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Timeline of Casting Technology

Our world could not have advancedat its rapid rate without the

strength, endurance andingenuity of the foundryman.

With a history set in motion before the dawn of man, metalcasting was the very cornerstoneof humankinds emergence from the Dark Ages and its continued prosperity today.

Michael J. Lessiter, Editor/PublisherEzra L. Kotzin, American Foundry Society (retired)

ince the discovery of the earths minerals, metalcasting has playedan important role in society. An integral part of every technologi-

cal advance, castings have allowed us to build equipment to feed ourpeople, fight for democracy, build infrastructure and manufacture cars,trains and airplanes. In general, castings have beenand will continueto bethe key ingredient in the recipe for a better way of life.

Metalcasters have long been respected and eminent craftsmen inevery community. In many cases, their heroics extended far beyondthe utilization of molten metal in creating usable products. Theyhave been soldiers, statesmen and inventorsand have reshapedNorth America with a first-class, working labor force that producesgoods for the world. In fact, the conception of the U.S.not tomention the spread of democracy worldwidewas set into motion

by seven foundrymen who signed the Declaration of Independencefrom Great Britain in 1776.

During the wars of medieval times, foundrymen produced can-nons. In peace, they recast the metal back into bells. In the earlyMiddle Ages, church bells were cast in churches by priests, abbots orbishops who were also trained metal founders. As the metal wasmelted, the brethren stood around the furnace intoning psalms andprayers. The molten metal was then blessed and divine protectionwas asked for the bell, which usually bore the name of a saint.

The 20thcentury saw the explosive refinement of processesan d mat e r i a l s use d i n t h efoundry for more than 400year s. Vann oc ci o Bi ri ng uc ci o,

the 16

th

century father of thefoundry industry , recom-mended using the dregs of beervats and human urine as b ind-ers for molding sand, both of

which were in use well into the 1900s.There has been more casting progress since World War II than

in the previous 3000 years, wrote Bruce L. Simpson in History of theMetalcasting Industry. Still, the demand goes on for foundries to sur-pass themselves in quantity and quality. Metalcasting remains a basi-cally essential industry, as necessary to space vehicles as it was tomankinds very first machines. As science is applied more and more, sothe skill, education and pay of foundrymen goes up and ever up, in-creasing in turn the total wealth of the world.

There is no better example of the true creation of national wealththan the work of the foundryman. He takes a raw material and throughboth art and science, creates a product that adds direct value to oursocietys ever-progressing way of life.

Beyond the fact that castings are all around us (it is often saidone is never more than 10 ft from a casting), metalcasting was eco-logically friendly long before it was in vogue. Known as the originalrecycler, the foundry industry gives a new useful life to as many as15 million tons of scrap metal each year that would otherwise berendered useless.

From its contributions in providing jobs and employee skills todelivering the dependable, high-quality and cost-effective compo-nents necessary to advance technology, metalcasting has impactedvirtually every improvement seen by each passing generation. Sim-

ply put, our world could not haveadvanced at its rapid rate withoutthe strength, endurance and inge-

nuity of the foundryman.Following are some of the keytechnological events that havechanged the face of the castingprocess and its end products.

Discovery of molten metal(copper beads in fire)

B.C.9000 B.C.Earliest metal objects of

wrought native copper are produced inthe Near East.

3000-2500 B.C.Small objects are castvia lost wax (investment casting) pro-cess in the Near East.

3200 B.C.The oldest casting in existence,

a copper frog, is cast inMesopotamia.

3000 B.C.Early foundrymencast bronze tools andweapons in permanentstone molds.

1500 B.C.Wrought iron isdiscovered in the Near East.

600 B.C.The first cast ironobject, a 600-lb tripod, iscast by the Chinese.

233 B.CIron plowsharesare cast.

200 B.C.O l de s t i ro ncastings still in existence are pro-duced during the Han Dynasty.

A.C.500Cast crucible steel is produced

in India.1200sLoam or sweep molding is used by

European foundrymen to cast bells forcathedrals.

