareonly interested in themarks theyget for theirwork.Theyarenotinterestedinmycomments.Theydon'tevenreadthem.

2. Iwant toencouragemyslower learners,but Isometimes find ithard togive themusefulfeedbackontheirwork.Theymakesomanymistakes!

3.Idon'tthinkweshouldasklearnerstogivefeedbacktotheirteachers.Theteachersknowwhattodoandhowtodoit.It'snotthelearners'jobtotellteacherswhattodo.

DiscoveryActivities

1. If you teach younger learners, try the feedback chat oil page 111 of English forPrimary Teachers by Mary Slattery and Jane Willis, Oxford University Press 2001. Note

downwhathappenedinyourTeacherPortfolio.

2.Formoreideasonhowtogivefeedback;lookatUnitsThreeandFourofACourseinLanguageTeachingbyPennyUr,CambridgeUniversityPress1956.

3.Tryintroducingpeerfeedbacksessionsinsomeofyourclasses.Aretheyeffective?Howdo the learners feelabout thisapproach?Notedownwhathappensand the learners'reactionsinyourTeacherPortfolio.


Forquestions1-7,lookattheclassroomsituationsinwhichtheteachergivesfeedbackandthethreepossibletypesoffeedbacklistedA,Bandc.

Choosethetypeoffeedback(A,BorC)whichmatchestheclassroomsituation.

1. The teacher noticed all the learners were having problems with some targetvocabulary.Shenotedtheproblemsdownanddidarevisionexercisethenextday.

A.delayedfeedback

B.peerfeedback

C.1:1feedback

2.Ayoung learnerhad just finished talking to theclassabouthishobby.The teachersaid:Thanks,Juan.Youtriedhard.Welldone.

A.feedbackonlanguage

B.feedbackoneffort

C.feedbackonideas

3.Ateenagelearnerhadwrittenastoryforhomework.Theteachermarkedtheworkandwrotethiscomment:Thisissomuchbetterthanlastweek’shomework.Welldone.

A.feedbackonattitude

B.feedbackonprogress

C.feedbackonstrengthsandweaknesses

4.Theteacherwroteonthefirstdraftofalearner’scomposition:Lookatthiswebsiteformoreideas.

A.feedbackongrammaticalmistakes

B.instructionsonplanning

C.helpwithfindingreferenceresources

5.Ateacher,talkingtoagroupofprimarychildrenattheendofagroupworkactivity,said:Youtalkedalottodayandworkedwelltogether.

A.feedbackonpronunciation

B.feedbackonbehaviour

C.feedbackonlearningstyles

6.Agroupof students gaveoral presentations to the class.Afterwards, the teachersaid:Youdidn’tmentionyourreasonsforchoosingthistopic.Youneedtoinclude,thatnexttime.

A.feedbackonorganisationofideas

B.feedbackonrangeoflanguage

C.feedbackoncontent

7.Astudentwroteinhislearnerdiary:Youalwaysaskthesamestudentstoanswer.IttakesmelongertothinkinEnglishsoIneverhaveachancetoanswer.

A.feedbacktotheteacheronclassroomprocedure

B.feedbacktotheteacheronmaterialsandactivities

C.feedbacktotheteacheronaspecificlanguageproblem

CreatedbyAMWord2CHM



Forquestions1-6,matchtheexamplesofteachers’classroomlanguagewiththefunctionslistedA-G.

Markthecorrectletter(A-G)onyouranswersheet.


Functions

A.gettingattention

B.eliciting

C.narrating

D.managinginteractionpatterns

E.givingadefinition

F.askingforclarification

Gmodelling

Teachers’classroomlanguage

1.Aparkisaplacewherepeoplegotowalkandrelax.Childrencanplaythere,too.

2.OK,now...everyone...stopwhatyou’redoing.

3.I’mnotquitesurewhatyoumean.Giveussomemoredetail.

4.ItwasthemiddleofthenightandTomwasasleep.Suddenlyheheardasound.

5.Yousayitlikethis-comfortable.Nowrepeat.

6.Theroominahousewherepeoplecookiscalledak...,ki...?

Forquestions7-12,lookattheteacher’sfirsttwoinstructionsinasequenceofinstructionsandthethreepossiblewaysofcontinuingthemlistedA,BandC.

