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i.

TITLE

THEMES AND TECHNIQUES IN THE NOVELS OF CHINEDUM E. OFOMATA

A RESEARCH PROJECT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS, IGBO AND OTHER NGERIAN LANGUAGES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA,

IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTERS (M.A.) IN LITERATURE (WRITTEN)

BY

ONWUKA, GLORIA T. PG/MA/06/41890

JUNE, 2009

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ii.

CERTIFICATION ONWUKA, GLORIA T., a postgraduate student in the Department

of Linguistics, Igbo and other Nigerian languages with registration

number PG/MA/06/41890, has satisfactorily completed the requirements

for course and research work for the degree of Masters of Arts in written

literature.

The work embodied in this project report is original and has not

been submitted in part or full for any other Diploma or Degree of this or

any other University.

_______________________ _________________________ SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT iii.

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DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to God Almighty and to my husband Dr.

Chris J.A. Onwuka.

iv.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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The researcher appreciates the contributions of everybody

towards the success of this work. In the first place, my thanks go to God

Almighty for His infinite mercies and protection during the period of the

study.

The researcher wishes to express her thanks, gratitude and

appreciation to her supervisor, Prof. C.N. Okebalama for his guidance

while this research work was in progress. His intellectual leadership in

pruning the work is most gratefully acknowledged. My thanks also goes

to Prof. I.U. Nwadike for his assistance in releasing some of his useful

materials.

The researcher is deeply grateful to her husband Dr. Chris J.

A. Onwuka for his support and understanding. His moral and financial

support is highly appreciated.

Finally to the typist Mr. Emma Omeje for doing a neat work.

v.

LIST OF CONVENTIONS

AGAO - Anu Gbaa Ajo Oso

IOM - Ihe Onye Metere

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IOGA - Ihe Ojoo Gbaa Afo

DNO - Dibia Na- Agwo Otoro

vi.

ABSTRACT

This study looked into the themes obtainable in Ofomata’s novels

and the techniques used in portraying them. The universal and didactic

nature of his work is of great importance to mankind especially in the

area of morals. His works, most often shows that evil does not pay

anyone that practices it rather good behaviours are always rewarding.

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The techniques that distinguish him from other writers and the

language used were looked into. His way of narrative is peculiar and his

method of characterization is worthy of emulation.

vii.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Title Page . .. i

Certification . .. ii

Dedication . .. iii

Acknowledgement .. iv

List of Conventions .. v

Abstract .. vi

CHAPTER ONE ..

1.0 INTRODUCTION .. 1

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1.1 Background of the Study .. 2

1.2 Statement of Problem .. 3

1.3 Scope of the Study .. 3

1.4 Significance of the Study .. 4

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .. 5

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 THE THEMES IN OFOMATA’S NOVELS 17

viii

..

3.1 Group Identity 18

3.2 Cultural Practices 20

3.2.1 Love and Marriage .. 22

3.2.2 Reincarnation/Ghost Spirit .. 24

3.3 Religion .. 24

3.4 Motherhood .. 27

3.5 Retribution .. 29

3.6 Virtue and Vices Inherent in Ofomata’s Novels under Study .. 30 3.6.1 Offence and Remorse .. 30

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3.6.2 Oppression .. 32 3.6.3 Arrogance .. 34 3..6.4 Armed Robbery .. 35 3.6.5 Revenge .. 37 CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 LANGUAGE AS TECHNIQUE .. 39 4.1.1 Proverbs .. 39 ix 4.1.2 Symbols .. 41 4.1.3 Similes .. 43 4.1.4 Metaphors .. 44 4.1.5 Hyperbole .. 45 4.1.6 Idioms .. 46 4.1.7 Imagery .. 48 4.2 Characterization As a Technique .. 49 4.3 Point of View as a Technique .. 51 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION .. 55 REFERENCES .. 58

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This work examines the principle of continuity and intelligibility in

the history of literary criticism. It involves all that it takes to criticize a

literary work. That includes analysis, definition, classification, evaluation

and judgment of Ofomata’s prose fictions.

The study explores the social and historical circumstances of

events and characters in Ofomata’s novels. His themes belong to the

various situations which are as a matter of necessity, previous functions

and the settings that breed those functions. The techniques are

examined with reference to elements, which effectively present the

themes of the novels.

Oformata as an Igbo artist has made his footprints on the land

mark of Igbo literature. Being a social realist as his novels prove, his

writings have responded immensely to the social life of the people. His

ability to express his beliefs, visions and ideas to his readers depends on

language, which he uses as a craft for recovering experience. Ofomata’s

narrative method is multi-dimensional as he uses the first person

narrative and Omniscient narrative methods. These various methods he

uses to bring out his expertise as a novelist because literature as a work

of art should not be narrowed or tied down to one narrative method. The

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significance of his themes and techniques make him a classic in the Igbo

world of arts.

1.1 Background Of The Study

Ofomata as a prolific Igbo novelist has competently written many

Igbo novels and poems. His works have made great impact on Igbo

scholarship because of the way he portrays many cultural themes. He

has a vision of the Igbo society, a society where whatever touches the

individual touches the wider society, hence the Igbo group solidarity. It is

commendable the way Ofomata describes his themes and techniques.

Such description makes Igbo people to hold fast to their traditional ways

of life as well as valuing their language. He proves that Igbo language

can be used as an expressive device in art. This is against the

European’s former belief that African languages are not capable of

conveying the people’s literature. Rev. Sunter, the first inspector of

Education in Nigeria has this to say in Hair (1967:89).

I regard these (African) languages as only interesting to the comparative philologist and never likely to become of any practical use to civilization.

Ofomata’s style of narration and diversified themes have proved to

people like Sunter that the stone which the builders rejected has become

the chief corner stone. This is to say that Sunter was wrong in his

perception of African language because it actually helps in conveying

people’s literature.

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1.2 Statement Of Problem

With the emergence of written literature, writers and their works

have been the targets of vicious criticism and attacks by reviewers and

censors of imaginative literature. In Igbo written literature for instance,

this owes to the fact that amateur writers were among the people that

pioneered it. Their themes and techniques were not coherent. This flaw,

and the fact that their literature did not embody Igbo people’s way of life

gingered the educated Igbo to begin to make efforts to create the

literature that will satisfy the socio-cultural needs of the people. Ofomata

being one of the literarily inclined Igbo novelists who has done justice to

mirroring the Igbo man’s life has not received an adequate appreciation

of his works. It is therefore, the aim of this study to contribute to the

critical exploration of Ofomata’s works and his contribution to Igbo

literature.

1.3 Scope Of Study

Ofomata has written quite a number of novels but this research will

restrict itself to only four of his novels. The abbreviation appended to the

titles are what we shall be using to refer to the novels in this work. They

are: Anu Gbaa Ajo Oso (AGAO) (1994); Ihe Onye Metere (IOM) (1996);

Ihe Ojoo Gbaa Afo (IOGA) (1999), and Dibia Na - Agwo Otoro (DNAO)

(2000).

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This research will critically look into the various themes in the listed

novels above, the creation of Ofomata’s characters through language

and stylistic techniques in general.

1.4 Significance Of The Study

The relevance of this research will be viewed better in respect of

its benefits to the society. Studying Ofomata as one of the Igbo creative

artists will contribute meaningfully to Igbo literary study. Other benefits

that will be derived from the work include using it to explain Ofomata’s

work in literature to interested readers and thus increase appreciation of

his novels, awaken the attitude of care, love and interest among Igbo

people for their literature.

Since the themes of Ofomata go beyond the Igbo society, it will

make the novels be universally appreciated. It will also inculcate in the

reading public the spirit of morality. Again, appreciating the good

qualities of Ofomata’s novels will act as a moral support to Ofomata and

also motivate him to put in more effort in contributing to Igbo written

literature.

Finally, because this work cannot be said to be the last, we hope

that it is going to attract reactions from literary critics. It may as well.

stimulate scholars and researchers to go into more investigation on the

topic under study.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Generally, in Igbo novels, only a few critical works have been done

on them. With this, a great problem has been posed to scholars to

engage in a serious research on the Igbo novels.

Echeruo (1978:35) in his observation said this:

Very little work has been done on the literature of the Igbo people. Some years ago in the course of editing a book on Igbo life and literature, I realized how little there was on the subject from which any curious or interested outsider could learn about our people.

Ofomata like most of his contemporaries has not had serious

critical work done on his novels. This review therefore, will examine the

perception of scholars on themes and techniques generally and

especially as they relate to African novels.