1252The colossal statute, the GreatBuddha at Kamakura, Japan, is cast

in high-lead tin bronze. Theproject began in the 700s

an d i t s h e ad a l o n eweighed 140 tons.

1313The first can-non is cast in bronzeby a monk in the city

of Ghent.1400sDuring the siegeof Constantinople, heavyguns are cast from bronzeon the spot, virtuallyunder the walls of the be-

sieged city Movable, cast lead type forprinting presses revolutionizes theworlds methods of communication.

1480Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539), the first true foundryman andthe father of the foundry industry, isborn. The founder of the Vatican, hisDe La Pirotechnia is the first writtenaccount of proper foundry practice.

1500sSand is introduced as a moldingmaterial in France.

1600s1612Mined from under the sea, seacoal

is mentioned for the first time by Ger-man foundryman and inventor, SimonSturtevant.

1619North Americas first iron furnace isbuilt at Falling Creek, VA, a branch of theJames River, 60 miles from Jamestowncolony. Three years later, Native Ameri-cans destroy it during a raid.

1645Earliest recorded use of termfoundry appears in the Oxford English

Dictionary in its variant founderie.1646Americas first iron foundry (and sec-ond industrial plant), Saugus Iron Works,

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Cast copper frog,3200 B.C.

Early iron foundry

Saugus pot, 1642

near Boston, pours the first American cast-ing, the Saugus pot. The Saugus River sitewas selected by Richard Leader and wasbuilt to produce iron products for Massa-chusetts and England.

1661First U.S. copper deposits are dis-covered by Gov. Winthrop inMiddletown, CT.

1700s1709Two developments by Abraham

Darby, Coalbrookdale, England, improvecasting methods. He developed the firsttrue foundry flask to modernize mold-ing practices (which had been carriedout in pits on the floor by use of pat-tern boards tied together or in crudebox frames). He would later initiatethe use of coke as a furnace fuel foriron production.

1722A.F. de Reamur, recognized as theworlds first metallurgical chemist, devel-ops first malleable iron, known today asEuropean Whiteheart malleable.

1750Benjamin Huntsman reinvents thecast crucible steel process in England, aprocess that disappeared after first beingdeveloped in IndiaThe Englishparliament prohibits the refiningof pig iron or the casting of ironin the American colonies, con-tributing to the AmericanRevolution.

1756Coalbrookdales RichardReynolds oversees the inven-tion of cast iron tram-roadrails, replacing wooden rails.

1775Revolutionary patriot Paul

Revere, who operated a bell-and-fittings foundry in Bos-ton, rides from Boston to Lex-ington warning colonists of theBritish invasion.

1776Foundrymen CharlesCarroll, James Smith, GeorgeTaylor, James Wilson, GeorgeRoss, Philip Livingston and StephenHopkins sign the American Declara-tion of Independence.

1779First iron bridge ever erected (aboveEnglands Severn River) was cast andconstructed at Coalbrookdale Works.

1794Englishman John Wilkinson inventsthe first metal-clad cupola furnace, usinga steam engine to provide the air blast.

1797First cast plow in U.S. is invented byCharles Newbold, Sauk, NJ.

1800s1809Centrifugal casting is developed by

A.G. Eckhardt of Soho, England.1815Cupola is introduced to the U.S.

(Baltimore).1817First iron water line in the U.S., 400

ft long, is laid in Philadelphia.

1818First U.S. cast steel is produced by

the crucible process at historic ValleyForge Foundry.

1825Aluminum, the most abundantmetal in the earths crust, is isolatedfrom aluminum chloride byDenmarks Hans Oerstad.

1830sSeth Boyden, Newark, NJ, pro-duces U.S. first blackheart mal-leable iron.

1837First reliable molding ma-chine on market is made andused by S. Jarvis Adams Co.,Pittsburgh.

1832Nickel-bronze is producedcommercially in England.

