SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS FOR VERNACULAR HOUSING IN RURAL MALAYSIA: TOWARDS ENERGY SECURITY AND EQUITABILITY OF LOW-

INCOME GROUPS

Nur Azfahani Ahmad1 and Hugh Byrd2

1, 2School of Architecture and Planning, The University of Auckland, New Zealand

nahm066@aucklanduni.ac.nz h.byrd@auckland.ac.nz

ABSTRACT: Since the 1970s, Malaysia’s economic expansion has been powered by cheap oil and gas making it dependent on and addicted to using large amounts of fossil fuels. As a country that is primarily reliant on fossil fuels for generating power supply, Malaysia needs to take account of long-term energy security due to fossil fuel depletion and peak oil which could threaten the development of the country.

The ‘South China Sea Conflict’, concerning territorial rights to the oil and gas fields of the South China Sea, could impact further on the country’s energy security and reserves of both oil and gas. Loss of this resource could result in reduced power generation potential with the risk of interrupted power supplies and an inequitable distribution to the population. This paper will review energy security in Malaysia, in particular electricity supply and its implications towards low-income groups in Malaysia. The paper will put forward an analysis for incorporating solar photovoltaics on roofs of vernacular housing in rural parts of Malaysia. A model is developed in order to represent the main features of a typical generic roof and its implication for efficiently collecting solar energy.

Keywords: Energy Security, Equitability, Low-Income, Solar Photovoltaic, Vernacular Housing

1. INTRODUCTION (BOLD, UPPERCASE, SIZE 11)Since the turn of the century, energy consumption in Malaysia has been increasing

rapidly and has almost doubled in 8 years (2000-2008) (see Figure 1). With the aid

of subsidies for fuels and electricity from the Malaysian Government, the population

has become largely dependent on cheap energy (Byrd, 2008). Ahmad (2010) had

reported that the energy consumption in Malaysia had increased from 29,699 ktoe in

2000 to 44,901 ktoe in 2008.

Figure 1. Energy Demand in

Malaysia (2000 and 2008)

Source: Adapted from Ahmad (2010)

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Data in 2005 (Abd. Kadir, et.al, 2010) has shown that fossil fuels have a

significant role in electricity generation in Malaysia, where it is mainly generated

from non-renewable resources. For example, natural gas (62%), followed by

imported coal (28%), oil and petroleum (3%) and small portion of renewable

resources of hydro (7%) (see Figure 2). Unfortunately, although these fossil fuels

resources are accessible at the moment, they cannot be replenished and will cause

a shortfall in production. Due to this Malaysia has now made a commitment to

increasing renewable energy resources within its supply mix (ref) in order to mitigate

an inadequate energy supply.

With an insecure supply of energy there is a risk of an inadequate supply of

electricity which raises issues of an inequitable electrical power distribution to the

population, especially for rural people. Thus, it is important to have an alternative

energy that can help to generate electricity for Malaysia in the near future. This

paper will present the case for how rural areas can help to maintain energy security

in Malaysia by providing renewable energy, specifically solar energy generated by

photovoltaics (PVs) throughout the country especially in fulfilling domestic needs of

rural developments on an equitable basis.

2. MALAYSIA’S ELECTRICITY SCENARIOIn Malaysia, the government is solely responsible for maintaining oil prices and

electricity tariffs at reasonable rates. This is consistent with the requirements of the

New Economy Policy (NEP) which was intended to alleviate poverty among the

people and generate economic growth (Malaysia, 2006). A report made by The

Energy Commission of Malaysia ( ref ) stated that, as of June 2007, Malaysia had

among the lowest electricity tariffs for households in the world (7.42 US

cents/1kWh).

However, since the increase in the price of petrol and diesel in the global

market, the Government has gradually raised electricity prices and partially reduced

Figure 2.

Electricity Sector

Energy Mix in

Malaysia (2005)

Source: Ab Kadir, et.al (2010)

62%

28%

7% 3%

Natural Gas Coal HydropowerOil and Petroleum

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subsidies (Ahmad, 2010). Despite the increase in fossil fuel prices, Malaysia's

electricity consumption continues to increase every year. Teh (2011) reported that

electricity consumption in Malaysia had increased rapidly since 1970 , from 2,400

GWh to 99,250 GWh in 2010. He also projected that the electricity consumption will

increase up to 124,677 GWh, a further 26%, by 2020.