Theme is not simply the subject of the literary work. Instead, theme

is a major and often recurring idea, the larger meaning of a work,

including any thoughts or insights about life or people in general. Often

the theme will make a statement about a society, teaching a lesson as

well as providing a moral. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia refers to

theme as “A broad idea in a story or a message or lesson conveyed by a

work”. This message is usually about life, society or human nature.

Themes explore timeless and universal ideas and most themes are

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implied rather than being explicitly stated. Theme according to Holman

and Harmon (1986:502) is “a central idea in a work”. In non- fiction

prose, it may be thought of as the general topic for discussion, the

subject of discourse, the thesis. In poetry, fiction and drama, it is the

abstract concept that is made concrete through its representation in

person, action and image in the work. No proper theme therefore is

simply a subject or an activity. Both theme and thesis imply a subject

and a predicate not just vice in general terms but some such proposition

as vice seems more interesting than virtue but turns out to be

destructive.

Themes arise from interplay of plot, setting, character, conflict and

tone. One this note. Ezikeojiaku (2001:48) comments on the meaning of

theme thus:

The theme (or thesis) is the general comment on this area of human experience conveyed through such specific elements as plot, characterization, tone, point of view, diction and symbolism.

Theme being understood as an aggregate of ideas constantly

recurring in tales or narratives is stressed by Lord (1969:68) as follows:

Theme is not result of a specific set of elements but rather the name we give to the forms of unity which we can discern in the text.

Theme as the central idea or statement about life that unifies and

controls the total work is not the issue or problem or subject with which

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the work deals, but rather the comment or statement the author makes

about that issue, problem or subject. In line with this, Pickering and

Hoeper (1990:78) stress that:

Theme in literature, whether it takes the form of a brief and meaningful, insight or a comprehensive vision of life, is the author’s way of communicating and sharing ideas, perceptions and feelings with his readers or as is so often the case of probing and exploring with them the puzzling questions of human existence.

The theme of a fable is its moral. The theme of a parable is its

teaching while the theme of a piece of fiction is its view about life and

how people behave. In fiction also, the theme is not intended to teach or

preach. In fact, it is not presented directly at all rather you extract it from

the characters, action and setting that make up the story. In other words,

you must figure out the theme yourself.

Ofomata shares a lot of ideas and philosophy in his novels. For

instance, in Ihe Ojoo Gbaa Afo (IOGA), he brings to light the idea that a

woman’s beauty should not be based on physical appearances alone but

also on good manners, for not all that glitters is gold. He says in IOGA

(P.231) that:

Mma nwaanyi abughi naani n’

elu ahu ka e si amata ya

kama o bukwazi n omume ya.

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It is a common knowledge that characters in Igbo fiction can be

judged for their authenticity visa-vis Igbo archetypes. It is also a common

element to many novels by Igbo writers who could provide the basis for

an argument about uniformity. For instance Lionel Trilling tells us that

manners are the things whether good or bad that draw the people of a

culture together and that also separate them from the people of other

culture.

In like manner Ofomata presents the theme of armed robbery, in

Anu Gbaa Ajo Oso (AGAO) and setting it on existing places in Nigeria

like Benin and Onitsha, one cannot but believe that they resemble

events in real life. What makes a work of literature a classic is the

significance of its theme. The significance of Ofomata’s themes to our

society cannot be overemphasized. It provides lesson which is didactic

to people of different categories. Even the title he gives his works often

suggests a particular focus or emphasis for reader’s attention. They also

provide clues about his theme. Ofomata imitates the great novelist,

Ubesie. For example, Ubesie’s Ukwa Ruo Oge Ya refers to the love that

exists between two young people Chude and Ngozi, which later

metamorphosed into getting married to each other.

Bringing our review home to what scholars say about themes and

techniques of Igbo literature, Emenanjo (1986:18) asserts.

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Much of Igbo creative writing is functional, since it draws heavily from Oral literature. Creative literature in Igbo cannot afford the luxury of “arts gratia art’s”. The literature is fully involved in the Igbo milieu which bring it into being.

Also, Nwadike (2001:56) is of the opinion that:

The body of Nigerian literature whether oral or written should x-ray the characteristics of our cultural sensibilities and national consciousness, Nigerians environments and their visions.

Ofomata’s treatment of issues that have much relevance to the

society also underscores the functional elements in his novels. This

shows that he is in line with the observations above. Ezikeojiaku

(2001:49) commenting on African creative writers says:

While pre-war creative writers such as Achara and Bell Gam explore folklore traditions in their settings and themes, the post war novels of Ubesie, Nzeako, Munonye, Maduekwe, Oraka etc. deal with modern societal issues brought about by developmental change.

The duty and involvement of the African writer is to demonstrate

sufficient sensitivity to the dominant realities of his universe.

Achebe (1983) supporting this says:

It is clear to me that an African writer who tries to avoid the big social and political issues of contemporary African will end up being completely irrelevant like that absurd man in the proverb who lives his burning house to pursue a rat fleeing from flames.

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This means precisely that from an Igbo background, Igbo artists

develop knowledge of and habits in the verbal art which carry over into

one’s verbalizing abilities. Soyinka (1965) refers to writers as

redeemers. For him, society as a community is in need of continued

salvation from itself. A committed artist like Ofomata is not necessarily a

sycophant who sings the song the people would like to hear, but one

who is aware of responsibility as a guardian and promoter of a

progressive society.

Emenyeonu (1978:188) has this to say:

African written literature has some common intrinsic values. It is for instruction, for aesthetic pleasure, for culture preservation and for self-realization.

Going through Ofomata’s novels and those of other contemporary

Igbo novelists, we infer that Igbo written literature has progressed to

depicting the social life of the present day Igbo unlike the first Igbo

novelists that deal only with imaginary world. They deal with modern

way of life as they also show our traditional way of life. They portray our

social values, our outlook on life and our philosophy.

Nwadike (1995:57) citing Uchendu repeating the emphasis on

Igbo novel in the recreation of some old and modern institutions says:

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Igbo individualism is not rugged individualism, it is individualism rooted in group solidarity. There is a great emphasis on communal co-operation and achievement which must be traced to the formative influence of their, traditional social patterns, the idea of group co-operation pervades all aspects of Igbo culture.

Ofomata deals with the theme of Igbo solidarity group in most of

his novels. In IOGA, he portrays the “Umuokpu” (daughters of the land).

In IOM and IOGA for example, we see clan solidarity and the solidarity

of trade unions.

Having said much about theme, we now look into the perception of

scholars about the technique of the African authors. It is worthy and very

important to note that theme cannot be realized except an adequate

vesture is found for it. The adequate vesture however is technique/style.

Chambers Dictionary defines techniques as “a skilled procedure or

method, a knack or trick of doing something, proficiency, refinement in

artistic performance”. According to Holman and Harmon (1986:499):

Technique is the sum of working methods or special skills. Technique may be applied very broadly as when one says The symbolic journey is a major technique in Joyce’s Ulysses, or very narrowly to refer to the minutiae of method, or in an intermediate sense as in stream of consciousness technique. In all cases, however, technique refers to how something was done rather than to what was done.

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Schorer (1967:45) has this to say:

When we speak of style, we speak of nearly everything. For style is the means by which the writer’s experience, which is his subject matter compels him to attend to it, style is only means he has of discovering, exploring, developing his subject, of conveying its meaning, and finally of evaluating it… the writer capable of the most exacting technical scrutiny of his subject matter will produce works with the most satisfying content.

Schorer’s statement explains why the works of writers like Ofomata are

sought after while many other writers and their works are hardly

remembered. According to Shipley (1972:9) “theme and technique

compliment each other. Language involves an aesthetic attitude of the

writer, conceived as an end in itself”. Talking about artist and his style,

Ezeuko (2001:98) says : “ A man’s way of writing is the expression of his

personality and his way of looking at life”.

Technique is an emphasis (expressive, affective or aesthetic)

added to the information conveyed by the linguistic structure, without

alteration of meaning.

Ngugi (1986:84) testified on the language of African literature

when he says:

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There are good and bad story tellers. A good one could tell the same story and over again, and it would always be fresh to us the listeners. He or she could tell the story told by someone and make it more a life and dramatic. The differences really were in the use of words and images and the inflexion of voice to affect different tones.

Ofomata’s fiction arises basically out of Igbo life and language. In

reporting experience in Igbo life, therefore, Ofomata includes Igbo

similes, proverbs, riddles, songs, folktales, etc. drawn from the Igbo

language.