1847Cast steel guns aremade by Krupp Works inGermanyAsa Whitney,Philadelphia, obtains apatent on a process for an-nealing chil led-iron carwheels cast with chil ledtread and flange.

1847John Deere commissionsJones and Quiggs Steel Works,Pittsburgh, to cast and roll asteel plow, which it accomplishes at one-half the products previous cost.

1849A manually operated diecasting ma-chine is patented to supply rapidly cast

lead type for newspapers.1850The drop-bottom cupola isdeveloped.1863Metallography is developedby Henry C. Sorby, Sheffield, En-gland, enabling foundrymen topolish, etch and microscopicallyexamine metal surfaces for physi-cal analysis.1867James Nasmythe, inven-

tor of the steam hammer, devel-ops a gear-tilted safety ladle toprevent pouring accidents.

1870Sandblasting is developedfor large castings by R.E. Tilghmanof Philadelphia.1874The Colliau cupola, thefirst commercially made cupola

in America, is introduced.1876The first authenticated aluminum cast-

ings were produced by ColonelWilliam Frishmuth at his Philadel-phia foundry. Assembled to pro-duce an engineers transit, these

castings were made from$1/oz chemically producedaluminumManganese-bronze patent is granted toParsons in England. TobinBronze develops manganese-bronze in U.S.

1880-87W.W. Sly, Cleveland,develops the first castingcleaning mill, greatly reduc-ing hand-chipping andgrinding to allow a custom-finished product.

1884The first architectural applicationof aluminum, a cast aluminum pyra-mid produced by Col. William

Frishmuth, is mounted on the tip ofthe Washington Monument.

1886Charles M. Hall, a 22-year-old studentat Oberlin College, discovers a process of

aluminum reduction through electroly-sis. The invention replaced chemi-

cal reduction and lowered themetals cost (from $15/lb in1884 to $0.50/lb in 1890), spur-ring a new industry of alumi-num applications.

1887Eli Millett invents acore oven for drying smallcores in individual drawers.1890The first motor-drivenmold conveyor is installed, in-tegrating molding, pouring andcooling operations.1897Iowa dentist B.F.Philbrook adapts the lost-waxinvestment casting process forproducing dental inlays, theprocess first non-art applicationof the modern metalcasting age.

1898Poulson and Hargraves (U.K.) pro-duce the first sand molds bonded withsodium silicateGermanys ImperialNavy recommends copper-nickel alloyscontaining 4-45% Ni for salt-water pip-ing system.

1899Electric arc furnace, developed byFrances Paul Heroult, begins commer-cial production.

1900s1900Brinnell hardness test machines are

introducedAluminum-bronze beginsregular production in the U.S.

Early 1900sFirst patent for low-pressurepermanent mold casting process is issuedto Englands E.H. Lake.

1901American Steel Foundries (St.Louis) produces the first centrifugalcast rail wheels.

1903The Wright Brothers first successfulmachine-powered aircraft contains a castaluminum block and crankcase (togetherweighing 152 lb), produced either at Mi-ami Brass Foundry or the Buckeye Ironand Brass Works.

1905H.H. Doehler patents thediecasting machine.

1906The first electric arc furnaceis installed in U.S. at Halcomb SteelCo., Syracuse, NY First low-fre-quency induction furnace is in-

stalled at Henry Diston & Sons,Tacony, PA.1907Alfred Wilm discovers thatthe properties of cast aluminum

alloys can be enhanced throughheat treating and artificial aging.1908Stockham HomogenousSand Mixer Co., Piqua and New-

ark, OH, releases the sand cutter.

1910s1910Matchplates are developed, fostering

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Foundry conveyor,1890

Lost Foam Pattern, 1950s

the viability of jolt-squeeze machines.1911Metallurgical microscope is

obtainableFirst electric arc furnace formetalcasting is installed at Treadwell En-gineering, Co., Easton, PA.