Cheap power prices together with lifestyles changes due to urbanisation,

have dramatically influenced and escalated the used of many electrical appliances

in buildings, for instance air-conditioning system and satellite television (Byrd, 2008).

This low-power price has stimulated the energy demand in various sectors in

Malaysia, rapidly rising domestic income and reduced costs for electrical appliances.

In 1979, 89% of houses in Malaysia managed to get a reliable and consistent

electricity supply which was used mostly for lighting, refrigeration, and food storage.

In 2009, this percentage increased substantially to 95% of total power distribution

area to the whole country (Jalal, T. S. and Bodger, P., 2009). Electricity demand for

the housing sector alone experienced a growth of about 4.9 percent per year due to

the improved standard of living (APEC, 2006). Electricity consumption in the housing

sector continues to grow and is significantly influenced by the air-conditioning

market. Figure 3 a & b indicate the daily and monthly electricity load profiles for rural

households. The seasonal profile is related to the hottest months between May and

August when fans and air-conditioning are used more frequently.

(a) Daily Load Profile for Household in (b) Monthly Load Profile for Household

Figure 3(a) and (b). Domestic Load Profile for Rural Household in Malaysia

Source: Lau, K. Y.,et.al (2010)

3. OVERVIEW OF ENERGY SECURITY IN MALAYSIAEnergy security can be defined as the ability to meet demand of energy service

needs in reliable circumstances through great period of time (CMI, 2006). Threats to

energy security occur in several ways, such as the political instability, the economic

problems, war, rising terrorism, accidents and natural disasters which can damage

the energy supply infrastructure and creating depletion of resources (Michael, 2007).

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3.1 Peak Oil According to the US Energy Information Administration, Malaysia’s oil reserves have

declined in recent years, from 771 billion barrels/day in 2000 to 703.92 billion

barrels/day in 2007 (EIA, 2008). The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC) has also shown that the capacities of countries owning the 21

largest oil fields throughout the globe, are facing declining production from at least 9

of their main fields (Campbell, 2002). From the 48 OPEC oil-producing countries, 33

have shown a significant decline since 2006, including Malaysia (EIA, 2006;

Campbell, 2002; OPEC, 2009). Since petrol and diesel are connected to global

market prices, peak oil is now a significant issue for Malaysia’s energy security.

3.2 South China Sea Oil Issue Another issue associated with energy security in Malaysia is the recent conflict in

the South China Sea. This issue has been linked with China’s territorial claim for oil

and gas rich areas of the South China Sea located off the coast of Sabah and

Sarawak (EIA, 2008). Figure 4 indicates the territory claimed by China (red line

commencing from China) extending over Malaysia’s territory (green line

commencing from Malaysia) and, coincidentally, encircling the gas and oil fields of

the South China Sea.

Figure 4. Countries Claiming Ownership in South China Sea Oil IssueSource: 0’Donnell (2009)

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This issue has yet to be resolved by The United Nations Convention on the Law of

the Sea (UNCLOS) (EIA, 2008). This may result in Malaysia further reducing the

production of both oil and gas.

3.3 An Inequitable Power Distribution With the main resources for generating electricity under threat, there is an increased

risk in reduced power supplies. Under these circumstances, it is often that the rural

communities face the consequences of interrupted electricity supplies. For example,

Campen, Guidi & Best (2000) reported that rural areas in developing countries

usually have to face an unequal share of development and lack of attention from the

authorities. They tend to be excluded from most of the benefits of energy services

including electric power supply. Due to this, inequality of electric power distribution

arise and cause power interruption and blackouts in rural communities.

Hussain (2005) and Byrd (2010) have reported on the issues of safety, the

emergence of crime, disruption of traffic, health disorder and loss of communication

in the event of blackouts. Load shedding (turning electricity off in one area in order

to keep an adequate supply in another) requires complex decisions in order to

prioritise the electricity supply to communities. Table 3 indicates a history of the

major electricity blackouts that have been faced by Malaysia and their significant

cost implications. It is the risk of financial loss that tends to result in poorer

communities carrying the burden of load shedding.