Talking about the use of proverbs by Igbo writers, Emenyeonu

(1978:157) observes:

The Igbo proverb is comparable to the Greek concept of philotimo and the desire for oratorical power. In guarding against offending image of self, the Greek had to cloak his criticism in flowery prose and delicately phrased arguments in the same way in Igbo, talking in proverbs enables the speaker to display his wit, wisdom and his distinctive ability to manipulate the language. From the ancient roots of Igbo literature, the proverb is an indispensable element of instruction, illustration and description.

Some critics however are against the way some of our authors use

proverbs. Ofomata, like Ubesie and Nzeako make profuse use of

proverbs in his works.

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Emenanjo (1982:62) bitterly comments on this when he says:

In a good deal of the available narrative, the language is too matter of fact flat to hold the reader for too long. There is little or no originality in the way hackeneyed proverbs and idioms are thrown at the reader. At times, one gets the impression that most writers of Igbo feel that the only way of writing good Igbo is by forcing strings of proverbs down the throats of readers.

He goes further to say that much as proverbs form the oil with

which the Igbo “eat” their speech; proverbs do not form the soup. For oil

is only one of the many different ingredients with which soup is made.

And indeed, some soup can be made without oil.

Supporting the above assertion, on the use of proverbs by Igbo

Artists, Nwadike (1999:8) says:

Not very much adverse criticism is leveled on our artists over their diction. Their greatest weak points and critics area of attack are on their use of proverbs. They cluster proverbs to a fault and bastardize them.

What is remarkable about Ofomata’s use of proverbs is that they

grow naturally out of the narrative, and reinforce theme, character and

situation. This is not the case with some Igbo writers who make

strenuous efforts to incorporate proverbs. The result is prose that

sounds artificial to the non-Igbo reader and unconvincing to the Igbo

speaker. It is worthy to note that in Igbo culture, the appropriate

proverbs emerge in the right situation and usually the speaker does not

decide his proverbs in advance and then tries to furnish situations for

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their use. For instance in Ihe Ojoo Gbaa Afo (IOGA) PP. 13-14, there

are these clusters of proverbs which flow naturally and suitably used to

the context. Ikenna’s father was advising Ikenna against marrying a bad

wife. In his own words:

O kwa Igbo kwuru okwu si na ihe okenye no ala were hu, nwatakir kwuru oto o gaghi ahu ya. Mana ebe nwatakiri, na-ebe akwa aru aka, nne ya anoghi ya, nna ya anoro ya. N’ ihi ya, Ikenna mara asu, o suo n’ ikwe, o maghikwanu asu, o suo n’ ala maka na o bu mmanya ka a na-an uchitere diochi anaghi adachitere ya elu. (The Igbo say that what elders see sitting down the youth cannot see it standing up. Where a child is crying and pointing at, if his mother is not there, then his father is there. For this, if Ikenna knows how to pound, let him pound in the mortar, if he does not, let him pound on the ground. It is wine that you can drink on behalf of the tapper, you cannot fall off the raffia palm tree for him).

Ofomata, bringing his message home, realizes that what is

important is not just the facts of life, but the linguistic ornament of the

facts. There is always an inextricable affinity between what is said and

how it is said.

Again, Ofomata through his themes and techniques builds a world

he honestly believes in, a moral sphere, with enough consistency and

pattern, and this gives his literary activities the illusion of significance

and sense of identity. This is owing to the fact that he is aware that the

primary importance of literature lies in the thematic content of any

literary work. On the other hand, his themes represent his contribution to

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the kind of human society or individual that he believes in. He highlights

the possibilities in overcoming evil for the attainment of ideal and

egalitarian society through his themes.

Ofomata seeks to shape, influence and brings about a future

social transformation for Igbo society. This is in line with what Okafor

(1979:21) says:

Without the vision and perception of the writers theme of man’s present living condition, society would continue in its eternal sleep and lethargy.

Consequently, it is a well known fact that literature has been a toll

for correcting, teaching and inspiring people to make world a better

place. Therefore, one of the highest contributions of Ofomata is to shape

and influence the world for social transformation.

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 THE THEMES IN OFOMATA’S NOVELS

The theme of any work of art is its central idea. It is also the focus

of the author’s work, which has to do with some aspect of existence. The

major trust of any work of art is the human values. Themes deal with the

relationship of the individual or the society at large to the values of life.

In every fiction, there is always a major theme and other sub-

themes that help to project the major themes. To state the theme of a

novel categorically is a difficult task since in a novel, different people

may be able to decipher different themes so long as each person has

some facts in the novel to back up his claims. The theme of a novel is

always conveyed through other elements of the novel like language,

plot, characterization, point of view, tone, diction etc.

Ofomata’s themes include, motherhood, devotion of duty,

arrogance, armed robbery, marriage among others. He uses these

themes to teach people the values of human existences as a moral

instructor. These themes can also be universally acclaimed as their

significance relate to all groups of human beings. They foster morality in

an individual and deter one from those behaviours that lead to moral

degradation. These themes have been pointed out and viewed with

respect to the values of our society.

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3.1 The Theme of Group Identity

This is the identification of an individual within a group, the idea of

corporate existence and self-integration within a group. The Igbo are

seriously embraced by this idea of collective consciousness. Ofomata

being the son of the soil uses his fiction to delineate this theme so well.

When viewed closely, it will be observed that this corporate existence is

not only experienced by the Igbo but by all the African peoples as

observed by Mbiti (1969:108) thus:

In traditional life, the individual does not and cannot exist alone except corporately. He owes his existence to the other people including those of the past generations. He is simply part of the whole. Whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual.

Group identity in the Igbo society has been acknowledged by

some scholars. For instance, Uchendu (1965:103) has this to say:

Igbo individualism is not rugged individualism, it is individualism rooted in group solidarity. The Igbo realized that “a river does not eat a blind calabash” (that is, a person with backers escapes dangers unhurt). There is a great emphasis on communal cooperation and achievement. The communal character of the Igbo must be traced to the formative influence of their traditional social patterns, the influence of their nucleated residence pattern, and the ideological urge “to get up”. The idea of cooperation, illustrated in work groups, credit associations and title-making societies pervades all aspects of Igbo culture.

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Ofomata patterns the Igbo society as a group felt experience. He

sees in the Igbo an attitude of self-integration to the society. In IOM, for

instance, the murder of Ohahuru puts his community Umunka in a

mourning state. They unanimously find out the culprits who have

committed the murder in persons of Nwohia, Okechi and Onwuha.

These three wicked men from Alaukwu are also jointly dealt with by their

people.

When Onwuha threatens the life of Ozo Uruagwu of Dagburu, his

people rally round Ozo Uruagwu and subdue Onwuha. Onwuha’s

encounter with the people of Daghuru shows that no one person may be

able to triumph over a group.

In AGAO, group solidarity is depicted as the elders of Apata meet

on how to banish Ikpendu for the atrocities he is committing in their

town. When Ikependu’s evil spirit was menacing the people of Apata,

Oguadimma’s friends and relatives rally round him to search for the

solution to the problem. In DNAO group identity manifests when

Ngozika’s people come to find out why Ezinna is maltreating her and to

warn him to desist from such bad act towards his wife.

In IOGA, the author expresses the benefits of group identity when

Ikenna’s father dies. The burial is corporately taken care of by both the

Umuokpu and the Umunna. In the same text, the group identity is

expressed in the advice Maazi Nduka gives to Ikenna.

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He says:

O buru na i na-anwu anwu gbachi nkiti, I nwuo anyi eburu gi lie, gbasaa. O burukwanu na I na-anwu anwu were kpokuo anyi (umunna) anyi ga-ejiri oso nyere gi aka, n’ ihi na o bu ya bu uru anyi baara onwe anyi: (If you are suffering and you keep quiet, you will die and we bury you. But if you have problem and you call on us, we will rally round you and help you for that is the benefit we derive from one another).

Also, group identity plays out when Nkemdirim, Ikenna’s wife

proves to be stubborn to her husband The Umuokpu gather and dealt

with her seriously, reminding her that wives do not behave as they like in

Odunta. In all the four novels under study, Ofomata demonstrates a high

degree of Igbo group-felt experience.

3.2 Cultural Practices

Culture can be defined as people’s way of life. A society without

culture is as good as dead because people’s existence is only

acknowledged through their culture. Ofomata, as a custodian of Igbo

culture has tried to preserve this culture and beliefs through literature.

In AGAO, he observes the celebration of new yam festival

popularly called Ihejioku. This festival is held in order to appreciate the

god Ihejioku who is believed by the Igbo to be the god of yam. He is

believed to cause bumper yam harvest or vice versa.