1912The first muller with individuallymounted revolving mullers of varyingweights is marketed by Peter L.SimpsonSand slinger is invented by E.O.Beardsley & W.F. Piper, Oregon Works.

1915Experimentation begins with bento-

nite, a colloidal clay of unusually high greenand dry strength Ajax Metal Co., Phila-delphia, installs first low-frequency induc-tion furnace for nonferrous melting.

1916Dr. Edwin Northrup, Princeton Univ.,invents the coreless induction furnace.

1917Alcoa completes a great deal of earlydevelopment work in aluminum as WorldWar I generates great demand for high-in-tegrity castings for aircraft engines.

1918The first fully automated foundry inRockford, IL, casts hand grenadehulks for the U.S. Army.

1920s1921Modification of the sili-

con structure in aluminumbegins as Pacz discoversthat adding metallic so-dium to molten aluminumjust prior to pouring greatlyimproves ductility Cop-per-silicon alloys are pre-pared in Germany as a sub-stitute for tin bronzes.

1924Henry Ford sets pro-duction record of 1 mil-

lion autos in 132 workingdays. Automotive manu-facturing will grow to consume one-thirdof casting demand in the U.S.

1925X-ray radiography is established asa tool for checking casting quality. By1940, all military aircraft castings re-quire x-ray inspection prior toacceptanceAmerican Brass, Water-bury, CT, installs first medium-fre-quency induction furnace in the U.S.

1928Alcoa develops the first aluminumvehicle wheel, a sand-cast 355 alloy de-signed for truck trailers.

1930s1930First high-frequency coreless electric

induction furnace is installed atLebanon Steel Foundry, Lebanon,PASpectrography is pioneered byUniv. of MI professors for metalanalysisDavenport and Bain develop theaustempering process for iron castings.

1937ARL founder Maurice Hasler pro-duces the first grating spectrograph forthe Geological Survey of California.Spectrometers begin finding their wayinto foundries by the late 1940s, replac-ing the previous practice of metallurgistsestimating chemical compositions with

a spectroscope and welders arcTheaustempered microstructure incast iron is recognized.

1940s1940Chvorinov develops

the relationship betweensolidification time andcasting geometry.

Early 1940sStatisticalprocess control is first

employed as a qualitycontrol tool in U.S.machine shops, principallyto control dimensionaltolerancesInoculation ofgray iron becomes common, as highquality cast irons replace scarce steel.

1941U.S. Lt. Col. W.C. Bliss tells theAFS St. Louis Chapter that the sidewhich maintains the larger productionof war goods is going to win the war.

The War Production Board reportslater that each U.S. soldier requires

4900 lb of steel compared to 90lb in World War I.

1942The use of syntheticsands increases as a replacementfor many war materials.1943Keith Millis, a 28-year-old metallurgist working atINCO searching for a replace-ment to chrome due to inter-rupted supply, discovers that

magnesium alloy in molteniron produces a spheroidalgraphite structure. In 1949,he, Albert Gagnebin and

Norman Pilling would receivea U.S. patent on ductile iron

production via magnesium treatment.1944The first heat-reactive, chemically-

cured binder is developed byGermanys Johannes Croning to rap-idly produce mortar and artillery shellsfor Axis troops during WorldWar II. Two years after thewar, his shell process isdiscovered among otherinventions in the Ger-man patent office andmade public. Croning is

recognized with an AFSGold Medal in 1957 forhis invention.

1946Allied investigatorsuncover German foundryresearch on high tem-perature alloysHavingheard of the Croning dis-covery (prior to the re-lease of the report), Fords Ed Ensign andE.I. Valyi, Navy Bureau of Ships, at-tempted to replicate the process and pro-duced shell-molded castings at MidwestFoundry, Coldwater, MI.

Late 1940sThermal sand reclama-tion is applied to core sands and, to

a l imited degree , c lay-bonded sands.