Choosetheinstructionwhichwouldbemostappropriatetocontinuethesequence.

Markthecorrectlatter(A,BorC)onyouranswersheet.

7.

i)Theteachertellsstudentstodrawthetimelinefromthetextbookintheirnotebooks.

ii)TheteachertellsstudentstowritetwoexamplesentencesforpointsAandBonthe

TKTModule3.Practicetest3.1

line.

A.Theteachertellsstudentstodrawfourmoretimelines.

B.Theteachertellsstudentstothinkcarefullyaboutthegrammarweusefor thetwopointsintime.

C.Theteachertellsstudentstocompletethegrammarexerciseintheirtextbooks.

8.

i)Theteachertellsstudentsthattheyneedtodosomesimpleresearchfortheirclassproject.

ii)Theteacherputsthestudentsintogroupsandgivesoutasetofquestions.

A.Theteacherasksastudenttohandouttheclasssetofdictionaries.

B.Theteachertellsstudentstoanswerthequestionstogether.

C. The teacher tells groups to go to the library in turn to collect some referencematerials.

9.

i)The teacher tells students theyaregoing todoa listeningactivity.Hewrites threequestionsontheboard.

ii) The teacher tells students to write their answers to the questions on a piece ofpaperastheylisten.

A.Theteachertellsstudentsthattheydonothavetowritefullsentences,thattheycanwritenotes.

B.Theteachertellsstudentstoreadthequestionsontheboard.

C.Theteachertellsstudentstochecktheiranswersinpairs.

10.

i)Theteachertellsthestudentstogetintogroupsofthreeforarole-play.

ii)Theteacherasksgroupstoputtheirhandsupinturntochecktheyareallinthrees.

A.Theteachertellsstudentstheyhavegotfiveminutestopractisetheirrole-plays.

B.Theteacherchecksthatstudentsknowexactlywhattheyhavetodo.

C.Theteacherremindsstudentstousethepromptsfromthetextbook.

11

i) The teacher tells her beginner students to watch a DVD and to listen for four

examplesofpoliterequests.

ii)Theteacheraskstheclasstotellhertheexamplestheyheard.

A. The teacher tells students to write a short dialogue using at least two of theexamples.

B.Theteachertellsstudentstoputuptheirhandswhentheyhearanexample.

C.Theteachertellsstudentsiolistenforexamplesofotherfunctions.

12.

i)Theteachertellsstudentstoopentheirtextbooksandtolookatthereadingactivity.

ii)Theteachertellsstudentstolookatthephotosnexttothereadingpassage.

A.Theteachertellsstudentstousethephotostotryandpredictwhatthetextisgoingtobeabout.

B.Theteachertellsstudentsiomatchthephotostorelevantpartsofthetext.

C.Theteachertellsthestudentstoreadthetextindetailtofindwherethephotosaredescribed.

For questions 13-19, match the teacher’s instructions to elementary primarylearnerswithatrainer’scommentsontheirappropriacylistedA,BandC.



Trainer’scomments

A.Theseinstructionsareappropriateforthelearners.

B.Theseinstructionsareabovethelanguagelevelofthelearners,

C.Theseinstructionsdonottellthelearnersexactlywhattodo.

Teacher’sinstructionstoelementaryprimarylearners

13.Describetheposterbrieflytoyourpartner.You’vegotamaximumoftwominutes.

14.Openyourbooksatpage12.Colourthepictureinexercise2.

15.Lookattheboard.Copythesefivewordsintoyournotebooks.

16.Standupandlookattheflashcardsonthewalls.

17.Areyoureadytogetgoing?Canoneteamlinetheircardsupfacedownhere,andtheothersdothesameoverthere.

18.ListentothestoryaboutTomandhiscatandputupyourhands.

19.ListentotheCD.Pointtothetoysinthepicturewhenyouhearthewords.

For questions 20-26, read the student dialogues. Match the second student’sresponseswiththefunctionslistedA-H.


ThereisoneextraoptionwhichyoudonotneedÍOuse.

Functions

A.emphasising

B.prompting

C.self-correcting

D.checkingunderstanding

E.speculating

F.encouraging

G.changingthesubject

H.suggesting

Studentdialogues

20.

Julia:I’mnotsureIcandothisexercise.

