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TRANSCRIPT
TheProjectGutenbergEBookofChipsFromAGermanWorkshopVolIIIbyFMaxMuumlller
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost andwith almost norestrictions whatsoever Youmay copy it give it away or re-use it under theterms of the ProjectGutenberg License includedwith this eBook or online athttpwwwgutenbergorglicense
TitleChipsFromAGermanWorkshopVolIII
AuthorFMaxMuumlller
ReleaseDateSeptember102008[Ebook26572]
LanguageEnglish
STARTOFTHEPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKCHIPSFROMAGERMANWORKSHOPVOLIII
CHIPSFROMAGERMANWORKSHOP
BY
FMAXMUumlLLERMA
FOREIGNMEMBEROFTHEFRENCHINSTITUTEETC
VOLUMEIII
ESSAYSONLITERATUREBIOGRAPHYANDANTIQUITIES
NEWYORK
CHARLESSCRIBNERANDCOMPANY
1871
Contents
DEDICATIONIGERMANLITERATURE
LIST OF EXTRACTS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE HISTORY OFGERMANLITERATURE
IIOLDGERMANLOVE-SONGSIIIYESCHYPPEOFFOOLESIVLIFEOFSCHILLERVWILHELMMUumlLLER1794-1827VIONTHELANGUAGEANDPOETRYOFSCHLESWIG-HOLSTEINVIIJOINVILLEVIIITHEJOURNALDESSAVANTSANDTHEJOURNALDETREacuteVOUXIXCHASOTXSHAKESPEAREXIBACONINGERMANYXIIAGERMANTRAVELLERINENGLANDXIIICORNISHANTIQUITIESXIVARETHEREJEWSINCORNWALLXVTHEINSULATIONOFSTMICHAELSMOUNTXVIBUNSEN
LETTERSFROMBUNSENTOMAXMUumlLLER INTHEYEARS1848TO1859
Footnotes
[pgi]
DEDICATION
TOFRANCISTURNERPALGRAVE
INGRATEFULREMEMBRANCEOFKINDHELP
GIVENTOME
INMYFIRSTATTEMPTSATWRITINGINENGLISH
ANDASAMEMORIAL
OFMANYYEARSOFFAITHFULFRIENDSHIP
[pg001]
IGERMANLITERATURE1
ThereisnocountrywheresomuchinterestistakenintheliteratureofGermanyasinEnglandandthereisnocountrywheretheliteratureofEnglandissomuchappreciated as in Germany Some of our modern classics whether poets orphilosophersarereadbyEnglishmenwiththesameattentionastheirownandthehistorians thenovel-writers and thepoetsofEnglandhaveexercised andcontinuetoexerciseamostpowerfulandbeneficialinfluenceonthepeopleofGermany In recent times the literatureof the twocountrieshasalmostgrownintooneLordMacaulaysHistoryhasnotonlybeentranslatedintoGermanbutreprinted at Leipzig in the original and it is said to have had a larger sale inGermany than theworkof anyGermanhistorianBaronHumboldt andBaronBunsenaddress theirwritings to theEnglishasmuchas to theGermanpublicThe novels of Dickens and Thackeray are expected with the same [pg 002]impatienceatLeipzigandBerlinasinLondonThetwogreatGermanclassicsSchillerandGoethehavefoundtheirmostsuccessfulbiographersinCarlyleandLewesandseveralworksofGermanscholarshiphavemetwithmoreattentiveand thoughtful readers in the colleges of England than in the universities ofGermany Goethes idea of a world-literature has to a certain extent beenrealized and the strong feeling of sympathy between the best classes in bothcountriesholdsoutahope that formanyyears tocome thesupremacyof theTeutonicracenotonlyinEuropebutoveralltheworldwillbemaintainedincommonbythetwochampionsofpoliticalfreedomandofthelibertyofthoughtmdashProtestantEnglandandProtestantGermany
TheinteresthoweverwhichEnglishmentakeinGermanliteraturehashithertobeenconfinedalmostexclusivelytotheliteratureofthelastfiftyyearsandverylittle is known of those fourteen centuries duringwhich theGerman languagehadbeengrowingupandgatheringstrengthforthegreat triumphswhichwereachievedbyLessingSchiller andGoetheNor is this tobewonderedatThenumberofpeopleinEnglandwhotakeanyinterestintheearlyhistoryoftheir
own literature is extremely small and there is as yet no history of EnglishliteratureworthyofthatnameItcannotbeexpectedthereforethatinEnglandmany people will care to read in the original the ancient epic poems of theldquoNibelungerdquoorldquoGudrunrdquooracquireagrammaticalknowledgeoftheGothicofUlfilas and the Old High-German of Otfried Gothic Old High-German andMiddle High-German are three distinct languages each possessing its owngrammar each differing from the others and fromModern [pg 003] Germanmore materially than the Greek of Homer differs from the Greek ofDemosthenes Even in Germany these languages are studied only byprofessionalantiquariansandscholarsandtheydonotformpartofthegeneralsystem of instruction in public schools and universities The study of Gothicgrammaralone(wherewestillfindadualinadditiontothesingularandpluralandwhere some tenses of the passive are still formed as inGreek andLatinwithout auxiliary verbs) would require as much time as the study of Greekgrammar though itwouldnot offer thekey to a literature like that ofGreeceOldHigh-GermanagainisasdifficultalanguagetoaGermanasAnglo-Saxonis to an Englishman and the Middle High-German of the ldquoNibelungerdquo ofWolframandWalthernayevenofEckhartandTaulerismoreremotefromthelanguageofGoethethanChaucerisfromTennyson
But without acquiring a grammatical knowledge of these ancient languagesthereareIbelievenotafewpeoplewhowishtoknowsomethingofthehistoryof German literature Nor is this if properly taught a subject of narrow ormerely antiquarian interest The history of literature reflects and helps us tointerpretthepoliticalhistoryofacountryItcontainsasitweretheconfessionwhicheverygenerationbeforeitpassedawayhasmadetoposterityldquoWithoutLiteraryHistoryrdquoasLordBaconsaysldquotheHistoryoftheWorldseemethtobeastheStatueofPolyphemuswithhiseyeoutthatpartbeingwantingwhichdothmostshewthespiritandlifeofthepersonrdquoFromthispointofviewthehistorianof literature learns to value what to the critic would seem unmeaning andtedious and he is loath to miss the works even of mediocre [pg 004] poetswheretheythrowlightonthetimesinwhichtheylivedandservetoconnecttheotherwise disjointed productions of men of the highest genius separated asthesenecessarilyarebylongintervalsintheannalsofeverycountry
AlthoughthereexistsnoliteraturetorewardthestudentofGothicyeteveryonewho cares for the history of Germany and of German thought should knowsomethingofUlfilasthegreatBishopoftheGothswhoanticipatedtheworkofLutherbymorethanathousandyearsandwhoatatimewhenGreekandLatin
weretheonlytworespectableandorthodoxlanguagesofEuropedaredforthefirst time to translate the Bible into the vulgar tongue of Barbarians as ifforeseeing with a prophetic eye the destiny of these Teutonic tribes whoselanguageafterGreekandLatinhaddiedawaywastobecomethelife-springoftheGospeloverthewholecivilizedworldHeoughttoknowsomethingofthoseearlymissionariesandmartyrsmostofthemsentfromIrelandandEnglandtopreachtheGospelinthedarkforestsofGermanymdashmenlikeStGall(died638)StKilian (died689) andStBoniface (died755)whowerenot contentwithfelling the sacredoak-trees andbaptizingunconvertedmultitudesbut foundedmissionary stations andschools andmonasteriesworkinghard themselves inorder to acquire a knowledgeof the language and the character of thepeopleand drawing up those curious lists of barbarous words with their no lessbarbarousequivalentsinLatinwhichwestillpossessthoughcopiedbyalaterhandHeoughttoknowthegradualprogressofChristianityandcivilizationinGermany previous to the time of Charlemagne for we see from theGermantranslations of theRules of theBenedictine [pg 005]monks of ancient Latinhymns theCreeds theLordsPrayerandportionsof theNewTestament thatthegoodsenseofthenationalclergyhadledthemtodowhatCharlemagnehadafterwards to enjoin by repeated Capitularia2 It is in the history of GermanliteraturethatwelearnwhatCharlemagnereallywasThoughclaimedasasaintby the Church of Rome and styled Empereur Franccedilais by modern Frenchhistorians Karl was really and truly a German king proud no doubt of hisRomansubjectsandofhistitleofEmperorandanxioustogivetohisuncouthGermans thebenefitof ItalianandEnglish teachersbut fondlyattached inhishearttohisownmothertonguetothelaysandlawsofhisfatherlandfeelingsdisplayed in his own attempt to compose a German grammar and in hiscollectionofoldnationalsongsfragmentsofwhichmayhavebeenpreservedtousintheballadsofHildebrandandHadubrand
AfterthedeathofCharlemagneandunderthereignofthegoodbutweakKingLudwigtheprospectsofanationalliteratureinGermanybecamedarkenedInone instance indeed the king was the patron of a German poet for heencouragedtheauthoroftheldquoHeliandrdquotowritethatpoemforthebenefitofhisnewly converted countrymen But he would hardly have approved of thethoroughlyGermanandalmostheathenspiritwhichpervadesthatSaxonepicofthe New Testament and he expressed his disgust at the old German poemswhichhis great father had taught him in his youthThe seed howeverwhichCharlemagnehadsownhad fallenon [pg006] healthy soil andgrewup evenwithout the sunshine of royal favor Themonastery of Fulda underHrabanus
Maurus the pupil of Alcuin became the seminary of a truly national clergyHere itwas thatOtfried theauthorof therhymedldquoGospel-bookrdquowasbroughtup In themean time the heterogeneous elements of theCarlovingianEmpirebroke asunder Germany by losing its French and Italian provinces becameGermany once more Ludwig the German was King of Germany HrabanusMaurus Archbishop of Mayence and the spirit of Charlemagne Alcuin andEginhardwasrevivedatAachenFuldaandmanyotherplacessuchasStGallWeissenburgandCorveywhereschoolswerefoundedonthemodelofthatofToursThetranslationoftheldquoHarmonyoftheGospelsrdquogivesusaspecimenofthequiet studiesof thosemonasterieswhereas the layon thevictoryofLouisIII over the Normans in 881 reminds us of the dangers that threatenedGermanyfromtheWestatthesametimethattheHungariansbegantheirinroadsfrom the East The Saxon Emperors had hard battles to fight against theseinvadersandtherewerefewplacesinGermanywherethepeacefulpursuitsofthemonasteriesandschoolscouldbecarriedonwithoutinterruptionStGallistheonebrightstarintheapproachinggloomofthenextcenturiesNotonlywastheBible read and translated and commentedupon inGermanatStGall asformerly atFulda butGreek andRoman classicswere copied and studied foreducational purposes Notker Teutonicus is the great representative of thatschoolwhichcontinued tomaintain its reputationfor theologicalandclassicallearning and for a careful cultivation of the national language nearly to theclose of [pg 007] the eleventh century At the court of the Saxon Emperorsthough their policywas thoroughlyGerman therewas little taste forGermanpoetryTheQueenofOttoIwasaLombardtheQueenofOttoIIaGreekladyand their influence was not favorable to the rude poetry of national bards Ifsometracesoftheirworkhavebeenpreservedtousweoweitagaintothemorenational tasteof themonksofStGall andPassauThey translate someof theGermanepicsintoLatinversesuchasthepoemoftheldquoNibelungerdquoofldquoWaltherofAquitainrdquoandofldquoRuodliebrdquoThe first is lostbut theother twohavebeenpreserved and published3 The stories of the Fox and the Bear and the otheranimalsmdasha branch of poetry so peculiar to Germany and epic rather thandidacticinitsoriginmdashattractedtheattentionofthemonksanditisowingagaintotheirLatintranslationsthattheexistenceofthiscuriousstyleofpoetrycanbetracedbacksofarasthetenthcentury4AsthesepoemsarewritteninLatintheycouldnotfindaplaceinaGermanreading-bookbuttheyaswellastheundulysuspected Latin plays of the nunHrosvitha throwmuch light on the state ofGermancivilizationduringthetenthandeleventhcenturies
Theeleventhcenturypresentsalmostanentireblankinthehistoryofliterature
Under the Frankish or Salic dynasty Germany had either to defend herselfagainst theinroadsofHungarianandSlavonicarmiesoritwasthebattle-fieldofviolentfeudsbetweentheEmperorsandtheirvassalsThesecondhalfofthatcentury was filled with the struggles between [pg 008] Henry IV and PopeGregoryVIITheclergyhithertothechiefsupportofGermanliteraturebecameestranged from the German people and the insecurity of the times wasunfavorable to literary pursuits Willirams German had lost the classicalcorrectness ofNotkers language and the ldquoMerigartordquo and similarworks arewritten in a hybrid style which is neither prose nor poetry The Old High-Germanhadbecomealiterarylanguagechieflythroughtheeffortsoftheclergyand the character of the whole Old High-German literature is preeumlminentlyclericalTheCrusadesputanendtothepreponderanceoftheclericalelementintheliteratureofGermanyTheywerenodoubttheworkoftheclergyByusingto the utmost the influence which they had gradually gained and carefullyfomented thepriestswere able to rouse awholenation to apitchof religiousenthusiasmneverknownbeforeorafterButtheCrusadeswerethelasttriumphof the clergy and with their failure the predominant influence of the clericalelementinGermansocietyischeckedandextinguished
FromthefirstbeginningoftheCrusadestheinterestofthepeoplewaswiththeknightmdashno longer with the priest The chivalrous Emperors of theHohenstaufendynastyformedanewrallyingpoint forallnationalsympathiesTheir courts and the castles of their vassals offered a new and more genialhometothepoetsofGermanythanthemonasteriesofFuldaandStGallPoetrychanged hands The poets took their inspirations from real life though theyborrowed their models from the romantic cycles of Brittany and ProvenceMiddleHigh-GermanthelanguageoftheSwabiancourtbecamethelanguageof poetry The [pg 009] earliest compositions in that language continue for awhiletobearthestampoftheclericalpoetryofaformerageThefirstMiddleHigh-German poems are written by a nun and the poetical translation of theBooksofMosesthepoemonAnnoBishopofCologneandtheldquoChronicleoftheRomanEmperorsrdquoallcontinuetobreathethespiritofcloistersandcathedraltowns And when a new taste for chivalrous romances was awakened inGermanywhen the storiesofArthur andhisknightsofCharlemagneandhischampions of Achilles AEligneas and Alexander in their modern dress wereimported by French and Provenccedilal knights who on their way to JerusalemcametostayatthecastlesoftheirGermanalliesthefirstpoetswhoventuredtoimitatethesemotleycompositionswerepriestsnotlaymenAfewshortextractsfromKonradsldquoRolandrdquoandLamprechtsldquoAlexanderrdquoaresufficienttomarkthis
periodoftransitionLikeCharlemagnewhohadbeenchangedintoalegendaryhero by French poets before he became again the subject of German poetryanotherGermanworthyreturnedatthesametimetohisnativehomethoughbutslightly changed by his foreign travels ldquoReinhard the Foxrdquo The influence ofProvenceandofFlandersisseenineverybranchofGermanpoetryatthattimeandyetnothingcanbemoredifferentthanthesamesubjectastreatedbyFrenchandGermanpoetsTheGermanMinnesaumlngerinparticularwerefarfrombeingimitatorsoftheTrouvegraveresorTroubadoursThereareafewsolitaryinstancesoflyric poems translated from Provenccedilal intoGerman5 as there is on the otherhand one poem translated from German into [pg 010] Italian6 early in thethirteenth centuryBut the greatmass ofGerman lyrics are of purelyGermangrowth Neither the Romans nor the lineal descendants of the Romans theItalians theProvenccedilals theSpaniardscanclaimthatpoetryas theirownIt isTeutonic purelyTeutonic in its heart and soul though its utterance its rhymeandmetreitsgraceandimageryhavebeentouchedbythemoregenialraysofthebrilliantsunofamoresouthernskyThesameappliestothegreatromanticpoems of that period The first impulse came from abroadThe subjectswereborrowed from a foreign source and the earlier poems such asHeinrich vonVeldeckes ldquoAEligneidrdquo might occasionally paraphrase the sentiments of FrenchpoetsBut in theworksofHartmannvonAueWolframvonEschenbach andGottfriedvonStrassburgwebreatheagainthepureGermanairandwecannotbut regret that thesemen should have taken the subjects of their poemswiththeir unpronounceable names extravagant conceits and licentious mannersfromforeignsourceswhiletheyhadathometheirgrandmythologytheirheroictraditionstheirkingsandsaintswhichwouldhavebeenmoreworthysubjectsthanTristan and Isold Schionatulander and Sigune Therewere new thoughtsstirring in the hearts and minds of those men of the twelfth and thirteenthcenturiesAhundredyearsbeforeDantetheGermanpoetshadgazedwiththeireyeswideopeninto that infiniterealitywhichunderliesourshortexistenceonearthToWolfram and tomanyapoetofhis time thehuman tragedyof thisworld presented the same unreal transitory and transparent aspect which wefindagain inDantes ldquoDivineComedyrdquoEverything[pg011] points to anotherworldBeautylovevirtuehappinessmdasheverythinginfactthatmovestheheartofthepoetmdashhasahiddenreferencetosomethinghigherthanthislifeandthehighest object of the highest poetry seems to be to transfer themind to thoseregionswheremenfeelthepresenceofaDivinepowerandaDivineloveandarelostinblissfuladorationThebeginningofthethirteenthcenturyisasgreatanerainthehistoryofGermanliteratureasthebeginningofthenineteenthTheGermanmindwascompletelyregeneratedOldwordsoldthoughtsoldmetres
old fashionswere swept away and a new spring dawned overGermanyThevariousbranchesoftheTeutonicracewhichaftertheirinroadsintotheseatsofRomancivilizationhadforatimebecomeseparatedwerebeginningtoassumeanationalindependencemdashwhensuddenlyanewageofmigrationthreatenedtoset inTheknightsofFrance andFlanders ofEnglandLombardy andSicilyleft their brilliant castlesTheymarched to theEast carrying alongwith themthe lesspolishedbutequallyenthusiasticnobilityofGermanyFromtheveryfirst the spirit of the Roman towns in Italy and Gaul had exercised a morecivilizinginfluenceontheBarbarianswhohadcrossedtheAlpsandtheRhinewhereas theGermansofGermanyproperhadbeen left to theirownresourcesassistedonlybythelessonsof theRomanclergyNowat thebeginningof theCrusades thevariousdivisionsof theGermanracemetagainbut theymetasstrangers no longer with the impetuosity of Franks and Goths but with thepolished reserve of a Godefroy of Bouillon and the chivalrous bearing of aFrederickBarbarossaTheGermanEmperorsandnoblesopenedtheircourtstoreceive their guests with [pg 012] brilliant hospitality Their festivals thesplendorandbeautyoftheirtournamentsattractedcrowdsfromgreatdistancesandforemostamongthempoetsandsingersItwasatsuchfestivalsasHeinrichvonVeldeckedescribesatMayencein1184underFrederickIthatFrenchandGerman poetrywere brought face to face Itwas here that high-bornGermanpoetslearntfromFrenchpoetsthesubjectsoftheirownromanticcompositionsGermanladiesbecamethepatronsofGermanpoetsandtheetiquetteofFrenchchivalrywasimitatedatthecastlesofGermanknightsPoetsmadeboldforthefirsttimetoexpresstheirownfeelingstheirjoysandsufferingsandepicpoetryhad to share its honors with lyric songs Not only France and Germany butEnglandandNorthernItalyweredrawnintothisgaysocietyHenryIImarriedEleanorofPoitouandhergraceandbeautyfoundeloquentadmirersinthearmyof theCrusaders Their daughterMathildewasmarried toHenry the Lion ofSaxonyandoneoftheProvenccedilalpoetshascelebratedherlovelinessFrenchmenbecamethetutorsofthesonsoftheGermannobilityFrenchmannersdressesdishesanddanceswerethefashioneverywhereThepoetrywhichflourishedatthecastleswassoonadoptedbythelowerranksTravellingpoetsandjestersarefrequentlymentionedandthepoemsoftheldquoNibelungerdquoandldquoGudrunrdquosuchaswe now possess them were composed at that time by poets who took theirsubjects theirbest thoughtsandexpressions fromthepeoplebut imitated thelanguagethemetreandthemannersofthecourtpoetsThemostfamouscourtsto which the German poets resorted and where they were entertained withgeneroushospitalitywerethecourtofLeopoldDukeof[pg013]Austria(1198-1230)andofhissonFrederickIIofHermannLandgraveofThuringiawho
resided at the Wartburg near Eisenach (1190-1215) of Berthold Duke ofZaumlhringen(1186-1218)andoftheSwabianEmperorsingeneralAtthepresentday when not only the language but even the thoughts of these poets havebecometomostofusunintelligibleandstrangewecannotclaimfortheirpoetrymore than an historical interestBut ifwewish to know themenwho took aleadingpartintheCrusadeswhofoughtwiththeEmperorsagainstthePopeorwiththePopeagainsttheEmperorswholivedinmagnificentcastleslikethatoftheWartburgandfoundedcathedralslikethatofCologne(1248)wemustreadthe poetry which they admired which they composed or patronized ThesubjectsoftheirRomancescannotgainoursympathyTheyareartificialunrealwith littleofhumanity and still lessofnationality in themBut themindof apoet like Wolfram von Eschenbach rises above all these difficulties He hasthoughtsofhisowntrulyhumandeeplyreligiousandthoroughlynationalandthereareexpressionsandcomparisonsinhispoetrywhichhadneverbeenusedbefore His style however is lengthy his descriptions tiresome and hischaracterssomewhatvagueandunearthlyAscriticsweshouldhavetobestowonWolframvonEschenbachonGottfriedvonStrassburgevenonHartmanvonAue andWalther von derVogelweide asmuch of blame as of praise But ashistorianswecannotvaluethemtoohighlyIfwemeasurethemwiththepoetsthat preceded and those that followed them they tower above all like giantsFromthedeepmarkswhichtheyleftbehindwediscoverthattheyweremenofcreativegeniusmenwhohadlookedat[pg014] lifewith theirowneyesandwere able to express what they had seen and thought and felt in a languagewhichfascinatedtheircontemporariesandwhichevennowholdsitscharmoverallwho canbring themselves to study theirworks in the same spirit inwhichtheyreadthetragediesofAEligschylusortheldquoDivinaCommediardquoofDante
ButtheheydayofGermanchivalryandchivalrouspoetrywasofshortdurationToward the end of the thirteenth century we begin to feel that the age is nolongeraspiringandhopingandgrowingTheworldassumesadifferentaspectItsyouthandvigorseemspentandthechildrenofanewgenerationbegintobewiserandsadderthantheirfathersTheCrusadeslanguishTheirobjectliketheobjectofmanyayouthfulhopehasprovedunattainableTheKnightsnolongertake the Cross ldquobecause God wills itrdquo but because the Pope commands aCrusadebargainsforsubsidiesandtheEmperorcannotdeclinehiscommandsWalther von der Vogelweide already is most bitter in his attacks on RomeWaltherwasthefriendofFrederickII(1215-50)anEmperorwhoremindsusin several respectsofhisnamesakeofPrussiaHewasa sovereignof literarytastesmdashhimself a poet and a philosopherHarassed by the Pope he retaliated
most fiercely and was at last accused of a design to extirpate the ChristianreligionThebanwaspublishedagainsthimandhisownsonroseinrebellionGermany remained faithful to her Emperor and the Emperor was successfulagainsthis sonButhesoondied indisappointmentanddespairWithhim thestarof theSwabiandynastyhadsetand thesweetsoundsof theSwabian lyredied awaywith the last breathofCorradino the last of theHohenstaufen [pg015] on the scaffold at Naples in 1268 Germany was breaking down underheavy burdens Itwas visited by the papal interdict by famine by pestilenceSometimestherewasnoEmperorsometimesthereweretwoorthreeRebellioncould not be kept under nor could crime be punished The only lawwas theldquoLawof theFistrdquoTheChurchwas deeply demoralizedWhowas to listen toromantic poetryTherewas no lack of poets or of poetryRudolf vonEms apoet calledDer Stricker andKonrad vonWuumlrzburg all of them living in themiddleofthethirteenthcenturyweremorefertilethanHartmannvonAueandGottfried vonStrassburgThey complain however that no one took notice ofthem and they are evidently conscious themselves of their inferiority Lyricpoetry continued to flourish for a time but it degenerated into an unworthyidolatryofladiesandaffectedsentimentalityThereisbutonebranchofpoetryin which we find a certain originality the didactic and satiric The firstbeginningsofthisnewkindofpoetrycarryusbacktotheageofWalthervonderVogelweideMany of his verses are satirical political and didactic and it issupposedonverygoodauthoritythatWaltherwastheauthorofananonymousdidactic poem ldquoFreidanks Bescheidenheitrdquo By Thomasin von Zerclar orTommasino di Circlaria we have a metrical composition on manners theldquoItalian Guestrdquo which likewise belongs to the beginning of the thirteenthcentury7SomewhatlaterwemeetintheworksoftheStrickerwiththebroadersatireofthemiddleclassesandtowardthecloseofthecentury[pg016]HugovonTrimberginhisldquoRennerrdquoaddresseshimselftothelowerranksofGermansocietyandnolongertoprincesknightsandladies
How is this to be accounted for Poetrywas evidently changing hands againTheCrusadeshadmadetheprincesandknightstherepresentativesandleadersofthewholenationandduringthecontestbetweentheimperialandthepapalpowers the destinies of Germanywere chiefly in the hands of the hereditarynobility The literature which before that time was entirely clerical had thenbecomeworldlyandchivalrousButnowwhenthepoweroftheemperorsbeganto decline when the clergy was driven into taking a decidedly anti-nationalpositionwhentheunityoftheempirewaswell-nighdestroyedandprincesandprelates were asserting their independence by plunder and by warfare a new
elementofsocietyrosetothesurfacemdashthemiddleclassesmdashtheburghersofthefree townsofGermanyTheywere forced tohold together inorder toprotectthemselves against their former protectors They fortified their cities formedcorporations watched over law and morality and founded those powerfulleaguesthefirstofwhichtheHansadatesfrom1241Poetryalsotookrefugebehind thewallsoffree townsandat thefiresideof theworthycitizenhad toexchange her gay chivalrous and romantic strains for themesmore subduedpractical and homely This accounts for such works as Hugo von TrimbergsldquoRennerrdquoaswellasforthegeneralcharacterofthepoetryofthefourteenthandfifteenth centuries Poetry became a trade like any otherGuildswere formedconsistingofmaster-singersandtheirapprenticesHeinrichFrauenlobiscalledthe firstMeistersaumlnger and during the fourteenth [pg 017] the fifteenth andeventhesixteenthcenturiesnewguildsorschoolssprangupinalltheprincipaltownsofGermanyAfterorderhadbeenrestoredbythefirstHapsburgdynastytheintellectualandliteraryactivityofGermanyretaineditscentreofgravitationinthemiddleclassesRudolfvonHapsburgwasnotgiftedwithapoeticalnatureand contemporaneous poets complain of hiswant of liberalityAttemptsweremadetorevivethechivalrouspoetryoftheCrusadesbyHugovonMontfortandOswaldvonWolkensteininthebeginningofthefifteenthcenturyandagainattheendofthesamecenturybytheldquoLastoftheGermanKnightsrdquotheEmperorMaximilianButtheseattemptscouldnotbutfailTheageofchivalrywasgoneandtherewasnothinggreatorinspiringinthewarswhichtheEmperorshadtowageduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesagainst theirvassalsagainstthePopeagainsttheprecursorsoftheReformationtheHussitesandagainsttheTurksInFritscheClosenersldquoChroniclerdquothereisadescriptionofthecitizensofStrassburg defending themselves against their bishop in 1312 in TwingersldquoChroniclerdquo a picture of the processions of the Flagellants and the religiousenthusiasm of that time (1349) The poems of Suchenwirt and HalbsuterrepresentthewarsofAustriaagainstSwitzerland(1386)andNiclasvonWeylstranslation gives us a glimpse into the Council of Constance (1414) and theHussite wars which were soon to follow The poetry of those two centurieswhichwaswrittenbyandforthepeopleisinterestinghistoricallybutwithfewexceptionswithout any furtherworth The poetswish to amuse or to instructtheirhumblepatrons and theydo this eitherbygiving them thedrybonesof[pg018] the romanticpoetryof formeragesorby telling themfablesand thequaint stories of the ldquoSeven Wise Mastersrdquo What beauty there was in aMeistergesangmaybe fairly seen from thepoemofMichaelBeheim and theEaster play by no means shows the lowest ebb of good taste in the popularliteratureofthattime
Itmightseemindeedasifallthehighandnobleaspirationsofthetwelfthandthirteenth centuries had been lost and forgotten during the fourteenth andfifteenthAndyetitwasnotquitesoTherewasoneclassofmenonwhomthespiritoftruenobilityhaddescendedandwhoseworksformaconnectingchainbetween the great era of the Crusades and the still greater era of theReformationTheseare theso-calledMysticsmdashtrueCrusaders trueknightsoftheSpiritmanyofwhomsacrificedtheirlivesforthecauseoftruthandwhoatlastconqueredfromthehandsof the infidels thatHolySepulchre inwhichthetrueChristian faith hadbeen lyingburied for centuriesThenameofMysticswhichhasbeengiventothesemenisapttomisleadTheirwritingsarenotdarkor unintelligible and those who call them so must find Christianity itselfunintelligibleanddarkThereismorebroaddaylightinEckhartandTaulerthanintheworksofalltheThomistsandScotistsEckhartwasnotadreamerHehadbeen a pupil of Thomas Aquinas and his own style is sometimes painfullyscholasticButthereisafreshbreezeofthoughtinhisworksandintheworksofhisdisciplesTheyknewthatwhenevertheproblemsofmansrelationtoGodthecreationoftheworldtheoriginofevilandthehopeofsalvationcometobediscussedthesharpestedgeoflogicalreasoningwillturnandthebestdefinedtermsofmetaphysics die away intomeremusic [pg019]Theyknew that thehardandnarrowcategoriesoftheschoolmendogreaterviolencetothehighesttruthsofreligionthanthesoftandvagueandvanishingtoneswithwhichtheytried to shadow forth in the vulgar language of the people the distant objectswhich transcend thehorizonofhumanunderstandingTheydidnothandle thetruthsofChristianityasif theyshouldorcouldbeprovedbythesyllogismsofourhumanreasoningNeverthelesstheseMysticswerehardandhonestthinkersandneverplayedwithwordsandphrasesTheirfaithistothemasclearandasreal as sunshine and instead of throwing scholastic dust into the eyes of thepeopletheyboldlytoldthemtoopentheireyesandtolookatthemysteriesallaround them and to feel the presence of God within and without which thepriests had veiled by the very revelationwhich they had preached For a trueappreciationof the times inwhich they lived theworksof theseReformersoftheFaithare invaluableWithout themweshould try invain toexplainhowanation which to judge from its literature seemed to have lost all vigor andvirtue could suddenly rise and dare thework of a reformation of theChurchWiththemwelearnhowthatsamenationaftergroaningforcenturiesundertheyokeofsuperstitionandhypocrisyfoundinitsveryprostrationthesourceofanirresistible strength The higher clergy contributed hardly anything to theliterature of these two centuries and what they wrote would better haveremained unwritten At St Gall toward the end of the thirteenth century the
monks the successors ofNotkerwere unable to sign their namesTheAbbotwasanoblemanwhocomposedlove-songsabranchofpoetryatalleventsoutof place in themonastery founded by StGall [pg 020] It is only among thelowerclergy thatwe find the tracesofgenuineChristianpietyand intellectualactivity though frequently branded by obese prelates and obtuse magistrateswith the names of mysticism and heresy The orders of the Franciscans andDominicansfoundedin1208and1215andintendedtoactasclericalspiesandconfessorsbegantofraternizeinmanypartsofGermanywiththepeopleagainstthehigher clergyThepeoplewerehungry and thirsty after religious teachingTheyhadbeensystematicallystarvedorfedwithstonesPartoftheBiblehadbeen translated for the people but what Ulfilas was free to do in the fourthcenturywascondemnedbytheprelatesassembledattheSynodofTrierin1231NorwerethesermonsoftheitinerantfriarsintownsandvillagesalwaystothetasteofbishopsandabbotsWepossesscollectionsofthesediscoursespreachedby Franciscans and Dominicans under the trees of cemeteries and from thechurch-towers of the villages Brother Berthold who died in 1272 was aFranciscanHe travelledabout thecountryandwasreveredby thepoor likeasaintandprophetThedoctrinehepreached though itwas theold teachingoftheApostleswasasnewtothepeasantswhocametohearhimasithadbeentothecitizensofAthenswhocametohearStPaulThesayingofStChrysostomthatChristianityhadturnedmanyapeasantintoaphilosophercametrueagainin the time of Eckhart andTaulerMenwho called themselvesChristians hadbeentaughtandhadbroughtthemselvestobelievethattoreadthewritingsofthe Apostles was a deadly sin Yet in secret they were yearning after thatforbidden Bible They knew that there were translations and though thesetranslations had [pg 021] been condemned by popes and synods the peoplecould not resist the temptation of reading them In 1373 we find the firstcompleteversionoftheBibleintoGermanbyMatthiasofBeheimSeveralarementionedafterthisThenewreligiousfervorthathadbeenkindledamongtheinferior clergy and among the lower and middle classes of the laity becamestrongerandthoughitsometimesdegeneratedintowildfanaticismthesacredsparkwaskeptinsafehandsbysuchmenasEckhart(died1329)Tauler(died1361) and the author of the German Theology Men like these are sure toconquertheyarepersecutedjustlyorunjustlytheysufferanddieandalltheythoughtand saidanddid seems fora time tohavebeen invainBut suddenlytheir work long marked as dangerous in the smooth current of society risesabovethesurfacelikethecoralreefsinthePacificanditremainsforcenturiesthefirmfoundationofanewworldof thoughtandfaithWithout the laborsoftheseReformers of the Faith theReformers of theChurchwould never have
foundawholenationwaitingtoreceiveandreadytosupportthem
TherearetwoothereventswhichpreparedthewayoftheGermanReformersofthe sixteenth century the foundation of universities and the invention ofprintingTheirimportanceisthesameintheliteraryandinthepoliticalhistoryof Germany The intellectual and moral character of a nation is formed inschoolsanduniversitiesand thosewhoeducateapeoplehavealwaysbeen itsrealmasters though theymay go by amoremodest nameUnder theRomanEmpirepublicschoolshadbeensupportedbythegovernmentbothatRomeandinthechieftownsoftheProvincesWeknowoftheirexistenceinGauland[pg022]partsofGermanyWiththedeclineofthecentralauthoritythesalariesofthegrammariansandrhetors in theProvincesceasedtobepaidandthepagangymnasiawere succeededbyChristian schools attached to episcopal sees andmonasteriesWhilst theclergyretained theirvigorandefficiency theirschoolswerepowerfulenginesforspreadingahalfclericalandhalfclassicalcultureinGermany During the Crusades when ecclesiastical activity and learningdeclinedveryrapidlywehearofFrenchtutorsatthecastlesofthenobilityandclassical learning gaveway to the superficial polish of a chivalrous ageAndwhenthenobilitylikewiserelapsedintoastateofsavagebarbarismnewschoolswerewantedandtheywerefoundedbythetownstheonlyplaceswhereduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesweseeanyevidenceofahealthypoliticallife The first town schools are mentioned in the beginning of the fourteenthcenturyandtheyweresoonfollowedbythehighschoolsanduniversitiesTheUniversity of Prague was founded in 1348 Vienna 1366 Heidelberg 1386Erfurt1392Leipzig1408Basle1460Tuumlbingen1477Mainz1482Theseuniversities are a novel feature in the history of German and of Europeancivilization They are not ecclesiastical seminaries not restricted to anyparticularclassofsocietytheyarenationalinstitutionsopentotherichandthepoortotheknighttheclerkthecitizenTheyarerealuniversitiesoflearningtheyprofess to teach all branchesof knowledgemdashtheology and lawmedicineandphilosophyTheycontainthefirstpracticalacknowledgmentoftherightofevery subject to the highest education and through it to the highest offices inChurch and State Neither Greece [pg 023] nor Rome had known suchinstitutionsneithertheChurchnorthenobilityduringthedaysoftheirpoliticalsupremacywere sufficiently impressedwith the dutywhich they owed to thenation at large to provide such places of liberal education It was the nationitself when forsaken by its clergy and harassed by its nobility which calledtheseschools into lifeand it is in theseschoolsanduniversities that thegreatmen who inaugurate the next period of literaturemdashthe champions of political
libertyandreligiousfreedommdashwerefosteredandformed
The invention of printing was in itself a reformation and its benefits werechiefly felt by the great masses of the people The clergy possessed theirlibrarieswhere theymight read and study if they chose the castles containedcollections of MSS sacred and profane illuminated with the most exquisitetastewhilethecitizenthepoorlaymanthoughhemightbeabletoreadandtowritewasdebarredfromtheuseofbooksandhadtosatisfyhisliterarytasteswith the sermons of travelling Franciscans or the songs of blind beggars andpeddlers The art of printing admitted that large class to the same privilegeswhich had hitherto been enjoyed almost exclusively by clergy and nobility itplacedinthehandsofthethirdestatearmsmorepowerfulthantheswordsoftheknightsandthethunderboltsofthepriestsitwasarevolutioninthehistoryofliterature more eventful than any in the history of mankind Poets andphilosophers addressed themselves no longer to emperors and noblemen toknights and ladies but to the people at large and especially to the middleclassesinwhichhenceforththechiefstrengthofthenationresides
[pg024]Theyearsfrom1450to1500formaperiodofpreparationforthegreatstrugglethatwastoinauguratethebeginningofthesixteenthcenturyItwasanageldquorichin scholars copious in pedants but poor in genius and barren of strongthinkersrdquoOneofthefewinterestingmeninwhoselifeandwritingsthehistoryofthatpreliminaryagemaybestudiedisSebastianBrantthefamousauthorofthefamousldquoShipofFoolsrdquo
With the sixteenth centurywe enter upon themodern history and themodernliteratureofGermanyWeshallherepassonmorerapidlydwellingonlyonthemeninwhosewritingsthepoliticalandsocialchangesofGermanycanbestbestudied
WithLuther the literary language ofGermany becameNewHigh-GermanAchangeoflanguageinvariablybetokensachangeinthesocialconstitutionofacountry In Germany at the time of the Reformation the change of languagemarks the rise of a new aristocracy which is henceforth to reside in theuniversitiesLiteratureleavesitsformerhomesItspeaksnolongerthelanguageof the towns It addresses itself no longer to a few citizens nor to imperialpatrons such as Maximilian I It indulges no longer in moral saws didacticversesandprosenovelsnorisitcontentwithmysticphilosophyandthesecret