1948First non-labora-tory ductile iron casting isproduced at JamestownMalleable Iron Co.,Jamestown, NY, as a66-in. test bar ispouredIndustrys firstductile iron pipe is cast atLynchburg Foundry,

Lynchburg, VA.1949Keel blocks, diesel

engine parts, a pressure cyl-inder, an 8-in. cube and twocylinder liners become duc-

tile irons first commercial castingsat Cooper-Bessemer, Grove City,PADevelopment of magnesium-fer-rosilicon makes ductile iron treatmentfar easierBuffalo Pipe & FoundryCo., Tonawanda, NY, is the first U.S.operation to pour castings usingCronings shell process.

1950sEarly 1950sExperimentation in high-

pressure molding begins, as foundrymenbegin to increase the air pressure in airsqueeze molding machines to increasemold hardness (density)Fast-dryingcore oils are introducedThe pneumaticscrubber is developed to reclaim clay-bonded sands. Several wet reclamationsystems are also in operation.

1951Ford Motor Co. converts 100% of itscrankshaft production to ductile iron.

1952D Process is developed for making

shell molds with fine sand and fast dryoil by Harry DietertSodium-silicate/CO

2system is introduced.

1953Hotbox system of making and cur-ing cores in one operation is devel-oped, eliminating the need for dielec-tric drying ovens.

1954The CO2 process, a novel

mold and coremakingprocess, is introduced fromGermanyWorking closelywith General Motors, B&Pdevelops a method for coat-ing individual sand particles

with resin binder. It also in-troduces a coreblower ca-pable of producing coreswith resin-coated shellsanda modification to theCroning process.1955Peoples Gas of Chi-cago is the first to installductile iron gas mains.

Mid-1950sSqueeze casting process origi-nates in Russia.

1956First Betatron is installed in U.S.foundry at ESCO Corp., Portland, OR, forradiography of heavy steel castings.

1957The vertically-parted flaskless greensand molding machine is invented by

Signers of Declaration ofIndependence, 1776

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Matchplate MoldingMachine, 1960s

Prototype VerticallyParted Green Sand Mold

Machine, 1959

Shell Core Machine, 1950s

Vagn Aage Jeppesen, a 40-year-old pro-fessor at the Technical University of Den-mark. He was granted a patent in 1959,which was purchased by Dansk IndustriSyndikat in 1961.

1958Harold F. Shroyer obtains a patentfor the full mold process, a process de-veloped by artists in which simple pat-terns and gating systems are carvedfrom expanded polystyrene and placedinto a green sand mold. The process,

known today as lost foam casting (us-ing loose, unbonded sand), is patenteda short time laterPhenolic and fu-ran acid-catalyzed nobake binder sys-tems are introducedDuctile irondesulfurization via shaking ladles is de-veloped in Sweden.

1959General Electric utilizes the Tran-sient Heat Transfer digital computerprogram and successfully applies thefinite difference method to heavy steelcasting production.

1960s1960Furan hotbox binders are developed

for core productionDeep bedfilters are used commerciallyfor aluminum castingat Alcoa and BritishAluminum in theU.KCompactibility andmethylene blue clay testsare developed for greensand control.

1961Alcohol-borne shellcoating process is intro-duced (warm-coated).

1962New CO2sand test-ing method is intro-duced for sands bondedwith sodium silicate andcured with CO

2Beardsley & Pipers Al

Hunter, Bob Lund and Angello Bisinellodevelop the first automated green sandmolding machine. In their design, thecope and drag are side-blown simulta-neously and then hydraulically squeezed.The birth of automated matchplatemolding reportedly improved foundryproductivity by levels as much as 60% ina short amount of timePhenolic hot-

box binders introduced.1963Shell flake resin is introduced, elimi-

nating the need for solvents.1964Dell & Christs paper on mold inocula-

tion spurs the development of many oftodays forms of mold and late stream in-oculation The first vertically parted greensand machine (max. 240 molds/hr) is de-livered to United Danish Iron Foundries inFrederiksvaerk, Denmark. Early adopters re-port man-hour per ton improvements onthe order of 50%.