Kyoko:Yes,youcan.I’llhelpyou.

21.

Paula:Well,wewereallontheplanewaitingtotakeoff.Thenisawthe...er...

Naima:Thepilot...

22.

Lin:SowhatdoyouthinkpictureAis?Isittheendofapencil?

Peter:Isupposeitcouldbeifyouturnitthiswayaround.

23.

Sven:Idon’tunderstandthehomework.Canwedoitquicklynow?

Geraldo: No time. Why don’t you come round to my house later and we can do ittogether?

24.

Monique:Number4.Theanswer’sobvious.Hedidn’tseeher,soit’sthisone.Right?

Aafje:Doyoumeanthisoneistheanswer?

25.

Moharned:HaveyoueverbeentoAustralia?Franck:Yes,Idid...er...sorry,Ihave...

26.

Wong:So,Ihadagreatholidayandmetlotsofnewpeople.

Stefan:Right...nextone.Sport,I’mreallygoodattennisandsoftball.

For questions 27-33, look at the conversation between two intermediatelearners. Read the questions about their use of language and the three possibleanswerslistedA,BandC.



Juan:I’llstart.IcomefromSpainandIlovefootball.

Fernanda:Metoo.Thatis...Ilovefootball.I’mnotfromSpain,though.I’mfromItaly.

Juan:IguessedthatfromyourT-shirt.IsthatyourtownmarkedonthemapofItaly?

Fernanda:Yes!Idesigneditmyself...gotthemapfromtheinternet...

Juan:Yeah...anyway,theteacherislookingatus...backtothetask...

Fernanda:Yeah...youcomefromSpain,youlikefootball...and...

Juan:Er... letme see... I’ve got two brothers and I’m studying to be a doctor. Yourturn.

Fernanda:I’manonlychild.Asforcareer,I’mintothearts.Iwanttobeadesigner.

27.WhenJuansaysI’llstartinline1,

A.hehasjustdecidedhewantstobegin.

B.itishisturntosaysomething,

C.thestudentsdecidedearlierthathewouldstart.

28.WhenFernandasaysThatisinline2,

A.sheishighlightinganidea.

B.sheiscorrectingJuan,

C.sheisclarifying.

29.WhenFernandasaysgotthemapfromtheInternetinline6,

A.sheismakingasuggestion.

B.sheisgivinginstructions,

C.sheisdescribingpartofaprocess.

30.WhenJuansaysanywayinline7,

A.heistryingtogettheattentionoftheteacher.

B.heischangingthedirectionoftheconversation.

C.heistalkingtoathirdstudent.

31.WhenFernandasaysyoucomefromSpain,youlikefootballinline8,

A.sheissummarising.

B.sheischecking,

C.sheisexplaining.

32.WhenJuansaysletmeseeinline9,

A.heislookingatapicture.

B.heisorganisinghisthoughts,

C.heismakingasuggestion.

33.WhenJuansaysYourturninline10,

A.heishelpingFernanda.

B.heisinvitingFernandatospeak,

C.heistellingFernandatherules.

For questions 34-40, match the learners’ written mistakes with the types ofmistakelistedA-H.



Typesofmistake

A.wrongconjunction

B.missingpronoun

C.unnecessaryauxiliary

D.wrongmodalverb

E.missingarticle

F.wrongpreposition

G.wrongadverb

Hwrongtense

Learners’writtenmistakes

34.Herbirthday’sonJune.It’son21st.

35.Theyplayedhardlyduringthematch.Theydeservedtowin.

36.Mynieceiscomingtostaywithus.Idon’tlikeverymuch!

37.WhatdoyouarethinkofthisCD?

38.Shedidwellintheexamasshewasveryhappy.

39.LastnightIsawcatinmygarden,itwasbeautiful.

40.IhavevisitedItalylastsummerformyholidays.

For questions 41-47 match the classroom situations with the classroommanagementchoiceslistedA-H.

Markthecorrectletter(A-H)onyouranswersheet,thereisoneextraoptionwhichyoudonotneedtouse.

Classroommanagementchoices

A.DividetheclassintoAsandBs.AsdotheactivityfirstwhileBsdosomeexercises.Thentheyswap.

B.Writesomeusefulclassroomlanguageonpostersandput itaroundtheclassroomwails.Teachthephrasestostudentsandremindthemtousetheminfluencywork.