In Apata, while preparing for the festival, women decorate their houses,

tidy up their environments and village squares. The children fill the

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containers with water and gather firewood for cooking. The men dig up

their big yam tubers, buy cocks or goats, invite their relations and friends

from other communities to come. In fact, that day is a special day for

people of Apata. On that day there will be assorted kinds of dishes

which will be prepared with yam and people will have enough to eat and

have left-over. There will also be different types of traditional dances and

masquerade displays from different groups.

Ofomata also pictures the culture of breaking of kolanut. Kolanut is

a symbol of unity in Igbo society. Before any serious talk is held in any

Igbo community, the kolanut is used to offer prayers to the supreme God

and to the ancestors. In the four novels under study, the author brings in

the breaking of kolanut during marriages, village meetings and when

there is important talks between individuals and groups. In most cases it

is usually the eldest among a group that offers prayer with the kola and

then breaks it.

In IOGA, the author portrays burial ceremonies. The Hausa

moslems must bury their dead the same day he/she dies because of

their Islamic religion. This practice is not strictly followed in Igboland.

The Igbo accord their dead great respect. When Ikenna’s father dies,

Ikenna is asked to come and see his father’s corpse, after which he

spends a lot of money buying things for the burial. The Umuokpu also

spend some days in their late brother’s house. Of course, it is a tradition

30

in most part of Igboland for the Umuokpu (Daughters of the land) to stay

at any elderly person’s burial. In most cases, it is the duty of the

Umunna to provide wine for the burial of an elderly person.

3.2.1 The Theme of Love And Marriage

This aspect of culture is seen almost in every part of the world.

Love as defined by Mcsweeney (1985) is giving one’s life for

others in one way or another. It also means doing one’s best to make

other people truly happy.

In his view about love, Banks (1969:58) says:

Love seeks the good of the person loved. It is ready to spend and sacrifice…. Love is strong in times of difficulty, it holds true in time of trial, love lights up a whole existence blending two lives into one.

Marriage is the union of a man and a woman as husband and wife.

It is a very important institution in Igbo society. In Igbo society, it is a

general belief that any man who is up to the age of marrying but does

not do that may not be regarded as a responsible man.

Ofomata handles this theme in area of choice of a marriage

partner. For him, this is the beginning of success or failure in life.

Marriage based on things like wealth, beauty, position, etc. is bound to

hit the rock while that based on love and good character is bound to

succeed.

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In IOGA and DNO, the author treats the theme of love and

marriage very well. For instance, in IOGA, Ikenna bases his choice of

spouse only on physical appearance. He goes ahead and marries

Nkemdirim against his parents advice just because she is beautiful.

Their marriage later hits the rock because the ingredients that

sustain marriage such as love, truthfulness, trust, etc. are lacking in their

marriage. In DNO, Ezinna bases his own choice of partner on good

character. On page 1 of DNO he tells his mother thus:

A choro m onye anya ruru ala na onye isi juru oyi nke oma. Ihe m choro bu onye na- eme ezigbo omume n’ ihi na ezi agwa bu mma nwaanyi. (What I want is a humble an level - headed girl. A girl with good manners, for good manners portrays her beauty).

Ezinna later marries Ngozika who is endowed with these qualities and

their marriage succeeds. In line with the on going, Borgatta (1992) has

the following as vital ingredients to a successful marriage: agreement,

cohesion, satisfaction, affection and tension. Agreement between

spouses on important matters is essential. Cohesion refers to both

spouses commitment to the marriage and the companionship

experienced in it. The degree of tension in a well adjusted marriage is

minimal and when it arises, it is resolved amicably probably in dialogue.

Marriage as a cultural practice has some qualities that sustain it. Having

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seen them; it is now our duty to apply them to our matrimonial

relationships.

3.2.2 The Theme of Belief in Reincarnation

The Igbo people are among the people that believe in

reincarnation. They believe in ghost spirits, ancestral spirits. In DNO,

Ofomata introduces the myth of reincarnation. Amaechi develops fever

one day, his mother Ngozika is advised by her friend, Chinelo, to consult

a diviner to ascertain whose reincarnation he is. Ngozika does as she is

advised. It is later discovered that the child is her dead father Nkemjika

who reincarnated so as to console her from her sorrows. After

performing the rituals she is asked to perform, her child’s fever

disappears and Amaechi lives true to the predictions of the diviner.

In AGAO, the evil spirit of Ikpendu is hovering around, menacing

his friends, parents and his entire community. This confirms the Igbo

belief that there is life – after - death. By putting down these cultural

practices in writing, posterity is kept abreast of the aspects of culture,

which the wind of modernity is trying to obliterate.

3.3 Religion

Religion has been defined in a wide variety of ways. Most

definitions attempt to find a balance somewhere between overly sharp

definition and meaningless generalities. Some sources have tried to give

formalistic, doctrinal definitions while others have emphasized

33

experiential, emotive, intuitive, valuational and ethical factors. Some of

the definitions of religion as recorded by WorldNet include:

- A notion of the transcendent or numinous, often, but not always

in the form of theism.

- A cultural or behavioural aspect of ritual, liturgy and organized

worship often involving a priesthood, and societal norms of

morality and virtue.

- A set of myths or sacred truths held in reverence or believed by

adherents.

For the sociologists and anthropologists, “religion is an abstract

set of ideas, values, or experiences developed as a part of a cultural

matrix”.

Okwueze (2003:3) defines religion as “a regulated pattern of life of a

people in which experiences, beliefs and knowledge are reflected in

man’s conception of himself in relation to others, his social world, the

physical as well as the metaphysical world”.

The Igbo have what they believe in, that is their own religion. On

this note, Orabueze (2006:124) opines:

The pre-colonial Igbo man believes in one Supreme Being called Chukwu, who creates the entire universe and everything there in. But this Supreme Being is far away and he cannot be burdened with the day to day running of the affairs of men. He therefore, sends his messengers, the deities to help him. These look into affairs of the world and if there arise any serious problems, which they cannot handle, they are referred directly to God.

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Religious beliefs and practices in Igbo society forms the basis of

the most effective means of social control. For instance, they use

divination and other devices for detecting offences in the traditional

ways.

Among the Igbo, there is a strong belief in the use of songs in

achieving control of power. These songs were applied when necessary

to achieve various goals (Agu, 2005). In the same vein, Agu (1990), said

that the high priests and the diviners are known for their usual practice

of communicating with the deities through songs which are intermittently

accompanied with the rhythm instruments as they invoke or consult with

the deities. He went on the emphasize that, most of these songs are

praise songs deigned to glorify or praise the deities and consequently

prepare grounds for easy communication.

The way Ofomata treats the Igbo and their religion is quite

interesting. He sees great devotion in the way the people go about their

religion. The summoning of gods and ancestors by the Igbo during

prayers and breaking of kolanuts was shown by Ofomata. He pictures

also the ritualistic activities where the power of a supreme being is

solicited for.

In his work, people always resort to mediums, agents, prayer

houses etc for interpretation and solution to their problems. Ofomata

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shows by his works that there is power in traditional gods since these

mediums and deities never fail to provide solution to the problem of the

people that seek them.

In AGAO, Ogu adimma’s kinsmen consults a medicine - man

called Onwuasoanya to help them deal with Ikpendu’s ghost which

terrorizes the whole town. After observing all the rituals that are required

of them by the gods, the problem is solved.

In IOM, the people of Alaukwu go to Dagburu to consult an oracle

in order to get their facts about who kills Ohahuru since their efforts to

get the truth from Onwuha Ogudiru would not yield any fruit. In DNO,

Chioma makes use of agents to bewitch Ngozika and her family. Due to

her belief, Chibuugo runs to prayer house, using the power of prayer to

counter all the evil Chioma proposes for her child Ngozika. Also, when

Chioma evokes Agbara to kill Ngozika and her children, Chibuugo, her

mother, calmed the gods by sacrificing a he-goat and two white cocks.

Ofomata is quite thorough in his treatment of the Igbo with regard to

their religion, which permeates the very foundation of their existence.

3.4 Motherhood

Motherhood is the state of being a mother. In the family, mothers

play different roles but the most outstanding one is towards their

children. This role is extremely important. That is why it is said that there

is a mysterious loving bond between mother and child. Mothers are so

36

lovable that they can do anything including taking risks to protect their

children and the ensure their welfare. Ofomata shows this in the three

novels under study. In IOGA, Ikenna’s mother gets worried over the

trouble Ikenna’s wife is giving his son, this makes her to weep bitterly.