outpouringsofreligiousfervorForatimethoughbutforashorttimeGermanliteraturebecomesnationalPoetsandwriterswishtobeheardbeyondthewallsoftheirmonasteriesandcitiesTheyspeaktothewholenationnaytheydesireto be heard beyond the frontiers of their country Luther and the Reformersbelonged to no classmdashthey belonged to the people The voice of the peoplewhichduring [pg025] the preceding periods of literature could only be heardlike the rollingofdistant thunderhadnowbecomearticulateanddistinctandforatimeonethoughtseemedtouniteallclassesmdashemperorskingsnoblesandcitizensclergyandlaityhighandlowoldandyoungThis isanovelsight inthehistoryofGermanyWehaveseeninthefirstperiodthegradualgrowthofthe clergy from the time when the first missionaries were massacred in themarshes of Friesland to the timewhen the Emperor stood penitent before thegatesofCanossaWehaveseentheriseofthenobilityfromthetimewhenthebarbarianchiefspreferredlivingoutsidethewallsofcitiestothetimewhentheyrivaledtheFrenchcavaliersincourtlybearingandchivalrousbraveryNorweretherepresentativesofthesetwoordersthePopeandtheEmperorlesspowerfulat thebeginningofthesixteenthcenturythantheyhadbeenbeforeCharlesVwas the most powerful sovereign whom Europe had seen since the days ofCharlemagneand thepapal seehad recoveredbydiplomatic intriguemuchofthe influencewhich ithad lostbymoraldepravityLetus think thenof thesetwo ancient powers theEmperorwith his armies recruited inAustria SpainNaplesSicilyandBurgundyandwithhis treasuresbrought fromMexicoandPeruandthePopewithhisarmiesofpriestsandmonksrecruitedfromallpartsof theChristianworld andarmedwith theweaponsof the Inquisitionand thethunderbolts of excommunication let us think of their former victories theirconfidenceintheirownstrengththeirbeliefintheirdivinerightandletusthenturnoureyestothesmallUniversityofWittenbergandintothebleakstudyofapoorAugustinemonkandseethatmonk[pg026]stepoutofhisstudywithnoweapon inhishandbut theBiblemdashwithnoarmiesandno treasuresmdashandyetdefyingwithhisclearandmanlyvoicebothPopeandEmperorbothclergyandnobilitythereisnograndersightinhistoryandthelongerweallowoureyestodwellonit themorewefeel thathistoryisnotwithoutGodandthatateverydecisivebattlethedivinerightoftruthassertsitssupremacyoverthedivinerightof Popes and Emperors and overthrows with one breath both empires andhierarchiesWecall theReformation theworkofLutherbutLuther stoodnotaloneandnoreallygreatmaneverstoodaloneThesecretoftheirgreatnessliesin their understanding the spirit of the age in which they live and in givingexpressionwiththefullpoweroffaithandconvictiontothesecret thoughtsofmillionsLutherwasbutlendingwordstothesilentsoulofsufferingGermany
andnooneshouldcallhimselfaProtestantwhoisnotaLutheranwithLutherattheDietofWormsandabletosaywithhiminthefaceofprincesandprelatesldquoHereIstandIcannotdootherwiseGodhelpmeAmenrdquo
As the Emperor was the representative of the nobility as the Pope was therepresentativeoftheclergyLutherwastheheadandleaderofthepeoplewhichthroughhimandthroughhisfellow-workersclaimednowforthefirsttimeanequalitywith the twoold estatesof the realm If this national struggle took atfirstanaspectchieflyreligiousitwasbecausetheGermannationhadfreedomofthoughtandofbeliefmoreatheartthanpoliticalfreedomButpoliticalrightsalso were soon demanded and demanded with such violence that during hisownlife-timeLutherhadtorepresstheexcessesofenthusiastictheoristsandofaviolentpeasantryLuthersgreatinfluenceontheliterature[pg027]ofGermanyandthegradualadoptionofhisdialectastheliterarylanguagewereowinginagreatmeasureto this thatwhatever therewasof literatureduringthesixteenthcenturywas chiefly in the hands of one class ofmenAfter theReformationnearly all eminent men in Germanymdashpoets philosophers and historiansmdashbelongedtotheProtestantpartyandresidedchieflyintheuniversities
The universitieswerewhat themonasteries had been under Charlemagne thecastles under Frederick Barbarossamdashthe centres of gravitation for theintellectualandpoliticallifeofthecountryThetruenobilityofGermanywasnolonger to be found among the priestsmdashAlcuin Hrabanus Maurus NotkerTeutonicusnoramongtheknightsmdashWalthervonderVogelweideWolframvonEschenbach and their patrons Frederick II Hermann von Thuumlringen andLeopoldofAustriaTheintellectualsceptreofGermanywaswieldedbyanewnobilitymdasha nobility that had risen from the ranks like the priests and theknights butwhich for a time at least kept itself frombecoming a caste andfromcuttingawaythoserootsthroughwhichitimbibeditsvigorandsustaineditsstrength Ithad itscastles in theuniversities its tournaments in thedietsofWormsandAugsburgand itcountedamong itsmembersdukesandpeasantsdivines and soldiers lawyers and artists This was not indeed an hereditarynobilitybutonthatverygrounditisanobilitywhichcanneverbecomeextinctThedangerhoweverwhichthreatensallaristocracieswhethermartialclericalormunicipalwasnotavertedfromtheintellectualaristocracyofGermanyTherising spirit of caste deprived the second generation of that powerwhichmenlikeLuther[pg028]hadgainedatthebeginningoftheReformationThemoralinfluenceoftheuniversitiesinGermanywasgreatanditisgreatatthepresentdayBut itwouldhavebeengreaterandmorebeneficial if theconceitofcaste
had not separated the leaders of the nation from the ranks whence theythemselves had arisen and to which alone they owed their position and theirinfluence Itwas thesamewith thepriestswhowouldratherformahierarchythanbemergedinthelaityItwasthesamewiththeknightswhowouldratherformaselectsocietythanliveamongthegentryBothcutawaythegroundundertheir feet and theReformers of the sixteenth century fell into the same snarebeforetheywereawareofitWewonderattheeccentricitiesofthepriesthoodattheconceitofthehereditarynobilityattheaffectationofmajesticstatelinessinherentinroyaltyButthepedanticdisplayoflearningthedisregardoftherealwants of the people the contempt of all knowledgewhich does not wear theacademicgarbshowthesamefoiblethesameconceitthesamespiritofcasteamongthosewhofromthesixteenthcenturytothepresentdayhaveoccupiedthemostprominentrankinthesocietyofGermanyProfessorialknight-errantrystill waits for its Cervantes Nowhere have the objects of learning been socompletely sacrificed to themeans of learning nowhere has that Dulcineamdashknowledgeforitsownsakemdashwithherdarkveilandherbarrenheartnumberedsomanyadmirersnowherehavesomanywindmillsbeenfoughtandsomanyreal enemies been left unhurt as inGermany particularly during the last twocenturiesNewuniversitieshavebeenfoundedMarburg in1527Koumlnigsbergin1547Jenain1558Helmstaumldtin1575Giessenin1607[pg029]Andthemorethenumberandthepoweroftheprofessorsincreasedthemoretheyforgotthat they and their learning their universities and their libraries were for thebenefitofthepeoplethataprofessormightbeverylearnedandveryaccurateandverylaboriousyetworsethanuselessasamemberofourtoilingsocietyItwasconsideredmorelearnedandrespectabletoteachinLatinandalllecturesattheuniversitiesweregiven in that languageLutherwas sneeredatbecauseofhis littleGerman tractswhichldquoanyvillageclerkmighthavewrittenrdquoSomeofthebestpoetsinthesixteenthcenturyweremensuchasEobanHessius(1540)whocomposedtheirpoetryinLatinNationalpoemsforinstanceBrantsldquoShipofFoolsrdquoweretranslatedintoLatininordertoinducetheGermanprofessorstoread them The learned doctors were ashamed of their honest native namesSchwarzerd must needs call himself Melancthon Meissel Celtes SchnitterAgricola Hausschein Œcolampadius All this might look very learned andprofessorial and imposing but it separated the professors from the people atlargeitretardedtheprogressofnationaleducationandblightedtheprospectsofa national policy in Germany Everything promised well at the time of theReformationandanewGermanymighthaverisenbeforeanewFranceiflikeLuthertheleadersofthenationhadremainedtruetotheircallingButwhentospeakLatinwasconsideredmorelearnedthantospeakGermanwhentoamass
vast information was consideredmore creditable than to digest and to use itwhenpopularitybecamethesamebugbeartotheprofessorswhichprofanityhadbeentotheclergyandvulgaritytotheknightsLuthersworkwasundoneandtwo more [pg 030] centuries had to be spent in pedantic controversiestheologicaldisputessectariansquabblesandpoliticalprostrationbeforeanewnationalspiritcouldriseagaininmenlikeLessingandSchillerandFichteandStein Ambitious princes and quarrelsome divines continued the rulers ofGermany and towards the end of the sixteenth century everything seemeddrifting back into theMiddleAges Then came theThirtyYearsWar amostdisastrouswarforGermanywhichisfeltinitsresultstothepresentdayIfasacivilandreligiouscontestithadbeenfoughtoutbetweenthetwopartiesmdashtheProtestants and Roman Catholics of Germanymdashit would have left as inEnglandonesidevictoriousitwouldhavebeenbroughttoanendbeforebothwereutterlyexhaustedButtheProtestantsweakenedbytheirowndissensionshadtocallinforeignaidFirstDenmarkthenSwedenpouredtheirarmiesintoGermany and even FrancemdashRoman Catholic Francemdashgave her support toGustavusAdolphusandtheProtestantcauseEnglandthetrueallyofGermanywastooweakathometomakeherinfluencefeltabroadAtthecloseofthewartheProtestantsreceivedindeedthesamerightsastheRomanCatholicsbutthenation was so completely demoralized that it hardly cared for the libertiesguaranteed by the treaty ofWestphalia The physical and moral vigor of thenationwasbrokenThepopulationofGermanyissaidtohavebeenreducedbyone half Thousands of villages and towns had been burnt to the ground Theschools the churches the universitieswere desertedAwhole generation hadgrown up during the war particularly among the lower classes with noeducation at all Themerchants ofGermanywho formerly asAEligneas Sylviussaidlivedmorehandsomely[pg031]thantheKingsofScotlandwerereducedtosmalltradersTheHansawasbrokenupHollandEnglandandSwedenhadtaken the wind out of her sails In the Eastern provinces commerce wassuspendedbytheinroadsoftheTurkswhilstthediscoveryofAmericaandofthenewpassagetotheEastIndieshadreducedtheimportanceofthemercantilenavyofGermanyandItalyintheMediterraneanWheretherewasanynationalfeelingleftitwasafeelingofshameanddespairandtheEmperorandthesmallprinces of Germany might have governed even more selfishly than they didwithoutrousingoppositionamongthepeople
What canwe expect of the literature of such times Popular poetry preservedsome of its indestructible charms The Meistersaumlnger went on composingaccording to the rulesof theirguildsbutwe look invain for the racinessand
honestsimplicityofHansSachsSomeoftheprofessorswroteplaysinthestyleofTerenceorafterEnglishmodelsandfablesbecamefashionableinthestyleof Phaeligdrus But there was no trace anywhere of originality truth taste orfeelingexceptinthatbranchwhichlikethepalm-treethrivesbestinthedesertmdashsacredpoetryPaulGerhardisstillwithoutanequalasapoetofsacredsongsand many of the best hymns which are heard in the Protestant churches ofGermanydatefromtheseventeenthcenturySoonhoweverthisclassofpoetryalsodegeneratedononesideintodrytheologicalphraseologyontheotherintosentimentalandalmosteroticaffectation
Therewas no hope of a regeneration inGerman literature unless either greatpoliticalandsocialeventsshouldrousethenationalmindfromits languor[pg032]ortheclassicalmodelsofpuretasteandtrueartshouldbestudiedagaininadifferentspiritfromthatofprofessorialpedantryNowaftertheThirtyYearsWartherewasnowarinGermanyinwhichthenationtookanywarminterestThepolicypursuedinFranceduringthelongreignofLouisXIV(1643-1708)had its chief aim in weakening the house of HapsburgWhen the Protestantswould no longer fight his battles Louis roused the Turks Viennawas nearlytaken and Austria owed its delivery to Johann Sobiesky By the treaty ofRyswick (1697) all the country on the left side of the Rhine was ceded toFrance andGerman soldiers fought under the banners of theGreatMonarchTheonlyGermanprincewhodared touphold thehonorof theempire and towithstandtheencroachmentsofLouiswasFrederickWilliamthegreatElectorofPrussia(1670-88)HecheckedthearroganceoftheSwedishcourtopenedhistowns toFrenchProtestant refugeesand raised thehouseofBrandenburg toaEuropean importance In the same year inwhich his successor Frederick IIIassumedtheroyal titleasFrederickI theKingofSpainCharlesIdiedandLouisXIVwhilsttryingtoaddtheSpanishcrowntohismonarchywasatlastchecked in his grasping policy by an alliance betweenEngland andGermanyPrinceEugeneandMarlboroughrestoredthepeaceandthepoliticalequilibriumofEuropeInEnglandthedifferentpartiesinParliamentthefrequentersoftheclubsandcoffee-houseswerethenwatchingeverymoveonthepoliticalchess-boardofEuropeandcriticisingthevictoriesoftheirgeneralsandthetreatiesoftheir ambassadors In Germany the nation took but a passive part It wasexcludedfromallreal[pg033]shareinthegreatquestionsofthedayandifitshowedanysympathiestheywereconfinedtothesimpleadmirationofagreatgeneralsuchasPrinceEugene
While thepolicyofLouisXIVwasunderminingthepolitical independenceof
Germany the literature of his court exercised an influence hardly lessdetrimentalontheliteratureofGermanyNodoubttheliteratureofFrancestoodfarhigherat that time than thatofGermanyldquoPoetrdquowasamongstusa termofabusewhileinFrancetheGreatMonarchhimselfdidhomagetohisgreatpoetsButtheprofessorialpoetswhohadfailedtolearnthelessonsofgoodtastefromtheGreekandRomanclassicswerenot likely toprofitbyan imitationof thespuriousclassicalityofFrenchliteratureTheyheardthegreatstarsofthecourtofLouisXIVpraisedbytheirroyalandprincelypatronsastheyreturnedfromtheir travels inFranceand Italy fullofadmiration foreverything thatwasnotGermanTheyweredelightedtohearthatinFranceinHollandandinItalyitwas respectable to write poetry in themodern vernacular and set to work ingoodearnestAfterthemodeloftheliteraryacademiesinItalyacademieswerefounded at the small courts of Germany Men like Opitz would hardly havethoughtitdignifiedtowriteversesintheirnativetonguehaditnotbeenforthemoral support which they received from these academies and their princelypatronsHisfirstpoemswerewritteninLatinbutheafterwardsdevotedhimselfcompletelytoGermanpoetryHebecameamemberoftheldquoOrderofthePalm-treerdquo and the founder ofwhat is called theFirst SilesianSchoolOpitz is thetruerepresentativeoftheclassicalpoetryofthe[pg034]seventeenthcenturyHewasa scholarandagentlemanmostcorrect inhis languageandversificationneverventuringonground thathadnotbeen troddenbeforeby someclassicalpoetwhetherofGreeceRomeFranceHollandorItalyInhimwealsoseethefirsttracesofthatbanefulalliancebetweenprincesandpoetswhichhasdeprivedtheGermannationofsomanyofherbestsonsButthechargeofmeanmotiveshas been unjustly brought against Opitz bymany historians Poets require anaudienceandathistimetherewasnoclassofpeoplewillingtolistentopoetryexcepttheinmatesofthesmallGermancourtsAftertheThirtyYearsWarthepoweroftheseprinceswasgreaterthaneverTheydividedthespoilandtherewasneitheranobilitynoraclergynoranationalpartytocontrolorresistthemInEngland the royalpowerhad at that timebeenbroughtback to itsproperlimitsandithasthusbeenabletoholdeversincewithbutshortinterruptionsitsdignifiedpositionsupportedbytheself-respectofafreeandpowerfulnationIn France it assumed themost enormous proportions during the long reign ofLouisXIVbutitsappallingrisewasfollowedafteracenturybyafallequallyappallingandithasnotyetregaineditsproperpositioninthepoliticalsystemofthat country In Germany the royal power was less imposing its prerogativesbeing divided between the Emperor and a number of small but almostindependentvassalsremnantsofthatfeudalsystemoftheMiddleAgeswhichinFranceandEnglandhadbeenabsorbedbytheriseofnationalmonarchiesThese
smallprincipalitiesexplaintheweaknessofGermanyinherrelationwithforeignpowers and the instability of her political constitutionContinentalwars gave[pg 035] an excuse for keeping up large standing armies and these standingarmies stood between the nation and her sovereigns and made any moralpressureoftheoneupontheotherimpossibleThethirdestatecouldnevergainthatshareinthegovernmentwhichithadobtainedbyitsunitedactioninothercountries and no form of government can be stablewhich is deprived of thesupportandtheactivecooumlperationofthemiddleclassesConstitutionshavebeengrantedbyenlightenedsovereignssuchasJosephIIandFrederickWilliamIVandbarricadeshavebeenraisedbythepeopleatViennaandatBerlinbutbothhave failed to restore the political health of the country There is no longer aGermannobility in theusual senseof theword Itsvigorwasexhaustedwhenthepowerfulvassalsoftheempirebecamepowerlesssovereignswiththetitlesof king or duke while what remained of the landed nobility became morereduced with every generation owing to the absence of the system ofprimogenitureThereisnolongeraclergyasapowerfulbodyinthestateThiswasbrokenupatthetimeoftheReformationandithardlyhadtimetorecoverandtoconstituteitselfonanewbasiswhentheThirtyYearsWardepriveditofall social influence and left it noalternativebut tobecomea salariedclassofservants of the crown No third estate exists powerful enough to defend theinterestsofthecommonwealthagainsttheencroachmentsofthesovereignandpublic opinion though it may pronounce itself within certain limits has nomeansoflegaloppositionandmustchooseateverycriticalmomentbetweensubmissiontotheroyalwillandrebellion
Thusduring thewholemodernhistoryofGermany [pg036] thepolitical andintellectualsupremacyisdividedTheformerismonopolizedbythesovereignsthelatterbelongstoasmallclassoflearnedmenThesetwosoonbegintoattracteachotherThekingsseekthesociety theadviceandsupportof literarymenwhilstliterarymencourtthepatronageofkingsandacquirepowerfulinfluencebygoverning thosewhogovern thepeopleFromthe timeofOpitz therehavebeen fewmen of eminence in literature or sciencewho have not been drawntoward one of the larger or smaller courts ofGermany and thewhole of ourmodernliteraturebearsthemarksofthisunionbetweenprincesandpoetsIthasbeensaidthattheexistenceofthesenumerouscentresofcivilizationhasprovedbeneficialtothegrowthofliteratureandithasbeenpointedoutthatsomeofthesmallest courts such as Weimar have raised the greatest men in poetry andscience Goethe himself gives expression to this opinion ldquoWhat has madeGermany greatrdquo he says ldquobut the culture which is spread through the whole
countryinsuchamarvelousmannerandpervadesequallyallpartsoftherealmAnd thisculturedoes itnotemanate from thenumerouscourtswhichgrant itsupportandpatronageSupposewehadhad inGermanyforcenturiesbut twocapitalsViennaandBerlinorbutoneIshouldliketoknowhowitwouldhavefaredwithGermancivilizationorevenwiththatgeneralwell-beingwhichgoeshandinhandwithtruecivilizationrdquoInthesewordswehearGoethetheministerofthepettycourtofWeimarnotthegreatpoetofagreatnationHasFrancehadmorethanonecapitalHasEnglandhadmorethanonecourtGreatmenhaverisentoeminenceingreatmonarchieslikeFranceand[pg037]theyhaverisentoeminenceinagreatcommonwealthsuchasEnglandwithoutthepatronageofcourtsby thesupport thesympathy the loveofagreatnationTrulynationalpoetry exists only where there is a truly national life and the poet who increating his works thinks of a whole nation which will listen to him and beproud of him is inspired by a nobler passion than hewho looks to his royalmaster or the applause even of themost refined audience of thedames de lacour In a free country the sovereign is the highest and most honoredrepresentativeofthenationalwillandhehonorshimselfbyhonoringthosewhohave well deserved of his country There a poet laureate may hold anindependent and dignified position conscious of his own worth and of thesupport of the nation But in despotic countries the favor even of the mostenlightenedsovereignisdangerousGermanyneverhadamoreenlightenedkingthan Frederick the Great and yet when he speaks of the Queen receivingLeibnitzatcourthesaysldquoShebelievedthatitwasnotunworthyofaqueentoshow honor to a philosopher and as thosewho have received from heaven aprivileged soul rise to the level of sovereigns she admitted Leibnitz into herfamiliarsocietyrdquo
TheseventeenthcenturysawtheriseandfallofthefirstandthesecondSilesianschools The first is represented by men like Opitz and Weckherlin and itexercisedaninfluenceintheNorthofGermanyonSimonDachPaulFlemmingandanumberoflessgiftedpoetswhoaregenerallyknownbythenameoftheKoumlnigsbergSchoolItscharacterispseudo-classicalAllthesepoetsendeavoredtowritecorrectlysedatelyandeloquentlySomeofthemaimedatacertain[pg038]simplicityandsinceritywhichweadmireparticularlyinFlemmingButitwould be difficult to find in all their writings one single thought one singleexpression thathadnotbeenusedbeforeThe secondSilesian school ismoreambitious but its poetic flights are more disappointing even than the honestproseofOpitzTheldquoShepherdsofthePegnitzrdquohadtriedtoimitatethebrilliantdiction of the Italian poets but themodernMeistersaumlnger of the old town of
Nuumlrnberg had produced nothing but wordy jingle Hoffmannswaldau andLohenstein the chief heroes of the second Silesian school followed in theirtrackanddidnotsucceedbetterTheircompositionsarebombasticandfullofmetaphorsItisapoetryofadjectiveswithoutsubstancetruthortasteYettheirpoetrywasadmiredpraisednot less thanGoetheandSchillerwerepraisedbytheir contemporaries and it lived beyond the seventeenth century TherewerebutfewmenduringthattimewhokeptalooffromthespiritofthesetwoSilesianschoolsandwerenot influencedbyeitherOpitzorHoffmannswaldauAmongthese independent poets we have to mention Friedrich von Logau AndreasGryphiusandMoscheroschBesidethesethereweresomeprosewriterswhoseworksarenotexactlyworksofartbutworksoforiginal thoughtandofgreatimportance to us in tracing the progress of science and literature during thedreariestperiodofGermanhistoryWecanonlymentiontheldquoSimplicissimusrdquoanovelfullofcleverminiaturedrawingandgivingatruthfulpictureofGermanlifeduringtheThirtyYearsWarthepatrioticwritingsofProfessorSchuppthehistorical works of Professor Pufendorf (1631-94) the pietistic sermons ofSpener and of Professor Franke (1663-1727) the [pg 039] founder of theOrphanSchoolatHalleProfessorArnolds(1666-1714)EcclesiasticalHistorythe first political pamphlets by Professor Thomasius (1655-1728) and amongphilosophers Jacob Boumlhme at the beginning and Leibnitz at the end of theseventeenthcentury
ThesecondSilesianschoolwasdefeatedbyGottschedprofessoratLeipzigHeexercisedatthebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturythesamedictatorshipasapoetandacriticwhichOpitzhadexercisedatthebeginningoftheseventeenthGottschedwastheadvocateofFrenchmodelsinartandpoetryandheusedhiswide-spreadinfluenceinrecommendingthecorrectandso-calledclassicalstyleofthepoetsofthetimeAfterhavingrenderedgoodserviceinputtingdownthesenseless extravagance of the school of Lohenstein he became himself apedanticandarrogantcriticanditwasthroughtheoppositionwhichherousedbyhisldquoGallomaniardquothatGermanpoetrywasdeliveredatlastfromthetrammelsofthatforeignschoolThenfollowedalongliterarywarfareGottschedandhisfollowersatLeipzigdefendedtheFrenchBodmerandhisfriendsinSwitzerlandthe English style of literature The former insisted on classical form andtraditionalrulesthelatteronnaturalsentimentandspontaneousexpressionThequestionwaswhetherpoetsshouldimitatetheworksoftheclassicsorimitatetheclassicswhohadbecomeclassicsbyimitatingnobodyAGermanprofessorwieldsanimmensepowerbymeansofhisjournalsHeistheeditorhewritesinthemhimselfandallowsotherstowritehepraiseshisfriendswhoaretolaud
himinturnhepatronizeshispupilswhoaretocallhimmasterheabuseshisadversaries and asks his [pg 040] allies to do the same It was in this thatProfessorGottschedtriumphedforalongtimeoverBodmerandhispartytillatlastpublicopinionbecametoostrongandthedictatordiedthelaughing-stockofGermanyItwasintheverythickofthisliterarystrugglethatthegreatheroesofGerman poetry grew upmdashKlopstock Lessing Wieland Herder Goethe andSchiller Goethe who knew both Gottsched and Bodmer has described thatperiodoffermentationandtransitioninwhichhisownmindwasformedandhisextractsmaybe read as a commentary on the poetical productions of the firsthalfoftheeighteenthcenturyHedoesjusticetoGuumlntherandmorethanjusticeto Liscow He shows the influence which men like Brockes Hagedorn andHaller exercised inmakingpoetry respectableHepoints out the newnationallifewhichlikeanelectricsparkflewthroughthewholecountrywhenFredericktheGreat said ldquoJai jeteacute le bonnet pardessus les moulinsrdquo and defied like aman the political popery ofAustriaThe estimatewhichGoethe forms of thepoetsofthetimeofGleimandUzofGessnerandRabenerandmoreespeciallyofKlopstockLessingandWielandshouldbereadintheoriginalaslikewiseHerdersldquoRhapsodyonShakspearerdquoThelattercontainsthekeytomanyofthesecrets of that new period of literature which was inaugurated by Goethehimself andby thosewho likehimcoulddare tobe classical bybeing true tonatureandtothemselves
MyobjectintakingthisrapidsurveyofGermanliteraturehasbeentoshowthatthe extracts which I have collected in my ldquoGerman Classicsrdquo have not beenchosen at random and that if properly used they can be read as a runningcommentaryonthepolitical[pg041]andsocialhistoryofGermanyThehistoryof literature is but an applied history of civilization As in the history ofcivilizationwewatchtheplayofthethreeconstituentclassesofsocietymdashclergynobilityandcommonersmdashwecanseeinthehistoryofliteraturehowthatclasswhich is supreme politically shows for the time being its supremacy in theliteraryproductionsoftheageandimpressesitsmarkontheworksofpoetsandphilosophers
Speakingverygenerallywemight say that during the first periodofGermanhistorythereallymovingcivilizingandrulingclasswastheclergyandinthewhole of German literature nearly to the time of the Crusades the clericalelement predominates The second period ismarked by theCrusades and thetriumphofTeutonicandRomanticchivalryandtheliteratureofthatperiodisofa strictly correspondent tone After the Crusades and during the political
anarchy that followed the soleprincipleof order andprogress is found in thetownsandinthetownsthepoetryofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesfindsitsnewhomeAtlastatthetimeoftheReformationwhenthepoliticallifeofthecountryassumedforatimeanationalcharacterGermanliteraturealsoisforashorttimenationalThehopeshoweverwhichhadbeenraisedofanationalpolicyandofanationalliteratureweresoonblightedandfromtheThirtyYearsWar to thepresentday the inheritanceof thenationhasbeendividedbetweenprinces and professors There have been moments when the princes had toappealtothenationatlargeandtoforgetforawhiletheirroyalpretensionsandthese times of national enthusiasm as during thewars ofFrederick theGreatand during thewars againstNapoleon have not [pg042] failed to tell on theliterature of Germany They produced a national spirit free from professorialnarrownesssuchaswefindinthewritingsofLessingandFichteButwiththeexception of these short lucid intervals Germany has always been under theabsolute despotism of a number of small sovereigns and great professors andher literature has been throughout in the hands of court poets and academiccriticsKlopstockLessingandSchilleraremostfreefromeitherinfluenceandmost impressedwith thedutieswhichapoetowesbeforeall to thenation towhich he belongs Klopstocks national enthusiasm borders sometimes on thefantasticforashisowntimescouldnotinspirehimheborrowedthethemesofhisnationalpanegyricsfromthedistantpastofArminiusandtheGermanbardsLessinglookedmoretohisownagebuthelookedinvainfornationalheroesldquoPitytheextraordinarymanrdquosaysGoetheldquowhohad to live insuchmiserabletimeswhich offered him no better subjects than thosewhich he takes for hisworksPityhim that inhis lsquoMinnavonBarnhelmrsquo he had to take part in thequarrelbetweentheSaxonsandthePrussiansbecausehefoundnothingbetterItwasowingtotherottennessofhistimethathealwaystookandwasforcedtotakeapolemicalpositionInhislsquoEmiliaGalottirsquoheshowshispiqueagainsttheprinces in lsquoNathanrsquo against the priestsrdquo But although the subjects of theseworks of Lessing were small his object in writing was always great andnationalHe never condescended to amuse a provincial court bymasqueradesandcomediesnordidhedegradehisgeniusbypanderinglikeWielandtothetasteofaprofligatenobilitySchilleragainwasapoettrulynationalandtrulyliberalandalthougha[pg043]manofaspirationsratherthanofactionshehasleftadeeperimpressonthekernelofthenationthaneitherWielandorGoetheThese considerations howevermustnot interferewithour appreciationof thegreatnessofGoetheOnthecontrarywhenweseethesmallsphereinwhichhemoved atWeimar we admire themore the height to which he grew and thefreedom of his genius And it is perhaps owing to this very absence of a
strongly marked national feeling that in Germany the first idea of a world-literature was conceived ldquoNational literaturerdquo Goethe says ldquois of littleimportancetheageofaworld-literatureisathandandeveryoneoughttoworkin order to accelerate this new erardquo Perhaps Goethe felt that the true poetbelongedto thewholeofmankindand thathemustbe intelligiblebeyondthefrontiersofhisowncountryAndfromthispointofviewhisideaofaworld-literaturehasbeenrealizedandhisownworkshavegainedtheirplacesidebysidewith theworksofHomerVirgilDanteandShakespeareButso longastherearedifferentlanguagesanddifferentnationsleteachpoetthinkandworkandwriteforhisownpeoplewithoutcaringfortheapplauseofothercountriesScienceandphilosophyarecosmopolitanpoetryandartarenationalandthosewhowould deprive theMuses of their home-sprung character would deprivethemofmuchoftheirnativecharms
[pg044]
LISTOFEXTRACTSFORILLUSTRATINGTHEHISTORYOFGERMANLITERATURE
FOURTHCENTURYAFTERCHRIST
Gothicmdash
UlfilasTranslationoftheBibletheLordsPrayer
SEVENTHCENTURY
OldHigh-Germanmdash
VocabularyofStGall
EIGHTHCENTURY
OldHigh-Germanmdash
InterlinearTranslationoftheBenedictineRulesTranslationoftheGospelofStMatthewExhortationaddressedtotheChristianLaityLiteralTranslationsoftheHymnsoftheOldChurchmdash1Deusquicordilumenes2Auroralucisrutilat3TeDeumlaudamusTheSongofHildebrandandhissonHadubrandmdashinalliterativemetreThePrayerfromtheMonasteryofWessobrunmdashinalliterativemetreTheApostolicCreed
NINTHCENTURY
OldHigh-Germanmdash
FromEinhardsLifeofCharlemagnemdashtheGermannamesoftheMonthsandtheWindsfixedbytheEmperorMuspilliorontheLastJudgmentmdashalliterativepoemTheOathsofLewistheGermanandCharlestheBaldandtheirarmiesatStrassburg842inOldFrankishandOldFrenchfromtheHistoryofNithardthegrandsonofCharlemagneTheHeliandortheSaviourmdasholdSaxonpoeminalliterativemetreTheKristortheGospel-bookmdashpoeminrhymebyOtfriedthepupilofHrabanusMaurusdedicatedtoLewistheGerman[pg045]TranslationofaHarmonyoftheGospelsLayonStPeterSongontheVictorygainedbyKingLewisIIIatSaucourtin881overtheNormans
TENTHCENTURY
OldHigh-Germanmdash
NotkerTeutonicusofStGallmdash1TranslationofthePsalms2TreatiseonSyllogisms3TranslationofAristotle4TranslationofBoeumlthiusdeConsolatione
ELEVENTHCENTURY
OldHigh-Germanmdash
WilliramsExplanationoftheSongofSolomonMerigartoortheEarthmdashfragmentofageographicalpoem
TWELFTHCENTURY
MiddleHigh-Germanmdash
TheLifeofJesusmdashpoembytheNunAva
PoeticalTranslationoftheBooksofMosesHistoricalPoemonAnnoBishopofColognePoeticalChronicleoftheRomanEmperorsNortpertiTractatusdeVirtutibustranslatedThepoemofRolandbyKonradthePriestThepoemofAlexanderbyLamprechtthePriestPoemofReinharttheFoxDietmarvonAistmdashlyricsTheSpervogelmdashlyricsTheKuumlrenbergermdashlyricsTheEneidbyHeinrichvonVeldecke
THIRTEENTHCENTURY
MiddleHigh-Germanmdash
HartmannvonAueextractsfromhisldquoIweinrdquomdashaheroicpoemTheOldReinmarmdashlyricsWalthervonderVogelweidemdashlyricsFreidanksBescheidenheitmdashdidacticpoem[pg046]WolframvonEschenbachmdash1ExtractsfromhisldquoParcivalrdquomdashaheroicpoem2ExtractsfromhisldquoTiturelrdquomdashaheroicpoemGottfriedvonStrassburgextractsfromhisldquoTristanrdquomdashaheroicpoemThepoemoftheldquoNibelungerdquomdashepicpoemThomasinvonZerclarextractsfromhispoemonmannerscalledldquoTheItalianGuestrdquoNeidhartvonReuenthalmdashlyricsOttovonBotenlaubemdashlyricsGudrunmdashepicpoemTheStrickermdashextractfromhissatiricalpoemldquoAmisthePriestrdquoRudolfvonEmsmdashextractfromhisldquoWilhelmvonOrleansrdquoChristianvonHamlemdashlyricsGottfriedvonNeifenmdashlyricsUlrichvonLichtensteinmdashlyricsSermonofFriarBertholdofRegensburgReinmarvonZwetermdashlyricsMasterStollemdashsatire
TheMarnermdashlyricsMasterKonradofWuumlrzburgmdash1Poem2ExtractfromtheTrojanWarAnonymouspoetmdashextractfromthelifeofStElizabethHermanderDamenAnonymouspoetmdashextractfromtheldquoWartburgKriegrdquoMarcgraveOttovonBrandenburgmdashlyricsHeinrichDukeofBreslaumdashlyricsHugovonTrimbergmdashextractfromtheldquoRennerrdquo
FOURTEENTHCENTURY
MiddleHigh-Germanmdash
HeinrichFrauenlobmdashlyricsMasterJohannHadlaubmdashlyricsTheGreatRosegardenmdashpopularepicpoemMasterEckhartmdashhomilyHermannvonFritzlarmdashlifeofStElizabethDrJohannTaulermdashsermonHeinrichSuso[pg047]HeinrichderTeichnermdashfablePeterSuchenwirtmdashonthedeathofLeopoldDukeofAustria1386HalbsuterspoemontheBattleofSempach1386FritscheClosenersStrassburgChronicleJacobTwingersChroniclemdashontheFlagellants
FIFTEENTHCENTURY
MiddleHigh-Germanmdash
HugovonMontfortmdashlyricsOswaldvonWolkensteinmdashlyricsMuscatbluumltmdashlyricsHansvonBuumlhelsLifeofDiocletianorTheSevenWiseMastersPopularSongsSacredSongs
TheSoulsComfortmdashdidacticproseMichaelBeheimmdashMeistergesangAnEasterMysteryPopularRhymesCasparvonderRoensHeldenbuchmdashHildebrandandhisSonNiclasvonWeylsTranslationsmdashHieronymusattheCouncilofConstanceVeitWeberspoemontheVictoryofMurten1476HeinrichSteinhoumlwelsFablesSebastianBrantsldquoShipofFoolsrdquoJohannGeilervonKaisersbergmdashsermonEmperorMaximilianmdashextractfromtheldquoTheuerdankrdquo
SIXTEENTHCENTURY
ModernHigh-Germanmdash
MartinLuthermdash1SacredSong2LetterontheDietoftheJackdawsandCrows3HisLastSermonUlrichZwinglemdash1APoemonhisIllness2CriticismonLutherPhilippNicolaimdashsacredsongsJustusJonasmdashsacredsongs[pg048]UlrichvonHuttenmdash1LettertoFranzvonSickingen2PoliticalpoemSebastianFrankmdash1PrefacetohisGermania2RudolfvonHapsburg3MaximilianderErste4FablesBurkardWaldismdashfablesHansSachsmdash1SacredSong2PoemontheDeathofMartinLuther3PoemontheWar
PetermannEtterlinsChroniclemdashWilliamTellandRudolfvonHapsburgAEliggidiusTschudisChroniclemdashWilliamTellPaulusMelissusSchedeJohannFischartmdash1ExhortationaddressedtotheGermanpeople2DasgluumlckhafteSchiffGeorgRollenhagenmdashfablePopularBooksmdash1TyllEulenspiegel2DrFaustPopularSongs
SEVENTEENTHCENTURY
ModernHigh-Germanmdash
MartinOpitzandtheFirstSilesianSchoolGeorgRudolfWeckherlinAnonymousPoemmdashldquoOEwigkeitrdquoMichaelAltenburgsCamp-song(GustavusAdolphus)JohannesHeermannmdashsacredsongPopularSongsJohannArndtmdash1SacredSong2OnthePowerandNecessityofPrayerJacobBoumlhmeMysteriumMagnumJohannValentinAndreaeligFriedrichSpeeJuliusWilhelmZinegreff[pg049]FriedrichvonLogauSimonDachandtheKoumlnigsbergSchoolPaulFlemmingPaulGerhardGeorgPhilippHarsdoumlrfferandtheNuumlrnbergSchoolJohannesRistAndreasGryphiusmdash1Sonnets2FromtheTragedyldquoCardenioandCelinderdquo
JoachimRachelmdashsatireJohannMichaelMoscheroschmdashsatiresChristophvonGrimmelshausenSimplicissimusmdashnovelJohannBalthasarSchuppmdashontheGermanLanguageAngelusSilesiusHoffmannswaldauandLohensteinmdashSecondSilesianSchoolAbrahamaSantaClaramdashsermonPhilippJacobSpenermdashonLutherGottfriedArnoldmdashsacredpoemChristianWeiseHansAssmannvonAbschatzFriedrichRLvonCanitzChristianWernickeGottfriedWilhelmvonLeibnitzmdashontheGermanLanguage
EIGHTEENTHCENTURY
ModernHigh-Germanmdash
JohannChristophGottschedmdashCatoJohannJacobBodmermdashCharacterofGermanPoetryBartholdHeinrichBrockesJohannChristianGuumlntherNicolausLudwigGrafvonZinzendorfChristianLudwigLiscowFriedrichvonHagedornAlbrechtvonHallerGottliebWilhelmRabenerEwaldChristianvonKleistChristianFuumlrchtegottGellertJohannLudwigGleimJohannPeterUz[pg050]JustusMoumlserKlopstockSeebelowSalomonGessnerJohannWinckelmannLessingSeebelowJohannGeorgHamann
ImmanuelKantJohannAugustMusaeligusWielandSeebelowGottliebKonradPfeffelChristianFriedrichDanielSchubartMatthiasClaudiusJohannCasparLavaterHerderSeebelowHeinrichJungStillingGeorgChristophLichtenbergGottfriedAugustBuumlrgerJohannHeinrichVossFriedrichLeopoldundChristianGrafenzuStollbergDasSiebengestirnderDichterdesachtzehntenJahrhundertsmdash1FriedrichGottliebKlopstock2GottholdEphraimLessing3ChristophMartinWieland4JohannGottfriedvonHerder5JohannWolfgangvonGoethe6JohannChristophFriedrichvonSchiller7JeanPaulFriedrichRichter
[pg051]
IIOLDGERMANLOVE-SONGS8
SevenhundredyearsagoWhatalongtimeitseemsPhilipAugustusKingofFranceHenryIIKingofEnglandFredericIthefamousBarbarossaEmperorofGermanyWhenwereadoftheirtimesthetimesoftheCrusadeswefeelastheGreeksfeltwhenreadingoftheWarofTroyWelistenweadmirebutwedo not compare the heroes of St Jean dAcre with the great generals of thenineteenthcenturyTheyseemadifferentraceofmenfromthosewhoarenowliving and poetry and tradition have lent to their royal frames such colossalproportions that we hardly dare to criticise the legendary history of theirchivalrous achievements It was a time of heroes of saints of martyrs ofmiraclesThomasagraveBecketwasmurderedatCanterburybutformorethanthreehundredyearshisnamelivedonandhisboneswereworkingmiraclesandhissoulseemedasitwereembodiedandpetrifiedintheloftypillarsthatsurroundthespotofhismartyrdomAbelardwaspersecutedandimprisonedbuthisspiritrevived in the Reformers of the sixteenth century [pg 052] and the shrine ofAbelard and Heacuteloise in the Pegravere La Chaise is still decorated every year withgarlands of immortelles Barbarossa was drowned in the same river in whichAlexandertheGreathadbathedhisroyallimbsbuthisfamelivedonineverycottageofGermanyandthepeasantneartheKyffhaumluserstillbelievesthatsomedaythemightyEmperorwillawakefromhislongslumberandrousethepeopleofGermany from their fatal dreamsWe dare not hold communionwith suchstatelyheroesasFredericktheRed-beardandRichardtheLion-hearttheyseemhalftobelongtotherealmoffableWefeelfromourveryschool-daysasifwecouldshakehandswithaThemistoclesandsitdowninthecompanyofaJuliusCaeligsar butwe are awed by the presence of those tall and silent knightswiththeirhandsfoldedandtheirlegscrossedasweseethemreposinginfullarmoronthetombsofourcathedrals
AndyethoweverdifferentinallotherrespectsthesemeniftheyoncelifttheirsteelbeaverandunbuckletheirricharmorarewonderfullylikeourselvesLetus
read the poetrywhich they eitherwrote themselves or towhich they liked tolistenintheircastlesontheRhineorundertheirtentsinPalestineandwefinditispoetrywhichaTennysonoraMooreaGoetheorHeinemighthavewrittenNeither Julius Caeligsar nor Themistocles would knowwhat wasmeant by suchpoetry It ismodernpoetrymdashpoetryunknown to the ancientworldmdashandwhoinventeditnobodycantellItissometimescalledRomanticbutthisisastrangemisnomerNeither theRomans nor the lineal descendants of theRomans theItalians theProvenccedilals theSpaniardscanclaimthatpoetryas theirownIt isTeutonic poetrymdashpurely [pg 053] Teutonic in its heart and soul though itsutterance its rhyme and metre its grace and imagery show the marks of awarmerclimeItiscalledsentimentalpoetrythepoetryoftheheartratherthanof the head the picture of the inward rather than of the outward world It issubjectiveasdistinguishedfromobjectivepoetryastheGermancriticsintheirscholastic language are fond of expressing it It isGothic as contrastedwithclassical poetry The one it is said sublimizes nature the other bodies forthspirit the one deifies the human the other humanizes the divine the one isethnic theotherChristianButall thesearebutnamesand their truemeaningmustbediscoveredintheworksofartthemselvesandinthehistoryofthetimeswhich produced the artists the poets and their idealsWe shall perceive thedifferencebetweenthesetwohemispheresoftheBeautifulbetterifwethinkofHomersldquoHelenardquoandDantesldquoBeatricerdquoifwelookattheldquoVenusofMilordquoandaldquoMadonnardquoofFranciathaninreadingtheprofoundestsystemsofaeligsthetics