C.Don’tusethemothertonguewithstudents.If theyknowyouwon’ttranslate,they’lllistenmorecarefully.

D.Makesureyoustartthelessonwithaflexiblepairorgroupactivitysoyoucanstartthelessonproperlywheneveryoneispresent.

E. Prepare some extension activities before the lesson to hand out to the fasterstudents.Trynottohurrytheslowerstudents.

F.Trynominatingbeforeyouaskthequestion.

G.Usewarmers that relaxandcalmyourstudents toget themready for the lesson.

Avoidgamesandquizzes.

H. Change the class seating regularly so that the problem students are not alwayssittinginthesameplaces.

Classroomsituations

41.Ittakesyourlivelystudentsalongtimetosettleatthestartofalesson.

42.Yourstudentspretendtheydon’tunderstandwhenyougiveinstructionsinEnglish.TheywaitforyoutogivetheminL1.

43. You notice that some students needmore time to finish their work in class. Theotherstudentsfinishquicklyandgetboredandtalkative.

44. Your students never respond to you when you are eliciting. They don’t say 'anything,

45.Youfindminglesdifficultwiththelargenumberofstudentsinyourclasses,

46. Your students often use L1 when they are doing activities in pairs and groups.Someofthemdotheactivitybuttheydon’tdoitinEnglish,

47. You have several students who are late for class because they have an extralessonduringthebreak.Youknowit’snottheirfault,butitalwaysdisturbstheclass.

For questions 48-54, match the classroom management techniques with theirpurposeslistedA,BandC.


Youwillneedtousesomeoftheoptionsmorethanonce

Purposes

A.Itpromoteslearnerautonomy.

B.Itencouragesstudentparticipationinclass,

C.Itsupportsdifferentiation.

Classroommanagementtechniques

48.Theteacherdecidestoaskquestionstothewholeclassratherthannominating.

49. The teacher has class sets of dictionaries and teaches the students how to usethem.

50.Studentscorrecttheirownworkbeforewritingtheirfinaldrafts.

51. The teacher adapts some of the activities in the coursebook and prepares

extensionactivitiesbeforethelesson.

52. The teacher responds to the content of what students say and does notovercorrect.

53. The students set their own learning goals and review them regularly with theteacher.

54. The teacher regularly changes the student groupings and pairings to matchstudents’abilities.

Forquestions55-61,matchtheteacheractivitieswiththeteacherroleslistedA-D.Markthecorrectletter(A-D)onyouranswersheet.


Teacherroles

A.Assessor(someonewhoevaluatesthestudents’performanceandbehaviour)

B.Motivator(someonewhoencouragesthestudents)

C.Planner(someonewhoplanswhatthestudentsaregoingtodo)

D.Contributor(someonewhogivesideasandinformationaboutatopic)

Teacheractivities

55.Theteacherbringsinphotosandpicturesfrommagazinestohelpstudentsthinkofwhattosay.

56.Theteacherrespondstowhatstudentssaywithenthusiasmandgiveseveryoneachancetospeak.

57.Theteacherkeepsrecordsofstudents’workandprogress

58.Theteacherregularlypreparesaschemeofwork.

59.Theteacherusesregularteststomonitorstudents’leveloflanguageproficiency.

60.Theteacherexpressesherpointofviewinclassdiscussions.

61.The teachermeetswithhercolleagues todecideonanappropriatemethodologyfortheEnglishlessons

Forquestions62-67, lookat the incompletesentencesaboutwaysofgroupingstudentsandthethreeoptionsforcompletingthemlistedA,BandC.


Marktheletter(A,BorC)whichdoesNOTcompletethestatementcorrectlyonyour

answersheet.

62.Theteacherwantsthestudentstosharetheir ideasbeforetheclassfeedbacksoshe

A.tellsthemtocheckanswerswithapartner.

B.collectsthestudents’answerpapers,

C.tellsthemtoexchangeanswerpapers.

63.Theteacherwantsthestudentstoworkinmixed-abilitygroupssohe

A.hasthemchoosetheirownstudentgroupings.

B.plansthestudentgroupingsbeforethelesson,

C.groupsstudentsusingtheresultsfromatest.