Although Ikenna is married, his mother still pampers him as a child and

wishes him the best of life. In AGAO, Ofomata pictures mothers as

people that are very emotional and as such can condone their children’s

misbehaviours to unlimited extent. Ikpendu’s mother always hides his

wickedness from his father. For instance, when he urinates into their

plate of soup his mother hides it from his father, lest his father beats

him. Ogonna always cares for Ikpendu and cherishes him regardless of

the level of provocation from Ikpendu unlike his father Oguadimma who

cares less.

Ikpendu’s mother, Ogonna, mourns him when he eventually dies

shamefully in a robbery incident despite the disgrace that he brings to

her family. The author writes in AGAO (P.71) as follows:

Otu o soro nwa mmadu diri, udiri ihe

Ojoo o soro nwa mmadu mewe, o nwuo

O ga- ewuteriri onye mutara ya o kacha

Nne ya n’ihi na di ju ogori, onye nwe ya agaghi aju ya.

(No matter how a child is or the type of evil he may be involved in, if he dies, it must pain the parents especially the mother for if a husband rejects a wife, parents do not reject her).

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In DNO, Ngozika’s mother, Chibuugo is just wonderful. She does

everything possible to ensure that her child and grandchildren survive.

Because of them, she converts their home into a prayer house. There,

she prays ceaselessly asking God to protect them. Fearlessly, she goes

to the deity Ajaala which Chioma invites to wipe off Ngozika and her

children from the earth. She offers a he-goat and two white cocks in

exchange for her children to the deity. Finally, she requests that she

should be killed instead of her children. She later dies for her children to

live. With these, mothers can be seen as priceless individuals and they

cannot be substituted in the lives of children. Consider for instance the

love fowls, goat and other animals have for their young ones.

3.5 Retribution

The measure with which one measures for others is what one will

expect to get back. Retribution therefore is a justly deserved penalty. It

is also the act of punishment for wrong doing. Ofomata in his works

shows that nature cannot be cheated. People must indeed receive the

rewards of their actions. Chioma is a sadist in DNO. She causes the

death of her husband due to her bad behaviours towards him. She tries

to destroy Ngozika and her children. She has no sympathy for human

being, rather she rejoices over another person’s misfortune. She carries

out a lot of evil activities on Ngozika. Unfortunately for her, what she has

38

been working seriously to achieve on Ngozika’s family happens to her

thereby loosing her only son in a mysterious way.

In IOM, Nwohia, Okechi and Onwuha are three wicked friends that

commit all sorts of atrocities on their people but when they are caught up

by nemesis, they are all killed.

In AGAO, Ikpendu is a very bad boy who regards neither God nor

man. He deals brutally with eldest man in Apata called Udeerika who

places a curse robbery incident.

In IOGA, having been married to Ikenna, Nkemdirim thought that

she has gotten all that Ikenna had permanently. She treats all Ikenna’s

friends and relations badly. She makes life uncomfortable for Ikenna, her

husband, and their househelps. When it is time for justice, during Ikenna

father’s burial ceremony, the Umuokpu (daughters of the land) humiliate

her out of her matrimonial home.

3.6 Themes of Virtue And Vices In Ofomata’s Novels 3.6.1 Offence And Remorse

Offence as defined by Wikipedia the free Encyclopedia is a

violation of the penal law. It also ranges from a simple misdemeanor to a

felony (capital murder).

Remorse also is an emotional expression of personal regret felt by

a person after he or she has committed an act, which they deem to be

shameful, hurtful or violent.

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As a teacher, Ofomata teaches us that committing offence is to be

forsaken by every reasonable human being. For instance, what

happened to Oguadimma and Ogonna in AGAO (PP.1&2) serves as a

very big lesson to mankind. In the text, Oguadimma and Ogonna lives

very bad lives in their youth. They have no regard for societal values.

This is testified in the excerpt below:

Mgbe Oguadimma di n’ okorobia, o bu ya bu ala oma jijiji di n’ Apata-----Ogonna na-eme aka naabo mgbe o bu agboghobia, o mekatara ihe juo chi ya ebe o foduru. (When Oguadimma was a young man, he was the terror of Apata, Ogonna was so notorious in her youthful age as if she was daring God).

When they eventually married and gave birth to Ikpendu, their evil

activities brought the realities of their youthful misbehvaiours back to

them through their son. Showing remorse for his past life, Oguadimma

makes a firm decision not to go back to such life again. He says:

Ahula m na ike ahu m kpara n’ okorobia adighi uru o bula o haara m. Uwa m ozo aga m ebi ezigbo ndu (p.31). (I have seen that all those youthful exuberants I got involved in did not help me at all. In my next life, I will live a good life).

Themes of offence as well as remorse is also seen in IOGA. Here,

Ikenna jilts a girl by name Ego who is supposed to be a God - given wife

to him. Ego and Ikenna’s friends plead with Ikenna to make peace with

her but he refuses. However, Ikenna later regrets his actions because

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Nkemdirim’s wickedness reminds him continuously of his offence

against Ego. Ofomata uses this to warn the youths to be mindful of their

youthful behaviours to avoid regrets later in life.

3.6.2 Theme of Oppression

The notion of oppression is very much noticed in AGAO. Here, the

author uses Ikpendu to paint the picture of those bad people that

constitute thorns in the flesh of their communities. As a cruel man,

Ikpendu makes life uncomfortable and burdensome for the people of

Apata. He terrorizes the youths and denies them their freedom to

peaceful existence. In Apata, the girls there always hide themselves to

make sure that Ikpendu does not see them because he is a rapist who

does not spare them. Thus:

A juwa ihe na-eme umu agbogho bi n’ Apata, a juo ya Ikpendu. I maa mma elu maa mma ala, ekwekwala ka Ikpendu Kpochara gi anya---- Agboghobia o bula tolitere n’ Apata oge ahu si na ya amaghi Onye Ikpendu bu, bu asi ka o na- asi p.26. (If you want to know what is happening to girls at Apata, Ikpendu should be asked. Whatever beauty you possess do not allow Ikpendu to set his eyes on you. Any grown up girl at Apata at that time, that denies of Ikpendu knowing her is telling a lie).

In the same way, the young boys are not excluded, they usually

make him friends just to escape being oppressed by him. Elders on their

own are not exempted from the evil deeds of Ikpendu, for they are also

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being death with by Ikpendu such that they no longer go to their

businesses freely as seeing Ikpendu spells doom for them.

In DNO (P.4) Ofomata exposes the evils of oppression from

another perspective. Here, Chioma exercises unnecessary authority

over her father’s family from her husband’s house. She harshly subjects

her sister in-law, Ngozika to cruel treatments. Chioma had maltreated

her husband to death before Ngozika got married to her brother Ezinna.

Thus he states that:

Chioma mekatara di ya bu Okafo ihe, di ya mara na onye lutara ajo nwanyi lutara onwu ya. O chikatara okafo onu n’ ala, okafo hapuru ya uwa ka o biri naani ya, were nwuo n’ obi mgbowa. (Chioma is a fan-fatal to the extent that she henpecked her husband to a degree in which her husband realises that to marry a wicked wife is equivalent to committing suicide).

Chioma’s wickedness is too enormous that she turns away the

love Ezinna has for his family through diabolic means, making him take

directives from her. She nearly sends Ngozika to her early grave with

unfriendly utterances she is making on her just because Ngozika cannot

give birth to a male child in time and as such, she uses that to scorn her,

reminding her of the uncertainty of her having any inheritance in her of

the uncertainty of her having any inheritance in her husband’s home.

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3.6.3 Theme of Arrogance

This is excessive pride and unpleasant attitudes or behaviour. It is

an attitude that receives frowning in all communities of the world. It is an

attitude of one having an inflated impression of oneself. There is this

Igbo popular saying against arrogance which states that “Ngala buru uzo

Odida esoro ya” (pride goes before a fall). In IOGA, Nkemdirim and

Ikenna her husband, are both arrogant. This no doubt destroyed their

marriage. As a beautiful woman, Nkemdirim is full of herself and shows

no regard for others. For her, life should be very easy all the time. She

shows her arrogant attitude on her first visit to her would-be parent’s in-

laws. She shows without any reservation that her would-be home is too

poor for her. She rejects the food offered to her by her would-be mother

in-law just because she felt that she was not neat enough to cook her

food. She also refuses to sleep in Ikenna’s father’s house and requests

for a better accommodation where she will stay until the next day when

she hopes to go back to Enugu without delay.

Nkemdirim though pretending to be rich comes from a more

wretched home than Ikenna. She carries herself very high yet her father

died a pauper with no house of his own. Due to poverty, Nkemdirim and

her mother were being squatted in one poorly furnished room in her

uncle’s house. Her blind mother cannot go to an eye clinic because

there is no money. Rather than go to eye clinic she goes to a prayer

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house. Put it succinctly, everything about Nkemdirim, speaks of poverty.