TheworkwhichhascausedthesereflectionsisavolumeofGermanpoetryjustpublished by Lachmann and Haupt It is called ldquoDes MinnesangsFruumlhlingrdquomdashldquotheSpringof theSongsofLoverdquo and it contains a collectionofthepoemsoftwentyGermanpoetsallofwhomlivedduringtheperiodof theCrusades under the Hohenstaufen Emperors from about 1170 to 1230 ThisperiodmaywellbecalledthespringofGermanpoetrythoughthesummerthatfollowed was but of short duration and the autumn was cheated of the richharvestwhichthespringhadpromisedTieckoneofthefirstwhogatheredtheflowersofthatforgottenspringdescribesitinglowing[pg054] languageldquoAtthat timerdquo he says ldquobelievers sang of faith lovers of love knights describedknightly actions and battles and loving believing knights were their chiefaudience The spring beauty gayetywere objects that could never tire greatduelsanddeedsofarmscarriedawayeveryhearerthemoresurelythestrongertheywerepaintedandasthepillarsanddomeofthechurchencircletheflockso did religion as the highest encircle poetry and reality and every heart inequallovehumbleditselfbeforeherrdquoCarlyletoohaslistenedwithdelightto
thosemerry songs of spring ldquoThen trulyrdquo he says ldquowas the time of singingcome forprincesandprelatesemperorsandsquires thewiseand thesimplemenwomenandchildrenallsangandrhymedordelightedinhearingitdoneItwasauniversalnoiseof song as if the springofmanhoodhadarrived andwarblings from every spraymdashnot indeed without infinite twitterings alsowhichexcepttheirgladnesshadnomusicmdashwerebiddingitwelcomerdquoAndyetitwasnotallgladnessanditisstrangethatCarlylewhohassokeenanearforthe silentmelancholy of the human heart should not have heard that tone ofsorrowandfatefulbodingwhichbreakslikeasuppressedsighthroughthefreeandlightmusicofthatSwabianeraThebrightestskyofspringisnotwithoutitscloudsinGermanyandtheGermanheartisneverhappywithoutsomesadnessWhetherwelistentoashortdittyortotheepicballadsoftheldquoNibelungerdquoortoWolframs grand poemsof the ldquoParcivalrdquo and theldquoHolyGrailrdquo it is the sameeverywhere There is always amingling of light and shademdashin joy a fear ofsorrow insorrowa rayofhopeand throughout thewholeasilentwondering[pg055]atthisstrangeworldHereisaspecimenofananonymouspoemandanonymouspoetryisaninventionpeculiarlyTeutonicItwaswrittenbeforethetwelfth century its language is strangely simple and sometimes uncouth Butthereistruthinitanditistruthafterallandnotfictionthatisthesecretofallpoetrymdash
ldquoIthaspainedmeintheheartFullmanyatimeThatIyearnedafterthatWhichImaynothaveNorevershallwinItisverygrievousIdonotmeangoldorsilverItismorelikeahumanheart
ldquoItrainedmeafalconMorethanayearWhenIhadtamedhimAsIwouldhavehimAndhadwelltiedhisfeathersWithgoldenchainsHesoaredupveryhighAndflewintootherlands
ldquoIsawthefalconsinceFlyinghappilyHecarriedonhisfootSilkenstrapsAndhisplumagewasAllredofgoldMayGodsendthemtogetherWhowouldfainbelovedrdquo
Thekey-noteofthewholepoemoftheldquoNibelungerdquosuchasitwaswrittendownat theendof the twelfthor thebeginningof the thirteenthcentury isldquoSorrowafterJoyrdquoThis is the fatal spell againstwhichall theheroesare fighting andfightinginvainAndasHagendashestheChaplainintothewaves inordertobelie theprophecyof theMermaids but theChaplain rises andHagen rushesheadlongintodestructionsoChriemhiltisbargainingandplayingwith[pg056]the same inevitable fate cautiously guarding her young heart against thehappinessoflovethatshemayescapethesorrowsofabrokenheartShetoohasbeendreamingldquoofawildyoungfalconthatshetrainedformanyadaytilltwofierceeaglestoreitrdquoAndsherushestohermotherUtethatshemayreadthe dream for her and hermother tells her what it means And then the coymaidenanswersmdash
ldquoNomorenomoredearmothersayFrommanyawomansfortunethistruthisclearasdayThatfalselysmilingPleasurewithPainrequitesuseverIfrombothwillkeepmeandthuswillsorrowneverrdquo
ButSiegfriedcomesandChriemhiltsheartdoesnolongercastupthebrightandthedarkdaysof lifeToSiegfriedshebelongs forhimshe livesandforhimwhenldquotwofierceeaglestorehimrdquoshediesAstillwildertragedylieshiddeninthe songs of the ldquoEddardquo themost ancient fragments of truly Teutonic poetryWolframspoetryisofthesamesombrecastHewrotehisldquoParcivalrdquoaboutthetimewhen the songs of the ldquoNibelungerdquowerewritten down The subjectwastakenbyhimfromaFrenchsourceItbelongedoriginallytotheBritishcycleofArthur and his knights ButWolfram took the story merely as a skeleton towhichhehimselfgaveanewbodyandsoulThegloryandhappinesswhichthisworldcangiveistohimbutashadowmdashthecrownforwhichhisherofightsisthatoftheHolyGrail
FaithLoveandHonorarethechiefsubjectsoftheso-calledMinnesaumlngerTheyarenotwhatweshouldcalleroticpoetsMinnemeanslovein theoldGermanlanguage but it means originally not so much passion and desire asthoughtfulness reverence and remembrance In English Minne would beldquoMindingrdquo and [pg 057] it is different therefore from the Greek Eros theRomanAmorandtheFrenchAmourItisdifferentalsofromtheGermanLiebewhich means originally desire not love Most of the poems of theldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquo are sad rather than joyfulmdashjoyful in sorrow sorrowful in joyThesamefeelingshavesincebeensooftenrepeatedbypoetsinallthemodernlanguages ofEurope thatmuch ofwhatwe read in the ldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquoof thetwelfthandthirteenthcenturiessoundsstaletoourearsYetthereisasimplicityabouttheseoldsongsawantofeffortanentireabsenceofanyattempttopleaseor to surprise andwe listen to them aswe listen to a friendwho tells us hissufferingsinbrokenandhomelywordsandwhosetruthfulproseappealstoourheartmorestronglythanthemostelaboratepoetryofaLamartineoraHeineItisextremelydifficult totranslatethesepoemsfromthelanguageinwhichtheyarewritten the so-calledMiddleHigh-German intoModernGermanmdashmuchmoresotorenderthemintoEnglishButtranslationisatthesametimethebesttest of the true poetical value of any poem andwe believe thatmany of thepoemsoftheMinnesaumlngerscanbearthattestHereisanotherpoemverymuchinthestyleoftheonequotedabovebutwrittenbyapoetwhosenameisknownmdashDietmarvonEistmdash
ldquoAladystoodaloneAndgazedacrosstheheathAndgazedforherloveShesawafalconflyingldquoOhappyfalconthatthouartThoufliestwhereverthoulikestThouchoosestintheforestAtreethatpleasestheeThusItoohaddoneIchosemyselfamanHimmyeyesselected[pg058]BeautifulladiesenvymeforitAlaswhywilltheynotleavememyloveIdidnotdesirethebelovedofanyoneofthemNowwoetotheejoyofsummer
ThesongofbirdsisgoneSoaretheleavesofthelime-treeHenceforthmyprettyeyestooWillbeovercastMylovethoushouldsttakeleaveOfotherladiesYesmyherothoushouldstavoidthemWhenthousawestmefirstIseemedtotheeintruthRightlovelymadeIremindtheeofitdearmanrsquothinsprdquo
These poems simple and homely as they may seem to us were loved andadmired by the people for whom they were written They were copied andpreservedwiththegreatestcareinthealbumsofkingsandqueensandsomeofthemwere translated into foreign languages The poemwhichwe quoted firstwas translated as an Italian sonnet in the thirteenth century and has beenpublishedinFrancTrucchisldquoPoesieItalianeInediterdquomdash
ldquoTapinamecheamavaunosparvieroamavaltantochiomenemoriaalorichiamobenmeramanieroedunquetroppopascernoldoviaoregravemontatoesalitosigravealteroassaipiugravealterochefarnonsoliaedegraveassisodentroaunverzieroeunaltradonnalaveragraveinbaligraveaisparviermiochiotaveanodritosonagliodorotifaceaportareperchegravenelluccellarfossipiugravearditoorseisalitosiccomelomareedhairottiligettieseigravefuggitoquandoerifermoneltuouccellarerdquo
One of the most original and thoughtful of the ldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquo is the oldReinmarHispoemsaregivennowforthefirsttimeinacorrectandreadable[pg059] text by Lachmann and Haupt and many a difficult passage has beenelucidated by their notes His poems however are not easy to read and weshouldhavebeenthankfulforsomemorehelpthantheeditorshavegivenusin
theirnotesThefollowingisaspecimenofReinmarspoetrymdash
ldquoHighasthesunstandsmyheartThatisbecauseofaladywhocanbewithoutchangeInhergracewherevershebeShemakesmefreefromallsorrow
ldquoIhavenothingtogiveherbutmyownlifeThatbelongstoherthebeautifulwomangivesmealwaysJoyandahighmindIfIthinkofitwhatshedoesforme
ldquoWellisitformethatIfoundhersotrueWherevershedwellshealonemakeseverylanddeartomeIfshewentacrossthewildseaThereIshouldgoIlongsomuchforher
ldquoIfIhadthewisdomofathousandmenitwouldbewellThatIkeepherwhomIshouldserveMayshetakecarerightwellThatnothingsadmayeverbefallmethroughher
ldquoIwasneverquiteblessedbutthroughherWhateverIwishtohermaysheallowittomeItwasablessedthingformeThatshetheBeautifulreceivedmeintohergracerdquo
Carlylenodoubt is rightwhenhe says that amongall thiswarblingof lovethereareinfinitetwitteringswhichexcepttheirgladnesshavelittletocharmusYetweliketoreadthemaspartofthebrighthistoryofthoseby-gonedaysOnepoetsingsmdash
ldquoIfthewholeworldwasmineFromtheSeatotheRhineIwouldgladlygiveitallThattheQueenofEnglandLayinmyarmsrdquoetc
[pg060]Who was the impertinent German that dared to fall in love with a Queen of
EnglandWedonotknowButtherecanbenodoubtthattheQueenofEnglandwhom he adored was the gay and beautiful Eleanor of Poitou the Queen ofHenry IIwho filled the heart ofmany aCrusaderwith unholy thoughtsHerdaughtertooMathildewhowasmarriedtoHenrytheLionofSaxonyinspiredmany a poet of those days Her beauty was celebrated by the ProvenccedilalTroubadours and at the court of her husband she encouraged several of herGermanvassals to follow theexampleof theFrenchandNormanknightsandsing the love of Tristan and Isolt and the adventures of the knights ofCharlemagneTheymusthavebeenhappy times those timesof theCrusadesNor have they passed away without leaving their impress on the hearts andminds of the nations of Europe TheHoly Sepulchre it is true is still in thehandsof the Infidels and thebonesof theCrusaders lieburied inunhallowedsoil and their deeds of valor are well-nigh forgotten and their chivalrousTournamentsandtheirCourtsofLovearesmiledatbyawisergenerationButmuch that is noble andheroic in the feelingsof thenineteenth centuryhas itshidden roots in the thirteenth Gothic architecture and Gothic poetry are thechildrenofthesamemotherandifthetruebutunadornedlanguageofthehearttheaspirationsofarealfaiththesorrowandjoyofatruelovearestilllistenedtobythenationsofEuropeandifwhatiscalledtheRomanticschoolisstrongenoughtoholditsgroundagainsttheclassicaltasteanditsroyalpatronssuchasLouisXIVCharlesIIandFredericktheGreatmdashweoweittothosechivalrouspoetswhodaredforthefirst[pg061]timetobewhattheywereandtosaywhattheyfeltandtowhomFaithLoveandHonorwereworthysubjectsofpoetrythoughtheylackedthesanctionofthePericleanandAugustanages
TheneweditionofthePoemsoftheldquoMinnesaumlngerrdquoisamasterpieceofGermanscholarshipItwascommencedbyLachmannthegreatestcriticafterWolfthatGermany has produced Lachmann died before the work was finished andProfessorHaupthissuccessoratBerlinundertooktofinishitHisshareintheedition particularly in the notes is greater than that of Lachmann and theaccuracywithwhichthetexthasbeenrestoredfrommorethantwentyMSSisworthyofthegreatpupilofthatgreatmaster
1858
[pg062]
IIIYESCHYPPEOFFOOLES9
Thecriticalperiodsinthehistoryoftheworldarebeststudiedinthelivesofafew representative men The history of the German Reformation assumes alivingintelligibleandhumancharacterinthebiographiesoftheReformersandnohistorianwouldimaginethatheunderstoodthesecretspringsofthatmightyrevolutioninGermanywithouthavingreadtheworksofHuttenthetable-talkofLutherthelettersofMelancthonandthesermonsofZwingleButalthoughitiseasy tosingleout representativemen in thegreatdecisivestrugglesofhistorythey aremore difficult to find during the preparatory periods The years from1450 to 1500 are as important as the years from 1500 to 1550mdashnay to thethoughtfulhistorianthatsilentperiodofincubationisperhapsofdeeperinterestthantheviolentoutburstofthesixteenthcenturyButwhereduringthoseyearsare themenofsufficienteminence torepresent theage inwhich they livedItwasanageof transitionandpreparationofdissatisfactionandhesitationLikethewholeofthefifteenthcenturyldquoItwasrichinscholarscopiousin[pg063]pedantsbutpooringeniusandbarrenofstrongthinkersrdquoWemustnotlookforheroes in so unheroic an age but be satisfiedwithmen if they be but a headtallerthantheircontemporaries
One of themost interestingmen inwhose life andwritings the history of thepreliminaryageoftheGermanReformationmaybestudiedisSebastianBrantthefamousauthorofthefamousldquoShipofFoolsrdquoHewasbornintheyear1457TheCouncilofBaslehadfailedtofulfillthehopesoftheGermanlaityastoareformatio ecclesiaelig in capite et membris In the very year of Brants birthMartinMeyertheChancellorofMayencehadaddressedhislettertohisformerfriend AEligneas Sylviusmdasha national manifesto in boldness and vigor onlysurpassedbythepowerfulpamphletofLutherldquoTotheNobilityoftheGermanNationrdquo Germany seemed to awaken at last to her position and to see thedangersthatthreatenedherpoliticalandreligiousfreedomThenewmovementwhichhadtakenplaceinItalyinclassicallearningsupportedchieflybyGreek
refugees began to extend its quickening influence beyond the Alps AEligneasSylvius afterwardsPopePius II 1458writes in oneof his letters that poetswereheldinnoestimationinGermanythoughheadmitsthattheirpoetryislesstobeblamedforthisthantheirpatronstheprinceswhocarefarmoreforanytrifles thanforpoetryTheGermanshesaysdonotcareforsciencenorforaknowledgeofclassicalliteratureandtheyhavehardlyheardthenameofCicerooranyotheroratorIntheeyesoftheItalianstheGermanswerebarbariansandwhenConstantineLascarissawthefirstspecimenofprintinghewastoldbytheItalianprieststhatthisinventionhadlatelybeenmadeapudbarbarosinurbe[pg064]GermaniaeligTheyweredangerousneighborsmdashthesebarbarianswhocouldmake such discoveries as the art of printing and Brant lived to see the timewhen Joh Caeligsarius was able to write to a friend of his ldquoAt this momentGermany if shedoesnotsurpass Italyat leastneednotandwillnotyield toher not somuch on account of her empire as for herwonderful fecundity inlearnedmenandthealmostincrediblegrowthoflearningrdquo
This period of slowbut steady progress from the invention of printing to theCouncilofWormsisbridgedoverbythelifeofSebastianBrantwholivedfrom1457to1521BrantwasveryearlythefriendofPeterSchottandthroughhimhad been brought in contact with a circle of learned men who were busilyengagedinfoundingoneofthefirstschoolsofclassicallearningatSchlettstadtMen likeJacWimphelingJohTorrentinusFlorentiusHundiusandJohannesHugo belonged to that society Brant afterwards went to Basle to study lawBaslewasthenayounguniversityIthadonlybeenfoundedin1459butitwasalreadyasuccessfulrivalofHeidelbergThestrugglebetweentheRealistsandNominalistswas then raging all overEurope and it divided theUniversity ofBasle into two parties each of them trying to gain influence and adherentsamong the young students It has been usual to look upon theRealists as theConservative and upon the Nominalists as the Liberal party of the fifteenthcentury But although at times this was the case philosophical opinions onwhich the differences between these two parties were founded were not ofsufficientstrengthtodetermineforanylengthoftimethepoliticalandreligiousbias of either school The Realists were chiefly supported [pg 065] by theDominicans the Nominalists by the Franciscans and there is always a moregentleexpressionbeaming in theeyesof the followersof the seraphicDoctorparticularlyifcontrastedwiththesternfrownoftheDominicanOckamhimselfwas a Franciscan and those who thought with him were called doctoresrenovatoresandsophistaeligSuddenlyhoweverthetableswereturnedAtOxfordtheRealists in followingout theirprinciples inamore independentspirithad
arrived at results dangerous to thepeaceof theChurchAsphilosophers theybegan to carry out the doctrines of Plato in good earnest as reformers theylookedwistfullytotheearlycenturiesoftheChristianChurchThesameliberalandindependentspiritreachedfromOxfordtoPragueandtheexpulsionoftheGermannationfromthatuniversitymaybe traced to thesamemovementTheRealistswereat that timenolonger in thegoododoroforthodoxyandat theCouncil of Constanz the Nominalists such as Joh Gerson and Petrus deAlliacogainedtriumphswhichseemedforatimetomakethemthearbitersofpublicopinioninGermanyandtogivethemthemeansofsecuringtheChurchagainst the attacks of Huss on one side and against the more dangerousencroachmentsofthePopeandthemonksontheotherThistriumphhoweverwas of short duration All the rights which the Germans seemed to haveconqueredat theCouncilsofConstanzandBasleweresacrificedby theirownEmperorNoonedaredtosayagainwhatGregoryvonHeimburghadsaidtotheItalianclergymdashldquoQuid fines alienos invaditis quid falcem vestram inmessemalienamextenditisrdquoUnderAEligneasSylvius thepowerof thePope inGermanywasasabsoluteaseverTheNominalistpartylostall[pg066]thegroundwhichithadgainedbeforeItwaslookeduponwithsuspicionbyPopeandEmperorItwas banished from courts and universities and the disciples of the RealisticschoolbeganacompletecrusadeagainstthefollowersofOckam
JohannesHeynlinaLapideaformerheadofahouseinParismigratedtoBaslein order to lend his influence and authority to the Realist party in that risinguniversity Trithemius says of him ldquoHic doctrinam eorum Parisiensium quireales appellantur primus ad Basiliensium universitatem transtulit ibidemqueplantavitroboravitetauxitrdquoThisJohannesHeynlinaLapidehoweverthoughaviolentchampionofthethenvictoriousRealistpartywasbynomeansamanwithoutliberalsentimentsOnmanypointstheRealistsweremoretolerantoratleastmoreenlightened than theNominalistsTheycountedamong themselvesbetterscholarsthantheadherentsofOckamTheywerethefirstandforemosttopointouttheuselessnessofthedryscholasticsystemofteachinggrammarandlogic and nothing else And though they cherished their own ideas as to thesupreme authority of the Pope the divine right of the Emperor or theimmaculateconceptionof theVirgin (adogmadeniedby theDominicansanddefendedbytheFranciscans)theywerealwaysreadytopointoutabusesandtosuggestreformsTheageinwhichtheylivedwasnotanageofdecisivethoughtor decisive action Therewas awant of character in individuals aswell as inpartiesandthepointsinwhichtheydifferedwereofsmallimportancethoughtheymaskeddifferencesofgreaterweightAtBaslethemenwhoweregathered
roundJohannesaLapidewerewhatweshouldcallLiberalConservativesanditisamong[pg067]themthatwefindSebastianBrantBaslecouldthenboastofsomeofthemosteminentmenofthetimeBesidesAgricolaandWimphelingandGeilervonKaisersbergandTrithemiusReuchlinwasthereforatimeandWessel and theGreekKontablacosSebastianBrant thoughon friendly termswithmostofthesemenwastheirjuniorandamonghiscontemporariesanewgenerationgrewupmoreindependentandmorefree-spokenthantheirmastersthough as yet very far from any revolutionary views inmatters of Church orStateFeudsbrokeoutverysoonbetweentheoldandtheyoungschoolsLocherthe friend of Brantmdashthe poet who had turned his ldquoShip of Foolsrdquo into Latinversemdashpublishedapoeminwhichheattackedratherpetulantlythescholasticphilosophyand theologyWimpheling at the request ofGeilerofKaisersberghadtopunishhimforthisaudacityandhediditinapamphletfullofthemostvulgarabuseReuchlinalsohadgivenoffenseandwasattackedandpersecutedbut his party retaliated by the ldquoEpistolaelig Obscurorum Virorumrdquo Thus theConservativeorRealisticpartybecamedividedandwhenatthebeginningofanewcenturyandanewerainthehistoryoftheworldLutherraisedhisvoiceindefenseofnationalandreligiousfreedomhewas joinednotonlyby themoreadvanceddescendantsoftheNominalisticschoolbutbyallthevigorthetalentandtheintellectoftheoldConservatives
BranthimselfthoughhelivedatStrassburgupto1521didnotjointhestandardof theReformationHehad learned togrumble to find fault to abuse and tocondemnbuthistimewasgonewhenthemomentforactionarrivedAndyethehelpedtowardthe[pg068]successoftheReformationinGermanyHehadbeenoneofthefirstafterthediscoveryofprintingtousetheGermanlanguageforpoliticalpurposesHisfly-sheetshisillustratededitionshadgivenusefulhintshowtoaddressthelargemassesofthepeopleIfhelookedupontheworldasitthen was as a ship of fools and represented every weakness vice andwickedness under themilder color of foolery the peoplewho read his poemssingled out some of his fools and called them knaves The great work ofSebastianBrantwashisldquoNarrenschiffrdquoItwasfirstpublishedin1497atBasleandthefirsteditionthoughonaccountofitswood-cutsitcouldnothavebeenavery cheap book was sold off at once Edition after edition followed andtranslationswerepublishedinLatin inLow-German inDutch inFrenchandEnglish Sermons were preached on the ldquoNarrenschiffrdquo Trithemius calls itDivina Satira Locher compares Brant with Dante Hutten calls him the newlawgiver ofGerman poetry The ldquoNarrenschiffrdquo is aworkwhichwemay stillreadwithpleasurethoughitisdifficulttoaccountforitsimmensesuccessatthe
time of its publication Some historians ascribe it to the wood-cuts They arecertainlyverycleverandthereisreasontosupposethatmostof themwere ifnotactuallydrawnat least suggestedbyBranthimselfYetevenaTurnerhasfailedtorendermediocrepoetrypopularbyhisillustrationsandthereisnothingto show that the caricatures of Brant were preferred to his satires Now hissatiresitistruearenotverypowerfulnorpungentnororiginalButhisstyleisfree and easyBrant is not a ponderous poetHewrites in short chapters andmixeshisfoolsinsuchamannerthatwealwaysmeet[pg069]withavarietyofnewfacesIt is truethatall thiswouldhardlybesufficient tosecureadecidedsuccessforaworklikehisat thepresentdayBut thenwemustremember thetimeinwhichhewroteWhathad thepoorpeopleofGermanytoread towardthe end of the fifteenth century Printing had been invented and bookswerepublishedandsoldwithgreatrapidityPeoplewerenotonlyfondbutproudofreading booksReadingwas fashionable and the first foolwho entersBrantsshipisthemanwhobuysbooksButwhatwerethebooksthatwereofferedforsale We find among the early prints of the fifteenth century religioustheological and classical works in great abundance and we know that therespectableandwealthyburghersofAugsburgandStrassburgwereproudtofilltheirshelveswiththeseportlyvolumesButthenGermanaldermenhadwivesand daughters and sons and what were they to read during the long wintereveningsThepoetryofthethirteenthcenturywasnolongerintelligibleandthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturieshadproducedvery little thatwouldbe to thetasteofyoungladiesandgentlemenThepoetryoftheldquoMeistersaumlngerrdquowasnotvery exhilarating The romances of ldquoThe Book of Heroesrdquo had lost all theirnative charms under the rough treatment they had experienced at the hand oftheir latest editor Casper von der Roen The so-called ldquoMisteriesrdquo (notmysteries)might beverywell asChristmaspantomimesonce a year but theycouldnotbereadfortheirownsakelikethedramaticliteratureoflatertimesThelight literatureof thedayconsistedentirely innovelsandinspiteof theirmiserablecharactertheirpopularitywasimmenseBesidesthe[pg070]ldquoGestaRomanorumrdquowhichwere turned intoGerman verse and prosewemeetwithFrenchnovelssuchasldquoLotherandMalerrdquotranslatedbyaCountessofNassauin1437andprintedin1514ldquoPontusandSidoniardquotranslatedfromtheFrenchby Eleanor of Scotland the wife of Sigismund of Austria published 1498ldquoMelusinardquo equally from the French published 1477 The old epic poems ofldquoTristanrdquoandldquoLancelotrdquoandldquoWigaloisrdquoweretoolongandtediousPeopledidnotcareanylongerforthedeepthoughtsofWolframvonEschenbachandthebeautiful poetry of Gottfried von Strassburg They wanted only the plot thestorythedrybonesandtheseweredishedupintheprosenovelsofthefifteenth
century and afterwards collected in the so-called ldquoBook of Loverdquo TherewasroomthereforeatthattimeforaworkliketheldquoShipofFoolsrdquoItwasthefirstprintedbookthattreatedofcontemporaneouseventsandlivingpersonsinsteadofoldGermanbattlesandFrenchknightsPeoplearealwaysfondofreadingthehistoryoftheirowntimesIfthegoodqualitiesoftheiragearebroughtouttheythinkofthemselvesortheirfriendsifthedarkfeaturesoftheircontemporariesare exhibited they think of their neighbors and enemies Now the ldquoShip ofFoolsrdquo is just such a satire which ordinary people would read and read withpleasureTheymightfeelaslighttwingenowandthenbuttheywouldputdownthebookattheendandthankGodthattheywerenotlikeothermenThereisachapteronMisersmdashandwhowouldnotgladlygiveapennytoabeggarThereisachapteronGluttonymdashandwhowasevermorethanalittleexhilaratedafterdinnerThere is a chapter onChurch-goersmdashandwho everwent to [pg 071]churchforrespectabilityssakeortoshowoffagaudydressorafinedogoranewhawkThereisachapteronDancingmdashandwhoeverdancedexceptforthesakeofexerciseThereisachapteronAdulterymdashandwhoeverdidmorethanflirtwithhisneighborswifeWesometimeswishthatBrantssatirehadbeenalittlemore searching and that instead of hismany allusions to classical fools(for his book is full of scholarship) he had given us a little more of thechroniquescandaleuseofhisowntimeButhewastoogoodamantodothisandhiscontemporariesnodoubtweregratefultohimforhisforbearance
BrantspoemisnoteasytoreadThoughhewasacontemporaryofLutherhislanguage differsmuchmore frommodernGerman thanLuthers translation oftheBibleHis ldquoShipofFoolsrdquowanted a commentary and thiswant has beensupplied by one of the most learned and industrious scholars of GermanyProfessor Zarncke in his lately published edition of the ldquoNarrenschiffrdquo Thismust have been a work of many years of hard labor Nothing that is worthknowingaboutBrant andhisworkshasbeenomitted andwehardlyknowofany commentary on Aristophanes or Juvenal in which every difficulty is sohonestlymetasinProfessorZarnckesnotesontheGermansatiristTheeditorisamostminuteandpainstakingcriticHetriestoreeumlstablishthecorrectreadingofeverywordandheentersuponhisworkwithasmuchzealas if theworldcould not be saved till every tittle of Brants poem had been restored He ishowever not only a critic but a sensible and honestmanHe knowswhat isworthknowingandwhatisnotandhedoesnotallowhimselftobecarried[pg072]awaybyadesire todisplayhisownsuperioracquirementsmdashaweaknesswhichmakessomanyofhiscolleaguesforgetfuloftherealendsofknowledgeandtherealdutiesofthescholarandthehistorian
We have to say a few words on the English translation of Brants ldquoShip ofFoolsrdquoItwasnotmadefromtheoriginalbutfromLochersLatintranslationItreproduces thematterbutnot themannerof theoriginalsatireSomeportionsareaddedbythetranslatorAlexanderBarclayandinsomepartshistranslationisanimprovementontheoriginalItwasprintedin1508published1509andwentthroughseveraleditions
The following may serve as a specimen of Barclays translation and of hisoriginalcontributionstoBrantsldquoNavisStultiferardquomdash
ldquoHerebeginneththelsquoShipofFoolesrsquoandfirstofunprofitablebooksmdash
ldquoIamthefirstfooleofallthewholenavieTokeepthePompetheHelmeandeketheSayleForthisismymindethisonepleasurehaveIOfbookestohavegreatplentieandapparayleItakenowisdomebythemnotyetavayleNorthemperceavenotandthenIthemdespiseThusamIafooleandallthatsuethatguise
ldquoThatinthisShipthechiefeplaceIgoverneBythiswideSeawithfooleswandringThecauseisplaineandeasytodiscerneStillamIbusybookesassemblingFortohaveplentieitisapleasantthingInmyconceytandtohavethemayinhandeButwhattheymeanedoInotunderstande
ldquoButyetIhavethemingreatreverenceAndhonouresavingthemfromfilthandordureByoftenbrusshingandmuchdiligenceFullgoodlyboundeinpleasantcovertureOfDamasSattinorelsofVelvetpureIkeepethemsurefearingleasttheyshouldbelostForinthemisthecunningwhereinImeboast
[pg073]
ldquoButifitfortunethatanylearnedmenWithinmyhousefalltodisputation
IdrawethecurtaynestoshewemybokesthenThattheyofmycunningshouldmakeprobationIkepenottofallinaltericationAndwhiletheycommentmybookesIturneandwindeForallisinthemandnothinginmyminderdquo
InthefourthchapterldquoOfnewefassionsanddisguisedgarmentesrdquothereisattheendwhatiscalledldquoTheLenvoyofAlexanderBarclayrdquoandinitanallusiontoHenryVIIImdash
ldquoButyeproudegalantsthatthusyourselfedisguiseBeyeashamedbeholdeuntoyourprinceConsiderhissadnesshishonestiedeviseHisclothingexpressethhisinwardeprudenceYeseenoexampleofsuchinconvenienceInhishighnessbutgodlywitandgravitieEnsuehimandsorroweforyourenormitierdquo
[pg074]
IVLIFEOFSCHILLER10
Thehundredthanniversaryof thebirthdayofSchillerwhich according to theaccountspublishedintheGermannewspapersseemstohavebeencelebratedinmostpartsofthecivilizednayeventheuncivilizedworldisaneventinsomerespectsunprecedentedintheliteraryannalsofthehumanraceAnationhonorsherselfbyhonoringhersonsand it isbutnatural that inGermanyevery townand village should have vied in doing honor to the memory of one of theirgreatest poets The letters which have reached us from every German capitalrelatenomorethanwhatweexpectedThereweremeetingsandfeastingsballsandtheatricalrepresentationsTheveteranphilologistJacobGrimmaddressedtheBerlinAcademyon theoccasion in a soul-stirringoration thedirectorsoftheImperialPressatViennaseizedtheopportunitytopublishasplendidalbumor ldquoSchillerbuchrdquo [pg 075] in honor of the poet unlimited eloquence waspoured forthbyprofessorsandacademicians schoolchildren recitedSchillersballadstheGermanstudentsshoutedthemostpopularofhissongsnordidtheladiesofGermanyfailinpayingtheirtributeofgratitudetohimwhosincethedays of theMinnesaumlngers had been themost eloquent herald of female graceanddignity In the evening torchprocessionsmight be seenmarching throughthe streets bonfires were lighted on the neighboring hills houses wereilluminatedandeventhesolitarydarknessofthewindowsofthePapalNuncioatViennaaddedtothelustreoftheday11IneveryplacewhereSchillerhadspentsome years of his life local recollections were revived and perpetuated bytabletsandmonumentsThemost touchingaccountofallcamefromthesmallvillageofCleversulzbachOnthevillagecemeteryorasitiscalledinGermanthe ldquoGods-acrerdquo there stands a tombstone and on it the simple inscriptionldquoSchillersMotherrdquoOnthemorningofhersonsbirthdaythepoorpeopleofthevillage were gathered together round that grave singing one of their sacredhymnsandplantingalime-treeinthesoilwhichcoverstheheartthatlovedhimbest
But the commemoration of Schillers birthday was not confined to his nativecountryWe have seen in theGerman papers letters fromSt Petersburg andLisbon from Venice Rome and Florence from Amsterdam Stockholm andChristiana from Warsaw and Odessa from Jassy and Bucharest fromConstantinopleAlgiersandSmyrnaandlatelyfromAmericaandAustraliaalldescribing thefestivegatheringswhichweresuggestednodoubtbySchillerscosmopolitan [pg 076] countrymen but joined in most cheerfully by all thenations of the globe Poets of higher rank than SchillermdashDante Shakespeareand Goethemdashhave never aroused such world-wide sympathies and it is notwithout interest to inquire into the causeswhich have secured to Schiller thisuniversal popularity However superlative the praises which have lately beenheapedonSchillers poetryby thosewhocannot praise except in superlativeswebelievethatitwasnotthepoetbutthemantowhomtheworldhaspaidthisunprecedentedtributeofloveandadmirationAfterreadingSchillersworkswemustreadSchillerslifemdashthegreatestofallhisworksItisalifenotunknownto the English public for it has been written by Carlyle The last festivitieshowever have given birth to several new biographies Palleskes ldquoLife ofSchillerrdquohasmetwithsuchsuccessinGermanythatitwelldeservedthehonorwhichithaslatelyreceivedatthehandsofLadyWallaceandunderthespecialpatronageof theQueenofbeing translated intoEnglishAnotherverycarefulandlucidaccountofthepoetslifeisduetothepenofamemberoftheFrenchInstituteMARegnierthedistinguishedtutoroftheComtedeParis
InreadingtheselivestogetherwiththevoluminousliteraturewhichisintendedtoillustratethecharacteroftheGermanpoetwefrequentlyfeltinclinedtoaskonequestiontowhichnoneofSchillersbiographershasreturnedasatisfactoryanswerldquoWhatwerethepeculiarcircumstanceswhichbroughtoutinGermanyand in thesecondhalfof theeighteenthcenturyamanof themoralcharacterandapoetofthecreativegeniusofSchillerrdquoGrantedthathewasendowedbynaturewiththehighesttalentshowdidhegrow[pg077]tobeapoetsuchasweknowhimdifferentfromallotherGermanpoetsandyetinthoughtfeelingand language the most truly German of all the poets of Germany Are wereducedtoappealtothemysteriousworkingofanunknownpowerifwewishtoexplain to ourselves why in the same country and at the same time poeticalgeniusassumedsuchdifferentformsasareseeninthewritingsofSchillerandGoetheIsittobeascribedtowhatiscalledindividualityawordwhichintruthexplainsnothingorisitpossibleforthehistorianandpsychologisttodiscoverthehiddeninfluenceswhichactonthegrowingmindandproducethatstrikingvariety of poetical geniuswhichwe admire in theworks of contemporaneous
poets such as Schiller andGoethe inGermany orWordsworth andByron inEnglandMengrownotonlyfromwithinbutalsofromwithoutWeknowthatapoet isbornmdashpoetanasciturmdashbutwealsoknow thathischaractermustbeformed the seed is given but the furrowmust be ploughed in which it is togrow and the same grain which if thrown on cultivated soil springs intofullnessandvigorwilldwindleawaystuntedandbrokenifcastuponshallowanduntilledlandTherearecertaineventsinthelifeofeverymanwhichfashionand stamphis character theymay seem small andunimportant in themselvesbuttheyaregreatandimportanttoeachofustheymarkthatslightbendwheretwolineswhichhadbeenrunningparallelbegintodivergenevertomeetagainTheGreekscallsucheventsepochsiehalts
WehaltforamomentwelookaboutandwonderandthenchooseourfurtherwayinlifeItisthedutyofbiographerstodiscoversuchepochssuchhalting-points in the lives of their heroes andwe shall [pg 078] endeavor to do thesameinthelifeofSchillerbywatchingthevariousinfluenceswhichdeterminedthedirectionofhisgeniusatdifferentperiodsofhispoeticalcareer
TheperiodofSchillerschildhoodisgenerallydescribedwithgreatdetailbyhisbiographersWearetoldwhohisancestorswereIbelievetheywerebakersWeare informed that hismother possessed in her trousseau among other thingsfour pairs of stockingsmdashthree of cotton one of wool There are also longdiscussionsontheexactdateofhisbirthWehearagreatdealofearlysignsofgeniusor ratherweshouldsayof thingsdoneandsaidbymostchildrenbutinvestedwithextraordinarysignificanceifrememberedofthechildhoodofgreatmenTotellthetruthwecanfindnothingveryimportantinwhatwethuslearnoftheearlyyearsofSchillernordoesthepoethimselfinlateryearsdwellmuchon the recollections of his dawning mind If we must look for somedeterminatinginfluencesduringthechildhoodofSchillertheyarechieflytobefound in the character of his fatherThe fatherwasnotwhatwe should call awell-educatedmanHehadbeenbroughtupasabarberandsurgeonhadjoinedaBavarian regiment in 1745 during theAustrianwar of succession and hadactedasanon-commissionedofficerandwhenoccasionrequiredasachaplainAfterthepeaceofAix-la-ChapellehehadmarriedthedaughterofaninnkeeperHewas a braveman aGod-fearingman and as is not unfrequently the casewith half-educatedpeople amanvery fondof readingWhat he had failed toattainhimselfhewished tosee realized inhisonlysonThe followingprayerwasfoundamongthepapersofthefatherldquoAndThouBeingofallbeings[pg079]IhaveaskedTheeafterthebirthofmyonlysonthatThouwouldstaddto
his powers of intellect what I from deficient instructionwas unable to attainThouhastheardmeThanksbetoTheebounteousBeingthatThouheedesttheprayersofmortalsrdquoAmanofthisstampofmindwouldbesuretoexercisehisownpeculiarinfluenceonhischildrenHewouldmakethemlookonlifenotasamereprofessionwherethesonhasonlytofollowinthestepsofhisfatherhischildrenwouldearlybecomefamiliarwithsuchideasasldquomakingonesway inliferdquoandwouldlookforwardtoasteeppathratherthantoabeatentrackTheirthoughts would dwell on the future at a timewhen other children live in thepresentonlyandanadventurousspiritwouldberousedwithoutwhichnogreatworkhaseverbeenconceivedandcarriedout
WhenhischildrenyoungFrederickandhissistersweregrowinguptheirfatherreadtothemtheirmorningandeveningprayersandsofondwastheboyoftheOldandNewTestamentstoriesthathewouldoftenleavehisgamesinordertobe present at his fathers readings In 1765 the family left Marbach on theNeckarThefatherwasorderedbytheDukeofWurtembergtoLorchaplaceonthe frontier where he had to act as recruiting officer His son received hiseducationinthehouseofaclergymanbeganLatinatsixGreekatsevenandasfar aswe are able to see he neither seems to have consideredhimself nor tohavebeenconsideredbyhismastersasverysuperior tootherboysHewasagoodboytenderlyattachedtohisparentsfondofgamesandregularatschoolTherearebuttwomarkedfeatureswhichwehaveanopportunityofwatchinginhim as [pg 080] a boy He knew no fear and he was full of the warmestsympathy for others The first quality secured him the respect the second theloveofthosewithwhomhecameincontactHisparentswhowerepoorhadgreat difficulty in restraining his generosity He would give away his school-books and the very buckles off his shoes Both his fearlessness and universalsympathy are remarkable through the whole of his after-life Not even hisenemiescouldpointoutonetraitofcowardiceorselfishnessinanythingheeverdidorsaidorwroteTherearesomepertinentremarksonthecombinationofthesetwoqualitiessympathywithothersandcouragebytheauthorofldquoFriendsinCouncilrdquo
ldquoIfgreatnessrdquohewritesldquocanbeshutupinqualitiesitwillbefoundtoconsistincourageandinopennessofmindandsoulThesequalitiesmaynotseematfirsttobesopotentButseewhatgrowththereisinthemTheeducationofamanofopenmind is never ended Thenwith openness of soul aman sees someway into allothersoulsthatcomenearhimfeelswiththemhastheirexperienceisinhimselfapeopleSympathyistheuniversalsolventNothingisunderstoodwithoutitAddcouragetothisopennessandyouhaveamanwhocanownhimselfinthewrong
canforgivecantrustcanadventurecaninshortuseallthemeansthatinsightandsympathyendowhimwithrdquo