64.Theteacherwantsthestudentstothinkaboutthelearningstrategiestheyusedinanactivitysoshe

A.givesthreeminutes’individualthinkingtime.

B.doesateamquizwiththeclass,

C.putsthemintogroupsofthreeforreflection.

65.Theteacherwantstheshy,quietstudentstotakeamoreactiveroleintheclasssoshe

A.keepsalistofstudentstonominateandtriestoincludeeveryoneinalesson.

B.gives theclass20seconds thinking timebetweenasking thequestionandelicitingtheanswer

C.acceptsresponsesfromstudentswhoputtheirhandsupfirst.

66.Theteacherwantsthestudentstotalktoasmanyoftheirclassmatesaspossiblesohe

A.doesanopenpairactivity.

B.doesaclasssurvey.

C.doesamingle

67.Theteacherwantsthestudentstoworkattheirownpaceinarevisionactivitysohe

A.letsstudentsworkindividually.

B.hasthefastfinishersdoanextraactivity,

C.asksstudentstodoabrainstorminpairs.

For questions 68-73, match the classroom situations in which students makemistakeswiththemostappropriatecorrectionstrategieslistedA,BandC.



Correctionstrategies

A.delayedcorrection

B.peerorself-correction

C.immediateteachercorrection

Classroomsituations

68.The learnersdoa role-play ingroupsof threeandmanyof themmake thesameunimportantgrammarerrorbutitdoesn’tstopthemcommunicating.

69.Alearner,withoutknowing,usesanexpressionincorrectlyand,bymistake,makeseveryonelaugh.Thismakeshimembarrassed,

70. A shy, elementary primary learner gives a short talk about his favourite toy. Heoftenleavesouttheverbtobeinhissentences.

71.A learner reportsbackafterapairworkactivity.Hemakesa coupleof slipswithlanguagehealreadyknows.

72. A group of learners take part in a class discussion. One learner presents hisargument but makes several lexical errors which result in miscommunication. The otherlearnersintheclasscannotfollowhisargument,

73.Thelearnerswritethesamestoryingroupsoffour.Eachgroupproducesonecopyofthestoryforthenextgrouptoread.Thestoriesallcontainsomeslips.

For questions 74-80, look at the classroom situations and the three ways ofgivingwrittenfeedbacklistedA,BandCfortheclassroomsituation.

Twoofthewaysofgivingwrittenfeedbackareappropriate.OneisNOT.

Mark the letter (A,B orG)which isNOTappropriate for the classroomsituation onyouranswersheet.

74.The teacherwants togive feedback toher young learnerson theirwrittenwork.Shewantstoencourageandmotivatethem.

A.Sheputsasmileyfacenexttotheirwriting.

B.Shereadsoutthemarkstothewholeclass,

C.ShewritesWelldoneatthebottomoftheirwriting.

75. The teacher wants to give written feedback to an individual student on hisbehaviour.Hewritesacommentinhisportfolio.

A.Yourmarkof86%isverygood.

B.Iamquitepleasedwithyouthisterm.Youhavereallytriedhard,

C.Thiswasagoodtermforyou.Youhavecalmeddownalot.

76.Theteacherwantstogivefeedbacktoencouragestudentstomakebetteruseofacorrectioncodefortheirwrittenwork.

A.Thiswillhelpyouinexaminationsbecauseyou’lllearntofindyourownmistakes.

B.Asyouusethecorrectioncode,noticeifyoukeepmakingthesamemistakes.Thinkabouthowyoucanavoidthemnexttime,

C.Youshouldbeabletodothisonyourownsoonlyaskmeifyouhaveto.

77.Theteacherwantstogivefeedbacktoan intermediatestudentonhisspeaking inpreparationforanexamination.Heisquitefluentbutmakesseveralbasicerrors.

A.You’restillmakingquitesmallmistakeswhenyouspeak.Tryrecordingyourselfandthenseeifyounoticetheerrorsyourself.

B.Takemore time in theexamination.Don’t feel youhave tohurry.Thinkbeforeyouspeak!

C.Don’tworrytoomuchaboutthosesmallmistakes.Theexaminerwon’tnotice.

78.Theteacherwantstogivefeedbacktoanintermediatestudent.Ina1:1andsmall-groupsituationthestudentspeaksquitewellbutinaclasssituationhelacksconfidence.