On the other hand, Ikenna is living a false life. The wrong impression he

gives of himself is that he is well-to-do.

In IOGA (pp:15-16), the author brings out some of Ikenna’s

arrogant behaviours thus:

Onye o bula huru Iknna n’ Enugwu agaghi ama na nne ya na nna ya bu ogbenye onu ntu. O naghi eme ka onye si n’ ulo ogbenye puta. Mgbe o bula i huru ya i ga-eche maobu nna ya na-achu ndi obodo ha. (Whoever sees Ikenna at Enugwu will not believe that he comes from a poor home. He does not behave as if to say that he has poor parentage. Seeing him, you will think his father is the chief of their town).

Due to the arrogant nature of Ikenna, he listens to no advice and

he is seen as a wayward person. He befriends every woman on skirt,

lavishes his money on them at the same time promising them marriage.

But after his encounter with a ghost (Mmirimma) whom he thought was a

human being, he learns the hard way and vows never to look at girls not

to talk of talking with them.

3.6.4 Armed Robbery

In AGAO, the author discusses the ravages caused by armed

robbers and the way these robbers are dislodged. In the novel AGAO,

there is this notorious robber called Ikpendu who has the blood of

stealing in his vein. This bad character owes to the fact that Ogonna,

Ikpendu’s mother, had the natural tendency to steal in her youthful age.

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There is this Igbo saying that “Oria si n’ obara anaghi ekwe ngwota”

(Any sickness that comes from the blood is incurable). Ikpendu’s

robbery activity starts from his family; he steals his parents’ money and

food. In the school, he steals the school fees of other pupils and any

money carelessly kept by the teacher. At a stage, his teacher Mazi

Anigbogu tries to discipline him and correct his bad character but all his

effort is in vein.

In his community, Ikpendu terrorizes the members of the

community by stealing their goats and fowls at random, using them to

prepare pepper-soup which he eats as it pleases him. His community

eventually banishes him; he goes to Bida where his act metamorphosed

into proper armed robbery. At Bida he menaces the traders and kills

anybody who dares him. He re-locates to Onistsha when the people of

Bida want to dislodge him, there, he meets other crooks like himself by

name Chukwuka and Chima. The three of them team up to train other

robbers who help them to make life very uncomfortable for traders and

their customers at Onitsha Main Market. Finally, Ikpendu and his

colleagues are pursued by Onitsha market traders and are brutally

killed. Armed robbery, as presented by Ofomata is an evil that people

frown at.

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3.6.5 Revenge

Revenge, according to Halliday (1998) is harmful action against a

person or group done for the purpose of responding to a real or

perceived wrong doing. It can be further explained to be a deliberate

infliction of injury upon the person(s) from whom injury has been

received. In the Bible, the law of Moses in the old testament encourages

teeth for tat treatment, but if we look at revenge from a moral

perspective, we will see that it neither profits the avenger nor the

avenged.

Ofomata expresses the theme of revenge in IOM (P.107). He tells

the story of how Udenkwo, Ohahuru’s brother, avenges the death of his

brother on the people of Alaukwu. Nze lyiegbu advises Udenkwo to

forget what has happened but he vehemently refuses. He spends all he

has going from one native doctor to another to get the charm that will

frustrate commercial activities at Afo Alaukwu. The excerpt below

testifies his achievement:

Afo o bula n’ Alaukwu na-adi ka ebe umuaka na-egwu egwu onwa. O nweghizi ndi na-esi obodo ozo abia ahia ebe ahu. Afo Alaukwu were di ka ebe oku gbara ikpa. (Every Afo market day at Alaukwu is like a place children are having their moonlight play. Strangers no longer come to do business in the market. Afo Alaukwu is comparable to a burnt bush)

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It is true that Udenkwo satisfies himself on the Alaukwu people by

avenging his brother’s death, he does not benefit anything good by that

vengeance, rather he spends the money that would have been used for

more meaningful things in making charms. Judging from what has

happened, both Udenkwo and Alaukwu people are at the receiving

ends. Ofomata uses this to advise people not to engage in things that

profit nobody.

In conclusion therefore, one can simply say that Ofomata’s works

are highly moralizing.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 LANGUAGE AS TECHNIQUE

Language as a distinctive quality of literature is a very important

element in prose. In fact, it is the pillar that holds literature without which

the artist cannot communicate. In other words, it is an indispensable tool

for any writer. According to Pickering and Hoeper (1990:87) language is

“the means by which the writer controls and influences the reader”. Also

Ngara (1982:10) writing about language says thus:

Language is the thing by which we judge the success of the author. Although a work of art consists of various elements such as: plot, theme, characters and ideas, without language these elements would not be what they are.

Ofomata’s language medium is the Igbo language. His works are

written in standard Igbo. In his stories also, he makes use of figurative

language. With these, it is necessary to consider the devices he used in

achieving this goal. Among the figurative language are metaphors,

similes, proverbs, idioms and so on.

4.1.1 Proverbs

‘Proverb’ as seen by Holman and Harmon (1986:401) is

A sentence or phrase briefly and memorably expressing some recognized truth or shrewd observation about practical life, originally preserved by oral tradition, though it may be transmitted in written literature as well.

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In the same vein, Scott (1965:234) defines proverb as “a short familiar

saying expressing a supposed truth or moral lesson”.

Ofomata actually makes extensive use of proverbs in his novels

but his purpose is not out of order since he uses such proverbs to

increase the reader’s appetite and as well to make his work realistic and

pleasing. His versatility in Igbo proverbs is as a result of his knowledge

of oral tradition from which proverbs originated. He is always careful to

ensure the appropriateness of his proverbs in the context of use and

also their suitability in conveying the desired information or feeling. He

uses proverbs as titles of some of his novels. In each of them, the

subject matter and theme hinge on the proverb, which forms the title.

For example:

- “Dibia na-agwo otoro; o kobere ike ya n’ elu”: In this novel,

Chioma decides to live an evil type of life, plan all sorts of evil

against Ngozika and her family, not knowing that life is a ‘give’

and ‘take’ affair. She comes to this reality when here son dies

instead of those she intends to kill.

- “Anu gbaa ajo oso, a gbaaya ajo egbe”: This proverb that any

thing which needs urgent solution will be treated as such shows

how Ikpendu lives the bad way and were treated the hard way.

- “Ihe ojoo gbaa afo, o diri onye metere ya”: In this novel also,

Ofomata shows that even if it takes time, an evil person must reap

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what he sows. Nemdirim, being a bad woman, later reap the bad

seed she sows in her matrimonial home.

- “Ihe Onye Metere, O were isi ya buru”: Here in this novel, the

author shows that the evil that men do stays with them as

Onwuha, Nwaohia and Okechi are duly punished because of their

sin.

Ofomata most often creates the awareness in his readers that the

proverb he is using originates from Igbo oral tradition and as such uses

“Ndi Igbo si” (The Igbo say) before most of his proverbs. For instance in

IOGA (p. 155) he says “O kwa ndi Igbo kwuru okwu si na o na-abu e

nwude nwoke n’ala o kweghii, a pitowa ya onu o kwere” (The Igbo say

that stubborn people learn in difficult times).

Also in IOM (p.48) he says “Igbo kwuru okwu si na o na-abu a

chowa ijide oke ehi a chowa oke mmadu” (The Igbo say that if you want

to catch a big cow you look for a big person).

In some Ofomata’s novels both prologues and epilogues are

embellished with proverbs. In short, there is no page of his novels that

proverbs cannot be found. Although it is not too good for readers who

are not versatile with Igbo proverbs because they may found them

boring.

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4.1.2 Symbols

Another literary device which could be associated with Ofomata’s

language technique is symbol. A symbol refers to anything that stands

for itself and signifies something else. It can be rooted in ideas, names

and person. A symbol according to Wellek and Warren (1987) is

“something calculated and willed, a deliberate mental translation of

concepts into illustrative, pedagogic sensuous terms”. In this research, a

symbol should be seen as a thing or an image which is invoked to

represent another for clarity of expressions, deeper meaning and better

aesthetic appeal.

In DNO (P.56), the big snake at the shrine of Ajaala symbolizes

the deity. The white he-goat and the white cocks Chibuugo offers to the

god symbolize purity, that is, the purity of Chibuugo’s heart in offering

those sacrifices to Ajaala. As Chibuugo gets to the shrine of Ajaala, and

sees a snake in front of her, she is not frightened because she already

knows what the snake represents. She proceeds to make her sacrifice

to the god.