A plucky and warm-hearted boy under the care of an honest brave andintelligent father and a tender and religiousmothermdashthis is all we know andcaretoknowaboutSchillerduringthefirsttenyearsofhislifeIntheyear1768there begins a new period in the life of Schiller His father was settled atLudwigsburg theordinary residenceof the reigningDukeofWurtemberg theDuke Charles This man was destined to exercise a decisive influence onSchillerscharacterLikemanyGermansovereignsinthemiddleof[pg081]thelastcenturyDukeCharlesofWurtemberghadfelttheinfluenceofthoseliberalideaswhichhadfoundsopowerfulanutteranceintheworksoftheFrenchandEnglishphilosophersoftheeighteenthcenturyThephilosophywhichinFrancewassmiledatbykingsandstatesmenwhileitrousedthepeopletoinsurrectionand regicide produced in Germany a deeper impression on the minds of thesovereigns and ruling classes than of the people In the time of Frederick theGreat and Joseph II it became fashionable among sovereigns to professLiberalismandtoworkfortheenlightenmentofthehumanraceItistruethatthisliberalpolicywasgenerallycarriedoutinaratherdespoticwayandpeoplewere emancipated and enlightened very much as the ancient Saxons wereconvertedbyCharlemagneWehaveaninstanceofthis inthecaseofSchillerDukeCharles had founded an institutionwhere orphans and the sons of poorofficers were educated free of expense He had been informed that youngSchillerwasapromisingboyandlikelytoreflectcreditonhisnewinstitutionandheproceededwithoutfurtherinquirytoplacehimonthelistofhisproteacutegeacutesassigning tohimaplaceathismilitary school Itwasuseless for the father toremonstrateandexplain to theDukethathissonhadadecidedinclinationfortheChurchSchillerwassenttotheAcademyin1773andorderedtostudylawTheyoungstudentcouldnotbutseethataninjusticehadbeendonehimandtheirritationwhichitcausedwasfeltbyhimallthemoredeeplybecauseitwouldhavebeendangerous togiveexpression tohis feelingsThe resultwas thathemade no progress in the subjectswhich he had been commanded to study In1775 he was allowed to give up law not however to [pg 082] return totheology but to begin the study ofmedicine Butmedicine though at first itseemedmore attractive failed like law to call forth his full energies In themean time another interference on the part of the Duke proved even moreabortiveandtoacertainextentdeterminedthepathwhichSchillersgeniuswastotakeinlifeTheDukehadprohibitedallGermanclassicsathisAcademytheboysnevertheless succeeded in formingasecret libraryandSchiller read the
works of Klopstock Klinger Lessing Goethe and Wielands translations ofShakespeare with rapture no doubt somewhat increased by the dangers hebravedingainingaccesstothesetreasuresIn1780thesameyearinwhichhepassed his examination and received the appointment of regimental surgeonSchillerwrotehisfirsttragedyldquoTheRobbersrdquoHistastefordramaticpoetryhadbeen roused partly by Goethes ldquoGoetz von Berlichingenrdquo and ShakespearesplayspartlybyhisvisitstothetheatrewhichunderthepatronageoftheDukewas then in a very flourishing state The choice of the subject of his firstdramatic composition was influenced by the circumstances of his youth HispoeticalsympathyforacharactersuchasKarlMooramanwhosetsatdefianceall the laws of God and man can only be accounted for by the revulsion offeelingproducedonhisboyishmindbythestrictmilitarydisciplinetowhichallthe pupils at theAcademywere subjected His sense of right andwrongwasstrongenoughtomakehimpainthisheroasamonsterandtomakehiminflicton him the punishment he merited But the young poet could not resist thetemptationofthrowingabrighterlightontheredeemingpointsinthecharacterofarobberandmurdererbypointedlyplacinghim[pg083]incontrastwiththeevendarkershadesofhypocriticalrespectabilityandsaintlinessinthepictureofhis brother Franz The language in which Schiller paints his characters ispowerfulbutitisoftenwildandevencoarseTheDukedidnotapproveofhisformerproteacutegeacute theverytitle-pageofldquoTheRobbersrdquowasenough tooffendhisSereneHighnessmdashitcontainedarisinglionwiththemottoldquoIntyrannosrdquoTheDukegave awarning to the youngmilitary surgeon andwhen soon after heheardofhisgoingsecretlytoMannheimtobepresentatthefirstperformanceofhis play he ordered him to be put under military arrest All these vexationsSchillerenduredbecauseheknewfullwelltherewasnoescapefromthefavorsof his royal protectorButwhen at last hewasorderednever to publish againexcept onmedical subjects and to submit all his poetical compositions to theDukescensorship thisprovedtoomuchforouryoungpoetHisambitionhadbeenrousedHehadsatatMannheimayoungmanoftwentyunknownamidanaudienceofmenandwomenwho listenedwith rapturous applause tohisownthoughts and words That evening at the theatre of Mannheim had been adecisive eveningmdashit was an epoch in the history of his life he had felt hispowerandthecallingofhisgeniushehadperceivedthoughinadimdistancethecoursehehad to runand the laurelshehad togainWhenhesaw that thehumorof theDukewasnot likely to improve he fled fromaplacewherehiswings were clipped and his voice silenced Now this flight from one smallGermantowntoanothermayseemamatterofverylittleconsequenceatpresentButinSchillerstimeitwasamatteroflifeanddeathGermansovereignswere
accustomed[pg084]tolookupontheirsubjectsastheirpropertyWithouteventhe show of a trial the poet Schubart had been condemned to life-longconfinement by this same Duke Charles Schiller in fleeing his benefactorsdominionshadnotonlythrownawayallhischancesinlifebuthehadplacedhissafetyandthesafetyofhisfamilyinextremedangerItwasaboldperhapsareckless step But whatever we may think of it in a moral point of view ashistorianswemustlookuponitastheHegirainthelifeofthepoet
Schiller was now a man of one or two and twenty thrown upon the worldpennilesswithnothingtodependonbuthisbrainsThenexttenyearswerehardyears for him they were years of unsettledness sometimes of penury anddespairsometimesofextravaganceandfollyThisthirdperiodinSchillerslifeis notmarked by any great literary achievements Itwould be almost a blankwereitnotfortheldquoDonCarlosrdquowhichhewroteduringhisstaynearDresdenbetween1785-87HisldquoFiescordquoandldquoCabaleundLieberdquothoughtheycameoutafterhis flight fromStuttgardhadbeenconceivedbefore and theywereonlyrepeatedprotestsintheformoftragediesagainstthetyrannyofrulersandthedespotismof societyThey showno advance in thegrowthofSchillersmindYet that mind though less productive than might have been expected wasgrowingaseverymindgrowsbetweentheyearsoftwentyandthirtyanditwasgrowingchieflythroughcontactwithmenWemustmakefullallowanceforthepowerful influence exercised at that time by the literature of the day (by thewritings ofHerder Lessing andGoethe) and by political events such as theFrenchRevolutionBut ifwewatchSchillers career carefullywe see that his[pg085] characterwas chieflymoulded by his intercoursewithmenHis lifewasrichinfriendshipsandwhatmainlyupheldhiminhisstrugglesanddangerswas thesympathyofseveralhigh-bornandhigh-mindedpersons inwhomtheidealsofhisownmindseemedtohavefoundtheirfullestrealization
Next toourfaith inGod there isnothingsoessential to thehealthygrowthofour whole being as an unshaken faith in man This faith in man is the greatfeatureinSchillerscharacterandheowesittoakindProvidencewhichbroughthimincontactwithsuchnoblenaturesasFrauvonWolzogenKoumlrnerDalbergin later years with his wife with the Duke of Weimar the Prince ofAugustenburgandlastlywithGoetheTherewasatthattimeapowerfultensioninthemindsofmenandparticularlyofthehigherclasseswhichledthemtodothings which at other times men only aspire to do The impulses of a mostexaltedmoralitymdashamoralitywhich is so apt to end inmere declamation anddeceitmdashwere not only felt by them but obeyed and carried out Frau von
Wolzogen knowing nothing of Schiller except that he had been at the sameschoolwithhersonreceivedtheexiledpoet thoughfullyawarethatbydoingsoshemighthavedispleasedtheDukeandblastedherfortunesandthoseofherchildren Schiller preserved the tenderest attachment to this motherly friendthroughlifeandhisletterstoherdisplayamostcharminginnocenceandpurityofmind
AnotherfriendwasKoumlrnerayounglawyerlivingatLeipzigandafterwardsatDresdenmdasha man who had himself to earn his bread He had learned to loveSchillerfromhiswritingshereceivedhimathishouseaperfectstrangerandshared with the poor [pg 086] poet his moderate income with a generosityworthy of a prince He too remained his friend through life his son wasTheodoreKoumlrnerthepoetofldquoLyreandSwordrdquowhofellfightingasavolunteerforhiscountryagainstFrenchinvaders
AthirdfriendandpatronofSchillerwasDalbergHewasthecoadjutorandwasto have been the successor of the Elector of Hesse then an ecclesiasticalElectorateHisrankwasthatofareigningprinceandhewasmadeafterwardsbyNapoleonFuumlrst-PrimasmdashPrincePrimatemdashoftheConfederationoftheRhineBut itwasnothisstationhiswealthand influence itwashismindandheartwhichmadehimthefriendofSchillerGoetheHerderWielandJeanPaulandall themosteminent intellectsofhis timeIt isrefreshingtoreadthe lettersofthisPrinceThoughtheybelongtoalaterperiodofSchillerslifeafewpassagesmayherebequotedinorder tocharacterizehisfriendandpatronDalberghadpromisedSchiller a pensionof 4000 florins (not 4000 thalers asMRegnierasserts)assoonasheshouldsucceedtotheElectorateandSchillerinreturnhadaskedhimforsomehintswithregardtohisownfutureliteraryoccupationsThePrinceanswersldquoYour letterhasdelightedmeToberememberedbyamanofyour heart andmind is a true joy tome I do not venture to determine whatSchillers comprehensive and vivifying genius is to undertake But may I beallowedtohumblyexpressawishthatspiritsendowedwiththepowersofgiantsshouldaskthemselveslsquoHowcanIbemostusefultomankindrsquoThisinquiryIthink leads most surely to immortality and the rewards of a peacefulconscienceMayyouenjoy thepuresthappiness and think sometimesofyour[pg 087] friend and servant DalbergrdquoWhen Schiller was hesitating betweenhistoryanddramaticpoetryDalbergskeeneyediscoveredatoncethatthestagewas Schillers calling and that there his influence would be most beneficialSchillerseemedto thinkthataprofessorialchair inaGermanuniversitywasamore honorable position than that of a poet Dalberg writes ldquoInfluence on
mankindrdquo (for thisheknew tobeSchillershighest ambition) ldquodependson thevigor and strength which a man throws into his works Thucydides andXenophon would not deny that poets like Sophocles and Horace have had atleast as much influence on the world as they themselvesrdquoWhen the Frenchinvasion threatened the ruin of Germany and the downfall of the GermansovereignsDalbergwritesagain in1796withperfectserenityldquoTruecouragemustneverfailThefriendsofvirtueandtruthoughtnowtoactandspeakallthe more vigorously and straightforwardly In the end what you excellentfriendhavesobeautifullysaidinyourlsquoIdealsrsquo remains true lsquoThediligenceoftherighteousworksslowlybutsurelyandfriendship issoothingcomfort It isonlywhen I hope to behereafter of assistance tomy friends that Iwish for abetter fatersquothinsprdquo The society and friendship of such men who are rare in allcountriesandinallagesservedtokeepupinSchillersmindthoseidealnotionsofmankindwhichhehadfirstimbibedfromhisownheartandfromtheworksofphilosophersTheyfindexpressioninallhiswritingsbutaremosteloquentlydescribed inhis ldquoDonCarlosrdquoWe should like to give some extracts from thedialoguebetweenKingPhilipandtheMarquisPosabutourspaceispreciousandhardly allowsus todomore than just to glance at thoseother friends [pg088]andcompanionswhosenobilityofmindandgenerosityofheartleftsodeepanimpressonthepoetssoul
ThenameofKarlAugusttheDukeofWeimarhasacquiredsuchaworld-widecelebrityasthefriendofGoetheandSchillerthatweneednotdwelllongonhisrelation to our poet As early as 1784 Schiller was introduced to him atDarmstadt where he was invited to court to read some scenes of his ldquoDonCarlosrdquoTheDukegavehim then the titleofldquoRathrdquo and from theyear1787when Schiller first settled at Weimar to the time of his death in 1804 heremainedhisfirmfriendThefriendshipofthePrincewasreturnedbythepoetwhointhedaysofhisglorydeclinedseveraladvantageousoffersfromViennaandotherplacesandremainedat thecourtofWeimarsatisfiedwiththesmallsalarywhichthatgreatDukewasabletogivehim
TherewasbutoneotherPrincewhosebountySchilleracceptedandhisnamedeserves to be mentioned not so much for his act of generosity as for thesentimentwhichprompteditIn1792whenSchillerwasillandunabletowritehe received a letter from theHereditary Prince ofHolstein-Augustenburg andfromCountSchimmelmannWequotefromthelettermdash
ldquoYourshatteredhealthwehearrequiresrestbutyourcircumstancesdonotallow
itWillyougrudgeusthepleasureofenablingyoutoenjoythatrestWeofferyouforthreeyearsanannualpresentof1000thalersAcceptthisoffernoblemanLetnotourtitlesinduceyoutodeclineitWeknowwhattheyareworthweknownopridebut thatofbeingmencitizensof thatgreat republicwhichcomprisesmorethanthelifeofsinglegenerationsmorethanthelimitsof thisglobeYouhavetodealwithmenmdashyourbrothersmdashnotwithproudprinceswhobythisemploymentoftheirwealthwouldfainindulgebutinamorerefinedkindofpriderdquo
[pg089]NoconditionswereattachedtothispresentthoughasituationinDenmarkwasoffered if Schiller shouldwish to go there Schiller accepted the gift so noblyoffered but he never saw his unknown friends12 We owe to them humanlyspeakingthelastyearsofSchillerslifeandwiththemthemaster-worksofhisgenius fromldquoWallensteinrdquo toldquoWilliamTellrdquoAs longas theseworksare readand admired the names of these noble benefactors will be remembered andrevered
ThenameofherwhomwementionednextamongSchillersnoble friendsandcompanionsmdashwemeanhiswifemdashremindsusthatwehaveanticipatedeventsandthatweleftSchillerafterhisflightin1782attheverybeginningofhismosttryingyearsHishopesofsuccessatMannheimhadfailedThedirectorof theMannheimtheatrealsoaDalbergdeclinedtoassisthimHespentthewinteringreatsolitudeatthecountry-houseofFrauvonWolzogenfinishingldquoCabaleundLieberdquoandwritingldquoFiescordquoInthesummerof1783hereturnedtoMannheimwherehereceivedanappointmentinconnectionwiththetheatreofaboutpound40ayear Here he stayed till 1785 when he went to Leipzig and afterwards toDresdenlivingchieflyat theexpenseofhisfriendKoumlrnerThisunsettledkindoflifecontinuedtill1787andproducedaswesawlittlemorethanhistragedyof ldquoDon Carlosrdquo In the mean time however his taste for history had beendevelopedHe had been readingmore systematically atDresden and after hehadgonetoWeimarin1787hewasabletopublishin1788hisldquoHistoryoftheRevoltof the[pg090]NetherlandsrdquoOn the strengthof thishewas appointedprofessoratJenain1789firstwithoutasalaryafterwardswithaboutpound30ayearHe tells us himself how hard he had to work ldquoEvery dayrdquo he says ldquoImustcomposeawholelectureandwriteitoutmdashnearlytwosheetsofprintedmatternottomentionthetimeoccupiedindeliveringthelectureandmakingextractsrdquoHoweverhehadnowgainedapositionandhisliteraryworksbegantobebetterpaidIn1790hewasenabledtomarryaladyofrankwhowasproudtobecomethewifeofthepoorpoetandwasworthytobetheldquowifeofSchillerrdquoSchillerwasnowchieflyengagedinhistoricalresearchesHewrotehisldquoHistoryof the
ThirtyYearsWarrdquo in 1791-92 and itwas his ambition to be recognized as aGermanprofessorratherthanasaGermanpoetHehadtoworkhardinordertomakeupforlosttimeandundertheweightofexcessivelaborhishealthbrokedownHewasunable to lectureunable towrite Itwas then that thegenerouspresent of the Duke of Augustenburg freed him for a time from the mostpressingcaresandenabledhimtorecoverhishealth
Theyearsof thirty to thirty-fivewereaperiodof transitionandpreparation inSchillers life tobefollowedbyanother tenyearsofworkand triumphTheseintermediateyearswerechieflyspentinreadinghistoryandstudyingphilosophymore especially the then reigning philosophy of Kant Numerous essays onphilosophychieflyontheGoodtheBeautifulandtheSublimewerepublishedduring this intervalButwhat ismore importantSchillersmindwasenlargedenrichedand invigoratedhispoeticalgeniusby lyingfallowfora timegavepromiseof[pg091]aricherharvesttocomehispositionintheworldbecamemore honorable and his confidence in himself was strengthened by theconfidenceplacedinhimbyallaroundhimAcuriouscomplimentwaspaidhimbytheLegislativeAssemblythensittingatParisOnthe26thofAugust1792adecreewaspassedconferringthetitleofCitoyenFranccedilaisoneighteenpersonsbelonging tovariouscountries friendsof libertyanduniversalbrotherhood Inthe same listwithSchillerwere thenamesofKlopstockCampeWashingtonKosciuskoandWilberforceThedecreewassignedbyRolandMinisteroftheInterior and countersigned by Danton It did not reach Schiller till after theenthusiasm which he too had shared for the early heroes of the FrenchRevolution had given way to disappointment and horror In the month ofDecemberoftheveryyearinwhichhehadbeenthushonoredbytheLegislativeAssemblySchillerwasonthepointofwritinganappealtotheFrenchnationindefenseofLouisXVITheKingsheadhoweverhadfallenbeforethisdefensewas begun Schiller a true friend of true liberty never ceased to express hisaversiontotheviolentproceedingsoftheFrenchrevolutionistsldquoItistheworkof passionrdquo he said ldquoand not of that wisdom which alone can lead to reallibertyrdquoHeadmittedthatmanyimportantideaswhichformerlyexistedinbooksonlyor in the heads of a fewenlightenedpeople hadbecomemore generallycurrentthroughtheFrenchRevolutionButhemaintainedthattherealprincipleswhichought to form thebasisof a trulyhappypolitical constitutionwere stillhiddenfromviewPointingtoavolumeofKantsldquoCriticismofPureReasonrdquohesaidldquoTheretheyareand[pg092]nowhereelsetheFrenchrepublicwillfallasrapidly as it has risen the republican governmentwill lapse into anarchy andsoonerorlateramanofgeniuswillappear(hemaycomefromanyplace)who
willmakehimselfnotonlymasterofFrancebutperhapsalsoofagreatpartofEuroperdquoThiswasaremarkableprophecyforayoungprofessorofhistory
ThelastdecisiveeventinSchillerslifewashisfriendshipwithGoetheItdatesfrom1794andwiththisyearbeginsthegreatandcrowningperiodofSchillerslifeTothisperiodbelonghisldquoWallensteinrdquohisldquoSongoftheBellrdquohisBallads(1797-98)hisldquoMaryStuartrdquo (1800) theldquoMaidofOrleansrdquo(1801) theldquoBrideofMessinardquo(1803)andldquoWilliamTellrdquoinfactalltheworkswhichhavemadeSchiller a national poet and gained for him a worldwide reputation and animmortalname
GoethescharacterwasinmanyrespectsdiametricallyopposedtoSchillersandformanyyears itseemedimpossible that thereshouldeverbeacommunityofthought and feeling between the two Attempts to bring together these greatrivals were repeatedly made by their mutual friends Schiller had long felthimselfdrawnbythepowerfulgeniusofGoetheandGoethehadlongfeltthatSchiller was the only poet who could claim to be his peer After an earlyinterviewwithGoetheSchillerwritesldquoOnthewholethismeetinghasnotatalldiminishedtheideagreatas itwaswhichIhadpreviouslyformedofGoethebut I doubt if we shall ever come into close communication with each otherMuchthatinterestsmehasalreadyhaditsepochwithhimhisworldisnotmyworldrdquoGoethehadexpressedthesamefeelingHesawSchilleroccupyingthevery[pg093]positionwhichhehimselfhadgivenupasuntenablehesawhispowerful genius carrying out triumphantly ldquothose very paradoxes moral anddramaticfromwhichhewasstrugglingtogetliberatedrdquoldquoNounionrdquoasGoethewritesldquowas to be dreamt ofBetween two spiritual antipodes therewasmoreinterveningthanasimplediameterofthespheresAntipodesofthatsortactasakindofpoleswhichcannevercoalescerdquoHowthefirstapproachbetweenthesetwooppositepolestookplaceGoethehashimselfdescribedinapaperentitledldquoHappy Incidentsrdquo But no happy incident could have led to that gloriousfriendshipwhichstandsaloneintheliteraryhistoryofthewholeworldiftherehadnotbeenonthepartofSchillerhiswarmsympathyforallthatisgreatandnobleandonthepartofGoetheadeepinterestineverymanifestationofnaturalgeniusTheirdifferencesonalmosteverypointofartphilosophyandreligionwhich at first seemed to separate them forever only drew themmore closelytogetherwhen theydiscovered ineachother thosecompletingelementswhichproducedtrueharmonyofsoulsNorisitrighttosaythatSchillerowesmoretoGoethethanGoethetoSchillerIfSchillerreceivedfromGoethethehigherrulesofartandadeeperinsightintohumannatureGoethedrankfromthesoulofhis
friendtheyouthandvigorthepurityandsimplicitywhichweneverfindinanyof Goethes works before his ldquoHermann and Dorotheardquo And as in mostfriendshipsitwasnotsomuchGoetheashewasbutGoetheasreflectedinhisfriends soul who henceforth became Schillers guide and guardian SchillerpossessedtheartofadmiringanartsomuchmorerarethantheartofcriticisingHiseyewassoabsorbedinallthatwas[pg094]greatandnobleandpureandhigh inGoethesmind that he could not orwould not see the defects in hischaracterAndGoethewastoSchillerwhathewastonooneelseHewaswhatSchillerbelievedhimtobeafraidtofallbelowhisfriendsidealherosebeyondhimself until that high ideal was reached which only a Schiller could haveformedWithoutthisregeneratingfriendshipitisdoubtfulwhethersomeofthemostperfectcreationsofGoetheandSchillerwouldeverhavebeencalledintoexistence
We saw Schiller gradually sinking into aGerman professor the sphere of hissympathies narrowed the aim of his ambition lowered His energies wereabsorbedincollectingmaterialsandelaboratinghisldquoHistoryoftheThirtyYearsWarrdquo which was published in 1792 The conception of his great dramaticTrilogytheldquoWallensteinrdquowhichdatesfrom1791wasallowedtolanguishuntilitwastakenupagainforGoetheandfinishedforGoethein1799Goetheknewhow to admire and encourage but he also knew how to criticise and adviseSchillerbynaturemeditative rather thanobservanthadbeenmostpowerfullyattractedbyKantsidealphilosophyNexttohishistoricalresearchesmostofhistime at Jena was given to metaphysical studies Not only his mind but hislanguage suffered from the attenuating influences of that rarefied atmospherewhich pervades the higher regions of metaphysical thought His mind wasattractedbythegeneralandtheidealandlostall interestintheindividualandtherealThiswasnotarightframeofmindeitherforanhistorianoradramaticpoetInGoethetoothephilosophicalelementwasstrongbutitwaskeptunderby the practical tendencies of hismind Schiller looked for [pg095] his idealbeyond the real world and like the pictures of a Raphael his conceptionsseemed to surpass in purity and harmony all that human eye had ever seenGoethehaddiscoveredthat the truest ideal lieshiddeninreal lifeandlike themaster-works of a Michael Angelo his poetry reflected that highest beautywhichisrevealedintheendlessvarietyofcreationandmusttherebediscoveredby the artist and the poet In Schillers early works every character was thepersonificationofan idea InhisldquoWallensteinrdquowemeet for thefirst timewithreal men and real life In his ldquoDonCarlosrdquo Schiller under various disguisesmoreorlesstransparentactseveryparthimselfInldquoWallensteinrdquotheheroesof
theldquoThirtyYearsWarrdquomaintain theirownindividualityandarenot forced todiscuss thesocialproblemsofRousseauor themetaphysical theoriesofKantSchillerwashimselfawareofthischangethoughhewashardlyconsciousofitsfull bearing While engaged in composing his ldquoWallensteinrdquo he writes to afriendmdash
ldquoIdomybusinessverydifferentlyfromwhatIusedtodoThesubjectseemstobesomuchoutsidemethatIcanhardlygetupanyfeelingfor itThesubjectI treatleavesmecoldandindifferentandyetIamfullofenthusiasmformyworkWiththe exception of two characters to which I feel attached Max Piccolomini andTheklaItreatalltherestandparticularlytheprincipalcharacteroftheplayonlywiththepureloveoftheartistButIcanpromiseyouthattheywillnotsufferfromthis I look to history for limitation in order to give through surroundingcircumstancesastricterformandrealitytomyidealsIfeelsurethatthehistoricalwillnotdrawmedownorcripplemeIonlydesirethroughittoimpartlifetomycharacters and their actions The life and soul must come from another sourcethrough that power which I have already perhaps shown elsewhere and withoutwhich even the first conception of this work would of course have beenimpossiblerdquo
HowdifferentisthisfromwhatSchillerfeltin[pg096]formeryearsInwritingldquoDonCarlosrdquohelaiddownasaprinciplethatthepoetmustnotbethepainterbut the lover of his heroes and in his early days he found it intolerable inShakespearesdreamsthathecouldnowherelayhishandonthepoethimselfHewas then as he himself expresses it unable to understand nature except atsecond-hand
GoethewasSchillersfriendbuthewasalsoSchillersrivalThereisaperilousperiod in the livesofgreatmennamely the timewhen theybegin to feel thattheirpositionismadethattheyhavenomorerivalstofearGoethewasfeelingthis at the timewhen hemet SchillerHewas satiatedwith applause and hisbearing towards the public at large became careless and offensive In order tofindmenwithwhomhemightmeasurehimselfhebegantowriteonthehistoryofArtandtodevotehimselftonaturalphilosophySchillertoohadgainedhislaurelschieflyasadramaticpoetandthoughhestillvaluedtheapplauseofthepublicyethis ambitionasapoetwas satisfiedhewasprouderofhis ldquoThirtyYearsWarrdquo than of his ldquoRobbersrdquo and ldquoDon Carlosrdquo When Goethe becameintimatewithSchiller and discovered in him those powerswhich as yetwerehidden toothershefelt that therewasamanwithwhomevenhemight runaraceGoethewasnever jealousofSchillerHe felt consciousofhisowngreatpowers and he was glad to have those powers again called out by one who
would bemore difficult to conquer than all his former rivals Schiller on theotherhandperceivedinGoethethetruedignityofapoetAtJenahisambitionwas to have the title of Professor ofHistory atWeimar he saw that itwas agreaterhonor tobecalledapoetand the friendofGoethe [pg097]Whenhesaw thatGoethe treated him as his friend and that theDuke and his brilliantcourt looked upon him as his equal Schiller too modest to suppose he hadearnedsuchfavorswasfilledwithanewzealandhispoeticalgeniusdisplayedfora timeanalmost inexhaustibleenergyScarcelyhadhisldquoWallensteinrdquobeenfinished in1799whenhebeganhisldquoMaryStuartrdquoThisplaywasfinished inthesummerof1800andanewonewas taken inhand in thesameyearmdashtheldquoMaidofOrleansrdquoInthespringof1801theldquoMaidofOrleansrdquoappearedonthestagetobefollowedin1803bytheldquoBrideofMessinardquoandin1804byhislastgreatworkhisldquoWilliamTellrdquoDuringthesametimeSchillercomposedhisbestballads his ldquoSong of the Bellrdquo his epigrams and his beautiful Elegy not tomention his translations and adaptations of English and French plays for thetheatreatWeimarAfterhisldquoWilliamTellrdquoSchillercouldfeelthathenolongerowed his place by the side ofGoethe to favor and friendship but to his ownworkandworthHisracewasrunhislaurelsgainedHishealthhoweverwasbrokenandhisbodilyframetooweaktosupportthestrainofhismightyspiritDeathcametohisreliefgivingresttohismindandimmortalitytohisname
LetuslookbackoncemoreonthelifeofSchillerThelivesofgreatmenarethelives of martyrs we cannot regard them as examples to follow but rather astypesofhumanexcellencetostudyandtoadmireThelifeofSchillerwasnotone which many of us would envy it was a life of toil and suffering ofaspirationratherthanoffulfillmentalongbattlewithscarcelyamomentofrestfortheconquerortoenjoyhishard-wontriumphsToanambitiousmanthe[pg098] last tenyearsof thepoets lifemightseemanamplerewardfor the thirtyyearswaroflifewhichhehadtofightsingle-handedButSchillerwastoogreatamantobeambitiousFamewithhimwasameansneveranobjectTherewasahigheranobleraiminhislifewhichupheldhiminallhisstrugglesFromtheverybeginningofhiscareerSchillerseemstohavefeltthathislifewasnothisHe never lived for himself he lived andworked formankindHe discoveredwithinhimselfhowmuchtherewasofthegoodthenobleandthebeautifulinhuman nature he had never been deceived in his friends And such was hissympathywiththeworldatlargethathecouldnotbeartoseeinanyrankoflifethe imageofman created in the likenessofGod distortedby cunning prideandselfishnessHiswholepoetrymaybesaidtobewrittenonthesimpletextldquoBetruebegoodbenoblerdquo Itmayseemashort textbut truth isveryshort
and thework of the greatest teachers ofmankind has always consisted in theunflinchinginculcationoftheseshorttruthsThereisinSchillersworksakernelfullofimmortalgrowthwhichwillendurelongafterthebrilliantcolorsofhispoetryhavefadedawayThatkernelisthemanandwithoutitSchillerspoetrylike all other poetry is but the song of sirens Schillers character has beensubjected to that painful scrutiny towhich inmodern times the characters ofgreatmen are subjected everything he ever did or said or thought has beenpublishedandyetitwouldbedifficultinthewholecourseofhislifetopointoutoneactonewordonethoughtthatcouldbecalledmeanuntrueorselfishFromthebeginningtotheendSchillerremainedtruetohimselfheneveractedapartheneverbargainedwith theworldWe [pg099]maydiffer fromhimonmany points of politics ethics and religion but though we differ we mustalwaysrespectandadmireHislifeisthebestcommentaryonhispoetrythereisneveradiscrepancybetweenthetwoAsmerecriticswemaybeabletoadmireapoetwithoutadmiringthemanbutpoetryitshouldberememberedwasnotmeantforcriticsonlyanditshighestpurposeisneverfulfilledexceptwhereaswithSchillerwecanlistentothepoetandlookuptotheman
1859
[pg100]
VWILHELMMUumlLLER131794-1827
Seldomhasapoetinashortlifeofthirtyyearsengravenhisnamesodeeplyonthe memorial tablets of the history of German poetry as Wilhelm MuumlllerAlthoughtheyouthfuleffortsofapoetmaybeappreciatedbythosefewwhoareabletoadmirewhatisgoodandbeautifuleventhoughithasneverbeforebeenadmired by others yet in order permanently to win the ear and heart of hispeople a poetmust livewith the people and take part in themovements andstrugglesofhisageThusonlycanhehopetostirandmouldthethoughtsofhiscontemporariesandtoremainapermanentlivingpowerintherecollectionsofhis countrymen Wilhelm Muumlller died at the very moment when the richblossomsofhispoeticgeniuswereformingfruitandafterhehadwarmedandquickened theheartsof theyouthofGermanywith the lyric songsofhisownyouthonlyashortspanof timewasgrantedhimtoshowtheworldashedidmoreespeciallyinhisldquoGreekSongsrdquoandldquoEpigramsrdquo[pg101]thehighergoaltowardwhichheaspired In thesehis lastworksone readilyperceives thathispoetry would not have reflected the happy dreams of youth only but that hecouldperceivethepoetryoflifeinitssorrowsasclearlyasinitsjoysanddepictitintrueandvividcolors
Onemay I thinkdivide the friendsandadmirersofWilhelmMuumlller into twoclasses thosewhorejoiceanddelight inhisfreshand joyoussongsand thosewho admire the nobleness and force of his character as shown in the poemscelebrating thewar ofGreek independence and in his epigramsAll poetry isnotforeveryonenorforeveryoneatalltimesTherearecriticsandhistoriansof literature who cannot tolerate songs of youth of love and of wine theyalways ask ldquowhyrdquo and ldquowhereforerdquo and they demand in all poetry beforeanythingelsehighordeep thoughtsNodoubt therecanbenopoetrywithoutthoughtbuttherearethoughtswhicharepoeticalwithoutbeingdrawnfromthedeepestdepthsoftheheartandbrainnaywhicharepoeticaljustbecausetheyare as simple and true and natural as the flowers of the field or the stars of
heavenThereisapoetryfortheoldbutthereisalsoapoetryfortheyoungTheyoung demand in poetry an interpretation of their own youthful feelings andfirst learn truly to understand themselves through those poets who speak forthem as they would speak for themselves had nature endowed them withmelodyofthoughtandharmonyofdictionYouthisandwillremainthemajorityof theworld andwill let no gloomy brow rob it of its poetic enthusiasm foryoungloveandoldwineTrueyouthisnotover-criticaltrueitdoesnotknowhow to speakorwrite in learnedphrasesof themeritsof its favorite [pg102]poetsButforallthatwhereisthepoetwhowouldnotratherliveinthewarmrecollection of the never-dying youth of his nation than in voluminousencyclopaeligdiasoreveninthemarbleWalhallasofGermanyThestoryandthesongs of a millers man who loves his masters daughter and of a millersdaughterwholovesahuntsmanbettermayseemverytrivialcommonplaceandunpoeticaltomanyamanoffortyorfiftyButtherearemenoffortyandfiftywhohaveneverlostsightofthebrightbutnowfar-offdaysoftheirownyouthwhocanstillrejoicewiththosethatrejoiceandweepwiththosethatweepandlove with those that lovemdashaye who can still fill their glasses with old andyoungandinwhoseeyesevery-daylifehasnotdestroyedthepoeticbloomthatrests everywhereon life so long as it is livedwithwarmandnatural feelingsSongswhich like theldquoBeautifulMillersDaughterrdquo and theldquoWinter JourneyrdquocouldsopenetrateandagainspringforthfromthesoulofFranzSchubertmaywellstirtheverydepthsofourownheartswithouttheneedoffearingthewiselooksofthosewhopossesstheartofsayingnothinginmanywordsWhyshouldpoetrybelessfreethanpaintingtoseekforwhatisbeautifulwhereverahumaneyecandiscoverwhereverhumanartcanimitateitNooneblamesthepainterifinsteadofgiddypeaksortoweringwaveshedelineatesonhiscanvasaquietnarrowvalleyfilledwithagreenmistandenlivenedonlybyagraymillandadark brown mill-wheel from which the spray rises like silver dust and thenfloatsawayandvanishesintheraysofthesunIswhatisnottoocommonforthepainter toocommonfor thepoet Isan idyl in the truestwarmest softestcolorsofthesoullikethe[pg103]ldquoBeautifulMillersDaughterrdquolessaworkofartthanalandscapebyRuysdaelAndobserveinthesesongshowtheexecutionsuits the subject their tone is thoroughly popular and reminds many of usperhaps too much of the popular songs collected by Arnim and Brentano inldquoDesKnabenWunderhornrdquoButthiscouldnotbehelpedTheocrituscouldnotwritehis idyls ingrandAtticGreekheneeded thehomelinessof theBœotiandialect It was the same with Wilhelm Muumlller who must not be blamed forexpressionswhich nowperhapsmore than formerlymay sound to fastidiousearstoohomelyorcommonplace
His simple and natural conception of nature is shownmost beautifully in theldquoWanderers Songsrdquo and in the ldquoSpring Wreath from the Plauen ValleyrdquoNowhere do we find a labored thought or a labored word The lovely springworldisdepictedexactlyasitisbutoverallisthrownthelifeandinspirationofa poets eye and a poets mind which perceives and gives utterance to whatothers fail to see and silent nature cannot utter It is this recognition of thebeautifulinwhatisinsignificantofgreatnessinwhatissmallofthemarvelousinordinarylifemdashyesthisperceptionofthedivineineveryearthlyenjoymentmdashwhichgivesitsowncharmtoeachofWilhelmMuumlllerssmallestpoemsandendearsthemsotrulytothosewhoamidstthehurryoflifehavenotforgottenthedelightofabsorptioninnaturewhohaveneverlosttheirfaithinthemysteryofthedivinepresenceinall thatisbeautifulgoodandtrueonearthWeneedonlyreadtheldquoFruumlhlingsmahlrdquoorldquoPfingstenrdquotoseehowawholeworldayeawholeheavenmaybemirroredinthetiniestdropofdew
And as enjoyment of nature finds so clear an echo [pg 104] in the poetry ofWilhelm Muumlller so also does the delight which man should have in manDrinkingsongsandtablesongsdonotbelongtothehighestflightsofpoetrybutifthedelightsoffriendlymeetingsandgreetingsbelongtosomeofthebrightestmomentsofhumanhappinesswhy shouldapoethold them tobebeneathhismuseThereissomethingespeciallyGermaninalldrinkingsongsandnoothernationhashelditswineinsuchhonorCanoneimagineEnglishpoemsonportandsherryorhasaFrenchmanmuchtotellusofhisBordeauxorevenofhisBurgundy The reason that the poetry of wine is unknown in England andFranceisthatinthesecountriespeopleknownothingofwhatlendsitspoetrytowine namely the joyous consciousness ofmutual pleasure the outpouring ofheartsthefeelingofcommonbrotherhoodwhichmakeslearnedprofessorsanddivines generals and ministers men once more at the sound of the ringingglassesThispurelyhumandelightintheenjoymentoflifeintheflavoroftheGermanwineand in theyethigher flavorof theGermanSymposium finds ithappiest expression in thedrinking songsofWilhelmMuumlllerTheyhaveoftenbeensettomusicbythebestmastersandhavelongbeensungbythehappyandjoyousThenameofthepoetisoftenforgottenwhilstmanyofhissongshavebecomepopularsongs justbecause theyweresungfromtheheartandsouloftheGermanpeopleasthepeoplewerefiftyyearsagoandasthebestofthemstillareinspiteofmanychangesintheFatherland
ItiseasytoseethataserioustoneisnotwantingeveninthedrinkingsongsThewinewasgoodbut the timeswerebadThosewho likeWilhelmMuumlllerhad
sharedinthegreatsufferingsandthegreat[pg105]hopesoftheGermanpeopleandwhothensawthatafterallthesacrificesthathadbeenmadeallwasinvainallwas again as bad or evenworse than before couldwith difficulty concealtheirdisaffectionhoweverhelplesstheyfeltthemselvesagainstthebrutalitiesofthose in power Many who like Wilhelm Muumlller had labored to reanimateGerman popular feeling who like him had left the university to sacrifice ascommonsoldierstheirlifeandlifeshappinesstothefreedomoftheFatherlandandwho then saw how the terror felt by the scarcely rescued princes of theirdeliverersandthefearofforeignnationsofaunitedandstrongGermanyjoinedhandinhandtodestroythepreciousseedsowninbloodandtearsmdashcouldnotalwayssuppress theirgloomyangeratsuchfaint-heartedweak-mindedpolicyOn the firstof January1820WilhelmMuumlllerwrote thus in thededicationofthesecondpartofhisldquoLettersfromRomerdquotohisfriendAtterbomtheSwedishpoetwithwhomhehadbutashorttimebeforepassedtheCarnivaltimeinItalyjoyouslyandcarelesslyldquoAndthusIgreetyouinyouroldsacredFatherlandnotjokingly and merrily like the book whose writer seems to have become astranger to me but earnestly and briefly for the great fast of the Europeanworld expecting the passion and waiting for deliverance can endure noindifferentshrugoftheshouldersandnohollowcompromisesandexcusesHewhocannotactatthistimecanyetrestandmournrdquoForsuchwordsveiledastheywere resignedas theywere the fortressofMayencewasat that time theusualanswer
ldquoDeutschundfreiundstarkundlauterIndemdeutschenLand
IstderWeinalleingebliebenAnderRheinesStrand
[pg106]IstdernichteinDemagoge
WersolleinerseinMainzdustolzeBundesfeste
Sperrihnnurnichteinrdquo14
ThatWilhelmMuumlller escaped the petty and annoyingpersecutions of the thenpolicesystemheowedpartlytotheretiredlifeheledinhislittlenativecountrypartly to his own good spiritswhich prevented him from entirely sinking themaninthepoliticianHehadsomeenemiesinthelittlecourtwhoseDukeandDuchesswerepersonallysoattachedtohimAprosperouslifesuchashiscouldnotfailtoattractenvyandhisfrankguilelesscharactergaveplentyofoccasion
forsuspicionButtheonlyanswerwhichhevouchsafedtohisdetractorswasmdash
ldquoUndlasstmirdochmeinvollesGlassUndlasstmirmeinengutenSpassMitunsrerschlechtenZeitWerbeidemWeinesingtundlachtDenthutihrHerrnnichtindieAchtEinKindistFroumlhligkeitrdquo15