A.Your speaking is good!Think howwell youdid that role-play theother day.Don’tworryaboutmakingmistakesinfrontoftheclass.

B. It’s importantyougetoveryour lackofconfidence. I’d likeyoutogiveashortoralpresentationtomorrow.

C. Iknowyou feelworriedabout talking in frontof theclass.But they’reworried toowhentheyspeakout.Haveago!

79.Theteacherwantstogivewrittenfeedbacktoayounglearnerontheideasina1storyhehaswritten.

A.Youusedalltheadjectivesandadverbsinthelist.Welldone.

B.Thiswasagreatstory.Ilovedreadingit.Thankyou.

C.Thecharactersreallycametolife.Maybeyou’llbeawriteroneday.

80.The teacherwants togivesomegeneral feedback toastrongclasson theiroralpresentations.

A.MostofyouusedthestructureIsuggestedand,ingeneral,thepresentationswereverysuccessful.

B.Mostofthepresentationswereinteresting,thoughyours,Paola,andyours,Sylvio,wereratherweak,

C.Thesewentwell,don’tyouthink?Ithoughttheywereallveryprofessionalandwellorganised.

ExamtipsfortheTKT

-TheTKTisdividedintomoduleswhichcanbetakenseparatelyortogether.

-Candidatescantakeoneormoremodules-it'suptothem.

-Eachmodulecontains80questions.

-Eachmodulelasts80minutes.

-Allthequestionsinthemodulescarrythesamenumberofmarksaseachother.

- The task types used in the TKT are: one-to-one matching (e.g. pages 120-121,questions 51-55), 3/4/5 option-matching (e.g. page 228), multiple-choice (e.g. page 112),sequencing(e.g.page175,questions28-33),andfindingtheoddoneout(e.g.pages125-126,questions75-80).

Beforetheexam

1. Get to know and understand the necessary English language teaching terms andconcepts. Read the relevant parts of this book, do the Follow-up andDiscovery activitiesandthinkaboutthepointsintheReflectionsections.Doingthiswillgiveyouconfidenceandfamiliaritywiththetermsandtheirmeanings.

2.LookatthelistoftermsinthisbookandintheTKTGlossary.IntheTKTGlossarythe terms are listed together with their meaning. Make sure you understand the terms,because any of them might appear in the exam. Test yourself on them. See the TKTGlossary:http://www.cambridgeesol.org/TKT

3.Don't just learn themeaningof the terms.Thinkabout the ideasbehind the termsandwhattheymeanforteachingandlearning,too.

4.When you prepare your lessons, as you teach and after teaching, reflect on yourlessonsintermsofdifferentaspectsoftheTKT,e.g.lessonplanning,correctiontechniques,activity types. Write about your reflections in the Teacher Portfolio:https://www.teacherportfoiio.cambridgeesol.org/

5.Do someTKTpractice tests to help you get familiarwith the task types, and getusedtoworkingwithinthetimelimit.Rememberthatthenumberofquestionsineachmoduleisfixedat80,andthereisonemarkforeachquestion.

6. Remember and practise the 4 Rs: Reading, Reference, Record-keeping andReflection.

7.Haveagoodnight'ssleepbeforethetest!

Duringtheexam

1.Don'tworryaboutyourEnglish.RememberthattheTKTdoesn'taskyoutospeak,listentoorwriteEnglish.Youjustneedtoreadthetestandshade(makedarker)theletter(A,B,c,D,etc.)of thecorrectanswersonyouranswersheet.There isasampleanswersheetonpage234ofthisbook.

2.Quicklyskimthroughthewholetestwhenyoureceiveittogetageneralideaofitscontent.ThelayoutoftheTKTisclearandsimple,andallthetasktypesareofsimilarkinds:matching,multiple-choice,oddoneoutorsequencing.

3.Work through the test fromquestion1 to question80 if you can. In thisway, youwon't forget todoanyquestions.But, if you reallycan'tansweraquestion, leave it,putacrossagainst it in themarginonyourquestionpaper,andcomeback to itwhenyouhavecompletedtheothers.