In Igboland, people believe that the gods are spirits who

sometimes appear to men in the form of animals and when once the

people see such animals, they take it that the gods have visited them. In

delineation of this Igbo belief by Ofomata, the sign for the snake to

accept Chibuugo’s petitions is by taking the cock and he goat, gently

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cross into the thick forest disappearing with them. This results in

Ngozika and her children being relieved of the sickness inflicted on them

by Ajaala.

4.1.3 Similes

One of the distinctive features of Ofomata’s style is his use of

similes. ‘Simile’ according to Iwuchukwu (1991:8) is “a figure of rhetoric

in which two things of identical or similar qualities are directly compared

by the use of such words like ‘like’ and ‘as’, ‘as though’ and ‘as if’ “.

In DNO (P:43) this simile is used by Ofomata thus:

“Obara bido zowe ka mmiri”

(Blood rains like rainfall)

When Ngozika gives Njideka, her husband’s concubine, a cut with

a matchet, the blood that gushes out can only be pictured by likening it

to rainfall. This is to create the impression of deep cut.

In IOGA (P.139) Ofomata says: “Okukoro anya ya abuo hacha ka

nke enwe riara oria”. (His eyebrows are as deep as a skeleton). When

Ejindu wakes up in the morning having slept without eating, the deep of

his eyebrows can only be likened to that of a sick monkey. Here, the

author creates the impression of hunger using this device.

In AGAO (P.3) this simile is also used: “Ihe ojoo niile kuru ya akwa

n’ isi malitere toghewe ka aju” (All the bad behaviours of his head

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started unfolding like a pad). Here, the author pictures how Ikpendu’s

bad behaviours gradually starts to unfold.

4.1.4 Metaphors

Holman and, Harman (1986:298) define metaphor as “an implied

analogy imaginatively identifying one object with another and ascribing

to the first object one or more of the qualities of the second or investing

the first with motional or imaginative qualities associated with the

second”. From this definition, it can be deduced that metaphor as a

figure of speech makes direct comparison of one object with another.

Ofomata employs the device mainly to achieve compactness of structure

and to show the depth of meaning in the ideas portrayed. In AGAO

(P.54) the author metaphorically presents Adaobi as a bee covered very

well in a breakable plate. That tells us how badly she has been

behaving. He says:

“Adaobi bu ebu e kwuchiri n’ ezigbo afere owiwa”.

(Adaobi is a wasp covered in a breakable plate).

In IOGA (P.219) also, the author metaphorically presents

Nkemdirim as a good apple that fell into faeces. That tells us how

wickedly she has been behaving. He says:

“Nwa m i bu udara oma danyere na nsi”

(My child you are good apple that fell into faeces).

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Here, the author communicates to the reader that Nkemdirim’s,

appearance does not depict her behaviour and as such creates the

impression of wickedness.

4.1.5 Hyperbole

“Hyperbole is a figure of speech which produces a clear picture or

impression by employing obvious and extravagant exaggeration to drive

an idea home” (Iwuchukwu 1991:13).

In like manner, Harmon and Holman (1986:246) define it as “a

figure of speech in which conscious exaggeration is used without the

intent of literal persuasion”. As a literal device, it may be used to

heighten effect or used to produce comic effect.

Ofomata employs this for stronger emotional and aesthetic appeal.

Hyperbole is seen in IOM (P.3). Here the number of people murdered by

Nwohia through wicked means is unbelievable thus:

“Ndi o ji ogwu dulaa mmuo kariri aja di n’ ala” (The number of people he

sent to their graves through charms are more than the sand on the

ground). In real sense, there is no way one can compare the number of

people on earth with the number of sand because the quantity of sand

exceeds the number of human beings by far. Therefore, it is an

exaggerated statement to say that only one man murders the number of

people that can be equated to the number of sand.

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In AGAO, the author exaggerates the trouble Ikpendu gives to his

parents. He says thus:

Ikpendu na- amalite n’ uzo ututu bewe akwa wee beruo ya na ndeeri abali. Ka o siri karachaa njo bu na olu anaghi atachi Ikpendu n’ akwa nile ahu o na-ebe (PP.3-4.) (Ikpendu will cry from early morning till late in the night. The worse of it is that he never loses his voice after all the crying).

For a person to cry from morning till late in the night continuously

without loosing his voice is difficult to believe. Here the author used

these statements to bring out the depth of meaning in the ideas he was

portraying and also create conviction.

4.1.6 Idioms

Idiom is a figure of speech with both surface and deep meanings.

It is like a proverb. It can also be referred to as a use of words, a

grammatic construction peculiar to a given language, or an expression

that cannot be translated literally into a second language. Idiom contains

images of intense pictures, which offer pleasure to the readers

especially as they discover the equivalence between the situation, which

prompts the idiom and the meaning of the ‘idiom (Mbah and Mbah,

2007). Idioms are community sayings, which truly convey a different

meaning from that of its constituent linguistic units if taken literally. They

enrich literary works by providing tonal variety in the narrative texture.

Their presence in literary works leads to sense of fulfillment on both the

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author’s part and that of his target audience since they enhance

communication and understanding.

Ofomata employs the use of idiomatic expression in his novels. For

instance in IOM (P.77) in portraying the sudden killing of Onwuha by

Dagburu people, he writes:

Ha bidoro n’ isi na-etu ndi niile ahu kpara ike di egwu ihu naedi soro nwoke ahu chooro ogu bia be ha onu aha. (They started hailing those people who contributed in dealing with that useless man that came to fight them in their place).

The author here is not talking about the wild animal called edi

rather he was trying to show how stupid the man is and how Dagburu

people dealt with him.

Another idiomatic expression is used in AGAO (P.16) where the

author says that:

O detughi ike ya ahu n’ oche ubochi ahu nwoke ahu gwara ya na imi nkita na-adi oji. (He was not able to sit throughout that day the man taught him the lesson of his life).

The author uses this expression to explain the extent to which

Ikpendu’s teacher disciplines him. This is to create the impression of

punishment. An idiomatic expression is also seen on page 62 of AGAO

where the novelist says:

Onye a na- afuru usurugada o na – agba amaghi na usurugada bu egwu ndi mmuo maka nkita na-acho ogu, edi ga-asoriri ya onu.

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(He that dances Usurugada does not know that Usurugada is the dance of the spirits, for he that seeks trouble must surely get it).

Here this idiomatic expression is used by the author to show how

nemesis finally catches up with Ikpendu as regards his evil deeds.

4.1.7 Imagery

‘Imagery’ according to Iwuchukwu (1991:20) is “The impression or

imagination made to the senses especially the sense of sight by the use

of words”. It is also the collection of images within a literary work or a

unit of a literary work. It is the ability of the author to create and evoke

visual pictures in his descriptions. Using this device, the author evokes

the picture of an action, situation, character even setting in the mental

eyes of the reader so that belief is sustained and emotion is aroused.

In AGAO (P.93), the author paints the mental picture of how the

Onitsha market traders deal with Chima and Chukwuka, the armed

robbers that have been raiding the Onitsha main market. One day

nemesis catches up with them after a robbery attack as they are about

to leave with their girl friends, the traders get hold of them in their car.

After exchanging gunshots they are over powered and killed by the

traders who equally set their bodies ablaze.

Ofomata picturing this says that:

“Ndi ahia, ndi nke ji egbe were egbe ha gbaa ha righirighi n’ ihu ugbo ala ebe ahu ha no --- Chima na chukwuka gbaa niga niga ka ha zoputa onwe ha n’ oku

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na-acho igbari ha, mana uzo agaghi. Oku ahu wee were iwe na-ahu ha ka a na-ahu ji”. (The traders that have gun, use their guns to scatter Chima and Chukwuka inside their vehicle. They tried their best to free themselves from the burning flame but could not. The flame finally roasted them like roasted yam) .

The author, having created a mental picture here, is able to show the

reader how the traders aggressively put an end to the existence of the

robbers.

In IOM also, he paints the mental image of how Onwuha attempts

to kill his guards before they kill him. Onwuha knowing that nothing will

exonerate him from dying believes that the only way to escape death is

by killing all the people with him there in ozo uruagwu’s palace. The

author paints a mental picture of the swiftness with which he carries out

his action to the reader thus:

Ka Onwuha Ogudiru si n’ oche ebe o no waliri, si n’ obo miri obejiri ahu Mazi Nzeka hapuru n’ elu oche ya tukwasa ya Onwuajuase no ya n’ akuku, Onwuajuase mapu, Obejiri ahu gbuwaa oche ahu ibegiri abuo. (As Onwuha Ogudiru gets up from the chair where he is sitting, he takes the matchet from its sheathe where Mazi Nzeka, the owner has left it on a chair, and gives Onwuajuase who is sitting beside him a big cut with the matchet, Onwuajuase jumps away and the matchet cuts the chair into two).