WilhelmMuumlllerevidentlyfeltthatwhenwordsarenotdeedsordonotleadtodeedssilenceismoreworthyofamanthanspeechHeneverbecameapoliticalpoet at least never in his own country But when the rising of the GreeksappealedtothosehumansympathiesofChristiannationswhichcanneverbe[pg107]quiteextinguishedandwhenheretoothefaint-heartedpolicyofthegreatpowersplayedandbargainedoverthegreateventsintheeastofEuropeinsteadoftrustingtothoseprincipleswhichalonecansecurethetrueandlastingwell-beingofstatesaswellasofindividualsthenthelongaccumulatedwrathofthepoetandof themanburst forthandfoundutterance in thesongson theGreekwar of independence Human Christian political and classical sympathiesstirredhisheartandbreathedthatlifeintohispoemswhichmostofthemstillpossessItisastonishinghowayoungmaninasmallisolatedtownlikeDessaualmostshutoutfromintercoursewiththegreatworldcouldhavefollowedstepbysteptheeventsoftheGreekrevolutionseizingonalltherightthebeautythegrandeur of the struggle making himself intimately acquainted with thedominant characters whilst he at the same time mastered the peculiar localcoloringofthepassingeventsWilhelmMuumlllerwasnotonlyapoetbuthewasintimately acquainted with classic antiquity He knew the Greeks and theRomansAndjustasduringhisstayinRomeherecognizedatallpointstheoldinwhatwasnewandeverywheresoughttofindwhatwaseternalintheeternalcity so now with him the modern Greeks were inseparably joined with theancientAknowledgeofthemodernGreeklanguageappearedtohimthenaturalcompletion of the study of old Greek and it was his acquaintance with thepopularsongsofmodernaswellasofancientHellasthatgavethecolorwhichimparted such a vivid expression of truth and naturalness to his own GreeksongsItwasthusthattheldquoGriechenLiederrdquoarosewhichappearedinseparatebut rapid numbers and found great favorwith the people But [pg 108] eventhese ldquoGriechen Liederrdquo caused anxiety to the paternal governments of thosedaysmdash
ldquoRuhundFriedewillEuropamdashwarumhastdusiegestoumlrtWarummitdemWahnderFreiheiteigenmaumlchtigdichbethoumlrtHoffaufkeinesHerrenHuumllfegegeneinesHerrenFrohnAuchdesTuumlrkenkaisersPolsternenntEuropaeinenThronrdquo16
His last poemswere suppressed by the Censor as well as his ldquoHymn on theDeath of Raphael Riegordquo Some of these were first published long after hisdeathothersmusthavebeenlostwhilstintheCensorshands
TwooftheGreeksongsldquoMarkBozzarisrdquoandldquoSongbeforeBattlerdquomayhelptheEnglishreadertoformhisownopinionbothofthepoeticalgeniusandofthecharacterofWilhelmMuumlllermdash
MARKBOZZARI17
OeffnedeinehohenThoreMissolunghiStadtderEhrenWoderHeldenLeichenruhendieunsfroumlhlichsterbenlehrenOeffnedeinehohenThoreoumlffnedeinetiefenGruumlfteAufundstreueLorberreiseraufdenPfadundindieLuumlfteMarkBozzarisedlenLeibbringenwirzudirgetragenMarkBozzarisWerdarfswagensolchenHeldenzubeklagenWillstzuerstduseineWundenoderseineSiegezaumlhlenKeinemSiegwirdeineWundekeinerWundeinSieghierfehlenSiehaufunsernLanzenspitzensichdieTurbanhaumlupterdrehenSiehwieuumlberseinerBahredieOsmanenfahnenwehenSiehosiehdieletztenWerkedievollbrachtdesHeldenRechteIndemFeldvonKarpinissiwoseinStahlimBlutezechteInderschwarzenGeisterstunderieferunsreScharzusammenFunkenspruumlhtenunsreAugendurchdieRachtwieWetterflammenUebersKniezerbrachenwirjauchzendunsrerSchwerterScheidenUmmitSenseneinzumaumlhenindiefeistenTuumlrkenweidenUndwirdruumlcktenunsdieHaumlndeundwirstrichenunsdieBaumlrte[pg109]UndderstampftemitdemFuszeundderriebanseinemSchwerteDaerschollBozzarisStimmeldquoAufinsLagerderBarbarenAufmirnachVerirrteuchnichtBruumlderinderFeindeScharenSuchtihrmichimZeltdesPaschaswerdetihrmichsicherfindenAufmitGottErhilftdieFeindehilftdenTodauchuumlberwindenAufrdquoUnddieTrompeteriszerhastigausdesBlaumlsersHaumlnden
UndstieszselbsthineinsohelldaszesvondenFelsenwaumlndenHellerstetsundhellermusztesichverdoppelndwiderhallenAberhellerwiderhalltesdochinunsernHerzenallenWiedesHerrenBlitzundDonnerausderWolkenburgderNaumlchteAlsotrafdasSchwertderFreiendieTyrannenunddieKnechteWiedieTubadesGerichteswirddereinstdieSuumlnderweckenAlsoscholldurchsTuumlrkenlagerbrausenddieserRufderSchreckenldquoMarkBozzariMarkBozzariSuliotenSuliotenrdquoSolcheinguterMorgengruszwarddenSchlaumlferndaentbotenUndsieruumltteltensichaufundgleichhirtenlosenSchafenRanntensiedurchalleGassenbissieaneinandertrafenUndbethoumlrtvonTodesengelndiedurchihreSchwaumlrmegingenBruumldersichinblinderWuthstuumlrzteninderBruumlderKlingenFragdieNachtnachunsernThatensiehatunsimKampfgesehenmdashAberwirdderTagesglaubenwasindieserNachtgeschehenHundertGriechentausendTuumlrkenalsowardieSaatzuschauenAufdemFeldvonKarpinissialsdasLichtbegannzugrauenMarkBozzariMarkBozzariunddichhabenwirgefundenmdashKenntlichnurandeinemSchwertekenntlichnurandeinenWundenAndenWundendieduschlugestundandenendiedichtrafenmdashWieduesverheiszenhattestindemZeltdesPaschasschlafen
OeffnedeinehohenThoreMissolunghiStadtderEhrenWoderHeldenLeichenruhendieunsfroumlhlichsterbenlehrenOeffnedeinetiefenGruumlftedaszwirindenheilgenStaumlttenNebenHeldenunsernHeldenzudemlangenSchlafebettenmdashSchlafebeidemdeutschenGrafenGrafenNormannFelsderEhrenBisdieStimmendesGerichtesalleGraumlberwerdenleeren
MARKBOZZARIS
OpenwideproudMissolonghiopenwidethyportalshighWherereposethebonesofheroesteachuscheerfullytodieOpenwidethyloftyportalsopenwidethyvaultsprofoundUpandscatterlaurelgarlandstothebreezeandonthegroundMarkBozzarisnoblebodyisthefreighttotheewebearmdashMarkBozzarisWhoforherogreatashetoweepwilldareTellhiswoundshisvictoriesoverWhichinnumbergreatestbeEveryvictoryhasitswoundandeverywounditsvictory
SeeaturbanedheadisgrimlysetonallourlanceshereSeehowtheOsmanlisbannerswathesinpurplefoldshisbier[pg110]SeeOseethelatesttrophieswhichourherosglorysealedWhenhisglaivewithgorewasdrunkenongreatKarpinissisfieldInthemurkiesthourofmidnightdidweathiscallariseThroughthegloomlikelightning-flashesflashedthefuryfromoureyesWithashoutacrossourkneeswesnappedthescabbardsofourswordsBetterdowntomowtheharvestofthemellowTurkishhordesAndweclaspedourhandstogetherandeachwarriorstrokedhisbeardAndonestampedtheswardanotherrubbedhisbladeandvoweditswierdThenBozzarisvoiceresoundedldquoOntothebarbarianslairOnandfollowmemybrothersseeyoukeeptogetherthereShouldyoumissmeyouwillfindmesurelyinthePashastentOnwithGodThroughHimourfoemendeathitselfthroughHimisshentOnrdquoAndswifthesnatchedthebuglefromthehandsofhimthatblewAndhimselfawokeasummonsthatoerdaleandmountainflewTilleachrockandcliffmadeanswerclearandclearertothecallButaclearerechosoundedinthebosomofusallAsfrommidnightsbattlementedkeepthelightningsoftheLordSweepsosweptourswordsandsmotethetyrantsandtheirslavishhordeAsthetrumpofdoomshallwakensinnersintheirgravesthatlieSothroughalltheTurkishleaguerthunderedhisappallingcryldquoMarkBozzarisMarkBozzarisSuliotessmitethemintheirlairrdquoSuchthegoodlymorninggreetingthatwegavethesleepersthereAndtheystaggeredfromtheirslumberandtheyranfromstreettostreetRanlikesheepwithoutashepherdstrikingwildatalltheymeetRanandfrenziedbyDeathsangelswhoamidsttheirmyriadsstrayedBrotherinbewilderedfurydashedandfellonbrothersbladeAskthenightofourachievementsItbeheldusinthefightButthedaywillnevercreditwhatwedidinyondernightGreeksbyhundredsTurksbythousandstherelikescatteredseedtheylayOnthefieldofKarpinissiwhenthemorningbrokeingrayMarkBozarrisMarkBozarrisandwefoundtheegashedandmownBythyswordaloneweknewtheeknewtheebythywoundsaloneBythewoundsthyhandhadclovenbythewoundsthatseamedthybreastLyingasthouhadstforetoldusinthePashastentatrest
OpenwideproudMissolonghiopenwidethyportalshigh
WherereposethebonesofheroesteachuscheerfullytodieOpenwidethyvaultsWithintheirholyboundsacouchwedmakeWhereourherolaidwithheroesmayhislastlongslumbertakeRestbesidethatRockofHonorbraveCountNormannrestthyheadTillatthearchangelstrumpetallthegravesgiveuptheirdead
[pg111]
LIEDVORDERSCHLACHT
WerfuumlrdieFreiheitkampftundfaumllltdeszRuhmwirdbluumlhendstehnSolangefreidieWindenochdurchfreieLuumlftewehnSolangefreiderBaumlumeLaubnochrauschtimgruumlnenWaldSolangdesStromesWogenochfreinachdemMeerewalltSolangdesAdlersFittichfreinochdurchdieWolkenfleugtSolangeinfreierOdemnochausfreiemHerzensteigt
WerfuumlrdieFreiheitkaumlmpftundfaumllltdeszRuhmwirdbluumlhendstehnSolangefreieGeisternochdurchErdundHimmelgehnDurchErdundHimmelschwebternochderHeldenSchattenreihnUndrauschtumunsinstillerNachtinhellemSonnenscheinImSturmderstolzeTannenbrichtundindemLuumlftchenauchDasdurchdasGrasaufGraumlbernspieltmitseinemleisenHauchInfernerEnkelHausenochumalleWiegenkreistAufHellasheldenreicherFlurderfreienAhnenGeistDerhauchtinWundertraumlumenschondenzartenSaumluglinganUndweihtinseinemerstenSchlafdasKindzueinemMannDenJuumlnglinglocktseinRufhinausmitniegefuumlhlterLustZurStaumlttewoeinFreierfieldagreifterindieBrustDemZitterndenundSchauerziehnihmdurchdastiefeHerzErweisznichtobesWonneseiobesderersteSchmerzHerabduheilgeGeisterscharschwellunsreFahnenaufBefluumlgleunsrerHerzenSchlagundunsrerFuumlseLaufWirziehennachderFreiheitausdieWaffeninderHandWirziehenausaufKampfundTodfuumlrGottfuumlrsVaterlandIhrseidmitunsihrrauschtumunseurGeisterodemziehtMitzauberischenToumlnenhindurchunserJubelliedIhrseidmitunsihrschwebtdaherihrausThermopylaumlIhrausdemgruumlnenMarathonihrvonderblauenSee
AmWolkenfelsenMykaleamSalaminerstrandIhrallausWaldFeldBergundThalimweitenGriechenland
WerfuumlrdieFreiheitkampftundfaumllltdeszRuhmwirdbluumlhendstehnSolangefreidieWindenochdurchfreieLuumlftewehnSolangefreiderBaumlumeLaubnochrauschtimgruumlnenWaldSolangdesStromesWogenochfreinachdemMeerewalltSolangdesAdlersFittichfreinochdurchdieWolkenfleugtSolangeinfreierOdemnochausfreiemHerzensteigt
SONGBEFOREBATTLE
WhoeerforfreedomfightsandfallshisfamenoblightshallknowAslongasthroughheavensfreeexpansethebreezesfreelyblowAslongasintheforestwildthegreenleavesflutterfreeAslongasriversmountain-bornrollfreelytothesea[pg112]AslongasfreetheeagleswingexultingcleavestheskiesAslongasfromafreemansheartafreemansbreathdothrise
WhoeerforfreedomfightsandfallshisfamenoblightshallknowAslongasspiritsofthefreethroughearthandairshallgoThroughearthandairaspirit-bandofheroesmovesalwaysTisnearusatthedeadofnightandinthenoontidesblazeInthestormthatlevelstoweringpinesandinthebreezethatwavesWithlowandgentlebreaththegrassuponourfathersgravesTheresnotacradleintheboundsofHellasbroadandfairButthespiritofourfree-bornsiresissurelyhoveringthereItbreathesindreamsoffairy-landupontheinfantsbrainAndinhisfirstsleepdedicatesthechildtomanhoodspainItssummonslurestheyouthtostandwithnew-bornjoypossessedWhereonceafreemanfellandthereitfireshisthrillingbreastAndashudderrunsthroughallhisframeheknowsnotifitbeAthrobofraptureorthefirstsharppangofagonyComeswellourbannersonthebreezethousacredspirit-bandGivewingstoeverywarriorsfootandnervetoeveryhandWegotostrikeforfreedomtobreaktheoppressorsrodWegotobattleandtodeathforourcountryandourGodYearewithuswehearyourwingswehearinmagictone
Yourspirit-voicethepaeliganswellandminglewithourownYearewithusyethrongaroundmdashyoufromThermopylaeligYoufromtheverdantMarathonyoufromtheazureseaBythecloud-cappedrocksofMykaleatSalamismdashallyouFromfieldandforestmountandglenthelandofHellasthrough
WhoeerforfreedomfightsandfallshisfamenoblightshallknowAslongasthroughheavensfreeexpansethebreezesfreelyblowAslongasintheforestwildthegreenleavesflutterfreeAslongasriversmountain-bornrollfreelytotheseaAslongasfreetheeagleswingexultingcleavestheskiesAslongasfromafreemansheartafreemansbreathdothrise
WhenwerememberallthatwascompressedintothisshortlifewemightwellbelievethatthisceaselessacquiringandcreatingmusthavetiredandweakenedandinjuredbothbodyandmindSuchhoweverwasnotthecaseAllwhoknewthe poet agree in stating that he never overworked himself and that heaccomplishedallhedidwiththemostperfecteaseandenjoymentLetusonlyremember howhis life as a studentwas broken into by his service during thewar howhis journey to Italy occupied several years of his life [pg113] howlaterinDessauhehadtofollowhisprofessionasteacherandlibrarianandthenletusturnourthoughtstoalltheworkofhishandsandthecreationsofhismindandweareastonishednotonlyattheamountofworkdonebutstillmoreatthefinished formwhich distinguishes all hisworks Hewas one of the first whowithZeuneVon derHagen and the brothersGrimm labored to reawaken aninterest inancientandmediaeligvalGerman literatureHewasa favoritepupilofWolfandhisldquoHomerischeVorschulerdquodidmorethananyotherworkatthattimeto propagate the ideas of Wolf He had explored the modern languages ofEuropemdashFrench Italian English and Spanish and his critiques in all thesefieldsofliteratureshowhowintimatelyacquaintedhewaswiththebestauthorsof these nations Besides all this he worked regularly for journals andencyclopaeligdias andwas engagedco-editorof thegreat ldquoEncyclopaeligdiaofArtsand Sciencesrdquo by Ersch and Gruber He also undertook the publication of aldquoLibraryoftheGermanPoetsoftheSeventeenthCenturyrdquoandallthiswithoutmentioning his poems and novels in the short space of a life of thirty-threeyears
Ialmostforget thatIamspeakingofmyfatherfor indeedIhardlyknewhimandwhenhisscientificandpoeticactivityreacheditsendhewasfaryounger
thanIamnowIdonotbelievehoweverthatanaturalaffectionandvenerationforthepoetdeprivesusoftherightofjudgingItiswellsaidthatloveisblindbutlovealsostrengthensandsharpensthedulleyesothatitseesbeautywherethousandspassbyunmovedIfonereadsmostofourcriticalwritingsitwouldalmost appear as if the chief duty of the reviewer were to find out the weakpointsandfaultsof[pg114]everyworkofartNothinghassoinjuredtheartofcriticism as this prejudice A critic is a judge but a judge though he is noadvocate should also be no prosecutor The weak points of any work of artbetraythemselvesonlytoosoonbutinordertodiscoveritsbeautiesnotonlyasharpbutanexperiencedeye isneededand loveandsympathyarenecessaryaboveanythingelseItistheheartthatmakesthecriticnotthenoseItiswellknown how many of the most beautiful spots in Scotland and Wales andCornwall were not many years ago described as wastes and wildernessesRichmondandHamptonCourtwereadmiredpeopletravelledalsotoVersaillesandadmiredtheoftenadmiredblueskyofItalyButpoetssuchasWalterScottandWordsworthdiscoveredthebeautiesoftheirnativelandWhereothershadonly lamented over bare and wearisome hills they saw the battle-fields andburial-placesoftheprimevalTitanstrugglesofnatureWhereotherssawnothingbutbarrenmoorsfullofheatherandbroomthelandintheireyeswascoveredaswithacarpetsofterandmorevariegatedthanthemostpreciousloomofTurkeyWhereotherslost theirtemperat thegraycoldfogtheymarveledat thesilverveilofthebrideofthemorningandthegoldilluminationofthedepartingsunNoweverycockneycanadmirethesmallestlakeinWestmorelandorthebarestmoor in the HighlandsWhy is this Because few eyes are so dull that theycannotseewhatisbeautifulafterithasbeenpointedouttothemandwhentheyknow that they need not feel ashamed of admiring it It is the samewith thebeautiesofpoetryaswiththebeautiesofnatureWemustfirstdiscoverwhatisbeautiful in poetry and when it is discovered communicate it [pg 115]otherwise the authors of Scotch ballads are but strolling singers and theNiebelungensongsareasFredericktheGreatsaidnotworthpowderandshotThetradeoffault-findingisquicklylearnttheartofadmirationisadifficultartatleastforlittlemindsnarrowheartsandtimidsoulswhoprefertreadingbroadand safe paths Thus many critics and literary historians have rushed by thepoems ofWilhelmMuumlller just like travellerswho go on in the beaten trackpassingbyontherighthandandontheleftthemostbeautifulscenesofnatureandwho only stand still and open both eyes andmouthwhen their ldquoMurrayrdquotellsthemthereissomethingtheyoughttoadmireShouldanoldmanwhoisathome here meet them on their way and counsel the travellers to turn for amomentfromthehighroadinordertoaccompanyhimthroughashadypathtoa
millmanymayfeelatfirstfullofuneasinessanddistrustButwhentheyhaverefreshed themselves in the dark green valley with its lively mill stream anddelicious wood fragrance they no longer blame their guide for having calledsomewhatloudlytothemtopauseintheirjourneyItissuchapausethatIhavetriedinthesefewintroductorylinestoenforceonthereaderandIbelievethatItoomayreckononpardonifnotonthanksfromthosewhohavefollowedmysuddencall
1858
[pg116]
VIONTHELANGUAGEANDPOETRYOFSCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN
AfterallthathasbeenwrittenabouttheSchleswig-Holsteinquestionhowlittleis known about those whom that question chiefly concernsmdashthe Schleswig-HolsteinersTheremaybeavaguerecollectionthatduringthegeneralturmoilof1848theGermaninhabitantsoftheDuchiesroseagainsttheDanesthattheyfoughtbravelyandatlastsuccumbednottothevalorbuttothediplomacyofDenmarkButafter the treatyofLondon in1852haddisposedof themas thetreatyofViennahaddisposedofotherbravepeopletheysankbelowthehorizonofEuropean interestsnever to rise again itwas fondlyhoped till thepresentgenerationhadpassedaway
Yet theseSchleswig-Holsteinershaveaninterestof theirownquiteapartfromthepoliticalcloudsthathavelatelygatheredroundtheircountryEversinceweknow anything of the history of Northern Europe we find Saxon racesestablishedas the inhabitantsof thatnorthernpeninsulawhichwas thencalledtheCimbricChersoneseThefirstwriterwhoevermentionsthenameofSaxonsisPtolemy18andhespeaksofthemassettledinwhatisnowcalledSchleswig-Holstein19[pg117]AtthetimeofCharlemagnetheSaxonraceisdescribedtous as consisting of three tribes the Ostfalai Westfalai and Angrarii TheWestphalianswere settled near theRhine theEastphalians near theElbe andtheintermediatecountrywashedbytheWeserwasheldbytheAngrarii20ThenameofWestphaliaisstill inexistencethatofEastphaliahasdisappearedbutitsmemorysurvivesintheEnglishsterlingEastphaliantraderstheancestorsofthe merchant princes of Hamburg were known in England by the name ofEasterlings and their money being of the purest quality easterling in Latinesterlingus shortened to sterling became thegeneral nameof pureor sterlingmoneyThenameofthethirdtribetheAngrariicontinuedthroughtheMiddleAges as the nameof a people and to the present daymyown sovereign the
DukeofAnhaltcallshimselfDukeofldquoSachsenEngernundWestphalenrdquoButthenameoftheAngrariiwasmeanttofulfillanotherandmoregloriousdestinyThenameAngrariiorAngarii21isacorruptionoftheoldernameAngrivariithefamous German race mentioned by Tacitus as the neighbors of theCherusciThese Angrivarii are in later documents called Anglevarii The terminationvarii22 represents thesamewordwhichexists inA-Sasware for instance inCant-ware inhabitants of Kent or Cant-ware-burh Canterbury burh-wareinhabitantsofatownburghersItisderivedfromweriantodefendtoholdandmaybeconnectedwithweraman[pg118]Thesame termination is found inAnsivarii or Ampsivarii probably also in Teutonoarii instead of TeutoniChattuariinsteadofChatti
Theprincipal seatsof theseAngrariiwere aswe saw between theRhine andElbebutTacitus23knowsofAngliiieAngriieastoftheElbeandanoffshootof the same Saxon tribe is found very early in possession of that famouspeninsulabetween theSchleiand theBayofFlensburgon theeasterncoastofSchleswig24whichbyLatinwriterswascalledAngliaieAngriaToderivethenameofAngliafromtheLatinangulus25cornerisaboutasgoodanetymologyasthekind-heartedremarkofStGregorywhointerpretedthenameofAnglibyangeliFromthatAngliatheAnglitogetherwiththeSaxonsandJutsmigratedtotheBritishIslesinthefifthcenturyandthenameoftheAngliasthatofthemostnumeroustribebecameintimethenameofEnglaland26IntheLatinlawsascribed toKingEdward theConfessor a curious supplement is foundwhichstates ldquothat the Juts (Guti) came formerly from the noble blood of theAnglinamelyfromthestateofEngraandthattheEnglishcamefromthesamebloodThe Juts therefore like the Angli of Germany should always be received inEnglandasbrothersandascitizensoftherealmbecausetheAngliofEnglandand Germany had always intermarried and had fought together against theDanesrdquo27
[pg119]Like theAngli ofAnglia the principal tribes clustering round the base of theCimbric peninsula and known by the general name of Northalbingi orTransalbiani alsoNordleudi were all offshoots of the Saxon stem Adam ofBremen(215)dividesthemintoTedmarsgoiHolcetaeandSturmariiIntheseitiseasytorecognizethemodernnamesofDithmarschenHoltsetenorHolstenandStormarnItwouldrequiremorespacethanwecanaffordwerewetoenterinto the arguments by which Grimm has endeavored to identify theDithmarschenwiththeTeutonitheStormarnwith theCimbriand theHolsten
with the Harudes His arguments if not convincing are at least highlyingenious and may be examined by those interested in these matters in hisldquoHistoryoftheGermanLanguagerdquopp633-640
FormanycenturiestheSaxoninhabitantsofthoseregionshavehadtobearthebrunt of the battle between theScandinavian and theGerman races From thedayswhentheGermanEmperorOthoI(died973)hurledhisswiftspearfromthenorthernmostpromontoryofJutlandintotheGermanOceantomarkthetruefrontierofhisempiretothedaywhen[pg120]ChristianIXputhisunwillingpentothatDanishconstitutionwhichwastoincorporateallthecountrynorthoftheEiderwithDenmark theyhavehad toshare inall the triumphsandall thehumiliationsoftheGermanracetowhichtheyarelinkedbythestrongtiesofacommonbloodandacommonlanguage
SuchconstanttrialsandvicissitudeshavetoldonthecharacteroftheseGermanborderers and have made them what they are a hardy and determined yetcareful and cautious race Their constant watchings and struggles against theslowencroachmentsor sudden inroadsofanenemymore inveterateeven thanthe Danesmdashnamely the seamdashhad imparted to them from the earliest timessomewhatofthatwarinessandperseverancewhichweperceiveinthenationalcharacterof theDutchand theVenetiansBut the freshbreezesof theGermanOceanandtheBaltickepttheirnerveswellbracedandtheirheartsbuoyantandformusculardevelopmentthearmsofthesesturdyploughersoftheseaandthelandcanviewiththoseofanyoftheirneighborsontheislesorontheContinentHolsten-treue ieHolstein-truth isproverbial throughoutGermany and it hasstoodthetestoflongandfearfultrials
There isbutonewayofgainingan insight into the real characterof apeopleunlesswecanactually liveamong themforyearsand that is toexamine theirlanguage and literatureNow it is true that the language spoken inSchleswig-Holstein is notGermanmdashat least not in theordinary senseof thewordmdashandonemaywellunderstandhowtravellersandcorrespondentsofnewspaperswhohavepickeduptheirGermanphrasesfromOllendorfandwhoonthe[pg121]strengthof this try toenter intoaconversationwithHolsteinpeasants shouldarriveat theconclusion that thesepeasantsspeakDanishoratallevents thattheydonotspeakGerman
TheGermansofSchleswig-HolsteinareSaxonsandalltrueSaxonsspeakLow-GermanandLow-GermanismoredifferentfromHigh-GermanthanEnglishis
fromLowlandScotchLow-Germanhowever isnot tobemistakenforvulgarGermanIt istheGermanwhichfromtimeimmemorialwasspokeninthelowcountries and along the northern sea-coast of Germany as opposed to theGermanofthehighcountryofSwabiaThuringiaBavariaandAustriaThesetwo dialects differ from each other like Doric and Ionic neither can beconsideredasacorruptionoftheotherandhoweverfarbackwetracethesetwobranchesoflivingspeechweneverarriveatapointwhentheydivergefromonecommonsourceTheGothicofthefourthcenturypreservedinthetranslationoftheBiblebyUlfilas isnotashasbeensooftensaid themotherbothofHighand Low German It is to all intents and purposes Low-German only Low-German in its most primitive form and more primitive therefore in itsgrammaticalframeworkthantheearliestspecimensofHigh-GermanalsowhichdateonlyfromtheseventhoreighthcenturyThisGothicwhichwasspokeninthe east of Germany has become extinct The Saxon spoken in the north ofGermanycontinuesitsmanifoldexistencetothepresentdayintheLow-Germandialects inFrisian inDutch and inEnglishThe restofGermanywasand isoccupiedbyHigh-GermanIntheWesttheancientHigh-GermandialectoftheFrankshasbeenabsorbedinFrenchwhiletheGermanspokenfrom[pg122]theearliesttimesinthecentreandsouthofGermanyhassuppliedthebasisofwhatisnowcalledtheliteraryandclassicallanguageofGermany
Although the literature of Germany is chiefly High-German there are a fewliterarycompositionsbothancientandmoderninthedifferentspokendialectsof thecountry sufficient to enable scholars todistinguishat leastninedistinctgrammatical settlements in the Low-German branch Gothic Saxon Anglo-SaxonFrisianandDutch in theHigh-GermanbranchThuringianFrankishBavarian and Alemannish Professor Weinhold is engaged at present inpublishing separate grammars of six of these dialects namely ofAlemannishBavarianFrankishThuringian Saxon andFrisian and in his greatGermanGrammar Jacob Grimm has been able to treat these together with theScandinavian tongues as somanyvarieties of one common primitive typeofTeutonicspeech
But although in the early days of German life the Low and High Germandialectswereon termsofperfect equalityLow-Germanhas fallenback in theracewhileHigh-GermanhaspressedforwardwithdoublespeedHigh-Germanhasbecomethe languageof literatureandgoodsociety It is taught inschoolspreached in church pleaded at the bar and even in places where ordinaryconversationisstillcarriedoninLow-GermanHigh-Germanisclearlyintended
tobethelanguageofthefutureAtthetimeofCharlemagnethiswasnotsoandoneof theearliest literarymonumentsof theGerman language theldquoHeliandrdquoie the Saviour is written in Saxon or Low-German The Saxon Emperorshowever did little for German literature while the Swabian Emperors wereproudofbeing thepatronsofartandpoetry [pg123]The languagespokenattheir court beingHigh-German the ascendency of that dialectmay be said todatefromtheirdaysthoughitwasnotsecuredtillthetimeoftheReformationwhenthetranslationoftheBiblebyLutherputafirmandlastingstamponwhathassincebecometheliteraryspeechofGermany
But languageeven thoughdeprivedof literarycultivationdoesnoteasilydieThoughatpresentpeoplewritethesamelanguagealloverGermanythetownsand villages teem everywhere with dialects both High and Low In HanoverBrunswick Mecklenburg Oldenburg the Free Towns and in Schleswig-Holstein the lower orders speak their own German generally called Platt-Deutsch and in many parts of Mecklenburg Oldenburg Ostfriesland andHolsteinthehigherrankstooclingintheirevery-dayconversationtothismorehomely dialect28 Children frequently [pg 124] speak two languages High-German at school Low-German at their games The clergyman speaks High-German when he stands in the pulpit but when he visits the poor he mustaddress themintheirownpeculiarPlattThelawyerpleads in the languageofSchiller andGoethe butwhenhe examineshiswitnesseshehas frequently tocondescendtothevulgartongueThatvulgartongueisconstantlyrecedingfromthe towns it is frightened away by railways it is ashamed to show itself inparliamentButitislovedallthemorebythepeopleitappealstotheirheartsanditcomesbacknaturallytoallwhohaveevertalkedittogetherintheiryouthIt is thesamewith the localpatoisofHigh-GermanEvenwhereatschool thecorrectHigh-GermanistaughtandspokenasinBavariaandAustriaeachtownstill keeps its own patois and the people fall back on it as soon as they areamongthemselvesWhenMariaTheresawenttotheBurgtheatertoannouncetothe people ofVienna the birth of a son and heir she did not address them inhigh-flown literary German She bent forward from her box and called outldquoHoumlrts der Leopold hot aacuten Buebaacuterdquo ldquoHear Leopold has a boyrdquo In GermancomediescharactersfromBerlinLeipzigandViennaareconstantlyintroducedspeakingtheirownlocaldialectsInBavariaStyriaandtheTyrolmuchofthepoetry of the people iswritten in their patois and in some parts ofGermanysermons even and other religious tracts continue to be published in the localvernaculars
[pg125]TherearehereandthereafewenthusiasticchampionsofdialectsparticularlyofLow-GermanwhostillcherishahopethatHigh-GermanmaybethrownbackandLow-GermanrestoredtoitsrightsandformerdominionYetwhatevermaybethoughtoftherelativeexcellencesofHighandLowGermanmdashandinseveralpoints no doubt Low-German has the advantage of High-Germanmdashyetpractically thebattlebetweenthe twoisdecidedandcannotnowberenewedThe national language of Germany whether in the South or the North willalwaysbetheGermanofLutherLessingSchillerandGoetheThishoweverisnoreasonwhythedialectswhetherofLoworHighGermanshouldbedespisedor banishedDialects are everywhere the natural feeders of literary languagesandanattempttodestroythemifitcouldsucceedwouldbelikeshuttingupthetributariesofgreatrivers
After these remarks it will be clear that if people say that the inhabitants ofSchleswig-Holstein do not speak German there is some truth in such astatementatleastjustenoughoftruthtoconcealthetruthItmightbesaidwithequal correctness that the people of Lancashire do not speak English But iffromthisaconclusion is tobedrawn that theSchleswig-Holsteiners speakingthis dialect which is neither German nor Danish might as well be taught inDanishasinGermanthisisnotquitecorrectandwoulddeceivefewifitwereadducedasanargumentforintroducingFrenchinsteadofEnglishinthenationalschoolsofLancashire
TheSchleswig-Holsteinershavetheirowndialectandclingtoitastheyclingtomany things which in other parts of Germany have been discarded as old-fashioned [pg 126] and useless ldquoOll Knust houmllt HusrdquomdashldquoStale bread lastslongestrdquomdashisoneof theirproverbsBut they read theirBible inHigh-GermantheywritetheirnewspapersinHigh-GermananditisinHigh-Germanthattheirchildren are taught and their sermons preached in every town and in everyvillageItisbutlatelythatLow-GermanhasbeentakenupagainbySchleswig-Holstein poets and some of their poems though intended originally for theirownpeopleonlyhavebeen readwithdelightevenby thosewhohad tospellthemoutwith thehelpofadictionaryandagrammarThiskindofhomespunpoetryisasignofhealthynationallifeLikethesongsofBurnsinScotlandthepoemsofKlausGrothandothersrevealtousmorethananythingelsetherealthoughtsandfeelingstheevery-daycaresandoccupationsofthepeoplewhomtheyrepresentandtowhoseapprovalalonetheyappealButasScotlandproudthoughshewellmaybeofherBurnshasproducedsomeofthebestwritersof
English Schleswig-Holstein too small as it is in comparison with ScotlandcountsamongitssonssomeillustriousnamesinGermanliteratureNiebuhrthegreat traveller and Niebuhr the great historian were both Schleswig-Holsteiners though during their lifetime that name had not yet assumed thepoliticalmeaninginwhichitisnowusedKarstenNiebuhrthetravellerwasaHanoverian by birth but having early entered the Danish service he wasattachedtoascientificmissionsentbyKingFrederickVtoEgyptArabiaandPalestinein1760AlltheothermembersofthatmissionhavingdieditwaslefttoNiebuhrafterhisreturnin1767topublishtheresultsofhisownobservationsandof thoseofhiscompanionsHisldquoDescriptionofArabiardquoand[pg127]hisldquoTravels in Arabia and the Adjoining Countriesrdquo though published nearly ahundredyears ago are still quotedwith respect and their accuracyhashardlyeverbeenchallengedNiebuhrspenttherestofhislifeasakindofcollectorandmagistrate at Meldorf a small town of between two and three thousandinhabitants in Dithmarschen He is described as a square and powerful manwholivedtoagoodoldageandwhoevenwhenhehadlosthiseyesightusedto delight his family and a large circle of friends by telling them of theadventures inhisOriental travelsof the starrynightsof thedesert andof thebrightmoonlightofEgyptwhereridingonhiscamelhecouldfromhissaddlerecognize every plant thatwas growing on the groundNorwere the listenersthat gathered round him unworthy of the old traveller Like many a smallGermantownMeldorfthehomeofNiebuhrhadasocietyconsistingofafewgovernmentofficialsclergymenandmastersatthepublicschoolmostofthemmenof cultivatedmind andquite capable of appreciating amanofNiebuhrspowers Even the peasants there were not the mere clods of other parts ofGermanyTheywere awell-to-do race and by nomeans illiterateTheir sonsreceivedattheGymnasiumofMeldorfaclassicaleducationandtheywereabletomixwitheaseandfreedominthesocietyoftheirbettersThemosthospitablehouse atMeldorfwas that ofBoie theHighSheriff ofDithmarschenHehadformerly atGoumlttingen been the life and soul of a circle of friendswho havebecome famous in the history of German literature under the name ofldquoHainbundrdquo That ldquoHainbundrdquo or Grove-club included Buumlrger the author ofldquoLenorerdquo Voss the translator of Homer the Counts Stolberg Houmllty and [pg128]othersWithGoethetooBoiehadbeenontermsofintimacyandwheninafterlifehesettleddownatMeldorfmanyofhisoldfriendshisbrother-in-lawVossCountStolbergClaudiusandotherscametoseehimandhisillustrioustownsmanNiebuhrManyaseedwassowntheremanysmallgermsbegan toripeninthatremotetownofMeldorfwhichareyieldingfruitatthepresentdaynot in Germany only but here in England The sons of Boie fired by the
descriptions of the old blind traveller followed his example and becamedistinguished as explorers and discoverers in natural history Niebuhrs sonyoungBarthold soonattracted theattentionof allwhocame to seehis fatherparticularlyofVossandhewasenabledbytheirhelpandadvicetolayinearlyyouththatfoundationofsolidlearningwhichfittedhimintheintervalsofhischeckered life to become the founder of a new era in the study of AncientHistoryAndhowcuriousthethreadswhichbindtogetherthedestiniesofmenhowmarveloustheraysoflightwhichemanatingfromthemostdistantcentrescrosseachotherintheironwardcourseandgivetheirownpeculiarcoloringtocharacters apparently original and independentWe have read of late in theConfessions of a modern St Augustine how the last stroke that severed hisconnectionwiththeChurchofEnglandwastheestablishmentoftheJerusalembishopric But for that event Dr Newman might now be a bishop and hisfriendsastrongpartyintheChurchofEnglandWell thatJerusalembishopricowes something toMeldorf The young schoolboy ofMeldorfwas afterwardstheprivatetutorandpersonalfriendoftheCrown-PrinceofPrussiaandhethusexercised an influence both on the political and the religious views of KingFrederick[pg129]WilliamIVHewaslikewisePrussianAmbassadoratRomewhenBunsenwas there as a young scholar full of schemes andplanninghisownjourneytotheEastNiebuhrbecamethefriendandpatronofBunsenandBunsenbecamehissuccessorinthePrussianembassyatRomeItiswellknownthat the Jerusalembishopricwasa long-cherishedplanof theKingofPrussiaNiebuhrspupilandthatthebillfortheestablishmentofaProtestantbishopricatJerusalem was carried chiefly through the personal influence of Bunsen thefriendofNiebuhrThusweseehowallthingsareworkingtogetherforgoodorforevilthoughwelittleknowofthegrainsofdustthatarecarriedalongfromallquartersoftheglobetotelllikeinfinitesimalweightsinthescalesthatdecidehereafterthejudgmentofindividualsandthefateofnations
If Holstein and more particularly Dithmarschen of which Meldorf had informerdaysbeenthecapitalmayclaimsomeshareinNiebuhrthehistorianmdashifhehimselfasthereadersofhishistoryarewellawareisfondofexplainingthesocial and political institutions ofRomeby references towhat he had seen orheard of the little republic of Dithmarschenmdashit is certainly a curiouscoincidence that the onlyworthy successor ofNiebuhr in the field ofRomanhistoryTheodoreMommsen is likewiseanativeofSchleswigHisHistoryofRome though it did not produce so complete a revolution as the work ofNiebuhr stands higher as a work of art It contains the results of Niebuhrscritical researches sifted and carried on by a most careful and thoughtful
disciple It is in many respects a most remarkable work particularly inGermany The fact that it is readable and has become a popular book hasexcitedthewrathofmanycriticswhoevidently[pg130]consideritbeneaththedignityofa learnedprofessor thatheshoulddigesthisknowledgeandgivetotheworldnotallandeverythinghehasaccumulatedinhisnote-booksbutonlywhatheconsidersreallyimportantandworthknowingThefactagainthathedoesnotloadhispageswithreferencesandlearnednoteshasbeentreatedlikeacrimen lœsaeligmajestatis and yetwith all the clamor and clatter that has beenraisedfewauthorshavehadsolittletoalterorrectifyintheirlatereditionsasMommsen To have produced two such scholars historians and statesmen asNiebuhrandMommsenwouldbeanhonor toanykingdominGermanyhowmuchmore to the small duchyofSchleswig-Holstein inwhichwehavebeentoldsooftenthatnothingisspokenbutDanishandsomevulgardialectsofLow-German
WelleventhosevulgardialectsofLow-Germanandthepoemsandnovelsthathave been written in them by true Schleswig-Holsteiners are well worth amoments consideration In looking at their language an Englishman at oncediscovers a number of old acquaintances words which wewould look for invaininSchillerorGoetheWeshallmentionafew
BlackmeansblackinHigh-GermanitwouldbeschwarzDeblackistheblackhorseblackupwitisblackonwhitegifmekkilunblakgivemequillandinkBlid isblithe insteadof theHigh-GermanmildBottervogel orbotterhahnorbotterhex is butterfly insteadof schmetterling It is a common superstition inthe North of Germany that one ought to mark the first butterfly one sees inspringAwhiteonebetokensmourningayellowoneachristeningavariegatedoneaweddingBregenorbrehmisusedinsteadoftheHigh-GermangehirnitistheEnglishbrain[pg131]PeoplesayofaveryfoolishpersonthathisbrainisfrozendebrehmisemverfrornThepeculiarEnglishbutwhichhasgivensomuch trouble to grammarians and etymologists exists in the Holstein butenliterallyoutsidetheDutchbuitentheOld-Saxonbi-ucirctanButeninGermanisaregularcontractionjustasbinnenwhichmeansinsidewithinduringHebenistheEnglishheavenwhile the commonGermanname isHimmelHuumlckup is asighandnodoubttheEnglishhiccoughDuumlsigisdizzytalkigistalkative
TherearesomecuriouswordswhichthoughtheyhaveaLow-Germanlookarenot to be found in English or Anglo-Saxon Thus plitsch which is used inHolstein in the sense of clever turns out to be a corruption of politisch ie
politicalKruumldschmeans particular or over nice it is a corruption of kritischcriticalKatolschmeansangrymadandisacorruptionofcatholicieRomanCatholic Kraumlnsch means plucky and stands for courageux Fraumlnksch ieFrankishmeansstrangeFlaumlmschieFlemishmeanssulkyandisusedtoformsuperlativesPolschiePolishmeanswildForschmeansstrongandstrengthand comes from the French force Kluumlr is a corruption of couleur andKunkelfusenstandsforconfusionorfibs
SomeidiomaticandproverbialexpressionstoodeservetobenotedInsteadofsaying ldquoThe sun has setrdquo the Holsteiners fond as they are of their beerparticularlyintheeveningafteraharddaysworksayldquoDeSuumlnngeihttoBeerrdquoldquoThesungoestobeerrdquoIfyouaskinthecountryhowfaritistosometownorvillageapeasantwillanswerldquonHunnblaffrdquoldquoAdogsbarkrdquoifitisquitecloseor ldquon Pip Tobackrdquo ldquoA pipe of tobaccordquo meaning about half an hour Of aconceited[pg132] fellow they say ldquoHecirc houmlrt deFleacutegn hostenrdquoldquoHe hears thefliescoughingrdquoIfamanisfullofgreatschemesheistoldldquoInGedankenfoumlrtdeBurocirckintKutschrdquoldquoInthoughtthepeasanttoodrivesinacoachrdquoAmanwho boasts is asked ldquoPracher haumlst ocirck Luumls oder schuppst di man sordquoldquoBraggarthaveyoureallyliceordoyouonlyscratchyourselfasifyouhadrdquo