4. Read the instructions for each task very carefully, then read each questionwithineachtaskverycarefully, too.Makesurethatyouunderstandexactlywhatyouneedtodo.Candidateswhodonotfollowthetaskinstructionsarelikelytogetanswers

5.Thereare twokindsofmatching tasks. Inmatching taskssuchas thoseonpages118-119, questions 41-45 and 226, questions 34-40, the tasks contain extra options. Thismeans you do not need to use one of the options in your answers. In the other kind ofmatchingtasks,suchasthoseonpages113,questions8-13and181,questions62-67youneedtousealltheoptions(A,B,C,D,etc.)andwillneedtouseoneormoreofthemmorethanonce.

6.Whenyouanswermatchingandsequencingtasks,tickeachoptiononthequestionpaper when you are confident it is the right answer to a question. This helps you to see

whichoptionsareleftfortheotherquestions.

7.Inthematchingtasks,ifyoufeelunsureofananswertoonequestion,gotothenextquestion, then thenext,etc.Youmay find that,at theendof the task, theanswer toyourproblemquestionthenbecomesclear.

8. Don't choose answers just because they contain a word which is the same as awordinthequestion.Infact,theseanswersareunlikelytobetherightones.

9.Thereisonlyoneanswerforeachquestion.Nevergivetwoormoreanswersforaquestionorwritenotestotheexamineronyouranswersheet.Thiswastestimeandwillnotbereadbyamarker.

10.Don'tforgettotransferyouranswerstotheanswersheet.

11.Make sure you have answered the question youmean to answer. For example,don'twriteyouranswertoquestion20intheplaceforanswer19,anddon'tshadeletterAwhenyoumeantoshadeletterB.

12. Don't spend too long on any one part of the test. If you do, you will spoil yourchancesontheotherpartsofthetest.Divideyourtimeequallyacrossallthequestions.

13.Leavefiveminutesattheendofthetesttocheckyouranswers.

14.Ifyouaregettingtooworriedtoanswerproperly, takeaveryshortbreak.Relax.Goodluck!

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Introduction

TipsforpreparingfortheTKT

Module1.Languageandbackgroundtolanguagelearningandteaching

Part1.Describinglanguageandlanguageskills

Unit1.Grammar

Unit2.Lexis

Unit3.Phonology

Unit4.Functions

Unit5.Reading

Unit6.Writing

Unit7.Listening

Unit8.Speaking

Part2.Backgroundtolanguagelearning

Unit9.Motivation

Unit10.Exposureandfocusonform

Unit11.Theroleoferror

Unit12.DifferencesbetweenLIandL2learning

Unit13.Learnercharacteristics

Unit14.Learnerneeds

Unit15.Approachestolanguageteaching

Part3.Backgroundtolanguageteaching

Unit16.Presentationtechniquesandintroductoryactivities

Unit17.Practiceactivitiesandtasksforlanguageandskillsdevelopment

Unit18.Assessmenttypesandtasks


Module2.Lessonplanninganduseofresourcesforlanguageteaching

CONTENTS

Part1.Planningandpreparingalessonorsequenceoflessons

Unit19.Identifyingandselectingaims

Unit20.Identifyingthedifferentcomponentsofalessonplan

Unit21.Planninganindividuallessonorasequenceoflessons

Unit22.Choosingassessmentactivities

Part2.Selectionanduseofresources

Unit23.Consultingreferenceresourcestohelpinlessonpreparation

Unit24.Selectionanduseofcoursebookmaterials

Unit25.Selectionanduseofsupplementarymaterialsandactivities

Unit26.Selectionanduseofteachingaids


Module3.Managingtheteachingandlearningprocess

Part1.Teachers’andlearners’languageintheclassroom

Unit27.Usinglanguageappropriatelyforarangeofclassroomfunctions

Unit28.Identifyingthefunctionsoflearners'language

Unit29.Categorisinglearners'mistakes

Part2.Classroommanagement

Unit30.Teacherroles

Unit31.Groupinglearners

Unit32.Correctinglearners

Unit33.Givingfeedback


SampleTKTanswersheet

ExamtipsfortheTKT

AnswerkeyforFollow-upactivities

AnswerkeyforTKTpracticetasks

AnswerkeyforTKTpracticetests

Alphabeticallistofglossaryterms

Unit-by-unitlistofglossaryterms

Acknowledgements

---//---


Modules1,2and3

(Secondedition)

MarySpratt-AlanPulverness-MelanieWilliams

COMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESS-2011

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