1965Oil urethane nobake binder systemsare used for cores/moldsGeneralElectrics Jim Henzel and Jack Keverianpredict freezing patterns in large steel

castings via computerCast metal ma-trix composites are first poured at Inter-national Nickel Co., Sterling Forest, NY.

1968The coldbox process is introduced byLarry Toriello and Janis Robins and in-troduced to the foundry industry byAshland Chemical Co. for high-production coremaking.Germanys Daimler-Benzfoundry in Mannheim isthe first to run the pro-

cess for automotiveparts. John Deere SilvasFoundry, Moline, IL, isthe first to use the pro-cess for mass-produc-tion in North America.

1969The Chevrolet Vega isintroduced by GeneralMotors, featuring thefirst all-aluminum block with no castiron cylinder liners. A total of 2.5 mil-lion blocks were produced during thevehicles life cycle.

Late-1960sScanning electron microscope(SEM) is invented in EnglandThermal

analysis begins to be used in iron found-ries for the rapid determination of

carbon equivalent and phospho-rous contents, making it pos-sible to study the transforma-tion of an alloy duringcoolingManganese Bronze& Brass Co. and J. Stone & Co.join to promote nickel-alumi-num bronze propellers.

1970s

1970The sodium-silicate/ester catalyzed nobake bindersystem is introduced forcores/moldsSafety-critical

ductile iron steering knuckles are intro-duced on Chevrolets CadillacA newphenolic urethane nobake process is in-troduced by Ashland Chemical, replacingoil sand dump box operations and sig-nificantly reducing energy requirementsfor core/ mold production throughoutthe 1970sDiran Apelians doctoralwork at MassachusettsInstitute of Tech-

nology (MIT) leadsto the develop-ment of foam fil-ters for metalcast-ing by Olin Met-als. Commercialceramic foam fil-ters will be in use infoundries by 1974.

1971The vacuum-forming or V-Processmolding method of usingunbonded sand with the use of a vacuumis developed in JapanMIT doctoralcandidate David Spencer performs ex-periments leading to semi-solid molding

(SSM), a process in which a partially fro-zen metal (fluidity similar to machine oil)can be poured into a die cavity. Follow-ing advancement in metal slurry consis-tencies with Professor Mert Flemings,Newton Diecasting Co., New Haven, CT,

produces the first semi-solid castings.1972A 1-lb crankshaft for a

refrigerator compressor pro-duced at Wagner Castings(designed and engineered

by Tecumseh) becomes thefirst production-volumeaustempered ductile iron(ADI) component. Wagneralso produces first as-castductile iron connecting

rods for passenger carsCANMET uses real-time radi-ography to study the flow of

steel in molds Hitchiner Manufactur-ing, Milford, NH, patents counter-grav-ity (vacuum) casting process.

1973The first U.S. foundry argon oxygendecarburization (AOD) unit is installedat ESCO Corp.

1974Fiat introduces the in-mold processfor ductile iron treatmentThe phe-nolic urethane nobake binder system isintroduced for mold production.

Mid-1970sAlcoa and Union Carbide com-mence rotary degassing for wrought alu-minum. Reading Foundry Products wouldapply this technology to aluminum found-ries in the mid-1980s...Digital codes aredeveloped to simulate solidification andfluid flow analysisUltrasonic verificationof ductile iron nodularity is

developedFoundries examine new ben-eficial reuse routes for spent foundry sand,leading to applications such as cement andpaving products, bricks and flowable fill.

1976Foote Mineral Co. and BCIRA(U.K.) develop compacted graphiteironAcid-slag cupola practices plusexternal desulfurization with CaC

2

begin to replace basic slag cupolas.1977General Motors installs ADI rear dif-

ferential sets in passenger carsThe alu-mina phosphate nobake binder system,

an inorganic nonsilicate binder, is in-troduced for mold production.