ldquoHolsteinsingtnichtrdquoldquoHolsteindoesnotsingrdquoisacuriousproverbandifitismeanttoexpresstheabsenceofpopularpoetryinthatcountryitwouldbeeasyto convict it of falsehood by a list of poetswhoseworks though unknown tofame beyond the limits of their own country are cherished and deservedlycherishedbytheirowncountrymenThebestknownamongtheHolsteinpoetsis Klaus Groth whose poems published under the title of ldquoQuickbornrdquo iequickbournorlivingspringshowthatthereisawelloftruepoeticalfeelinginthatcountryandthatitsstrainsareallthemoredeliciousandrefreshingiftheybubbleupinthenativeaccentofthecountryKlausGrothwasbornin1819Hewasthesonofamillerandthoughhewassenttoschoolhehadfrequentlytowork in the field in summer and make himself generally useful Like manySchleswig-Holsteinersheshowedadecidedtalentformathematicsbutbeforehewassixteenhehadtoearnhisbreadandworkasaclerkintheofficeofalocal magistrate His leisure hours were devoted to various studies GermanDanishmusicpsychologysuccessivelyengagedhisattentionInhisnineteenthyear he went to the seminary at Tondern to prepare himself to become aschoolmaster There he studiedLatin French Swedish and after three yearswas appointed teacher at a girls school Though he had to give forty-threelessons a week he [pg 133] found time to continue his own reading and he
acquiredaknowledgeofEnglishDutchIcelandicandItalianAtlasthoweverhishealthgavewayandin1847hewasobligedtoresignhisplaceDuringhisillnesshispoeticaltalentwhichhehimselfhadnevertrustedbecameasourceofcomforttohimselfandtohisfriendsandthewarmreceptionwhichgreetedthe first editionofhis ldquoQuickbornrdquomade himwhat hewasmeant to bemdashthepoetofSchleswig-Holstein
HispoliticalpoemsarefewandthoughatrueSchleswig-HolsteinerathearthehasalwaysdeclinedtofightwithhispenwhenhecouldnotfightwithhisswordInthebeginningofthisyearhoweverhepublishedldquoFiveSongsforSingingandPrayingrdquowhichthoughtheyfailtogiveanadequateideaofhispowerasapoetmaybeofinterestasshowingthedeepfeelingsofthepeopleintheirstruggleforindependence The text will be easily intelligible with the help of a literalEnglishtranslation
DUTSCHEEHRANDDUTSCHEEER
I
Fruumlhling1848
DarkeemnSoldatenaeligwerdeElfHurahhurahnatNornSekeemnsodichtasWagganWaggUnasenKoppelvullKorn
GundagSoldatenwokamtjuumlherVunalleBargendeKruumlzunQuerUtduumltschenLandennatduumltscheMeermdashSowannertuntrecktdatHeer
WatliggtsoebenasweertdeSeeWatschintsogelasGoldDatisdeMarschenerSaatunStaatDatisdeHolstenerStoet
[pg134]
GundagjuumlHolstenopduumltscheEerGundagjuumlFriesenantduumltscheMeer
TolebenunstarbenvaeligrduumltscheEhrSowannertuntrecktdatHeer
GermanHonorandGermanEarth
Spring1848
TherecamesoldiersacrosstheElbeHurrahhurrahtotheNorthTheycameasthickaswaveonwaveAndlikeafieldfullofcorn
GooddaysoldierswhencedoyoucomeFromallthehillsontherightandleftFromGermanlandstotheGermanseamdashThuswandersandmarchesthehost
WhatliessostillasitweretheseaWhatshinessoyellowasgoldThesplendidfieldsoftheMarshestheyareTheprideoftheHolstenrace
GooddayyeHolstenonGermansoilGooddayyeFriesiansontheGermanseaToliveandtodieforGermanhonormdashThuswandersandmarchesthehost
II
Sommer1851
DattrecktsotrurigaeligwerdeElfInTrittunSchrittsoswarmdashDeSwalwdewannertdeHatbartrecktmdashSekamtweddertotokumJahr
AdeadeduduumltschesHeerldquoAdeadeduHolstenmeerAdeopHoffenunWiederkehrrdquoWitruertalleenantMeer
DeStorchkumtwedderdeSwalwdesingtSofroumlhlichasalltovaeligrmdashWannkumtdeduumltscheAdlerunbringtDiwedderduduumltscheEhr
[pg135]
WakopduFlothwakopduMeerWakopduDunnerunweekdeEerWisittopHaeligpenunWedderkehrmdashWitruertalleenantMeer
Summer1851
TheymarchsosadacrosstheElbeSoheavystepbystepmdash
TheswallowwandersthestorkdepartsmdashTheycomebackintheyeartocome
AdieuadieuthouGermanhostldquoAdieuadieuthouHolstenseaAdieuinhopeandtomeetagainrdquoWemournalonebythesea
ThestorkcomesbacktheswallowsingsAsblitheaseverbeforemdashWhenwilltheGermaneaglereturnAndbringtheebackthouGermanhonor
WakeupthoufloodwakeupthouseaWakeupthouthunderandrousethelandWearesittinginhopetomeetagainmdashWemournalonebythesea
III
Winter1863
DarkumtenBrusenasVaeligrjahswindDatdraelighntaswaeligrdatdeFlothmdashWilltFroumlhjahrkamentoWihnachtstidHoumllptGottunssuumllbninneNoth
VunalleBargendeKruumlzunQuerDarisdatwedderdatduumltscheHeerDatgeltopNuoderNimmermehrSorettsededuumltscheEhr
WihoumlrtdenAdlerhekumthekumtNocheenmalhaeligptwiunharrtIstFriheitendlichdeheunsbringtlstWahrheitwatderutward
SunsthoumllpunsHimmelnugeittnimehrHoumllpduunbringunsdenHerzogher[pg136]
DennwuumllltwistarbenvaeligrduumltscheEhrDennbegravtunsinduumltscheEer
30December1863
Winter1863
TherecomesablastlikewinterstormItroarsasitwerethefloodIsthespringcomingatChristmas-tideDoesGodhimselfhelpusinourneed
FromallthehillsontherightandleftThereagaincomestheGermanhostItistobenoworneverOsavetheGermanhonor
WeheartheeaglehecomeshecomesOncemorewehopeandwaitIsitfreedomatlasthebringstousIsittruthwhatcomesfromthence
ElseHeavenhelpusnowitgoesnomoreHelpthouandbringusourDukeThenwillwedieforGermanhonorThenburyusinGermanearth
December301863
ItisnothoweverinwarsongsorpoliticalinvectivethatthepoeticalgeniusofKlausGrothshowstoadvantageHispropersphere is thequiet idyla truthfulandthoughtfuldescriptionofnatureareproductionofthesimplestanddeepestfeelings of the human heart and all this in the homely honest and heartfeltlanguage of his own ldquoPlattDeutschrdquo That the example of Burns has told onGroththatthepoetryoftheScotchpoethasinspiredandinspiritedthepoetofSchleswig-HolsteinisnottobedeniedButtoimitateBurnsandtoimitatehimsuccessfully is no mean achievement and Groth would be the last man todisownhismasterThepoemldquoMinJehannrdquomighthavebeenwrittenbyBurnsIshallgiveafreemetricaltranslationofitbutshouldadvisethereader[pg137]totrytospellouttheoriginalformuchofitscharmliesinitsnativeformand
to turn Groth even into High-German destroys his beauty as much as whenBurnsistranslatedintoEnglish
MINJEHANN
IkwullwiweernnochkleenJehannDoweerdeWeltsogrot
WesetenopdenSteenJehannWeestnochbyNawersSot
AnHebenselldestilleMaanWisegenwaheleepUnsnackenwadeHimmelhochUnwadeSotwuldeep
WeestnochwastilldatweerJehannDarroumlhrkeenBlattanBom
SoisdatnunimehrJehannAshoumlchstensnochinDrom
OchnewenndodeSchepersungmdashAlleenintwideFeldNiwahrJehanndatweerenTonmdashDeeenzigeopdeWelt
MituumlnnerinneSchummerntidDennwardmisotoMod
DennloumlpptmitlangsdenRuumlggsohittAsdomalsbidenSot
DendreihikmisohastiumAsweeriknichalleenDochAllenswatikfinnJehannDatismdashikstahunween
MYJOHN
IwishwestillwerelittleJohnTheworldwasthensowide
WhenonthestonebyneighborsbournWerestedsidebyside
Wesawthemooninsilverveiled
SailsilentthroughtheskyOurthoughtsweredeeperthanthebournAndastheheavenshigh
YouknowhowstillitwasthenJohnAllnatureseemedatrest
[pg138]SoisitnownolongerJohn
OrinourdreamsatbestThinkwhentheshepherdboythensangAloneoeralltheplainAyeJohnyouknowthatwasasoundWeneershallhearagain
SometimesnowJohntheeventidesTheself-samefeelingsbring
MypulsesbeatasloudandstrongAsthenbesidethespring
AndthenIturnaffrightedroundSomestrangertodescryButnothingcanIseemyJohnmdashIamaloneandcry
ThenextpoemisalittlepopularballadrelatingtoatraditionverycommononthenortherncoastofGermanybotheast andwestof thepeninsulaof islandsswallowedbytheseatheirspirespinnaclesandroofsbeingoncertaindaysstillvisibleandtheirbellsaudiblebelowthewavesOneoftheseislandswascalledBuumlsenorOldBuumlsumandissupposedtohavebeensituatedoppositethevillagenow called Buumlsen on the west coast of Dithmarschen Strange to say theinhabitantsofthatislandinspiteoftheirtragicfatearerepresentedratherinacomicallightastheBœotiansofHolstein
WATSIKDATVOLKVERTELLT
OlBuumlsum
OlBuumlsenhggtintwilleHaffDeFlothdekeemunwoumlhlenGraffDeFlothdekeemunspoumllunspoumll
BetsedeInseluumlnnerwoumlhlDarblevkeenSteendarblevkeenPahlDatWaterschaeligldatallhendalDarweerkeenBeestdarweerkeenHundDeligtnuallindepenGrundUnAllenswatderlevunlachDatdeckdeSeemitdepeNach[pg139]MituumlnnerindeholleEbbSosuumlhtmanvunneHuumlsdeKoumlppDennduktdeThornherututSandAsweertenFingervunenHandDennhoumlrtmansachdeKlockenklingnDennhoumlrtmansachdeKantersingnDenngeitdatlisendaeligrdeLuftldquoBegrabtdenLeibinseineGruftrdquo
WHATTHEPEOPLETELL
OldBuumlsum
OldBuumlsensankintothewavesTheseahasmadefullmanygravesThefloodcamenearandwashedaroundUntiltherocktodustwasgroundNostoneremainednobelfrysteepAllsankintothewatersdeepTherewasnobeasttherewasnohoundTheyallwerecarriedtothegroundAndallthatlivedandlaughedaroundTheseanowholdsingloomprofoundAttimeswhenlowthewaterfallsThesailorseesthebrokenwallsThechurchtowerpeepsfromoutthesandLiketothefingerofahandThenhearsonelowthechurchbellsringingThenhearsonelowthesextonsingingAchantiscarriedbythegustldquoGiveearthtoearthanddusttodustrdquo
In the Baltic too similar traditions are current of sunken islands and townsburied in the seawhich are believed to be visible at certain times Themostfamous tradition is that of the ancient town of Vinetamdashonce it is said thegreatestemporiuminthenorthofEuropemdashseveraltimesdestroyedandbuiltupagaintillin1183itwasupheavedbyanearthquakeandswallowedbyafloodThe ruinsofVineta arebelieved tobevisiblebetween the coastofPomeraniaandtheislandofRuumlgenThistraditionhassuggestedoneofWilhelmMuumlllersmdashmyfathersmdashlyricalsongspublishedinhisldquoStonesandShells fromtheIslandof[pg140]Ruumlgenrdquo1825ofwhichIamabletogiveatranslationbyMrJAFroude
VINETA
I
AusdesMeerestiefemtiefemGrundeKlingenAbendglockendumpfundmatt
UnszugebenwunderbareKundeVonderschoumlnenaltenWunderstadt
II
InderFluthenSehoosshinabgesunkenBliebenuntenihreTruumlmmerstehn
IhreZinnenlassengoldneFunkenWiederscheinendaufdemSpiegelsehn
III
UndderSchifferderdenZauberschimmerEinmalsahimhellenAbendroth
NachderselbenStelleschiffterimmerObauchringsumherdieKlippedroht
IV
AusdesHerzenstiefemtiefemGrundeKlingtesmirwieGlockendumpfundmatt
AchsiegebenwunderbareKundeVonderLiebediegeliebteshat
V
EineschoumlneWeltistdaversunkenIhreTruumlmmerbliebenuntenstehn
LassensichalsgoldneHimmelsfunkenOftimSpiegelmeinerTraumlumesehn
VI
UnddannmoumlchtichtauchenindieTiefenMichversenkenindenWiederschein
UndmiristalsobmichEngelriefenIndiealteWunderstadtherein
VINETA
I
FromtheseasdeephollowfaintlypealingFaroffeveningbellscomesadandslow
[pg141]Faintlyrisethewondroustalerevealing
Oftheoldenchantedtownbelow
II
OnthebosomofthefloodrecliningRuinedarchandwallandbrokenspire
DownbeneaththewaterymirrorshiningGleamandflashinflakesofgoldenfire
III
AndtheboatmanwhoattwilighthourOncethatmagicvisionshallhaveseen
HeedlesshowthecragsmayroundhimlourEvermorewillhauntthecharmeacutedscene
IV
FromtheheartsdeephollowfaintlypealingFarIhearthembell-notessadandslow
AhawildandwondroustalerevealingOfthedrowneacutedwreckoflovebelow
V
ThereaworldinlovelinessdecayingLingersyetinbeautyereitdie
PhantomformsacrossmysensesplayingFlashlikegoldenfire-flakesfromthesky
VI
LightsaregleamingfairybellsareringingAndIlongtoplungeandwanderfree
WhereIheartheangel-voicessingingInthoseancienttowersbelowthesea
IgiveafewmorespecimensofKlausGrothspoetrywhichIhaveventuredtoturnintoEnglishverseinthehopethatmytranslationsthoughveryimperfectmayperhapsonaccountof theirvery imperfectionexciteamongsomeofmyreadersadesiretobecomeacquaintedwiththeoriginals
HESAumlMISOVEL
I
HesaumlmisoveluniksaumlemkeenWortUnallwatiksaumlweerJehannikmuttfort
[pg142]II
HesaumlmivunLevunvunHimmelunEerHesaumlmivunallensmdashikweetnimalmehr
III
HesaumlmisoveluniksaumlemkeenWort
UnallwatiksaumlweerJehannikmuttfort
IV
HeheeldmideHannunhebemisodullIkschullemdochgutwenunobikniwull
V
IkweerjeniboumlsawersaumldochkeenWortUnallwatiksaumlweerJehannikmuttfort
VI
NusittikundenkundenkjuumlmmerderanMiduumlchikmussseggthebbnWageernminJehann
VII
UndochkumtdatweddersoseggikkeenWortUnhollthemiseggikJehannikmuttfort
HETOLDMESOMUCH
I
ThoughhetoldmesomuchIhadnothingtosayAndallthatIsaidwasJohnImustaway
II
HespokeofhistrueloveandspokeofallthatOfhonorandheavenmdashIhardlyknowwhat
III
ThoughhetoldmesomuchIhadnothingtosayAndallthatIsaidwasJohnImustaway
IV
HeheldmeandaskedmeashardashecouldThatItooshouldlovehimandwhetherIwould
V
IneverwaswrathbuthadnothingtosayAndallthatIsaidwasJohnImustaway
[pg143]VI
IsitnowaloneandIthinkonandonWhydidInotsaythenHowgladlymyJohn
VII
YeteventhenexttimeOwhatshallIsayIfheholdsmeandasksmemdashJohnImustaway
TOumlFMAL
SeisdochdestillstevunalletoKarkSeisdochdeschoumlnstevunalletoMarkSoweeklisobleekliundeOgensogrotSoblauasenHebenundeepasenSot
WerkiktwulintWaterundenktnisinDeelWerkiktwulnanHimmelunwuumlnschtsiknevelWersuumlhterinOgensoblauunsoframUndenktnianEngelnunallerhandKram
I
InchurchsheissurelythestillestofallShestepsthroughthemarketsofairandsotall
II
SosoftlysolightlywithwonderingeyesAsdeepastheseaandasblueastheskies
III
WhothinksnotadealwhenhelooksonthemainWholookstotheskiesandsighsnotagain
IV
WholooksinhereyessoblueandsotrueAndthinksnotofangelsandotherthingstoo
KEENGRAFFISSOBRUT
I
KeenGraffissobrutunkeenMuumlersohochWennTwesikmangutsuumlndsodraptsesikdoch
II
KeenWeddersogrulisoduumlsterkeenNachtWennTwesikmansehnwuumllltsosehtsesiksacht
[pg144]III
DatgifwulenMaanschindarschintwulenSteernDatgiftnochenLichtoderLuumlchtunLantern
IV
DarfiuntsikenLedderenStegelschunStegWennTwesikmanleefhebbtmdashkeenSorgvaerdenWeg
I
NoditchissodeepandnowallissohighIftwoloveeachothertheyllmeetbyandby
II
Nostormissowildandnonightissoblack
Iftwowishtomeettheywillsoonfindatrack
III
ThereissurelythemoonorthestarsshiningbrightOratorchoralanternorsomesortoflight
IV
ThereissurelyaladderasteporastileIftwoloveeachothertheyllmeeterelongwhile
JEHANNNUSPANNDESCHIMMELSAN
I
JehannnuspanndeSchimmelsanNufahrwinadeBrutUnhebbtwinixasbrunePerJehannsoistokgut
II
UnhebbtwinixasswartePerJehannsoistokrechtUnbuumlniknichunsWeerthsinSœnSobuumlnksinjuumlngsteKnecht
III
UnhebbtwigarkeenPerunWagSohebbtwijungeBeenUndesogluumlckliisasikJehanndatwuumlllwisehn
[pg145]MAKEHASTEMYJOHNPUTTOTHEGRAYS
I
MakehastemyJohnputtothegraysWellgoandfetchthebrideAndifwehavebuttwobrownhacksTheylldoaswelltoride
II
AndifwevebutapairofblacksWestillcanbearourdoomAndifImnotmymasterssonImstillhisyoungestgroom
III
AndhaveweneitherhorsenorcartStillstrongyounglegshavewemdashAndanyhappiermanthanIJohnIshouldliketosee
DEJUNGEWETFRU
WennAbendsrothdeWulkentrecktSodenkikochandiSotrockverbidatganzeHeerUnduweerstmitderbi
WennutdeBoumlmdeBlaederfalltSodenkikglikandiSofullsomennibraweJungUnduweerstmitderbi
DennsettikmisotrurihinUndenksovelandiIketalleenminAbendbrotmdashUndubuumlstnichderbi
THESOLDIERSWIDOW
WhenruddycloudsaredrivingpastTismorethanIcanbear
ThusdidthesoldiersallmarchbyAndthoutoothouwertthere
WhenleavesarefallingonthegroundTismorethanIcanbear[pg146]ThusfellfullmanyavaliantladAndthoutoothouwertthere
AndnowIsitsostillandsadTismorethanIcanbearMyeveningmealIeataloneForthouthouartnotthere
I wish I could add one ofKlausGroths tales (ldquoVertellenrdquo as he calls them)which give the most truthful description of all the minute details of life inDithmarschen and bring the peculiar character of the country and of itsinhabitantsvividlybeforetheeyesofthereaderButshortastheyareeventheshortestofthemwouldfillmorepagesthancouldherebesparedforSchleswig-HolsteinIshallthereforeconcludethissketchwithatalewhichhasnoauthormdashasimple tale fromoneof the localHolsteinnewspapers Itcame tome inaheap of other papers fly-sheets pamphlets and books but it shone like adiamondinaheapofrubbishandasthetaleofldquoTheOldWomanofSchleswig-HolsteinrdquoitmayhelptogivetomanywhohavebeenunjusttotheinhabitantsoftheDuchiessometruerideaofthestuffthereis inthatstrongandstaunchandsterlingracetowhichEnglandowesitslanguageitsbestbloodanditshonoredname
ldquoWhenthewaragainstDenmarkbeganagaininthewinterof1863officeswereopenedintheprincipaltownsofGermanyforcollectingcharitablecontributionsAtHamburgMessrs L andK had set apart a large room for receiving lintlinenandwarmclothingorsmallsumsofmoneyOnedayaboutChristmasapoorly clad woman from the country stepped in and inquired in the pureHolstein dialect whether contributions were received here for Schleswig-Holstein[pg147]TheclerkshowedhertoatablecoveredwithlinenragsandsuchlikearticlesButsheturnedawayandpulledoutanoldleatherpurseandtakingoutpiecesofmoneybegantocountaloudonthecounterlsquoOnemarktwomarksthreemarksrsquotillshehadfinishedhertenmarkslsquoThatmakestenmarksrsquoshesaidandshovedthe littlepileawayTheclerkwhohadwatchedthepooroldwomanwhileshewasarranginghersmallcopperandsilvercoinsaskedhermdashlsquoFromwhomdoesthemoneycomersquo
ldquothinsplsquoFrommersquoshesaidandbegancountingagainlsquoOnemark twomarks three
marksrsquoThusshewentonemptyingherpursetillshehadcountedouttensmallheapsofcoinoftenmarkseachThencountingeachheaponceoveragainshesaid lsquoThese aremy hundredmarks for Schleswig-Holstein be so good as tosendthemtothesoldiersrsquo
ldquoWhile the old peasant woman was doing her sums several persons hadgatheredroundherandasshewasleavingtheshopshewasaskedagaininatoneofsurprisefromwhomthemoneycame
ldquothinsplsquoFrommersquoshesaidandobservingthatshewascloselyscannedshe turnedbackandlookingthemanfull in thefacesheaddedsmilinglsquoIt isallhonestmoneyitwonthurtthegoodcausersquo
ldquoTheclerkassuredherthatnoonehaddoubtedherhonestybutthatsheherselfhad no doubt often known want and that it was hardly right to let hercontributesolargeasumprobablythewholeofhersavings
ldquoTheoldwomanremainedsilent fora timebutafter shehadquietlyscannedthefacesofallpresentshesaid lsquoSurely itconcernsnoonehowIgot the [pg148]moneyManyathoughtpassedthroughmyheartwhileIwascountingthatmoneyYouwouldnotaskmetotellyouallButyouarekindgentlemenandyou takemuch trouble for us poor people So Ill tell youwhence themoneycameYesIhaveknownwantfoodhasbeenscarcewithmemanyadayanditwillbesoagainasIgrowolderButourgraciousLordwatchesoverusHehashelpedme to bear the troubleswhichHe sentHewill never forsakemeMyhusbandhasbeendeadthismanyandmanyayearIhadoneonlysonandmyJohnwasafinestoutfellowandheworkedhardandhewouldnotleavehisoldmotherHemademyhomesnugandcomfortableThencamethewarwiththeDanesAllhisfriendsjoinedthearmybuttheonlysonofawidowyouknowisfreeSoheremainedathomeandnoonesaidtohimldquoComealongwithusrdquoforthey knew that he was a brave boy and that it broke his very heart to staybehindIknewitallIwatchedhimwhenthepeopletalkedofthewarorwhenthe schoolmasterbrought thenewspaperAhhowhe turnedpale and red andhow he looked away and thought his old mother did not see it But he saidnothingtomeandIsaidnothingtohimGraciousGodwhocouldhavethoughtthatitwassohardtodriveouroppressorsoutofthelandThencamethenewsfromFredericiaThatwasadreadfulnightWesatinsilenceoppositeeachotherWe knewwhatwas in our hearts andwe hardly dared to look at each otherSuddenlyheroseandtookmyhandandsaidldquoMotherrdquomdashGodbepraisedIhad
strengthinthatmomentmdashldquoJohnrdquoIsaidldquoourtimehascomegoinGodsnameIknowhowthoulovestmeandwhatthouhastsufferedGodknowswhatwillbecome[pg149]ofme if IamleftquitealonebutourLordJesusChristwillforsakeneither theenormerdquo John enlisted as a volunteerThe day of partingcameAhIammakingalongstoryofitallJohnstoodbeforemeinhisnewuniformldquoMotherrdquohesaidldquoonerequestbeforewepartmdashifitistoberdquomdashldquoJohnrdquoIsaidtohimldquoIknowwhatthoumeanestmdashOIshallweepIshallweepverymuchwhenIamalonebutmytimewillcomeandweshallmeetagaininthedayofourLordJohnandthelandshallbefreeJohnthelandshallbefreerdquothinsprsquo
ldquoHeavytearsstoodinthepooroldwomanseyesassherepeatedhersadtalebutshe sooncollectedherself andcontinued lsquoI didnot think then itwouldbe sohardTheheartalwayshopesevenagainsthopeButforallthatrsquomdashandheretheold woman drew herself up and looked at us like a queenmdashlsquoI have neverregrettedthatIbadehimgoThencamedreadfuldaysbutthemostdreadfulofallwaswhenwereadthattheGermanshadbetrayedthelandandthattheyhadgivenupourlandwithallourdeadtotheDanesThenIcalledontheLordandsaid ldquoO Lord my God how is that possible Why lettest Thou the wickedtriumphandallowestthejusttoperishrdquoAndIwastoldthattheGermansweresorryforwhattheyhaddonebutthattheycouldnothelpitButthatgentlemenI could never understandWe should never dowrong nor allowwrong to bedone And therefore I thought it cannot always remain so our good LordknowshisowngoodtimeandinhisowngoodtimeHewillcomeanddeliverusAndIprayedeveryeveningthatourgraciousLordwouldpermitmetoseethatdaywhenthelandshouldbefreeandourdeardead[pg150]shouldsleepnomoreinDanishsoilAndasIhadnoothersonagainstthatdayIsavedeveryyearwhatIcouldsaveandoneveryChristmasEveIplaceditbeforemeonatablewhereinformeryearsIhadalwaysplacedasmallpresentformyJohnandIsaidinmyheartThewarwillcomeagainandthelandwillbefreeandthoushaltsleepinafreegravemyonlysonmyJohnAndnowgentlementhepoor oldwomanhas been told that the dayhas come and that her prayer hasbeenheardandthat thewarwillbeginagainandthat iswhyshehasbroughthermoney themoney she saved for her sonGoodmorning gentlemenrsquoshesaidandwasgoingquicklyaway
ldquoButbeforeshehadlefttheroomanoldgentlemansaidloudenoughforhertohearlsquoPoorbodyIhopeshemaynotbedeceivedrsquo
ldquothinsplsquoAhrsquosaidtheoldwomanturningbacklsquoIknowwhatyoumeanIhavebeen
toldall isnotrightyetButhavefaithmenthewickedcannotprevailagainstthejustmancannotprevailagainsttheLordHoldtothatgentlemenholdfasttogethergentlemenThisverydayImdashbegintosaveupagainrsquo
ldquoBlesshergoodoldsoulAndifOdinwerestilllookingoutofhiswindowinthe sky as of yore when he granted victory to the women of the Lombardsmighthenotsayevennowmdash
ldquothinsplsquoWhenwomenareheroesWhatmustthemenbelikeTheirsisthevictoryNoneedofmersquothinsprdquo
1864
[pg151]
VIIJOINVILLE29
Our attention was attracted a few months ago by a review published in theldquoJournaldesDeacutebatsrdquoinwhichanewtranslationofJoinvillesldquoHistoiredeSaintLouisrdquobyMNatalisdeWaillyadistinguishedmemberoftheFrenchInstitutewaswarmlyrecommendedtotheFrenchpublicAfterpointingoutthemeritsofM deWaillys new rendering of Joinvilles text and the usefulness of such abookforenablingboysatschooltogainaninsightintotheheartsandmindsoftheCrusadersandtoformtothemselvesalivingconceptionofthemannersandcustomsofthepeopleofthethirteenthcenturythereviewerwhosenameiswellknowninthiscountryaswellas inFrancebyhisvaluablecontributionstothehistory of medicine dwelt chiefly on the fact that through the whole ofJoinvilles ldquoMeacutemoiresrdquo there is nomention whatever [pg 152] of surgeons orphysicians Nearly the whole French army is annihilated the King and hiscompanions lieprostrate fromwoundsanddisease Joinvillehimself is severaltimesonthepointofdeathyetnowhereaccordingtotheFrenchreviewerdoesthechroniclerrefertoamedicalstaffattachedtothearmyortothepersonoftheKingBeingsomewhatstartledatthisremarkweresolvedtoperuseoncemorethecharmingpagesofJoinvillesHistorynorhadwetoreadfarbeforewefoundthat one passage at least had been overlooked a passage which establishesbeyond thepossibilityofdoubt thepresenceof surgeonsandphysicians in thecampoftheFrenchCrusadersOnpage78ofMdeWaillysspiritedtranslationintheaccountofthedeathofGautierdAutregravechewereadthatwhenthatbraveknightwas carried back to his tent nearly dying ldquoseveral of the surgeons andphysicians of the camp came to see him and not perceiving that he wasdangerouslyinjuredtheybledhimonbothhisarmsrdquoTheresultwaswhatmightbeexpectedGautierdAutregravechesoonbreathedhislast
HavingonceopenedtheldquoMeacutemoiresrdquoofJoinvillewecouldnotbutgoontotheendfortherearefewbooksthatcarryonthereadermorepleasantlywhetherwereadtheminthequaintFrenchofthefourteenthcenturyorinthemoremodern
FrenchinwhichtheyhavejustbeenclothedbyMNatalisdeWaillySovividlydoestheeasygossipoftheoldsoldierbringbeforeoureyesthedaysofStLouisandHenryIIIthatweforgetthatwearereadinganoldchronicleandholdingconversewith theheroesof the thirteenthcenturyThefatesbothofJoinvillesldquoMeacutemoiresrdquoandofJoinvillehimselfsuggestinfactmanyreflectionsapartfrommeremediaeligvalhistory and a fewof [pg153] themmayherebegiven in thehope of reviving the impressions left on the minds of many by their firstacquaintancewiththeoldCrusaderorofinvitingotherstotheperusalofaworkwhichnoonewho takes an interest inmanwhether past or present can readwithoutrealpleasureandrealbenefit
ItisinterestingtowatchthehistoryofbooksandtogainsomekindofinsightintothevariouscircumstanceswhichcontributetoformthereputationofpoetsphilosophersorhistoriansJoinvillewhosenameisnowfamiliartothestudentofFrenchhistoryaswellastotheloverofFrenchliteraturemightfairlyhaveexpected that hismemorywould livebyhis acts of prowess andbyhis loyaldevotion and sufferingswhen following theKing of France St Louis on hisunfortunate crusade When previous to his departure for the Holy Land theyoungSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagnethenabouttwenty-fouryearsofagehadmadehisconfessiontotheAbbotofCheminonwhenbarefootandinawhitesheethewasperforminghispilgrimagestoBlehecourt(Blechicourt)StUrbainandothersacredshrinesinhisneighborhoodandwhenonpassinghisowndomainhewouldnotonceturnhiseyesbackonthecastleofJoinvilleldquopourcequelicuersnemeattendrisistdoubiauchastelquejelessoieetdemesdousenfansrdquo(ldquothat the heartmight notmakemepine after the beautiful castlewhich I leftbehindandaftermytwochildrenrdquo)hemusthavefeltthathappenwhatmighttohimselfthenameofhisfamilywouldliveandhisdescendantswouldresidefromcenturytocenturyinthosestrongtowerswherehelefthisyoungwifeAlixdeGrandpreacuteandhis sonandheir Jean thenbuta fewmonthsoldAfter fiveyearshereturnedfromhiscrusadefullofhonorsand[pg154]fullofwoundsHeheldoneofthehighestpositionsthataFrenchnoblemancouldholdHewasSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagneashisancestorshadbeenbeforehimSeveralmembersofhisfamilyhaddistinguishedthemselvesinformercrusadesandtheservicesofhisuncleGeoffroihadbeensohighlyappreciatedbyRichardCœurdeLionthathewasallowedbythatKingtoquarterthearmsofEnglandwithhisownBothatthecourtoftheComtesdeChampagnewhowereKingsofNavarreandat the court of Louis IXKing of France Joinvillewas awelcome guestHewitnessed the reigns of six kingsmdashof LouisVIII 1223-26 Louis IX or StLouis 1226-70 Philip III leHardi 1270-85 Philip IV le Bel 1285-1314
LouisX leHutin1314-16 andPhilipV leLong1316-22Thoughlater inlifeJoinvilledeclinedtofollowhisbelovedKingonhislastandfatalcrusadein1270 he tells us himself how on the day onwhich he took leave of him hecarriedhis royal friend thenreallyon thebrinkofdeath inhisarmsfromtheresidenceoftheComtedAuxerretothehouseoftheCordeliersIn1282hewasoneoftheprincipalwitnesseswhenprevioustothecanonizationoftheKinganinquestwasheldtoestablishthepurityofhislife thesincerityofhisreligiousprofessionsandthegenuinenessofhisself-sacrificingdevotioninthecauseofChristendom When the daughter of his own liege lord the Comte deChampagne Jeanne de Navarre married Philip le Bel and becameQueen ofFranceshemadeJoinvilleGovernorofChampagnewhichshehadbroughtasherdowrytothegrandsonofStLouisSurelythenwhentheoldCrusaderthefriendandcounselorofmanykingsclosedhisearthlycareeratthegoodageofninety-fivehemighthavelookedforwardtoan[pg155]honoredgrave in theChurch of St Laurent and to an eminent place in the annals of his countrywhichwerethenbeingwritteninmoreorlesselegantLatinbythemonksofStDenis
ButwhathashappenedThemonkishchroniclersnodoubthaveassignedhimhis proper place in their tedious volumes and there his memory would havelived with that kind of life which belongs to the memory of Geoffroi hisillustriousunclethefriendofPhilipAugustusthecompanionofRichardCœurdeLionwhosearmsweretobeseenintheChurchofStLaurentatJoinvillequarteredwith the royalarmsofEnglandSuchparchmentorhatchmentglorymighthavebeenhisandmanyaknightasgoodashehasreceivednobetternomorelastingrewardforhisloyaltyandbraveryHisfamilybecameextinctinhisgrandsonHenrideJoinvillehisgrandsonhadnosonsandhisdaughterbeingawealthyheiresswasmarried tooneof theDukesofLorraineTheDukesofLorraine were buried for centuries in the same Church of St Laurent whereJoinville reposed and where he had founded a chapel dedicated to hiscompanioninarmsLouisIXtheRoyalSaintofFranceandwhenatthetimeof the French Revolution the tombs of St Denis were broken open by aninfuriated people and their ashes scattered abroad the vaults of the church atJoinville too shared the same fate and the remains of the brave Crusadersuffered the same indignity as the remains of his saintedKing It is true thatthere were some sparks of loyalty and self-respect left in the hearts of thecitizensofJoinvilleTheyhadthebonesoftheoldwarriorandoftheDukesofLorrainereinterredinthepubliccemeteryandtheretheynowrestmingledwiththe dust of [pg 156] their faithful lieges and subjects But the Church of St
LaurentwithitstombsandtombstonesisgoneThepropertyoftheJoinvillesdescendedfromtheDukesofLorrainetotheDukesofGuiseandlastlytothefamilyofOrleansThefamousDukeofOrleansEgaliteacutesoldJoinvillein1790andstipulatedthattheoldcastleshouldbedemolishedPoplarsandfir-treesnowcover thegroundof theancientcastleand thenameofJoinville isbornebyaroyal prince the son of a dethroned king the grandson ofLouisEgaliteacutewhodiedontheguillotine
Neither his noble birth nor his noble deeds nor the friendship of kings andprinces would have saved Joinville from that inevitable oblivion which hasblotted from the memory of living men the names of his more eminentcompanionsmdashRobert Count of Artois Alphonse Count of Poitiers CharlesCount ofAnjouHugueDuke ofBurgundyWilliamCount of Flanders andmanymoreAlittlebookwhichtheoldwarriorwroteordictatedmdashforitisverydoubtful whether he could have written it himselfmdasha book which for manyyearsattractednobodysattentionandwhichevennowwedonotpossessintheoriginallanguageofthethirteenthorthebeginningofthefourteenthcenturiesmdashhassecuredtothenameofJeandeJoinvillealivingimmortalityandafamethatwill last long after the bronze statuewhichwas erected in his native place in1853 shall have shared the fate of his castle of his church and of his tombNothingcouldhavebeenfurtherfromthemindoftheoldnoblemanwhenattheageofeighty-fivehebeganthehistoryofhisroyalcomradeStLouisthanthehopeofliteraryfameHewouldhavescouteditThatkindoffamemighthavebeengoodenoughformonks[pg157]andabbotsbutitwouldneveratthattimehaverousedtheambitionofamanofJoinvillesstampHowthebookcametobe written he tells us himself in his dedication dated in the year 1309 andaddressed to Louis le Hutin then only King of Navarre and Count ofChampagnebutafterwardsKingofFranceHismotherJeanneofNavarrethedaughterofJoinvilles former liege lord the lastof theCountsofChampagnewhowasmarriedtoPhilipleBelthegrandsonofStLouishadaskedhimldquotohaveabookmadeforhercontainingthesacredwordsandgoodactionsofourKing St Looysrdquo She died before the book was finished and JoinvillethereforesentittohersonHowitwasreceivedbyhimwedonotknownoristhereanyreason tosuppose that thereweremore thana fewcopiesmadeofaworkwhichwasintendedchieflyformembersoftheroyalfamilyofFranceandofhisownfamily It isneverquotedbyhistoricalwritersof that timeand thefirsthistorianwhoreferstoitissaidtobePierreleBaudwhotowardtheendofthefifteenthcenturywrotehisldquoHistoiredeBretagnerdquo Ithasbeenproved thatforalongtimenomentionofthededicationcopyoccursintheinventoriesofthe
privatelibrariesoftheKingsofFranceAtthedeathofLouisleHutinhislibraryconsistedoftwenty-ninevolumesandamongthemtheHistoryofStLouisdoesnotoccurThere is indeedoneentryldquoQuatrecaiersdeSaintLooysrdquobut thiscouldnotbemeantfor theworkofJoinvillewhichwasinonevolumeThesefourcahiersorquiresofpaperweremore likelymanuscriptnotesofStLouishimselfHis confessorGeoffroydeBeaulieu relates that theKing beforehislastillnesswrotedownwithhisownhandsomesalutarycounselsinFrenchof[pg158]whichhetheconfessorprocuredacopybeforetheKingsdeathandwhichhetranslatedfromFrenchintoLatin
AgainthewidowofLouisXleftatherdeathacollectionofforty-onevolumesandthewidowofCharlesleBelacollectionoftwentyvolumesbutinneitherofthemisthereanymentionofJoinvillesHistory
It isnot tillwecometo thereignofCharlesV(1364-80) thatJoinvillesbookoccursintheinventoryoftheroyallibrarydrawnupin1373bytheKingsvaletdechambreGillesMalletItisenteredasldquoLaviedeSaintLoyset lesfaisdesonvoyagedoutremerrdquoandinthemarginofthecataloguethereisanoteldquoLeRoylapardeverssoyrdquomdashldquoTheKinghasitbyhimrdquoAtthetimeofhisdeaththevolume had not yet been returned to its proper place in the first hall of theLouvre but in the inventory drawn up in 1411 it appears again with thefollowingdescription30mdash
ldquoUnegrantpartiedelavieetdesfaisdeMonseigneurSaintLoysquefistfaireleSeigneur de Joinville tregraves-bien escript et historieacute Convert de cuir rouge agraveempreintesagravedeuxfermoirsdargentEscriptdelettresdeformeenfranccediloisagravedeuxcoulombescommenccedilantaudeuxiegravemefolio lsquoetporcequersquo et au derrenier lsquoen telemanierersquothinsprdquo
This means ldquoA great portion of the life and actions of St Louis which theSeigneurdeJoinvillehadmadeverywellwrittenandilluminatedBoundinredleathertooledwithtwosilverclaspsWritteninformallettersinFrenchintwocolumnsbeginningonthesecondfoliowiththewordslsquoetporcequersquoandonthelastwithlsquoentelemanierersquothinsprdquo
DuringtheMiddleAgesandbeforethediscovery[pg159]ofprintingthetaskofhavingaliteraryworkpublishedorratherofhavingitcopiedrestedchieflywiththeauthorandasJoinvillehimselfathistimeoflifeandinthepositionwhichheoccupiedhadnointerest inwhatweshouldcallldquopushingrdquohisbook
thisaloneisquitesufficienttoexplainitsalmosttotalneglectButothercausestoo havebeen assignedbyMPaulinParis andothers forwhat seems at firstsightsoverystrangemdashtheentireneglectofJoinvillesworkFromthebeginningofthetwelfthcenturythemonksofStDenisweretherecognizedhistoriansofFrance They at first collected the most important historical works of formercenturiessuchasGregoryofToursEginhardtheso-calledArchbishopTurpinNithardandWilliamofJumiegravegesButbeginningwiththefirstyearofPhilipI1060-1108themonksbecamethemselvesthechroniclersofpassingeventsThefamousAbbotSuger the contemporary ofAbelard andStBernardwrote thelifeofLouisleGrosRigordandGuillaumedeNangisfollowedwiththehistoryof his successors Thus the official history of St Louis had been written byGuillaume de Nangis long before Joinville thought of dictating his personalrecollectionsoftheKingBesidestheworkofGuillaumedeNangis therewastheldquoHistoryoftheCrusadesrdquoincludingthatofStLouiswrittenbyGuillaumeArchbishopofTyreand translated intoFrenchso thateven thegroundwhichJoinvillehadmoreespeciallyselectedashisownwaspreoccupiedbyapopularandauthoritativewriterLastlywhenJoinvillesHistoryappearedthechivalrousKingwhosesayingsanddoingshisoldbrotherinarmsundertooktodescribeinhis homely and truthful style had ceased to be an ordinary mortal He hadbecome[pg160] a saint andwhat peoplewere anxious to knowof himwerelegends rather than history With all the sincere admiration which JoinvilleentertainedforhisKinghecouldnotcompetewithsuchwritersasGeoffroydeBeaulieu (Gaufridus de Belloloco) the confessor of St Louis Guillaume deChartres(GuillelmusCarnotensis)hischaplainortheconfessorofhisdaughterBlancheeachofwhomhadwrittena lifeof the royalsaintTheirworkswerecopiedoverandoveragainandnumerousMSShavebeenpreservedoftheminpublicandprivatelibrariesOfJoinvilleoneearlyMSonlywassavedandeventhatnotaltogetherafaithfulcopyoftheoriginal
The first edition of Joinvillewas printed at Poitiers in 1547 and dedicated toFranccediloisITheeditorPierreAntoinedeRieux tellsusthatwhen in1542heexaminedsomeolddocumentsatBeaufortenValeacuteeinAnjouhefoundamongthe MSS the Chronicle of King Louis written by a Seigneur de JoinvilleSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagnewholivedatthattimeandhadaccompaniedthesaidStLouisinallhiswarsButbecauseitwasbadlyarrangedorwritteninaveryrudelanguagehehaditpolishedandputinbetterorderaproceedingofwhichhe is evidently very proud as we may gather from a remark of his friendGuillaumedePerriegravere thatldquoit isnosmallerpraisetopolishadiamondthantofinditquiterawrdquo(toutebrute)
This text which could hardly be called Joinvilles remained for a time thereceivedtextItwasreproducedin1595in1596andin1609
In1617aneweditionwaspublishedbyClaudeMenardHestatesthathefoundat Laval a heap of old papers which had escaped the ravages committed [pg161]bytheProtestantsinsomeofthemonasteriesatAnjouWhenhecomparedtheMSofJoinvillewiththeeditionofPierreAntoinedeRieuxhefoundthattheancientstyleofJoinvillehadbeengreatlychangedHethereforeundertookaneweditionmore faithful to theoriginalUnfortunately however hisoriginalMSwasbutamoderncopyandhiseditionthoughanimprovementonthatof1547 was still very far from the style and language of the beginning of thefourteenthcentury
The learned Du Cange searched in vain for more trustworthy materials forrestoringthetextofJoinvilleInvaluableasarethedissertationswhichhewroteonJoinvillehisowntextoftheHistorypublishedin1668couldonlybebasedonthetwoeditionsthathadprecededhisown
Itwasnottill1761thatrealprogresswasmadeinrestoringthetextofJoinvilleAn ancientMS had been brought fromBrussels by theMareacutechalMaurice deSaxe Itwas carefully editedbyMCapperonnier and it has servedwith fewexceptions as the foundation of all later editions It is now in the ImperialLibrary The editors of the ldquoRecueil des Historiens de Francerdquo express theirbeliefthattheMSmightactuallybetheoriginalAttheendofitarethewordsldquoCe fu escript en lan de gracircce mil CCC et IX on moys doctovrerdquo ThishoweverisnorealproofofthedateoftheMSTranscribersofMSSitiswellknownwere in thehabitofmechanicallycopyingall theysawin theoriginalandhencewefindverycommonlythedateofanoldMSrepeatedoverandoveragaininmoderncopies
Theargumentsbywhichin1839MPaulinParisprovedthatthistheoldestMSof Joinville belongs [pg 162] not to the beginning but to the end of thefourteenth century seem unanswerable though they failed to convince MDaunouwhointhetwentiethvolumeoftheldquoHistoriensdeFrancerdquopublishedin1840stilllooksuponthisMSaswrittenin1309oratleastduringJoinvilleslife-timeM Paulin Paris establishes first of all that thisMS cannot be thesame as that whichwas so carefully described in the catalogue of CharlesVWhatbecameofthatMSoncebelongingtotheprivatelibraryoftheKingsofFrancenooneknowsbutthereisnoreasonevennowwhyitshouldnotstill