Table 3. Malaysia Power Disruption

Date Period Loss (RM)(Million) Area Affected

29/9/1992 2 days 220 9 from 13 states in Malaysia3/8/1996 14 hours 123 The whole of Peninsular Malaysia

10/8/1996 16 hours Undisclosed Southern part of Peninsular Malaysia4/9/2003 5 hours 13.8 Malaysia's northern peninsular

13/1/2005 2 hours Undisclosed Southern part of Peninsular Malaysia Source: Adapted from Hussain, K.S.K. (2005)

As the risk of inadequate electricity production increases due to reduced resources

for generation, an equitable distribution of electricity is under threat. Malaysia has

one of the highest Gini Coefficients (difference between the richest 10% and poorest

10%) outside Latin American and sub-Saharan countries (Byrd, 2010), which

indicates that Malaysia already has significant inequality. As fuel and electricity

prices increase lower income groups will become more vulnerable. The only option

is to introduce an alternative, decentralised power supply. With a significant amount

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of sunshine, Malaysia has significant potential to exploit solar energy, in particular

PVs to generate electricity.

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4 SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL Malaysia is located in an Equatorial region and receives abundant solar radiation

every day, with the average irradiance per year of 1643 kWh/m2. This is about 50%

more that Germany where PVs have been implemented across the residential

sector. The potential of implementing solar energy technology in Malaysia in the

near future is even greater (Chua, S.C., et.al, 2010).

4.1 PV Potential This section explores the potential of photovoltaics mounted on roof surfaces of rural

houses in Malaysia to provide electricity for use by households and for exporting to

the national grid. Byrd (2008) indicated that PVs mounted on roofs of houses in

Malaysia could generate about 25% of current electricity demand which is a

significant proportion of the generation mix for Malaysia, especially in meeting

electric demands of low-income groups. However, the analysis below provides the

basis of a more accurate assessment.

Figure 5 indicates the monthly solar radiation for the rural areas in Malaysia

which is within the range of 4.8 kWh/m2 to 6.1 kWh/m2 per day (Lau, K. Y, et. al,

2010). Figure 6 illustrates the typical diurnal variation in solar radiation during the

day (Ibrahim, M., et.al, 2009). In order to optimise the collection of solar energy the

collection area, orientation and tilt need to be analysed. These criteria are specific to

house types and roof geometry.

Figure 5. Solar radiation

data for rural area in

Malaysia (monthly)(2009)

Adapted from: Lau, K. Y,

et. al (2010)

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4.2 The Solar Potential of Roofs This section is divided into two sub-sections, which consists of (a) the basic analysis

of typical roof shape in vernacular houses in rural areas in Peninsular Malaysia, and

(b) the potential electricity generated by PVs on the roofs.

a. Typical Roof Shapes and areasMalaysia’s vernacular houses are mainly built with gabled roofs, in order to

adapt to the climatic elements (Fee, C.V, et al, 2005). Yuan (1991) has identified

the distinctive features of roof shapes for typical rural dwellers in Malaysia and

this is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 6.Daily solar radiation data

Adapted from: Ibrahim, M, et. al (2009)

Figure 7. Roof form for vernacular houses in MalaysiaSource: Adapted from Yuan, L. J. (1991)

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The two main features that could limit the potential of the roofs to collect solar

energy are i) the complexity of the roof form can limit the number of solar panels

(particularly in the case with the ‘selang addition’) and ii) overshadowing by a

‘parallel addition’.

For practical purposes, PV arrays would not cover the whole of a roof. Space

is required for maintenance of both the roofs and the panels. Also long runs of

interconnected arrays are more cost-effective than individual panels located in a

variety of positions. However, since these house types have an average roof

area of typically 298m2 (Yuan, 1991) and a significant area is rectilinear, the

collection area is more determined by the orientation and inclination of the roofs

than their geometry.

b. Orientation and Pitch of Roofs Typically, roof pitches in Malaysia are angled at 30° or less, especially for long

roof houses (Fee, C.V, et al, 2005; Elhassan, Z.A.M et al (2011; Yuan, 1991).

A solar angle inclination chart is used to evaluate the efficiency of solar panel on

the roof on different orientations (See Figure 8).