1978Furan/SO2binder sys-tem is developed for cores/

moldsPolyol urethanenobake binder systemis introduced for alumi-num applications.

1980sEarly 1980sTundish

ladle is embraced byindustry as favored practiceof nodularizing ducti le

ironThree-dimensional relationalparameters are developed for CADsolid models.

1981High-production lost foam casting

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begins at General Motors Massena, NY,plant for aluminum cylinder heads.

1982Warmbox binder system is introduced.1983Air impulse molding process is

developedFree radical cure/SO2

binder system is introduced.1984Charles Hull applies

for a patent on stereo-lithography process.Other rapid prototypingtechniques emerge

shortly afterPhenolicester nobake binder isintroducedThermalanalysis makes break-through in molten alumi-num processing for determi-nation of grain refinementand silicon modification.

1985Phenolic ester coldbox binder isdevelopedNew automaker Saturnmakes a strategic decision to select lostfoam process for its aluminum cylinderblocks and heads and ductile iron crank-shafts and differential cases.

Mid-1980sComputer solidification soft-ware is commercializedAmine recy-cling is introduced to enhance the envi-ronmental benefits of the amine-curedcoldbox processUbe Machinery intro-duces first squeeze casting equip-ment...Aikohs (Japan) flux injectiontechnology is initiated into U.S. alumi-num foundry market.

Late 1980s3-D visualization techniquesare developedCaO/CaF

2 desulfuriza-

tion of cupola-melted ductile baseiron begins to replace CaC

2

methodLanxide, Newark, DE, devel-ops pressureless metal infiltration pro-cess for particulate-reinforced metalbodiesMg wire injection method forducti le iron treatment is f irsttestedCasting solidification model-ing software gains in acceptance, al-lowing foundries to optimize quality,production and cost prior to actuallypouring a casting.

1988Rapid prototyping and CAD/CAMtechnologies combine in a breakthroughto shorten tooling developmenttimeFord adapts Cosworth process pre-

cision sand casting process for high pro-

duction...Metaullics Systems combinesflux injection/rotary degassing technolo-gies for aluminum processing.

1989IMI (Yorkshire, UK) begins experi-menting with bismuth as a lead substi-

tute in copper alloys.

1990s1990Equipment for semi-solidcasting is introduced by AlumaxEngineered Materials and Buhler,

Inc Foseco patents a direct-pour system that permits castingproduction without conventional

gating/risering. Major automotiveapplication would come in 1995

with CMI Internationals upper in-take manifoldPrecision sand cast-

ing and casting quality for engine blocksare improved in mass production by majorautomotive companies with the Cosworthand Zeus processes for aluminum andthe Loramendi Key Core pro-cess for precision sand cast

iron applications.1991Dry ice CO2pro-

cess is developed forcleaning coreboxes andfoundry toolingAnoncontact gauge for ac-curate dimensionalanalysis of lost foam pat-terns and sand cores isdeveloped through theAFS Lost Foam Consor-tium. Eight years later, theconsortium develops an instrument tomeasure the gas permeability of lost foam

pattern coatings (which controls flow ofmetal and has a dominant effect on cast-ing quality.)

1993First foundry application of aplasma ladle refiner (melting and re-fining in one vessel) occurs at MaynardSteel Casting Co., Milwaukee.

1994Use of low-expansion synthetic mul-lite sand for lost foam is patented byBrunswick Corp., Lake Forest, IL, to en-able precision casting of largecomponentsDelphi Chassis Systems andCasting Technology Co. begin program onsqueeze-cast aluminum front knuckle, the

first high-volume production (1.5 million

cars) two-cavity squeeze-cast aluminumconversion of its kind.

Mid-1990sMicrostructure simulation isdeveloped, contributing to better under-standing of metallurgy effects and theprediction and control of mechanicalproperties in castings Semi-solid cast-ing makes commercial inroads and mar-ket penetration.