berecoveredTheMSofJoinvillewhichnowbelongstotheImperialLibraryiswrittenbythesamescribewhowroteanotherMSofldquoLaVieetlesMiraclesdeSaintLouisrdquoNowthisMSofldquoLaVieetlesMiraclesrdquoisacopyofanolderMS which likewise exists at Paris This more ancient MS probably theoriginal andwritten therefore in thebeginningof the fourteenthcenturyhadbeencarefullyrevisedbeforeitservedasthemodelforthelatercopyexecutedbythesamescribewhoaswesawwrotetheoldMSofJoinvilleAnumberofletterswerescratchedoutwordserasedandsometimeswholesentencesalteredorsuppressedaredlinebeingdrawnacrossthewordswhichhadtobeomittedIt looks in fact like amanuscript prepared for the printer Now if the samecopyistwhocopiedthisMScopiedlikewisetheMSofJoinvilleitfollowsthathe was separated from the original of Joinville by the same interval whichseparatesthecorrectedMSSofldquoLaVieetlesMiraclesrdquofromtheiroriginalorfrom the beginning of the fourteenth century This line of argument seems toestablish satisfactorily the approximate date of the oldestMS of Joinville asbelongingtotheendofthefourteenthcentury
[pg163]Another MS was discovered at Lucca As it had belonged to the Dukes ofGuisegreatexpectationswereatonetimeentertainedofitsvalueItwasboughtbytheRoyalLibraryatParisin1741for360livresbutitwassoonprovednottobeolderthanabout1500representingthelanguageofthetimeofFranccediloisIratherthanofStLouisbutneverthelesspreservingoccasionallyamoreancientspelling than theotherMSwhichwas copied twohundredyears beforeThisMSbearsthearmsofthePrincessAntoinettedeBourbonandofherhusbandClaude de Lorraine who was ldquoDuc de Guise Comte dAumale Marquis deMayence et dElbeuf and Baron de Joinvillerdquo Their marriage took place in1513hediedin1550shein1583
There is a third MS which has lately been discovered It belonged to MBrissart-BinetofRheimsbecameknowntoMPaulinParisandwaslenttoMdeWaillyforhisneweditionofJoinvilleItseemstobeacopyoftheso-calledMSofLuccatheMSbelongingtothePrincessAntoinettedeBourbonanditismost likely theverycopywhich thatPrincessordered tobemade forLouisLasseacutereacutecanonofStMartinofTourswhopublishedanabridgmentofitin1541Byamostfortunateaccidentitsuppliesthepassagesfrompage88to112andfrompage126to139whicharewantingintheMSofLucca
Itmustbeadmittedthereforethatforanaccuratestudyofthehistoricalgrowth
oftheFrenchlanguagetheworkofJoinvilleisoflessimportancethanitwouldhavebeen if ithadbeenpreserved in itsoriginalorthographyandwithall thegrammatical peculiarities which mark the French of the thirteenth and thebeginning of the fourteenth century There may be [pg 164] no more than adistanceofnotquiteahundredyearsbetween theoriginalof Joinvilleand theearliestMSwhichwepossessButinthosehundredyearstheFrenchlanguagedidnotremainstationaryEvenas lateas the timeofMontaignewhenFrenchhasassumedafargreaterliterarysteadinessthatwritercomplainsofitsconstantchangeldquoIwrotemybookrdquohesaysinamemorablepassage(ldquoEssaisrdquoliv3c9)mdash
ldquoForfewpeopleandforafewyears If ithadbeenasubject thatought to last itshouldhavebeencommittedtoamorestablelanguage(Latin)Afterthecontinualvariationwhichhasfollowedourspeechtothepresentdaywhocanhopethat itspresentformwillbeusedfiftyyearshenceItglidesfromourhandseverydayandsinceIhavelivedithasbeenhalfchangedWesaythatatpresentitisperfectbuteverycenturysaysthesameofitsownIdonotwishtoholditbackifitwillflyawayandgoondeterioratingasitdoesItbelongstogoodandusefulwriterstonailthelanguagetothemselvesrdquo(delecloueragraveeux)
OntheotherhandwemustguardagainstforminganexaggeratednotionofthechangesthatcouldhavetakenplaceintheFrenchlanguagewithinthespaceofless than a century They refer chiefly to the spelling ofwords to the use ofsome antiquatedwords and expressions and to the less careful observation ofthe rules bywhich in ancientFrench the nominative is distinguished from theoblique cases both in the singular and the plural That the changes do notamount tomore than this can be proved by a comparison of other documentswhichclearlypreserve theactual languageof JoinvilleThere is a letterofhiswhich is preserved at the Imperial Library at Paris addressed to Louis X in1315 It was first published by Du Cange afterwards by M Daunou in thetwentieth [pg165] volume of the ldquoHistoriens deFrancerdquo and again byM deWailly There are likewise some charters of Joinville written in hischancellerieandinsomecaseswithadditionsfromhisownhandLastlythereisJoinvillesldquoCredordquocontaininghisnotesontheApostolicCreedpreservedinamanuscriptofthethirteenthcenturyThiswaspublishedintheldquoCollectiondesBibliophiles Franccedilaisrdquo unfortunately printed in twenty-five copies only TheMS of the ldquoCredordquo which formerly belonged to the public library of Parisdisappeared from it about twenty years ago and it now forms No 75 of acollectionofMSSbought in1849byLordAshburnhamfromMBarroisBycomparing the languageof these thirteenthcenturydocumentswith thatof the
earliestMS of JoinvillesHistory it is easy to see that althoughwehave lostsomething we have not lost very much and that at all events we need notsuspectintheearliestMSanychangesthatcouldinanywayaffectthehistoricalauthenticityofJoinvilleswork31
[pg166]TothehistorianoftheFrenchlanguagethelanguageofJoinvilleeventhoughitgives us only a picture of the French spoken at the time of Charles V orcontemporaneously with Froissart is still full of interest That language isseparated from theFrenchof thepresent daybynearly five centuries andwemay be allowed to give a few instances to show the curious changes both offormandmeaningwhichmanywordshaveundergoneduringthatinterval
InsteadofsœursisterJoinvillestillusessereurwhichwastherightformoftheobliquecasebutwasafterwardsreplacedbythenominativesuerorsœurThusp 424 E we read quant nous menames la serour le roy ie quand nousmenacircmeslasœurduroibutp466Alabbaiumlequesasuerfondaie labbaiumlequesasœurfondaInsteadofangeangelhehasbothangleandangrewheretherstandsfor thefinal lofangele themoreancientFrenchformofangelusThe same transition of final l into rmaybe observed inapocirctre for apostoluschapitreforcapitulumchartreforcartulaesclandreforscandalum InsteadofvieuxoldJoinvilleusesveilorveel(p132Cleveillefilauveilie levieuxfilsduvieux)butinthenomsingviexwhichistheLatinvetulus(p302AliViexde[pg167] laMontaingne ie leVieuxde laMontagnebutp304A limessaigeleVieilielesmessagersduVieux)InsteadofcoudemelbowwefindcoutewhichisnearertotheLatincubituscubitTheLatintinwordslikecubitus was generally softened in old French and was afterwards droppedaltogether As in coude the d is preserved in aider for adjutare in fade forfatuusInotherwordssuchaschaicircneforcatenaroueforrotaeacutepeacuteeforspathaaimecirce for amata it has disappeared altogether True is voir the regularmodificationofverum like soir of serum instead of themodern French vraiegp524BetsachiezquevoirsestaitieetsachezqueceacutetaitvraiWestillfindestertostand(ldquoEtnepooitestersursespiedsrdquoldquoHecouldnotstandonhislegsrdquo) At present the French have no single word for ldquostandingrdquo which hasoftenbeenpointedout asa realdefectof the language ldquoTostandrdquo isester inJoinvilleldquotoberdquoisestre
In thegrammatical systemof the languageof Joinvillewe find theconnectinglinkbetweenthecaseterminationsoftheclassicalLatinandtheprepositionsand
articlesofmodernFrench It isgenerallysupposed that the terminationsof theLatin declensionwere lost in French and that the relations of the caseswereexpressedbyprepositionswhilethesasthesignofthepluralwasexplainedbythes in the nom plur of nouns of the third declensionBut languages do notthus advance per saltum They change slowly and gradually and we cangenerallydiscoverinwhatissometracesofwhathasbeen
NowthefactisthatinancientFrenchandlikewiseinProvenccedilalthereisstillasystemofdeclensionmoreorlessindependentofprepositionsTherearesoto[pg168]say threedeclensions inoldFrenchofwhich thesecond is themostimportantandthemostinterestingIfwetakeaLatinwordlikeannuswefindinoldFrenchtwoformsinthesingularandtwointhepluralWefindsingan-sanpluranansIfanoccursinthenomsingorasthesubjectitisalwaysansifitoccurasagendatoraccitisalwaysanInthepluralonthecontrarywefindinthenomanandinalltheobliquecasesansTheoriginofthissystemisclearenoughandit isextraordinarythatattemptsshouldhavebeenmadetoderiveitfromGermanorevenfromCelticwhentheexplanationcouldbefoundsomuchnearerhomeThenomsinghasthesbecauseitwasthereinLatinthenomplurhasnosbecausetherewasnosthereinLatinTheobliquecasesinthe singular haveno s because the accusative inLatin and likewise the gendatandablendedeitherinvowelswhichbecamemuteorinmwhichwasdroppedTheobliquecases in thepluralhad thes because itwas there in theaccplurwhichbecame thegeneralobliquecaseand likewise in thedatandabl By means of these fragments of the Latin declension it was possible toexpressmanythingswithoutprepositionswhichinmodernFrenchcannolongerbethusexpressedLefilsRoiwasclearlythesonoftheKingilfilRoithesonsof theKing Againwe find li roys theKing but au roy to the King PierreSarrasin begins his letter on the crusade of St Louis by A seigneur NicolasArodeJehan-sSarrasinchambrelen-sleroydeFrancesalutetbonneamour
Butifweapplythesameprincipletonounsofthefirstdeclensionweshallseeat once that they could not [pg 169] have lent themselves to the samecontrivanceWords likecorona haveno s in the nom sing nor in anyof theobliquecases itwouldthereforebe inFrenchcorone throughout In thepluralindeed theremighthavebeenadistinctionbetween thenomand theaccThenom ought to have been without an s and the acc with an s But with theexceptionofsomedoubtfulpassageswhereanomplurissupposedtooccurinoldFrenchdocumentswithoutanswefindthroughoutbothinthenomandtheothercasesthesoftheaccusativeasthesignoftheplural
Nearly thesameapplies tocertainwordsof the thirddeclensionHerewefindindeedadistinctionbetweenthenomandtheobliquecasesofthesingularsuchasflor-stheflowerwithfloroftheflowerbutthepluralisflor-sthroughoutThisformischieflyconfinedtofemininenounsofthethirddeclension
There is another very curious contrivance by which the ancient Frenchdistinguished thenom fromtheacc singandwhichshowsusagainhowtheconsciousness of the Latin grammar was by no means entirely lost in theformationofmodernFrenchTherearemanywordsinLatinwhichchangetheiraccent in the oblique cases fromwhat itwas in the nominative For instancecantaacutetor a singer becomes cantatoacuterem in the accusative Now in ancientFrenchthenomcorrespondingtocantatorischaacutenterebut thegenchanteoacuterand thusagainadistinction isestablishedofgreat importance forgrammaticalpurposesMostof thesewords followed theanalogyof the seconddeclensionandaddedansinthenomsingdroppeditinthenomplurandaddeditagainintheobliquecasesofthepluralThuswegetmdash
[pg170]SINGULAR PLURALNom ObliqueCases Nom ObliqueCaseschaacutentere chanteoacuter chanteoacuter chanteoacutersFrombarobaronis baron baron barons(OFrber)latrolatronis larron larron larrons(OFrlierre)seniorsenioris seignor seignor seignors(OFrsendre)(sire)
ThuswereadinthebeginningofJoinvillesHistorymdash
AsonbonsignourLooysJehanssiresdeJoinvillesalutetamour
andimmediatelyafterwardsChierssirenotChiersseigneur
IfwecomparethisoldFrenchdeclensionwiththegrammarofmodernFrenchwefindthattheaccusativeortheobliqueformhasbecometheonlyrecognizedformbothinthesingularandpluralHencemdash
[Corone] [Ans] [Flors] [Chaacutentere]lechantreCorone An Flor Chanteoacuterlechanteur
[Corones] [An] [Flors] [Chanteoacuter]Corones Ans Flors Chanteoacuters
AfewtracesonlyoftheoldsystemremaininsuchwordsasfilsbrasCharlesJacquesetc
Not less curious than the changes of form are the changes ofmeaningwhichhave taken place in the French language since the days of Joinville Thus laviandewhichnowonlymeansmeatisusedbyJoinvilleinitsoriginalandmoregeneralsenseofvictuals theLatinvivendaFor instance (p248D) ldquoEtnousrequeismesqueennousdonnastlavianderdquoldquoAndweaskedthatonemightgiveus something to eatrdquoAnd soon after ldquoLes viandes que il nous donnegraverent cefurent begniet de fourmaiges qui estoient roti au soliel pour ce que li ver nivenissentetoefdur[pg171]cuitdequatrejoursoudecincrdquoldquoAndtheviandswhichtheygaveuswerecheese-cakesroastedinthesunthatthewormsmightnotgetatthemandhardeggsboiledfourorfivedaysagordquo
Payer to pay is still used in its original sense of pacifying or satisfying theLatinpacareThusapriestwhohasreceivedfromhisbishopanexplanationofsomedifficultyandotherghostlycomfortldquose tintbinpourpaieacuterdquo(p34C)heldquoconsideredhimselfwellsatisfiedrdquoWhentheKingobjectedtocertainwordsintheoathwhichhehadtotakeJoinvillesaysthathedoesnotknowhowtheoathwas finally arranged but he adds ldquoLi amiral se tindrent lien apaieacuterdquo ldquoTheadmiralsconsideredthemselvessatisfiedrdquo(p242C)Thesamewordhoweverislikewiseusedintheusualsenseofpaying
NoiseawordwhichhasalmostdisappearedfrommodernFrenchoccursseveraltimes in Joinville and we can watch in different passages the growth of itsvarious meanings In one passage Joinville relates (p 198) that one of hisknightshadbeenkilledandwaslyingonabierinhischapelWhilethepriestwas performing his office six other knights were talking very loud andldquoFaisoientnoiseauprestrerdquoldquoTheyannoyedordisturbedthepriesttheycausedhimannoyancerdquoHerenoisehasstill thesamesenseas theLatinnausea fromwhich it is derived In another passage however Joinville uses noise assynonymouswithbruit(p152A)Vintliroysagravetoutesabatailleagravegrantnoyseet agrave grant bruit de trompes et nacaires ievint le roi avec tout son corps debatailleagravegrandcrisetagravegrandbruitdetrompettesetdetimbalesHerenoisemaystillmeananannoyingnoisebutwecanseetheeasytransitionfromthattonoiseingeneral
[pg172]Another English word ldquoto purchaserdquo finds its explanation in JoinvilleOriginally pourchasser meant to hunt after a thing to pursue it Joinvillefrequentlyusestheexpressionldquoparsonpourchasrdquo(p458E)inthesenseofldquobyhisendeavorsrdquoWhentheKinghadreconciledtwoadversariespeaceissaidtohavebeenmadeparsonpourchasldquoPourchasserrdquoafterwards took thesenseofldquoprocuringrdquoldquocateringrdquoandlastlyinEnglishofldquobuyingrdquo
ToreturntoJoinvillesHistorythescarcityofMSSisveryinstructivefromanhistoricalpointofviewAsfarasweknowatpresenthisgreatworkexistedforcenturies in two copies only one preserved in his own castle the other in thelibraryoftheKingsofFranceWecanhardlysaythatitwaspublishedevenintherestrictedsensewhichthatwordhadduringthefourteenthcenturyandtherecertainly isnoevidence that itwasreadbyanyoneexceptbymembersof theroyalfamilyofFranceandpossiblybydescendantsofJoinvilleItexercisednoinfluence and if two or three copies had not luckily escaped (one of them itmustbeconfessedclearlyshowingthe tracesofmices teeth)weshouldhaveknownverylittleindeedeitherofthemilitaryoroftheliteraryachievementsofonewhoisnowrankedamongthechiefhistoriansofFranceorevenofEuropeAfterJoinvillesHistoryhadonceemergedfromitsobscurityitsoonbecamethefashiontopraiseitandtopraiseitsomewhatindiscriminatelyJoinvillebecameageneral favoriteboth inandoutofFranceandafterallhadbeensaid inhispraisethatmightbetrulyandproperlysaideachsuccessiveadmirertriedtoaddalittlemoretillatlastasamatterofcoursehewascomparedtoThucydidesand lauded for thegraces of [pg173] his style the vigor of his language thesubtlety of hismind and hisworship of the harmonious and the beautiful insuchamannerthattheoldbluffsoldierwouldhavebeenhighlyperplexedanddisgustedcouldhehavelistenedto thepraisesofhisadmirersWellmightMPaulinParissayldquoI shallnot stop topraisewhat everybodyhaspraisedbeforemetorecall thegracefulnaiumlveteacuteof thegoodSeacuteneacutechalwoulditnotbeas theEnglishpoetsaidlsquotogildthegoldandpaintthelilywhitersquothinsprdquo
It is surprising to find in the large crowdof indiscriminate admirers aman soaccurate in his thoughts and in his words as the late Sir James StephenConsidering how little Joinvilles History was noticed by his contemporarieshow little it was read by the people before it was printed during the reign ofFranccediloisIitmustseemmorethandoubtfulwhetherJoinvillereallydeservedaplaceinaseriesoflecturesldquoOnthePowerofthePeninFrancerdquoButwaivingthatpointisitquiteexacttosayasSirJamesStephendoesldquothatthreewriters
only retain andprobably theyalonedeserve at thisday theadmirationwhichgreeted them in their ownmdashI refer to Joinville Froissart and to Philippe deCominesrdquoAnd is the following a sober and correct description of Joinvillesstylemdash
ldquoOver the whole picture the genial spirit of France glows with all the naturalwarmthwhichweseekinvainamongthedrybonesofearlierchroniclersWithouttheuseofanydidacticformsofspeechJoinvilleteachesthehighestofallwisdommdashthewisdomofloveWithoutthepedantryoftheschoolsheoccasionallyexhibitsaneagerthirstofknowledgeandagracefulfacilityofimpartingitwhichattestthathe is of the lineage of the great father of history andof thosemodern historianswhohavetakenHerodotusfortheirmodelrdquo(Voliipp209219)
[pg174]NowallthissoundstoourearsjustanoctavetoohighThereissometruthinitbut thetruthisspoiltbybeingexaggeratedJoinvillesbookisverypleasant toread becausehegives himself no airs and tells us aswell as he canwhat herecollectsofhisexcellentKingandofthefearfultimewhichtheyspenttogetherduring the crusade He writes very much as an old soldier would speak Heseems to know that people will listen to himwith respect and that theywillbelievewhathetells themHedoesnotwearythemwithargumentsHeratherlikesnowandthentoevokeasmileandhemaintainstheglowofattentionbythinkingmoreofhishearers thanofhimselfHehadevidently toldhis storiesmanytimesbeforehefinallydictatedthemintheforminwhichwereadthemandthisiswhatgivestosomeofthemacertainfinishandtheappearanceofartYet ifwespeakofstyleatallmdashnotofthestyleofthoughtbutof thestyleoflanguagemdashthe blemishes in Joinvilles History are so apparent that one feelsreluctant to point them out He repeats his words he repeats his remarks hedropsthethreadofhisstorybeginsanewsubjectleavesitbecauseashesayshimselfitwouldcarryhimtoofarandthenafteratimereturnstoitagainHisdescriptionsofthescenerywherethecampwaspitchedandthebattlesfoughtareneithersufficientlybroadnorsufficientlydistincttogivethereaderthatviewofthewholewhichhereceivesfromsuchwritersasCaeligsarThiersCarlyleorRussellNoristhereanyattemptatdescribingoranalyzingthecharacteroftheprincipal actors in the crusade of St Louis beyond relating some of theirremarks or occasional conversations It is an ungrateful task to draw up theseindictments against a man whom one [pg 175] probably admires much moresincerelythanthosewhobespatterhimwithundeservedpraiseJoinvillesbookis readable and it is readable even in spite of the antiquated and sometimes
difficultlanguageinwhichitiswrittenTherearefewbooksofwhichwecouldsaythesameWhatmakeshisbookreadableispartlytheinterestattachingtothesubjectofwhichittreatsbutfarmorethesimplenaturalstraightforwardwayinwhich Joinville tellswhathehas to tellFromonepoint of view itmaybetrulysaidthatnohigherpraisecouldbebestowedonanystylethantosaythatitis simple natural straightforward and charming But if his indiscriminateadmirers had appreciated this artless art they would not have applied to thepleasant gossip of an old general epithets that are appropriate only to themasterpiecesofclassicalliterature
It is important to bear in mind what suggested to Joinville the first idea ofwritinghisbookHewasaskedtodosobytheQueenofPhilipleBelAfterthedeathoftheQueenhoweverJoinvilledidnotdedicatehisworktotheKingbuttohis sonwhowas then theheirapparentThismaybeexplainedby the factthathehimselfwasSeacuteneacutechaldeChampagneandLouisthesonofPhilipleBelComtedeChampagneButitadmitsofanotherandmoreprobableexplanationJoinville was dissatisfied with the proceedings of Philip le Bel and from theverybeginningofhis reignheopposedhisencroachmentson theprivilegesofthenobilityandthelibertiesofthepeopleHewaspunishedforhisoppositionandexcludedfromtheassembliesinChampagnein1287andthoughhisnameappearedagainontherollin1291JoinvillethenoccupiedonlythesixthinsteadofthefirstplaceIn[pg176]1314matterscametoacrisisinChampagneandJoinvillecalledtogetherthenobilityinordertodeclareopenlyagainsttheKingTheopportunedeathofPhilipalonepreventedthebreakingoutofarebellionItistruethattherearenodirectallusionstothesemattersinthebodyofJoinvillesbookyetan impression is lefton thereader thathewrotesomeportionof theLifeofStLouisasalessontotheyoungprincetowhomitisdedicatedOnceortwiceindeedheuseslanguagewhichsoundsominousandwhichwouldhardlybetoleratedinFranceevenafterthelapseoffivecenturiesWhenspeakingofthe great honorwhichSt Louis conferred on his family he says ldquothat itwasindeedagreathonortothoseofhisdescendantswhowouldfollowhisexampleby goodworks but a great dishonor to thosewhowould do evil For peoplewouldpointatthemwiththeirfingersandwouldsaythatthesaintedKingfromwhomtheydescendedwouldhavedespisedsuchwickednessrdquoThereisanotherpassageevenstrongerthanthisAfterrelatinghowStLouisescapedfrommanydangers by the grace of God he suddenly exclaims ldquoLet the King who nowreigns(PhilipleBel)takecareforhehasescapedfromasgreatdangersmdashnayfromgreateronesmdashthanwelethimseewhetherhecannotamendhisevilwayssothatGodmaynotstrikehimandhisaffairscruellyrdquo
Thissurelyisstronglanguageconsideringthatitwasusedinabookdedicatedto the son of the then reigningKing To the father of Philip le Bel Joinvilleseems to have spoken with the same frankness as to his son and he tells ushimselfhowhereprovedtheKingPhilipleHardiforhisextravagantdressandadmonishedhimtofollowtheexampleofhis [pg177] fatherSimilar remarksoccuragainandagainandthoughtheLifeofStLouiswascertainlynotwrittenmerelyfordidacticpurposesyetonecannothelpseeingthatitwaswrittenwithapracticalobjectIntheintroductionJoinvillesaysldquoIsendthebooktoyouthatyouandyourbrotherandotherswhohearitmaytakeanexampleandthattheymaycarryitoutintheirlifeforwhichGodwillblessthemrdquoAndagain(p268)ldquoThese things shall I cause to bewritten that thosewhohear themmayhavefaithinGodintheirpersecutionsandtribulationsandGodwillhelpthemasHedidmerdquo Again (p 380) ldquoThese things I have told you that you may guardagainst taking an oath without reason for as the wise say lsquoHe who swearsreadilyforswearshimselfreadilyrsquothinsprdquo
ItseemsthereforethatwhenJoinvilletooktodictatinghisrecollectionsofStLouishedidsopartly toredeemapromisegivento theQueenwhohesayslovedhimmuchandwhomhecouldnotrefusepartlytoplaceinthehandsoftheyoungprincesabookfullofhistoricallessonswhichtheymightreadmarkandinwardlydigest
Andwellmighthedosoandwellmighthisbookbereadbyallyoungprincesandbyallwhoareabletolearnalessonfromthepagesofhistoryforfewkingsifanydideverwear theircrownssoworthilyasLouisIXofFranceandfewsaintsifanydiddeservetheirhalobetterthanStLouisHereliesthedeepandlasting interestof Joinvilleswork Itallowsusan insight intoa lifewhichwecouldhardlyrealizenaywhichweshouldhardlybelieveinunlesswehadthetestimonyof that trustywitness Joinville theKings friend and comradeThelegendary lives of St Louis would have destroyed in the eyes of [pg 178]posterity the real greatness and the real sanctity of the Kings character WeshouldneverhaveknownthemanbutonlyhissaintlycaricatureAfterreadingJoinvillewemustmakeupourmindthatsuchalifeashetheredescribeswasreally lived andwas lived in those very palaceswhichwe are accustomed toconsiderasthesinksofwickednessandviceFromotherdescriptionswemighthave imagined Louis IX as a bigoted priest-ridden credulous King FromJoinvillewe learn that though unwavering in his faith andmost strict in theobservance of his religious duties the King was by no means narrow in hissympathies or partial to the encroachments of priestcraft We find Joinville
speakingtotheKingonsubjectsofreligionwiththegreatestfreedomandasnocourtierwouldhavedaredtospeakduringthelateryearsofLouisXIVsreignWhentheKingaskedhimwhetherintheholyweekheeverwashedthefeetofthepoorJoinvillerepliedthathewouldneverwashthefeetofsuchvillainsForthis remark he was no doubt reproved by the King who as we are told byBeaulieuwith themost unpleasant detailswashed the feet of the poor everySaturday But the reply though somewhat irreverent is nevertheless highlycreditable to thecourtiers franknessAnother timeheshockedhis royal friendstillmorebytellinghiminthepresenceofseveralprieststhathewouldratherhavecommittedthirtymortalsinsthanbealeperTheKingsaidnothingatthetime but he sent for him the next day and reproved him in the most gentlemannerforhisthoughtlessspeech
JoinvilletoowithalltherespectwhichheentertainedforhisKingwouldneverhesitate to speakhismindwhenhe thought that theKingwas in the [pg 179]wrongOnoneoccasiontheAbbotofClunypresentedtheKingwithtwohorsesworth five hundred livres The next day theAbbot came again to theKing todiscuss somematters of business Joinville observed that theKing listened tohimwithmarkedattentionAftertheAbbotwasgonehewenttotheKingandsaidldquothinsplsquoSiremayIaskyouwhetheryoulistened to theAbbotmorecheerfullybecausehepresentedyouyesterdaywithtwohorsesrsquoTheKingmeditatedforatimeandthensaidtomelsquoTrulyyesrsquolsquoSirersquosaidIlsquodoyouknowwhyIaskedyouthisquestionrsquolsquoWhyrsquosaidhelsquoBecauseSirersquoIsaidlsquoIadviseyouwhenyoureturn toFrance toprohibitall sworncounselors fromacceptinganythingfromthosewhohavetobringtheiraffairsbeforethemForyoumaybecertainiftheyacceptanythingtheywilllistenmorecheerfullyandattentivelytothosewhogiveasyoudidyourselfwiththeAbbotofClunyrsquothinsprdquo
Surely a kingwho could listen to such language is not likely to have had hiscourt filledwith hypocriteswhether lay or clerical The bishops though theymightcounton theKingforanyhelphecouldgive themin thegreatworkofteachingraisingandcomfortingthepeopletriedinvaintomakehimcommitan injustice in defense ofwhat they considered religionOne day a numerousdeputationofprelatesaskedforaninterviewItwasreadilygrantedWhentheyappearedbeforetheKingtheirspokesmansaidldquoSiretheselordswhoareherearchbishopsandbishopshaveaskedmetotellyouthatChristianityisperishingatyourhandsrdquoTheKingsignedhimselfwiththecrossandsaidldquoTellmehowcan that berdquo ldquoSirerdquo he said ldquoit is because people care so little [pg 180]nowadaysforexcommunicationthattheywouldratherdieexcommunicatedthan
have themselves absolved and give satisfaction to the Church Now we prayyouSire for thesakeofGodandbecause it isyourduty thatyoucommandyour provosts and bailiffs that by seizing the goods of those who allowthemselves to be excommunicated for the space of one year they may forcethem to come and be absolvedrdquoThen theKing replied that hewould do thiswillinglywithallthoseofwhomitcouldbeprovedthattheywereinthewrong(whichwouldinfacthavegiventheKingjurisdictioninecclesiasticalmatters)ThebishopssaidthattheycouldnotdothisatanypricetheywouldneverbringtheircausesbeforehiscourtThentheKingsaidhecouldnotdoitotherwiseforitwouldbeagainstGodandagainstreasonHeremindedthemofthecaseoftheComtedeBretagnewhohadbeenexcommunicatedbytheprelatesofBrittanyforthespaceofsevenyearsandwhowhenheappealedtothePopegainedhiscausewhiletheprelateswerecondemnedldquoNowthenrdquotheKingsaidldquoifIhadforcedtheComtedeBretagnetogetabsolutionfromtheprelatesafter thefirstyearshouldInothavesinnedagainstGodandagainsthimrdquo
ThisisnotthelanguageofabigotedmanandifwefindinthelifeofStLouistracesofwhatinouragewemightfeelinclinedtocallbigotryorcredulitywemust consider that the religiousand intellectual atmosphereof the reignofStLouiswasverydifferentfromourownTherearenodoubtsomeofthesayingsanddoingsrecordedbyJoinvilleofhisbelovedKingwhichatpresentwouldbeunanimouslycondemnedevenbythemostorthodoxandnarrow-mindedThinkof an assembly of theologians in the monastery [pg 181] of Cluny who hadinvitedadistinguishedrabbitodiscusscertainpointsofChristiandoctrinewiththemAknightwhohappenedtobestayingwith theabbotaskedfor leavetoopenthediscussionandheaddressedtheJewinthefollowingwordsldquoDoyoubelieve that theVirginMarywasavirginandMotherofGodrdquoWhentheJewrepliedldquoNordquotheknighttookhiscrutchandfelledthepoorJewtothegroundTheKingwho relates this to Joinvilledrawsoneverywise lesson from itmdashnamely that no one who is not a very good theologian should enter upon acontroversy with Jews on such subjects But when he goes on to say that alaymanwhohearstheChristianreligionevilspokenofshouldtaketotheswordastherightweaponofdefenseandrunit intothemiscreantsbodyasfarasitwould go we perceive at once that we are in the thirteenth and not in thenineteenthcenturyThepunishmentswhichtheKinginflictedforswearingweremostcruelAtCesareaJoinville tellsus thathesawagoldsmithfastened toaladder with the entrails of a pig twisted round his neck right up to his nosebecause he had used irreverent language Nay after his return from the HolyLandheheardthattheKingorderedamansnoseandlowerliptobeburntfor
the sameoffenseThePopehimselfhad to interfere topreventStLouis frominflictingonblasphemersmutilationanddeathldquoIwouldmyselfbebrandedwitha hot ironrdquo theKing said ldquoif thus I could drive away all swearing frommykingdomrdquoHe himself as Joinville assures us never used an oath nor did hepronouncethenameoftheDevilexceptwhenreadingthelivesofthesaintsHissoulwecannotdoubtwasgrievedwhenheheardthenameswhichtohimwerethemost sacred [pg 182] employed for profane purposes and this feeling ofindignationwassharedbyhishonestchroniclerldquoInmycastlerdquosaysJoinvilleldquowhosoeverusesbadlanguagereceivesagoodpommelingandthishasnearlyputdownthatbadhabitrdquoHereagainwesee theuprightcharacterofJoinvilleHedoesnotlikemostcourtierstrytooutbidhissovereigninpiousindignationon thecontrarywhilesharinghis feelingshegently reproves theKingforhisexcessivezealandcrueltyandthisaftertheKinghadbeenraisedtotheexaltedpositionofasaint
To doubt of any points of the Christian doctrinewas considered at JoinvillestimeasitisevennowasatemptationoftheDevilButhereagainweseeatthecourt of St Louis awonderfulmixture of tolerance and intolerance Joinvillewho evidently spoke hismind freely on all things received frequent reproofsand lessons fromtheKingandwehardlyknowwhich towonderatmost theweaknessoftheargumentsorthegentleandtrulyChristianspiritinwhichtheKingused themTheKingonce asked Joinville howheknew that his fathersnamewasSymonJoinvillerepliedheknewitbecausehismotherhadtoldhimsoldquoThenrdquotheKingsaidldquoyououghtlikewisefirmlytobelieveallthearticlesof faithwhich theApostles attest asyouhear themsungeverySunday in theCreedrdquoTheuseofsuchanargumentbysuchamanleavesanimpressiononthemind that theKinghimselfwasnot free fromreligiousdoubtsanddifficultiesand that his faith was built upon ground which was apt to shake And thisimpressionisconfirmedbyaconversationwhichimmediatelyfollowsafterthisargumentItislongbutitisfartooimportanttobehereomittedTheBishopofParis had [pg 183] told the King probably in order to comfort him afterreceivingfromhimtheconfessionofsomeofhisownreligiousdifficultiesthatone day he received a visit from a greatmaster in divinity Themaster threwhimselfattheBishopsfeetandcriedbitterlyTheBishopsaidtohimmdash
ldquothinsplsquoMaster do not despair no one can sin somuch thatGod could not forgivehimrsquo
ldquoThemaster said lsquoI cannot help crying for I believe I am amiscreant for I
cannotbringmyhearttobelievethesacramentofthealtarastheholyChurchteachesitandIknowfullwellthatitisthetemptationoftheenemyrsquo
ldquothinsplsquoMasterrsquo replied the Bishop lsquotell me when the enemy sends you thistemptationdoesitpleaseyoursquo
ldquoAndthemastersaidlsquoSiritpainsmeasmuchasanythingcanpainrsquo
ldquothinsplsquoThenIaskyoursquotheBishopcontinuedlsquowouldyoutakegoldorsilverinordertoavowwithyourmouthanythingthat isagainst thesacramentof thealtaroragainsttheothersacredsacramentsoftheChurchrsquo
ldquoAndthemastersaidlsquoKnowsirthatthereisnothingintheworldthatIshouldtakeIwouldratherthatallmylimbsweretornfrommybodythanopenlyavowthisrsquo
ldquothinsplsquoThenrsquo said theBishop lsquoI shall tell you something elseYou know that theKingofFrancemadewaragainst theKingofEnglandandyouknowthat thecastlewhichisnearesttothefrontierisLaRochelleinPoitouNowIshallaskyouiftheKinghadtrustedyoutodefendLaRochelleandhehadtrustedmetodefendtheCastleofLaonwhichisintheheartofFrancewherethecountryisatpeaceto[pg184]whomoughttheKingtobemorebeholdenattheendofthewarmdashtoyouwhohaddefendedLaRochellewithoutlosingitortomewhokepttheCastleofLaonrsquo
ldquothinsplsquoInthenameofGodrsquosaidthemasterlsquotomewhohadkeptLaRochellewithlosingitrsquo
ldquothinsplsquoMasterrsquosaid theBishop lsquoI tellyou thatmyheart is like theCastleofLaon(Montleheri) for I feel no temptation andnodoubt as to the sacramentof thealtarthereforeItellyouifGodgivesmeonerewardbecauseIbelievefirmlyandinpeaceHewillgiveyoufourbecauseyoukeepyourheartforHiminthisfightoftribulationandhavesuchgoodwilltowardHimthatfornoearthlygoodnorforanypaininflictedonyourbodyyouwouldforsakeHimThereforeIsaytoyoubeateaseyourstateismorepleasingtoourLordthanmyownrsquothinsprdquo
WhenthemasterhadheardthishefellonhiskneesbeforetheBishopandfeltagainatpeace
Surely if thecruelpunishment inflictedbyStLouisonblasphemers isbehind
ourageisnotthelovethehumilitythetruthfulnessofthisBishopmdashisnotthespiritinwhichheactedtowardthepriestandthespiritinwhichherelatedthisconversationtotheKingsomewhatinadvanceofthecenturyinwhichwelive
IfweonlydwelloncertainpassagesofJoinvillesmemoirsitiseasytosaythathe and his King and the whole age in which they moved were credulousengrossedbythemereformalitiesofreligionandfanaticalintheirenterprisetorecoverJerusalemandtheHolyLandButletuscandidlyenterintotheirviewoflife and many things which at first seem strange and startling will becomeintelligible Joinvilledoesnot relatemanymiraclesandsuch ishisgood faith[pg 185] that we may implicitly believe the facts such as he states themhowever wemay differ as to the interpretation by which to Joinvilles mindthese facts assumed amiraculous characterOn theirway to theHolyLand itseems that their ship was windbound for several days and that they were indangerofbeing takenprisonersby thepiratesofBarbary Joinville recollectedthe saying of a priest who had told him that whatever had happened in hisparishwhethertoomuchrainortoolittlerainoranythingelseifhemadethreeprocessions for three successive Saturdays his prayer was always heardJoinvillethereforerecommendedthesameremedySeasickashewashewascarriedondeckandtheprocessionwasformedroundthetwomastsoftheshipAssoonasthiswasdonethewindroseandtheshiparrivedatCyprusthethirdSaturdayThesameremedywasresortedtoasecondtimeandwithequaleffectTheKingwaswaitingatDamiettaforhisbrothertheComtedePoitiersandhisarmyandwasveryuneasyaboutthedelayinhisarrivalJoinvilletoldthelegateof the miracle that had happened on their voyage to Cyprus The legateconsented tohave threeprocessionson three successiveSaturdays andon thethirdSaturdaytheComtedePoitiersandhisfleetarrivedbeforeDamiettaOnemoreinstancemaysufficeOntheirreturntoFranceasailorfelloverboardandwasleft inthewaterJoinvillewhoseshipwasclosebysawsomethinginthewater but as he observed no struggle he imagined it was a cask Themanhowever was picked up and when asked why he did not exert himself hereplied that he saw no necessity for it As soon as he fell into the water hecommended himself toNostreDame and she supported him by his shoulders[pg 186] till he was picked up by the Kings galley Joinville had a windowpainted in his chapel to commemorate this miracle and there no doubt theVirginwouldberepresentedassupportingthesailorexactlyashedescribedit
Nowitmustbeadmittedthatbeforethetribunaloftheordinaryphilosophyofthenineteenthcenturythesemiracleswouldbeputdowneitherasinventionsor
asexaggerationsButletusexaminethethoughtsandthelanguageofthatageandweshalltakeamorecharitableandwebelieveamorecorrectviewMenlikeJoinvilledidnotdistinguishbetweenageneralandaspecialprovidenceandfewwhohavecarefullyexaminedthetrueimportofwordswouldblamehimforthat Whatever happened to him and his friends the smallest as well as thegreatesteventsweretakenalikeassomanycommunicationsfromGodtomanNothingcouldhappentoanyoneofthemunlessGodwilleditldquoGodwillsitrdquotheyexclaimedandputthecrossontheirbreastsandlefthouseandhomeandwifeandchildrentofighttheinfidelsintheHolyLandTheKingwasillandonthepointofdeathwhenhemadeavowthatifherecoveredhewouldundertakeacrusadeInspiteof thedangerswhichthreatenedhimandhiscountrywhereeveryvassalwasarivalinspiteofthedespairofhisexcellentmothertheKingfulfilledhisvowandriskednotonlyhiscrownbuthislifewithoutacomplaintandwithoutaregretItmaybethattheprospectofEasternbootyorevenofanEasternthronehadsomepartinexcitingthepiouszealoftheFrenchchivalryYetifwereadofJoinvillewhowasthenayoungandgaynoblemanoftwenty-four with a young wife and a beautiful castle in Champagne giving upeverything [pg 187] confessing his sins making reparation performingpilgrimagesandthenstartingfortheEasttheretoendureforfiveyearsthemosthorriblehardshipswhenwereadofhissailorssingingaVeniCreatorSpiritusbefore they hoisted their sails when we see how every day in the midst ofpestilenceandbattletheKingandhisSeacuteneacutechalandhisknightssaytheirprayersand perform their religious duties how in every danger they commendthemselves toGodor to their saints how for everyblessing for every escapefromdangertheyreturnthankstoHeavenmdashweeasilylearntounderstandhownaturalitwasthatsuchmenshouldseemiraclesineveryblessingvouchsafedtothemwhethergreatorsmalljustastheJewsofoldinthatsensethetruepeopleofGod sawmiracles saw the fingerofGod ineveryplague thatvisited theircampandineveryspringofwaterthatsavedthemfromdestructionWhentheEgyptianswerethrowingtheGreekfireintothecampoftheCrusadersStLouisraised himself in his bed at the report of every discharge of thosemurderousmissilesandstretchingforthhishandstowardsheavenhesaidcryingldquoGoodLord God protect my peoplerdquo Joinville after relating this remarks ldquoAnd IbelievetrulythathisprayersserveduswellinourneedrdquoAndwashenotrightinthis belief as right as the Israeliteswerewhen they sawMoses lifting up hisheavyarmsandtheyprevailedagainstAmalekSurelythisbeliefwasputtoahard testwhena fearfulplaguebrokeout in thecampwhennearly thewholeFrench army was massacred when the King was taken prisoner when theQueen inchildbedhad tomakeheroldchamberlainswear thathewouldkill