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Figure 8. Angle of solar panel inclination for houses in Malaysia Source: Fadzil, S.F.S and Byrd, H (2010

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Figure 8 indicates that for all orientations of a roof and with a pitch of less

than 30o the efficiency of the solar panels will be 95% or more of the optimum,

though panels facing east or west tend to have slightly higher efficiency.

5. ENERGY AVAILABLE FROM ROOFSHaving established the daily solar radiation available (figure 6) and that almost all of

the traditional roof types are capable of collecting solar energy with at least a 95%

efficiency, daily electricity generation of a rural household can be estimated and

compared with typical daily electricity load (Figure 3a). For the purposes of this

calculation, it has been assumed that PVs have a conversion efficiency of 15%, a tilt

and orientation loss of 5%, cable and inverter losses of 5% and losses due to dirt

and shading of a further 5%. This gives an overall solar energy to electricity

conversion efficiency of 12.9%

5.1 Comparison of different PV areas.The electricity generated is based on different roof areas. The first, figure 9 assumes

that 60% of the average roof area can be covered by PVs (178m2). This is a

practical maximum given the constraints of roof geometry and maintenance

described in 4.2a above. A PV area of 178m2 is unlikely to be economical and so

the second roof area considered is 1/3rd of this (57m2). Lastly, a small area of

28.5m2 is considered.

0 4 8 12 16 20 240

5

10

15

20

25

Elect. Generated by 28.5m2 PVsElect. Generated by 57m2 PVsElect. Generated by 178m2 PVsHousehold electricty demand

Hours

Elec

trici

ty k

W

Figure 9. Comparison of electricity demand by household with electricity generated by different

areas of PVs.

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5.2 AnalysisThe largest PV area (178m2) considered above, is based on the practical maximum

that a typical household could install. It would produce over 350% more electricity

than a typical household would demand, over a 24 hour period, allowing 90% to be

fed into the grid. The PV area of 57m2 provides about twice as much electricity as

the household demand over 24 hours and produces a surplus of about 65% that can

be fed into the grid. The smallest PV area of 28.5m2 supplies about the same

amount of electricity as the household demand of which 50% could be fed into the

grid. Although this analysis is carried out for a 24 hour period, being a tropical

country there is little seasonal variation (Figure 5) and so this analysis can be

extrapolated to annual electricity supply and demand.

5.3 Feed in Tariff (FiT)Irrespective of the area of the PVs, the household would need to import electricity at

times when there is insufficient solar energy. In all cases considered above, the PVs

do not even supply half of the household electricity demand over a 24 hour period.

In order to make PVs financially attractive, the surplus electricity needs to be sold to

the grid. Figure 10 illustrates the relationship between the PV area and the ratio of

electricity generated to demand based on the data above. For a household to be

able to have a balance between imported and exported electricity (no net electricity

demand), the ratio must be greater than 1. This requires a PV area of about 50m2. If

a preferential FiT was available then although the energy produced would be the

same, the financial advantage to the householder would increase. In 2011 the ratio

of the FiT to the price of electricity was about 3:1 (exported: imported) (Ref ) that

would mean that either one third PV area (17m2) is required in order to ‘break even’ ,

or a 50m2 PV area would result in a profit to the householder of 200% of the

household energy bill.

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 2000

0.51

1.52

2.53

3.54

4.55

Area of PVs m2

Ratio

ofs

urpl

us e

lect

ricity

ge

nera

ted/

dem

and

Figure 10The relationship of PV area to surplus electricity production.The ratio needs to be 1 in order to export as much as is imported (50m2)

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6. ConclusionThis paper has analysed the future energy security of Malaysia and its potential

impact on lower income groups. It has identified that solar energy offers an

important alternative to fossil fuels in generating electricity and that the technology

of photovoltaics can be implemented on typical rural housing types. These

households have the potential to generate surplus electricity to their needs with a

PV array of about 50m2. However, with current feed-in tariffs, households can

balance their electricity bills (pay as much as they earn) with about 17m2 of PVs.

With appropriate loans (to be analysed in a further paper), this means that rural

households can move towards being more self-sufficient in electricity and can also

contribute to the national electricity generation mix. The extent to which rural houses

can contribute to the national electricity grid depends on the number of houses that

that invest in this technology and also the capacity of the national grid to utilise this

electricity.

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