4.2 Characterization As A Technique

Characters are the persons in a story who say and do things in the

story. Characters may be human beings, animals or spirits.

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Characterization as defined by Ugwuanyi (1985) is the process by which

the author creates characters. He went further to say that an author

creates a character through what he thinks, how he looks, what other

characters say about him, etc. In other words, he can present his

characters directly or indirectly. When he exposes and analyses straight

what a character is like, it is a direct presentation but when he shows the

character in action from what he thinks and does, it is indirect

presentation.

In this regard, it is pertinent to note that characterization observes

three principles. First, the characters must be consistent in their

behaviour unless there is clearly sufficient reason for the change.

Secondly, the characters must be clearly motivated in what they do,

especially when there is any change in their behaviour.

Thirdly, the characters must behave in a way that is believable.

These characters in fiction are of two types: The flat and the round

characters. A flat character according to Nwadike (2007) is static and it

never changes in the course of a story or play despite the situation while

the round character changes with every situation.

Ofomata makes use of flat characters mostly in all the protagonists

of his novels. For instance, in IOM, Onwuha, one of the major characters

in the text is a liar, so stubborn that he resisted all the corporal

punishment given to him to make him admit the truth that he has hand in

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Ohahuru’s death. Throughout the novel, he remains a man of no

conscience.

In AGAO, Ikpendu the protagonist remains a rogue all through the

story. In IOGA, the major characters, Ikenna and Nkemdirim live a false

life all through the story. In DNO, Chioma remains a wicked woman and

never wants peace in her father’s compound. Ofomata also creates

round characters in some of his minor characters. Example can be seen

in DNO. Here Eberechukwu, due to her daughter’s influence on her

hates Ngozika her daughter-in-law whom she loves so much when she

is newly married. She starts as a good mother-in-law and ends up as a

wicked one because she allows her love for Ngozika to be swayed by

Chioma her daughter.

All Ofomata’s characters are true to life. Through them, the

novelist criticizes and satirizes human bad behaviour and praises those

behaviours worthy of emulation. For instance, in AGAO, Ikpendu is a

bad character who committed various atrocities, through him Ofomata

condemns evil and also shows that one reaps what he/she sows. In

DNO, Ngozika is a good wife who despite all she passes through in her

husband’s house continues to love him.

4.3 Point Of View As A Technique

Point of view is the mode of narration. Holman and Harmon

(1986:386) define it as “a term used in the analysis and criticism of

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fiction to describe the way in which the reader is presented with the

materials of the story or regarded from another angle the vantage point

from which the author presents the actions of the story”. In the same

vein, Foster (1927) explains it to mean the relation in which the author

presents his narrative.

Ofomata is one of the Igbo novelists that shows great skill in his

novels. He employs multiple points of view in his novels, that is, using

both first and third persons point of view in his narrative technique. But

the predominant narrative technique used is the third person or the

omniscient point of view.

In the Omniscient point of view, the author serves as a seemingly

all-knowing maker, not restricted to time, place or character, and free to

move and to comment at will. Here also, an ‘all-knowing’ narrator firmly

imposes his presence between the reader and the story and also retains

complete control over the narrative. The narrator, also from the vantage

point outside the story is free to tell us much or little, to dramatize or

summarize, to interpret, speculate, philosophize, moralize or judge. He

or she can tell us directly what the characters are like and why they

behave as they do. He can also record their words and conversations

and dramatize their actions or even enter their minds to explore directly

their innermost thoughts and feelings. The narrator using the omniscient

point of view directs the reader’s attention and controls the sources of

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information. He records the events of the story using the third person

singular pronoun, “he”, or the third person plural pronoun “they”. In the

four novels under study, Ofomata, uses the omniscient point of view in

two: AGAO and IOGA. In AGAO, the author narrates the story of

Ikpendu and his evil behaviours. From the way he describes Ikpendu in

the beginning of the story, the readers’ mind is already set to meet with

an ugly person.

The author describes Ikpendu on page 1 as follows:

Ihu Ikpendu, di ka nke mkpi iwe na ewe o chia ochi o di ka o na – aboro chi ya ntoo. O gbawa egwu, okpa ya abuo adi ka nke okuko na-abo ihe. (Ikpendu’s face is like that of an angry he-goat. When he laughs, it seems as if he is mocking his creator. When he dances, his legs are like those of a fowl scattering refuse heap for food).

The narrator that utilizes the omniscient point of view, begins to reveal

the ugly part of Ikpendu. How he torments the parents as a child, how he

is raping the girls, brutalizing the young men, stealing people’s livestock

at his youth, and finally, how his evil deeds metamorphosed into being a

rogue as an adult, destroying people’s lives and properties. Through the

omniscient point of view, Ikpendu has been directly described by the

author. Occasionally, Ofomata uses the first person narrator technique.

Here, the narrator is one of the characters in the story. In IOM, the story

starts with:

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Anyi lekwuo anya Ohahuru mkpuru ubochi abuo anyi ahughi ya, ihe di abuo otu emee. (If we wait for two days without seeing Ohahuru, among two things one thing will happen).

Here we witness authorial commentary, Ofomata is the functional

character himself. The statement is used to focus the caring attitude of

Umunka people over Ohahuru’s disappearance. This signifies the

oneness and unity of the community.

In DNO also, the story starts with:

Ndi ogbo m aluwala nwaanyi. Achoro m ka e bido siwe imi n’ ala juwa ajuju nke oma n’ ichotara m onye m ga-alu. (My mates are getting married. I want an effective enquiry to be made concerning whom I am going to marry).

The comment here is one of the examples of human nature when

it comes to marriage. Ofomata is painting a real picture of what happens

in Igbo culture where marriage is believed to be a communal affair. This

is because even though there are one man and one woman that begin a

family, in the end every member of the family is involved. When there is

any problem, there will be break down of peace, there will not be

harmony and people go wild. In a way what Ofomata is doing is simply

teaching young men that in matters concerning marriage they should not

think they can go it all alone, they must get other people involved. An

experience has shown that when people put their thoughts together and

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contract a marriage, such marriage is usually successful. One will say

that Ofomata here is an advocate of social harmony.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Oformata’s creative capability in story - telling and presentation of

themes are things to be appreciated. Having been armed with life

experience and talent, he is able to invent stories that are apparently

appreciated by everybody. Throughout Ofomata’s novels, he makes use

of mostly flat characters in all the protagonists of his novels. If it is well

behaved ones, their good behavior run all through the story. If it is

wicked ones, they will be static in their wickedness and bad conducts.

The linguistic register of Ofomata which is Igbo language is quite

commendable. Through his good language acquisition, he exhibits his

gift of knowledge in all his work. This is clearly shown in the way he

assembles his words used in figurative language, description of his

characters’ appearances, actions, inner feelings, values and ordering of

incidents. These of course, enhance the readers’ comprehension of the

novels. His versatility with regard to technique is very captivating for as

a matter of fact variety is not omitted. Therefore his novels do not lose

spice.

Ofomata’s way of creating and presenting story is very much

peculiar. Actually, to get much meaning from Ofomata’s novels, one

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must pay much attention to his use of figurative language coupled with

the way he presents his themes. All these make his novels prominent.

As a social reformer, which is one of the attributes of a novelist, he

has through his themes criticized as well as satirized frivolities inherent

in human beings which are exhibited in his fictional characters. His

works convey pieces of information and experiences which are valuable

to his readers.

Oformata, sometimes, brings in some dialectal words thereby

helping to enrich the Igbo language. Although he writes very well, but

there is still room for improvement in his works. For instance, the

actions of some of his characters like Onwuha, Ikpendu, and Nkemdirim

are not true to life. His creation of characters need to be improved.

It is obvious that Ofomata’s major concern as a writer is the

presentation of realities for a change in the society. His themes deal

with universal phenomena which are the basis of his success as an

artist. His approach and vision have come to deal effectively with social

realities.

Furthermore, it is true that the best writers are those who are able

to manipulate words to match their themes. This, Ofomata has been

able to achieve. His language technique is interwoven with his themes

and all the stylistic devices are directed towards elucidating the themes.

Moreover, his writing technique and messages pose serious challenge to

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all Igbo novelists. This is so because he uses various methods (first

person and omniscient narratives) in bringing out his expertise.

Finally, this study is not an end to itself, it has created room for

further research in the area.

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