1996Cast metal matrix composites (brakerotors) are used for the first time in a pro-

duction model automobile, the LotusEliseEnvironmentally-friendly (fluo-rine-free) fluxes are developed at theWorcester Polytechnic Institute and com-mercialized General Motors Corp. in-troduces GMBond, a water-solublebiopolymer-based core sand binder thatis nontoxic and recyclable.

1997AFS Consortium research atCANMET, Ottawa, Canada, results

in the development andcommercialization of lead-free

copper alloys using bismuthand seleniumFollowingtests at the GermanysAachen Univ., AmericanCast Iron Pipe Co., Bir-mingham, AL, builds acontinuously operatedelectric arc furnace for castiron production.Late 1990sStress and

distortion simulation in-troduces the benefits ofcontrolling casting dis-

tortion, reducing residual stresses,eliminating hot tears and cracking,

minimizing mold distortion and in-creasing mold life.

2000s2001NASA and the Dept. of Energy/OIT re-

lease physics-based software tool to accu-rately predict the filling of expanded poly-styrene patterns and sand cores as numer-ous variables are changedMercury Ma-rine installs North Americas first pressur-ized lost foam casting line at its newfoundry in Fond du Lac, WI.

Comments on the timeline should be directed tomlessiter@afsinc.org

Sources of Metalcasting Historical InformationC.F. Walton, T.J. Opar, Iron Castings Handbook,Iron Castings Society, Inc., (1981). J. Gerin Sylvia, Cast Metals Technology,AFS, (1990). E.L. Kotzin,Metalcasting& Molding Processes,AFS (1981). J.P. LaRue, Basic Metalcasting,AFS (1989). C.A. Sanders and D.C. Gould, History Cast in Metal,AFS, (1976). Proceedings of1992 Coreless Induction Melting Conference, AFS, (1992). B.L. Simpson, History of the Metalcasting Industry, AFS (1948). J.A. Gitzen, Progress in the Develop-ment and Utilization of Additives in the Foundry Industry, AFS (1957). 1995 Lost Foam Technology and Applications Conference Proceedings,AFS (1995).

Aluminum: Design and Application (Vol. II),ASM, (1967). High-Pressure Molding,2nd Edition, AFS (1987). Foundry Trade Journal (Sept. 11, 1986). MetalsHandbook, Ninth Edition, Vol. 15 Casting,ASM International (1988). 1991 AFS International Sand Reclamation Conference,AFS (1991) AFS/CMI Conference onGreen Sand TechnologyProductivity for the 80s,AFS (1983). ADI: The New Benchmark Materialvideo, Applied Process, Inc. 1997 Hoyt Memorial Lecture:Lost Wax to Lost Foam: Reflections on the Past, Present and Future,E.L. Kotzin, July 1997MODERN CASTING, p. 42-45. 1999 Charles Edgar Hoyt MemorialLecture:From a Monument to the Vega: The Journey of the Aluminum Casting Industry,J.R. Bodine, May 1999MODERN CASTING, p. 60-63. A Tribute to Keith

Millis and the Unveiling of Ductile Iron 50 Years Ago,October 1998MODERN CASTINGMODERN CASTINGsA Look Back at the 20th Century Series (2000-2001).Special thanks to Bill Henning, Miller & Co. (retired); Diran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; Paul Carey and Jim Archibald, Ashland Specialty

Chemical Co.; Stubbs Davis, Durametal Corp.; Raymond Donahue, Mercury Marine Div.; Matt Granlund, Foundry Systems Control; Roy Lobenhofer, LobenhoferConsulting, Inc.; Norris Luther, Luther & Assoc.; Mahi Sahoo, CANMET; Geary Smith, Manufacturers Brass & Aluminum; Bob Voigt, Penn State Univ.; DavidNeff, Metaullics Systems, LLC; and Norm Bliss, Ian Kay, Wayne Rasmussen, Steve Robison and Joe Santner, AFS/CMI.

SSM billet, 1971

GMBond-producedengine block, 1996