heratthefirstapproachoftheenemywhenthesmallremnantofthat[pg188]mightyFrencharmyhadtopurchaseitsreturntoFrancebyaheavyransomYetnothingcould shake Joinvilles faith in theever-readyhelpofourLordof theVirginandofthesaintsldquoBecertainrdquohewritesldquothattheVirginhelpedusandshewouldhavehelpedusmoreifwehadnotoffendedherherandherSonasIsaid beforerdquo Surely with such faith credulity ceases to be credulity Wherethere is credulity without that living faith which sees the hand of God ineverything mans indignation is rightly roused That credulity leads to self-conceithypocrisyandunbeliefButsuchwasnotthecredulityofJoinvilleorofhis King or of the Bishop who comforted the great master in theology Amodern historian would not call the rescue of the drowning sailor nor thefavorablewindwhichbroughttheCrusaderstoCyprusnortheopportunearrivalof theComte dePoitiersmiracles because theword ldquomiraclerdquo has a differentsensewithusfromwhatithadduringtheMiddleAgesfromwhatithadatthetime of the Apostles and from what it had at the time ofMoses Yet to thedrowningsailorhisrescuewasmiraculoustothedespairingKingthearrivalofhisbrotherwasagodsendandtoJoinvilleandhiscrewwhowereinimminentdangerofbeingcarriedoffasslavesbyMoorishpirates thewindthatbroughtthem safe toCypruswasmore than a fortunate accidentOur languagediffersfrom the language of Joinville yet in our heart of hearts we mean the samething
And nothing shows better the reality and healthiness of the religion of thosebrave knights than their cheerful and open countenance their thoroughenjoymentofallthegoodthingsofthislifetheirfreedominthoughtandspeechYou never catch Joinville [pg 189] canting or with an expression of blanksolemnityWhenhisshipwassurroundedbythegalleysoftheSultanandwhenthey held a council as to whether they should surrender themselves to theSultans fleet or to his army on shore one of his servants objected to allsurrenderldquoLetusallbekilledrdquohesaid toJoinvilleldquoand thenweshallallgostraight to Paradiserdquo His advice however was not followed because asJoinvillesaysldquowedidnotbelieveitrdquo
IfwebearinmindthatJoinvillesHistorywaswrittenafterLouishasbeenraisedtotherankofasainthiswayofspeakingoftheKingthoughalwaysrespectfulstrikesusneverthelessasitmusthavestruckhiscontemporariesassometimesveryplainandfamiliar It iswellknownthatanattemptwasactuallymadebythenotoriousJesuitlePegravereHardouintoproveJoinvillesworkasspuriousoratalleventsasfullofinterpolationsinsertedbytheenemiesoftheChurchIt
was an attempt which thoroughly failed and which was too dangerous to berepeated but on reading Joinville after reading the life and miracles of StLouisonecaneasilyunderstandthatthesoldiersaccountofthebraveKingwasnotquitepalatableorwelcometotheauthorsofthelegendsoftheroyalsaintAtthe time when the Kings bones had begun to work wretched miracles thefollowing storycouldhardlyhave sounded respectful ldquoWhen theKingwas atAcrerdquoJoinvillewritesldquosomepilgrimsontheirwaytoJerusalemwishedtoseehimJoinvillewenttotheKingandsaidlsquoSirethereisacrowdofpeoplewhohaveaskedmetoshowthemtheroyalsaintthoughIhavenowishasyettokissyourbonesrsquoTheKinglaughedloudandaskedmetobringthepeoplerdquo
[pg190]InthethickofthebattleinwhichJoinvillereceivedfivewoundsandhishorsefifteen andwhendeath seemed almost certain Joinville tells us that thegoodCount of Soissons rode up to him and chaffed him saying ldquoLet those dogslooseforparlaquoifeDieurdquomdashashealwaysusedtoswearmdashldquoweshallstilltalkofthisdayintheroomsofourladiesrdquo
The Crusades and the Crusaders though they are only five or six centuriesremoved fromus have assumed a kind of romantic characterwhichmakes itverydifficultevenforthehistoriantofeeltowardsthemthesamehumaninterestwhichwefeelforCaeligsarorPericlesWorkslikethatofJoinvillearemostusefulindispellingthatmistwhichthechroniclersofoldandtheromancesofWalterScottandothershaveraisedroundtheheroesoftheseholywarsStLouisandhiscompanionsasdescribedbyJoinvillenotonlyintheirglisteningarmorbutintheireverydayattirearebroughtnearertousbecomeintelligibletousandteachuslessonsofhumanitywhichwecanlearnfrommenonlyandnotfromsaints andheroesHere lies the realvalueof realhistory Itmakesus familiarwith the thoughts of men who differ from us in manners and language inthoughtand religionandyetwithwhomweareable to sympathizeand fromwhomweareabletolearnItwidensourmindsandourheartsandgivesusthattrueknowledgeoftheworldandofhumannatureinallitsphaseswhichbutfewcangain in the short spanof their own life and in thenarrow sphereof theirfriendsandenemiesWecanhardlyimagineabetterbookforboystoreadorformen toponderover andwehope thatMdeWaillys laudable effortsmaybecrownedwithcompletesuccessandthatwhetherinFranceorinEngland[pg191]nostudentofhistorywillinfutureimaginethatheknowsthetruespiritoftheCrusadesandtheCrusaderswhohasnotreadonceandmorethanoncetheoriginalMemoirsofJoinvilleaseditedtranslatedandexplainedbytheeminent
KeeperoftheImperialLibraryatParisMNatalisdeWailly
1866
[pg192]
VIIITHEJOURNALDESSAVANTSANDTHEJOURNALDETREacuteVOUX32
ForahundredpersonswhointhiscountryreadtheldquoRevuedesDeuxMondesrdquohowmanyaretherewhoreadtheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquoInFrancetheauthorityofthatjournalisindeedsupremebutitsverytitlefrightensthegeneralpublicanditsbluecoverisbutseldomseenonthetablesofthesallesdelectureAndyetthereisnoFrenchperiodicalsowellsuitedtothetastesofthebetterclassofreaders in England Its contributors are allmembers of the Institut de Franceandifwemaymeasurethevalueofaperiodicalbythehonorwhichitreflectsonthosewhoformitsstaffnojournal inFrancecanviewiththeldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquo At the present moment we find on its roll such names as CousinFlourensVillemainMignetBartheacutelemySaint-HilaireNaudetProsperMeacuterimeacuteLittreacuteVitetmdashnameswhich ifnowand thenseenon thecoversof theldquoRevuedes Deux Mondesrdquo the ldquoRevue Contemporainerdquo or the ldquoRevue ModernerdquoconferanexceptionallustreonthesefortnightlyormonthlyissuesThearticleswhichare[pg193]admittedintothisselectperiodicalmaybedeficientnowandthen in those outward charms of diction by which French readers like to bedazzled butwhat in France is called trop savant trop lourd is frequently farmorepalatable than thehighlyspicedarticleswhicharenodoubtdelightful toreadbutwhichlikeanexcellentFrenchdinnermakeyoualmostdoubtwhetheryouhavedinedornotIfEnglishjournalistsarebentontakingfortheirmodelsthefortnightlyormonthlycontemporariesofFrance theldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquomightofferamuchbetterchanceofsuccess than themorepopularrevuesWeshouldbesorryindeedtoseeanyperiodicalpublishedunderthesuperintendenceof the ldquoMinistre de lInstruction Publiquerdquo or of any other member of theCabinetbutapartfromthataliterarytribunallikethatformedbythemembersof the ldquoBureau du Journal des Savantsrdquo would certainly be a great benefit toliterary criticismThe general tone that runs through their articles is impartialanddignifiedEachwriterseemstofeeltheresponsibilitywhichattachestothe
benchfromwhichheaddressesthepublicandwecanoflateyearsrecallhardlyanycasewherethedictumofldquonoblesseobligerdquohasbeendisregardedinthisthemostancientamongthepurelyliteraryjournalsofEurope
The first number of the ldquoJournal des Savantsrdquo was published more than twohundredyearsagoonthe5thofJanuary1655ItwasthefirstsmallbeginninginabranchofliteraturewhichhassinceassumedimmenseproportionsVoltairespeaks of it as ldquole pegravere de tous les ouvrages de ce genre dont lEurope estaujourdhuiremplierdquoItwaspublishedatfirstonceaweekeveryMondayandthe responsible editor was M de Sallo who in order to avoid the [pg 194]retaliationsofsensitiveauthorsadoptedthenameofLeSieurdeHedouvillethename it issaidofhisvaletdechambreThearticleswereshortand inmanycases they only gave a description of the bookswithout any critical remarksTheJournallikewisegaveanaccountofimportantdiscoveriesinscienceandartandofothereventsthatmightseemofinteresttomenoflettersItssuccessmusthave been considerable if wemay judge by the number of rival publicationswhichsoonsprangupinFranceandinothercountriesofEuropeInEnglandaphilosophicaljournalonthesameplanwasstartedbeforetheyearwasoverInGermanytheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquowastranslatedintoLatinbyFNitzschiusin1668andbeforetheendoftheseventeenthcenturytheldquoGiornaledeLetteratirdquo(1668) the ldquoBibliotheca Volanterdquo (1677) the ldquoActa Eruditorumrdquo (1682) theldquoNouvellesdelaReacutepubliquedesLettresrdquo(1684)theldquoBibliothegravequeUniverselleetHistoriquerdquo(1686)theldquoHistoiredesOuvragesdesSavantsrdquo(1687)andtheldquoMonatliche Unterredungenrdquo (1689) had been launched in the principalcountries of Europe In the next century it was remarked of the journalspublished in Germany ldquoPlura dixeris pullulasse brevi tempore quam funginascunturunacircnocterdquo
Most of these journalswere published by laymen and represented the purelyintellectualinterestsofsocietyItwasbutnaturalthereforethattheclergyalsoshouldsoonhaveendeavoredtopossessajournaloftheirownTheJesuitswhoat that time were the most active and influential order were not slow toappreciatethisnewopportunityfordirectingpublicopinionandtheyfoundedin1701 their famous journal the ldquoMeacutemoires deTreacutevouxrdquo Famous indeed it [pg195] might once be called and yet at present how little is known of thatcollectionhowseldomareitsvolumescalledforinourpubliclibrariesItwasforalongtimetherivaloftheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquoUndertheeditorshipofLePegravereBerthieritfoughtbravelyagainstDiderotVoltaireandotherheraldsoftheFrenchRevolutionItweatheredeventhefatalyearof1762butafterchanging
itsnameandmoderatingitspretensionsitceasedtoappearin1782Thelongrowsofitsvolumesarenowpiledupinourlibrarieslikesrowsoftombstoneswhichwepassbywithoutevenstoppingtoexaminethenamesandtitlesofthosewhoareburiedinthesevastcatacombsofthought
ItwasahappyideathatledthePegraverePCSommervogelhimselfamemberofthe order of the Jesuits to examine the dusty volumes of the ldquoJournal deTreacutevouxrdquo and todo for it theonly thing that couldbedone tomake it usefuloncemoreatleasttoacertaindegreenamelytoprepareageneralindexofthenumerous subjects treated in its volumes on the model of the great indexpublishedin1753oftheldquoJournaldesSavantsrdquoHisworkpublishedatParisin1865 consists of three volumes The first gives an index of the originaldissertations the second and third of the works criticised in the ldquoJournal deTreacutevouxrdquoItisaworkofmuchsmallerpretensionsthantheindextotheldquoJournaldes Savantsrdquo yet such as it is it is useful and will amply suffice for thepurposesofthosefewreaderswhohavefromtimetotimetoconsulttheliteraryannalsoftheJesuitsinFrance
ThetitleoftheldquoMeacutemoiresdeTreacutevouxrdquowastakenfromthetownofTreacutevouxthecapital of the principality ofDombeswhichLouisXIV had conferred on theDucdeMainewithalltheprivilegesofasovereign[pg196]LikeLouisXIVtheyoungprincegloried in the title of apatronof art and science but as thepupilofMadamedeMaintenonhedevotedhimselfevenmorezealouslytothedefense of religionAprinting-officewas founded atTreacutevoux and the Jesuitswere invited to publish a new journal ldquoougrave lon eucirct principalement en vucirceuml ladeacutefense de la religionrdquo Thiswas the ldquoJournal de Treacutevouxrdquo published for thefirst time in February 1701 under the title of ldquoMeacutemoires pour lHistoire desSciences et desBeauxArts recueillis par lordre de SonAltesse SeacutereacutenissimeMonseigneurPrinceSouveraindeDombesrdquo Itwasentirelyandprofessedly inthehandsoftheJesuitsandwefindamongitsearliestcontributorssuchnamesasCatrouTournemine andHardouinTheopportunities for collecting literaryandotherintelligenceenjoyedbythemembersofthatorderwereextraordinaryWe doubt whether any paper even in our days has so many intelligentcorrespondents ineverypartof theworldIfanyastronomicalobservationwastobemadeinChinaorAmericaaJesuitmissionarywasgenerallyonthespottomakeitIfgeographicalinformationwaswantedeye-witnessescouldwritefromIndia or Africa to state what was the exact height of mountains or the realdirectionofriversThearchitecturalmonumentsofthegreatnationsofantiquitycould easily be explored and described and the literary treasures of India or
China or Persia could be ransacked bymen ready for anywork that requireddevotion and perseverance and that promised to throw additional splendor ontheorderofLoyolaNomissionarysocietyhaseverunderstoodhowtoutilizeitsresourcesintheinterestofscienceliketheJesuitsandifourownmissionariesmayonmanypoints take [pg197]warning from thehistoryof the Jesuitsonthatonepointatleasttheymightdowelltoimitatetheirexample
ScientificinterestshoweverwerebynomeansthechiefmotiveoftheJesuitsinfounding their journal and the controversial character began soon topreponderate in theirarticlesProtestantwritersreceivedbut littlemercyinthepages of the ldquoJournal de Treacutevouxrdquo and the battle was soon raging in everycountryofEuropebetweentheflyingbatteriesoftheJesuitsandthestrongholdsof Jansenism of Protestantism or of liberal thought in general LeClercwasattacked for his ldquoHarmonia Evangelicardquo Boileau even was censured for hisldquoEpicirctre sur lAmourdeDieurdquoBut theold lionwas toomuch forhis reverendsatiristsThefollowingisaspecimenofhisreplymdash
ldquoMesReacuteveacuterendsPegraveresenDieuEtmesconfregraveresenSatireDansvosEscritsdansplusdunlieuJevoyquagravemesdeacutepensvousaffecteacutesderireMaisnecraigneacutes-vouspointquepourriredeVousRelisantJuveacutenalrefeuilletantHoraceJeneranimeencormasatiriqueaudaceGrandsAristarquesdeTreacutevouxNalleacutespointdenouveaufairecourirauxarmesUnathlegravetetoutprestagraveprendresoncongeacuteQuiparvostraitsmalinsaucombatrengageacutePeutencoreauxRieursfaireverserdeslarmesAppreneacutesunmotdeReacutegnierNotreceacutelegravebreDevancierCorsairesattaquantCorsairesNofontpasdit-illeursaffairesrdquo
Even stronger language than this became soon the fashion in journalisticwarfare In reply to an attack on theMarquisOrsi the ldquoGiornale de LetteratidItaliardquoaccused theldquoJournaldeTreacutevouxrdquoofmenzogna and impostura and inGermanytheldquoActaEruditorumLipsiensiumrdquopouredoutevenmoreviolent[pg198] invectives against the Jesuitical critics It is wonderful how well Latin
seemstolenditselftotheexpressionofangryabuseFewmodernwritershaveexcelledthefollowingtiradeeitherinLatinorinGermanmdash
ldquoQuaelig mentis stupiditas At si qua est Jesuitarum est Res est intolerandaTrevoltianosJesuitastotiescontusosiniquissimuminsuisdiariistribunalerexissein eoque non ratione duce sed animi impotentia non aeligquitatis legibus sedpraeligjudiciis non veritatis lance sed affectus aut odi pondere optimisexquisitissimisque operibus detrahere pessima ad cœlum usque laudibus efferreignaris auctoribus modo secum sentiant aut sibi faveant ubique blandiridoctissimossibinonplaneplenequededitosplusquamcaninodentemordererdquo
WhathasbeensaidofotherjournalswassaidoftheldquoJournaldeTreacutevouxrdquomdash
ldquoLesauteursdecejournalquiasonmeacuteritesontconstantsagravelouertouslesouvragesde ceux quils affectionnent et pour eacuteviter une froide monotonie ils exercentquelquefoislacritiquesurleseacutecrivansagravequiriennelesobligedefairegracirccerdquo
IttooksometimebeforeauthorsbecameatallreconciledtothesenewtribunalsofliteraryjusticeEvenawriter likeVoltairewhobravedpublicopinionmorethananybodylookeduponjournalsandtheinfluencewhichtheysoongainedinFranceandabroadasagreatevilldquoRiennaplusnuiagravelalitteacuteraturerdquohewritesldquoplusreacutepandulemauvaisgoucirctetplusconfondulevraiaveclefauxrdquoBeforetheestablishmentofliteraryjournalsalearnedwriterhadindeedlittletofearForafew years at all events he was allowed to enjoy the reputation of havingpublished a book and this by itselfwas considered a great distinction by theworldatlargePerhapshisbookwasnevernoticedatallorifitwasitwasonlycriticisedinoneofthoseelaborateletterswhichthelearnedmenofthe[pg199]sixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesusedtowritetoeachotherwhichmightbeforwarded indeed to one or two other professors but which never influencedpublic opinion Only in extreme cases a bookwould be answered by anotherbookbut thiswouldnecessarilyrequirea longtimenorwoulditatallfollowthat those who had read and admired the original work would have anopportunity of consulting the volume that contained its refutation This happystate of things came to an end after the year 1655 Since the invention ofprintingnomore important eventhadhappened in the republicof letters thantheintroductionofaperiodicalliteratureItwasacompleterevolutiondifferingfrom other revolutions only by the quickness with which the new powerwasrecognizedevenbyitsfiercestopponents
ThepowerofjournalismhoweversoonfounditsproperlevelandthehistoryofitsriseandprogresswhichhasstilltobewrittenteachesthesamelessonasthehistoryofpoliticalpowersJournalswhichdefendedprivateinterestsortheinterests of parties whether religious political or literary never gained thatinfluence which was freely conceded to those who were willing to serve thepublic at large in pointing out real merit wherever it could be found and inunmasking pretenders to whatever rank they might belong The once all-powerfulorganoftheJesuitstheldquoJournaldeTregravevouxrdquohaslongceasedtoexistand even to be remembered the ldquoJournal des Savantsrdquo still holds after morethan twohundredyears that eminent positionwhichwas claimed for it by itsfounderastheindependentadvocateofjusticeandtruth
1866
[pg200]
IXCHASOT33
Historyisgenerallywrittenenface It remindsusoccasionallyofcertain royalfamilypictureswherethecentreisoccupiedbythekingandqueenwhiletheirchildrenarerangedoneachsidelikeorgan-pipesandthecourtiersandministersaregroupedbehindaccordingtotheirrespectiveranksAllthefiguresseemtostareatsomeimaginaryspectatorwhowouldrequireatleastahundredeyestotakeinthewholeoftheassemblageThisplaceoftheimaginaryspectatorfallsgenerallytothelotofthehistorianandofthosewhoreadgreathistoricalworksand perhaps this is inevitable But it is refreshing for once to change thisunsatisfactory position and instead of always looking straight in the faces ofkingsandqueensandgeneralsandministerstocatchbyaside-glanceaviewofthetimesastheyappearedtomenoccupyingalesscentralandlessabstractpositionthanthatofthegeneralhistorianIfwelookatthePalaceofVersaillesfrom the terrace in front of the edifice we are impressed with its broadmagnificencebutwearesoontiredandallthatisleftinourmemoryisavastexpanseofwindowscolumnsstatuesandwallButletusretiretosomeofthebosquetsoneachsideofthemain[pg201]avenueandtakeadiagonalviewofthe great mansion of Louis XIV and though we lose part of the palace thewholepicturegainsincolorandlifeanditbringsbeforeourmindthefigureofthegreatmonarchhimselfsofondofconcealingpartofhismajesticstatelinessundertheshadowofthoseverygroveswherewearesitting
ItwasahappythoughtofMKurdvonSchloumlzertotryasimilarexperimentwithFrederictheGreatandtoshowhimtousnotasthegreatkinglookinghistoryinthefacebutasseennearandbehindanotherpersonforwhomtheauthorhasfelt so much sympathy as to make him the central figure of a very prettyhistorical pictureThis person isChasot Frederic used to say of himCest lematadordemajeunessemdashasayingwhichisnotfoundinFredericsworksbutwhich is nevertheless authentic One of the chief magistrates of the oldHanseatictownofLuumlbeckSyndicusCurtiusmdashthefatherwebelieveofthetwo
distinguished scholars Ernst andGeorgCurtiusmdashwas at schoolwith the twosonsofChasotandherememberstheseroyalwordswhentheywererepeatedinallthedrawing-roomsofthecitywhereChasotspentmanyyearsofhislifeFrederics friendship forChasot iswellknown for thereare twopoemsof thekingaddressedtothisyoungfavoriteTheydonotgiveaveryhighideaeitherofthepoeticalpowerof themonarchorof themoralcharacterofhis friendbutthey contain some manly and straightforward remarks which make up for agreatdealofshallowdeclamationThisyoungChasotwasaFrenchnoblemanafresh chivalrous buoyant naturemdashadventurous careless extravagant bravefullofromancehappywiththehappyandgalloping[pg202]throughlifelikeatruecavalryofficerHemetFredericin1734LouisXVhadtakenupthecauseofStanislasLesczynskiKingofPolandhisfather-in-lawandChasotservedintheFrencharmywhichunder theDukeofBerwick attackedGermanyon theRhineinordertorelievePolandfromthesimultaneouspressureofAustriaandRussiaHehadthemisfortunetokillaFrenchofficerinaduelandwasobligedtotakerefugein thecampof theoldPrinceEugegraveneHere theyoungPrinceofPrussiasoondiscoveredthebrilliantpartsoftheFrenchnoblemanandwhenhisfather FredericWilliam I no longer allowed him to serve under Eugegravene heaskedChasottofollowhimtoPrussiaTheyearsfrom1735to1740werehappyyearsfortheprincethoughhenodoubtwouldhavepreferredtakinganactivepartinthecampaignHewritestohissistermdash
ldquoJauraisreacuteponduplustocirctsi jenavaiseacuteteacutetregraves-affligeacutedecequeleroineveutpasmepermettredallerencampagneJeleluiaidemandeacutequatrefoisetluiairappeleacutelapromessequilmenavaitfaitemaispointdenouvelleilmaditquilavaitdesraisons tregraves-cacheacuteesqui lenempecircchaientJe lecroiscar jesuispersuadeacutequilnelessaitpaslui-mecircmerdquo
Butashewished tobeongood termswithhis fatherhestayedathomeandtravelledabouttoinspecthisfuturekingdomldquoCestunpeuplushonnecirctequenSibeacuterierdquohewritesldquomaispasdebeaucouprdquoFredericafterhismarriagetookuphisabodeintheCastleofRheinsbergnearNeu-RuppinanditwasherethathespentthehappiestpartofhisexistenceMdeSchloumlzerhasdescribedthisperiodinthelifeofthekingwithgreatartandhehaspointedouthowFredericwhileheseemedtolivefornothingbut[pg203]pleasuremdashshootingdancingmusicandpoetrymdashwasgivenat thesame time tomuchmoreseriousoccupationsmdashreadingandcomposingworksonhistorystrategyandphilosophyandmaturingplanswhichwhenthetimeoftheirexecutioncameseemedtospringfromhishead full-grown and full-armed He writes to his sister the Markgravine of
Baireuthin1737mdash
ldquoNousnousdivertissonsderienetnavonsaucunsoindeschosesdelaviequilarendentdeacutesagreacuteableetquijettentdudeacutegoucirctsurlesplaisirsNousfaisonslatrageacutedieetlacomeacutedienousavonsbalmascaradeetmusiqueagravetoutesauceVoilagraveunabreacutegeacutedenosamusementsrdquo
AndagainhewritestohisfriendSuhmatPetersburgmdash
ldquoNous allons repreacutesenter lŒdipe de Voltaire dans lequel je ferai le heacuteros detheacuteacirctrejaichoisilerocircledePhilocteacuteterdquo
AsimilaraccountoftheroyalhouseholdatRheinsbergisgivenbyBielfeldmdash
ldquoCestainsiquelesjoursseacutecoulenticidansunetranquilliteacuteassaisonneeacutedetouslesplaisirs qui peuvent flatter une acircme raisonnable Chegravere de roi vin des dieuxmusiquedesangespromenadesdeacutelicieusesdanslesjardinsetdanslesboispartiessurleauculturedeslettresetdesbeaux-artsconversationspirituelletoutconcourtagraverepandredanscepalaisenchanteacutedescharmessurlavierdquo
FrederichoweverwasnotamantowastehistimeinmerepleasureHesharedintherevelriesofhisfriendsbuthewasperhapstheonlypersonatRheinsbergwho spent his evenings in reading Wolffs ldquoMetaphysicsrdquo And here let usremarkthatthisGermanprinceinordertoreadthatworkwasobligedtohavethe German translated into French by his friend Suhm the Saxonminister atPetersburg Chasot who had no very definite duties to perform at [pg 204]RheinsbergwascommissionedtocopySuhmsmanuscriptmdashnayhewasnearlydriven to despair when he had to copy it a second time because Fredericsmonkey Mimi had set fire to the first copy We have Frederics opinion onWolffsldquoMetaphysicsrdquoinhisldquoWorksrdquovolip263mdash
ldquoLesuniversiteacutesprosperaientenmecircmetempsHalleetFrancforteacutetaientfourniesdesavants professeurs Thomasius Gundling LudewigWolff et Stryke tenaient lepremier rang pour la ceacuteleacutebriteacute et faisaient nombre de disciplesWolff commentalingeacutenieuxsystegravemedeLeibnitzsurlesmonadesetnoyadansundeacutelugedeparolesdargumentsdecorollairesetdecitationsquelquesproblegravemesqueLeibnitzavaitjeteacutees peut-ecirctre comme une amorce aux meacutetaphysiciens Le professeur de Halleeacutecrivait laborieusement nombre de volumes qui au lieu de pouvoir instruire deshommesfaitsservirenttoutauplusdecateacutechismededidactiquepourdesenfantsLesmonadesontmisauxpriseslesmeacutetaphysiciensetlesgeacuteomecirctresdAllemagneet
ilsdisputentencoresurladivisibiliteacutedelamatiegravererdquo
In another place however he speaks of Wolff with greater respect andacknowledgeshisinfluenceintheGermanuniversitiesSpeakingofthereignofhisfatherhewritesmdash
ldquoMais la faveur et les brigues remplissaient les chaires de professeurs dans lesuniversiteacutes lesdeacutevotsquisemecirclentdetoutacquirentunepartagrave ladirectiondesuniversiteacutes ils y perseacutecutaient le bon sens et surtout la classe des philosophesWolfffutexileacutepouravoirdegraveduitavecunordreadmirablelespreuvessurlexistencedeDieu La jeune noblesse qui se vouait aux armes crucirct deacuteroger en eacutetudiant etcomme lesprit humain donne toujours dans les excegraves ils regardegraverent lignorancecommeuntitredemeacuteriteetlesavoircommeunepeacutedanterieabsurderdquo
During the same time Frederic composed his ldquoRefutation of Macchiavellirdquowhich was published in 1740 and read all over Europe and besides the gaypartiesofthecourtheorganizedthesomewhat[pg205]mysterioussocietyoftheOrdredeBayardofwhichhisbrotherstheDukeFerdinandofBrunswicktheDukeWilhelmofBrunswick-BevernKeyserlingFouqueacuteandChasotweremembers Their meetings had reference to serious political matters thoughFrederic himself was never initiated by his father into the secrets of Prussianpolicy till almost on his death-bed The king died in 1740 and Frederic wassuddenlycalledawayfromhisstudiesandpleasuresatRheinsbergtogovernarising kingdom which was watched with jealousy by all its neighbors Hedescribeshisstateofmindshortlybeforethedeathofhisfatherinthefollowingwordsmdash
ldquoVouspouvezbienjugerquejesuisasseztracasseacutedanslasituationougravejemetrouveOnmelaissepeudereposmaislinteacuterieuresttranquilleetjepuisvousassurerquejenaijamaiseacuteteacuteplusphilosophequencetteoccasion-ciJeregardsavecdesyeuxdindiffeacuterence tout cequimattend sansdeacutesirer la fortuneni la craindre pleindecompassion pour ceux qui souffrent destime pour les honnecirctes gens et detendressepourmesamisrdquo
As soon however as he had mastered his new position the young king wasagain thepatronofartofscienceof literatureandofsocial improvementsofevery kind Voltaire had been invited to Berlin to organize a French theatrewhensuddenlythenewsofthedeathofCharlesVItheEmperorofGermanyarrived atBerlinHowwellFrederic understoodwhatwas to followwe learn
fromalettertoVoltairemdash
ldquoMoncherVoltairemdashLeacuteveacutenementlemoinspreacutevudumondemempecircchepourcettefois douvrirmonacircmeagrave lavocirctre commedordinaire et debavarder comme je levoudraisLempereurestmortCettemortdeacuterangetoutesmesideacuteespacifiquesetjecrois quil sagira au mois de juin plutocirct de poudre agrave canon de soldats detrancheacuteesquedactricesdeballetsetdetheacuteacirctrerdquo
[pg206]Hewassufferingfromfeverandheaddsmdash
ldquoJevais fairepassermafiegravevrecar jaibesoindemamachineet ilen faut tireragravepreacutesenttoutlepartipossiblerdquo
AgainhewritestoAlgarottimdash
ldquoUne bagatelle comme est la mort de lempereur ne demande pas de grandsmouvementsTout eacutetait preacutevu tout eacutetait arrangeacuteAinsi il ne sagit quedexeacutecuterdesdesseinsquejairouleacutesdepuislongtempsdansmatecircterdquo
Weneednotenter into thehistoryof the firstSilesianwarbutweseeclearlyfrom these expressions that the occupation of Silesia which the house ofBrandenburg claimed by right had formed part of the policy of Prussia longbefore thedeathof the emperor and thepeaceofBreslau in1742 realizedaplanwhichhadprobablybeenthesubjectofmanydebatesatRheinsbergDuringthisfirstwarChasotobtainedthemostbrilliantsuccessAtMollwitzhesavedthelifeofthekingandthefollowingaccountofthisexploitwasgiventoMdeSchloumlzerbymembersofChasotsfamilyAnAustriancavalryofficerwithsomeofhismenrodeupclosetothekingChasotwasnearldquoWhereisthekingrdquotheofficer shouted and Chasot perceiving the imminent danger sprang forwarddeclaredhimself tobethekingandsustainedforsometimesingle-handedthemost violent combatwith theAustrian soldiersAt last hewas rescuedbyhismenbutnotwithouthavingreceivedaseverewoundacrosshisforeheadTheking thanked him and Voltaire afterwards celebrated his bravery in thefollowinglinesmdash
ldquoIlmesouvientencoredecejourmeacutemorableOugravelillustreChasotceguerrierformidable
SauvaparsavaleurleplusgranddenosroisOPrusseeacutelegraveveuntempleagravesesfameuxexploitsrdquo
Chasot soon rose to the rank ofmajor and received [pg 207] large pecuniaryrewards from the king The brightest event however of his life was still tocomeandthiswasthebattleofHohenfriedbergin1745InspiteofFredericssuccesses his position before that engagementwas extremely critical Austriahad concluded a treaty with England Holland and Saxony against PrussiaFrancedeclinedtoassistFredericRussiathreatenedtotakepartagainsthimOnthe19thofAprilthekingwrotetohisministermdash
ldquoLasituationpreacutesenteestaussiviolentequedeacutesagreacuteableMonpartiesttoutprisSilsagit de se battre nous le ferons en deacutesespeacutereacutes Enfin jamais crise na eacuteteacute plusgrande que la mienne Il faut laisser au temps de deacutebrouiller cette fuseacutee et audestinsilyenaunagravedeacuteciderdeleacuteveacutenementrdquo
Andagainmdash
ldquoJaijeteacutelebonnetpardessuslesmoulinsjemepreacutepareagravetousleseacuteveacutenementsquipeuventmarriverQuelafortunemesoitcontraireoufavorablecelanemabaisseranimenorgueilliraetsilfautpeacuterirceseraavecgloireetleacutepeacuteeagravelamainrdquo
The decisive day arrivedmdashldquole jour le plus deacutecisif de ma fortunerdquo The nightbeforethebattlethekingsaidtotheFrenchambassadormdashldquoLesennemissontougraveje lesvoulaiset je lesattaquedemainrdquoandonthefollowingdaythebattleofHohenfriedbergwaswonHowChasotdistinguishedhimselfwemaylearnfromFredericsowndescriptionmdash
ldquoMusedis-moicommentencesmomentsChasotbrillafaisantvolerdestecirctesDemaintsuhlansfaisantdevraissquelettesEtdeshussardsdevantluisechappantFandantlesunslesautrestransperccedilantEtmaniantsaflambergetranchanteMettaitenfuiteetdonnaitleacutepouvanteAuxennemiseffareacutesettremblantsTelJupiterestpeintarmeacutedufoudreEttelChasotreacuteduitluhlanenpoudrerdquo
Inhisaccountofthebattlethekingwrotemdash
[pg208]
ldquoAction inouie dans lhistoire et dont le succegraves est ducirc aux Geacuteneacuteraux Gessler etSchmettau auColonel Schwerin et au braveMajorChasot dont la valeur et laconduitesesontfaitconnaicirctredanstroisbatailleseacutegalementrdquo
AndinhisldquoHistoiredemonTempsrdquohewrotemdash
ldquoUnfaitaussirareaussiglorieuxmeacuteritedecirctreeacutecritenlettresdordanslesfastesprussiensLeGeacuteneacuteralSchwerinleMajorChasotetbeaucoupdofficierssyfirentunnomimmortelrdquo
HowthenisitthatinthelatereditionofFredericsldquoHistoiredemonTempsrdquothe name of Chasot is erasedHow is it that during the whole of the SevenYears War Chasot is never mentionedM de Schloumlzer gives us a completeanswertothisquestionandwemustsaythatFredericdidnotbehavewelltothematadordesajeunesseChasothadaduelwithaMajorBronickowskyinwhichhisopponentwaskilledSofaraswecanjudgefromthedocumentswhichMdeSchloumlzerhasobtainedfromChasotsfamilyChasothadbeenforcedtofightbut thekingbelieved thathehadsoughtaquarrelwith thePolishofficerandthoughacourt-martialfoundhimnotguiltyFredericsenthimtothefortressofSpandau This was the first estrangement between Chasot and the king andthoughafter a timehewas receivedagainat court the friendshipbetween thekingandtheyoungnoblemanwhohadsavedhislifehadreceivedarudeshock
Chasot spent the next few years in garrison at Treptow and though he wasregularly invitedbyFrederic to be present at the great festivities atBerlin heseemstohavebeenamoreconstantvisitoratthesmallcourtoftheDuchessofStrelitznotfarfromhisgarrisonthanatPotsdamThekingemployedhimonadiplomatic mission and in this also Chasot was [pg 209] successful Butnotwithstanding the continuance of this friendly intercourse both parties feltchilledandtheleastmisunderstandingwassuretoleadtoaruptureThekingjealousperhapsofChasotsfrequentvisitsatStrelitzandnotsatisfiedwiththedrillofhisregimentexpressedhimselfinstrongtermsaboutChasotatareviewin1751The latteraskedfor leaveofabsence inorder to return tohiscountryandrecruithishealthHehadreceivedfourteenwoundsinthePrussianservice
andhisapplicationcouldnotberefusedTherewasanothercauseofcomplainton which Chasot seems to have expressed himself freely He imagined thatFrederic had not rewarded his serviceswith sufficient liberalityHe expressedhimselfinthefollowingwordsmdash
ldquoJenesaisquelmalheureuxguignonpoursuitleroimaisceguignonsereproduitdanstoutcequesamajesteacuteentrependouordonneToujourssesvuessontbonnesses plans sont sages reacutefleacutechis et justes et toujours le succegraves est nul ou tregraves-imparfaitetpourquoiToujourspourlamecircmecauseparcequilmanqueunlouisagravelexeacutecutionunlouisdeplusettoutiraitagravemerveilleSonguignonveutquepartoutilretiennecemauditlouisettoutsefaitmalrdquo
HowfarthisisjustweareunabletosayChasotwasrecklessaboutmoneyandwhatever thekingmighthaveallowedhimhewouldalwayshavewantedonelouis more But on the other hand Chasot was not the only person whocomplainedofFrederics parsimony and theFrenchproverb ldquoOnnepeutpastravaillerpour le roi dePrusserdquoprobablyowes itsorigin to the complaintsofFrenchmenwho flocked toBerlin at that time in great numbers and returnedhomedisappointedChasotwenttoFrancewherehewaswellreceivedandhesoonsentanintimationtothekingthathedidnotmeantoreturntoBerlinIn[pg 210] 1752 his name was struck off the Prussian army-list Frederic wasoffendedandthesimultaneouslossofmanyfriendswhoeitherdiedorlefthiscourtmadehimdemauvaisehumeurItisaboutthistimethathewritestohissistermdash
ldquoJeacutetudiebeaucoupetcelamesoulagereacuteellementmaislorsquemonespritfaitdesretours sur les temps passeacutes alors les plaies du cœur se rouvrent et je regretteinutilementlespertesquejaifaitesrdquo
ChasothoweversoonreturnedtoGermanyandprobablyinordertobenearthecourtofStrelitztookuphisabodeintheoldfreetownofLuumlbeckHebecameacitizenofLuumlbeckin1754andin1759wasmadecommanderofitsmilitiaHerehis life seems to have been very agreeable and he was treated with greatconsiderationandliberalityChasotwasstillyoungashewasbornin1716andhe now thought of marriage This he accomplished in the following mannerTherewasat that timeanartistof somecelebrityatLuumlbeckmdashStefanoTorelliHe had a daughter whom he had left at Dresden to be educated and whoseportrait he carried about on his snuff-box Chasotmet him at dinner saw thesnuff-boxfell inlovewiththepictureandproposedtothefathertomarryhis
daughterCamillaCamillawassentforSheleftDresdentravelledthroughthecountrywhichwasthenoccupiedbyPrussiantroopsmetthekinginhiscampreceived his protection arrived safely at Luumlbeck and in the same year wasmarried toChasotFredericwas then in the thickof theSevenYearsWarbutChasotthoughhewasagainonfriendlytermswiththekingdidnotofferhimhisswordHewastoohappyatLuumlbeckwithhisCamillaandhemadehimselfuseful to the king by sending him recruits [pg 211] One of the recruits heofferedwashissonandinaletterApril81760weseethekingacceptingthisyoungrecruitinthemostgracioustermsmdash
ldquoJaccepte volontiers cher deChasot la recrue qui vous doit son ecirctre et je seraiparrain de lenfant qui vous naicirctra au cas que ce soit un fils Nous tuons leshommestandisquevousenfaitesrdquo
ItwasasonandChasotwritesmdash
ldquoSicegarccedilonmeressembleSireilnaurapasunegouttedesangdanssesveinesquinesoitagravevousrdquo
MdeSchloumlzerwhoishimselfanativeofLuumlbeckhasdescribedthelateryearsofChasots life in thatcitywithgreatwarmthandtruthfulnessThediplomaticrelationsofthetownwithRussiaandDenmarkwerenotwithoutinterestatthattime because Peter III formerlyDuke ofHolstein had declaredwar againstDenmark in order to substantiate his claims to theDanish crown Chasot hadactuallythepleasureoffortifyingLuumlbeckandcarryingonpreparationsforwaronasmallscaletillPeterwasdethronedbyhiswifeCatherineAllthisistoldinaverycomprehensiveandluminousstyleanditisnotwithoutregretthatwefind ourselves in the last chapter where M de Schloumlzer describes the lastmeetings of Chasot and Frederic in 1779 1784 and 1785 Frederic had lostnearly all his friends andhewasdelighted to see thematador de sa jeunesseoncemoreHewritesmdash
ldquoUnechosequinestpresquearriveacuteequagravemoiestquejaiperdutousmesamisdecœuretmesanciennesconnaissancescesontdesplaiesdontlecœursaignelong-tempsquelaphilosophieapaisemaisquesamainnesauraitgueacuterirrdquo
Howpleasantforthekingtofindatleastonemanwithwhomhecouldtalkof
the old days of Rheinsbergmdashof Fraumlulein von Schack and Fraumlulein vonWalmoden [pg 212] of Caeligsarion and Jordan of Mimi and le TourbillonChasotstwosonsenteredthePrussianservicethoughinthemannerinwhichthey are received we find Frederic again actingmore as king than as friendChasotin1784wasstillaslivelyaseverwhereasthekingwasinbadhealthThe latterwrites tohisold friendldquoSinousnenous revoyonsbientocirctnousnenousreverronsjamaisrdquoandwhenChasothadarrivedFredericwritestoPrinceHeinrichldquoChasotestvenuicideLuumlbeckilneparlequedemangeailledevinsdeChampagne duRhin deMadegravere deHongrie et du faste demessieurs lesmarchandsdelaboursedeLuumlbeckrdquo
SuchwasthelastmeetingofthesetwoknightsoftheOrdredeBayardThekingdiedin1786withoutseeingtheapproachoftherevolutionarystormwhichwassoontoupsetthethroneoftheBourbonsChasotdiedin1797Hebegantowritehis memoirs in 1789 and it is to some of their fragments which had beenpreservedbyhisfamilyandwerehandedovertoMKurddeSchloumlzerthatweowethisdelightfullittlebookFrederictheGreatusedtocomplainthatGermanscouldnotwritehistorymdash
ldquoCesiegravecleneproduisitaucunbonhistorienOnchargeaTeissierdeacutecrirelhistoiredeBrandebourg il en fit le paneacutegyrique Pufendorf eacutecrivit la vie de Freacutedeacuteric-Guillaumeetpournerienomettreilnoublianisesclercsdechancellerienisesvaletsdechambredont ilput recueillir lesnomsNosauteursont cemesembletoujourspeacutecheacutefautedediscernerleschosesessentiellesdesaccessoiresdeacuteclaircirlesfaitsdereserrerleurprosetraicircnanteetexcessivementsujetteauxinversionsauxnombreuseseacutepithegravetesetdeacutecrireenpeacutedantsplutocirctquenhommesdegeacutenierdquo
WebelievethatFredericwouldnothavesaidthis[pg213]ofaworklikethatofMdeSchloumlzerandastoChasotitisnottoomuchtosaythatafterthedaysofMollwitz andHohenfriedberg the day onwhichM de Schloumlzer undertook towritehisbiographywasperhapsthemostfortunateforhisfame
1856
[pg214]
XSHAKESPEARE34
ThecityofFrankfortthebirthplaceofGoethesendshergreetingtothecityofStratford-on-Avon the birthplace of Shakespeare The old free town ofFrankfortwhichsincethedaysofFrederickBarbarossahasseentheEmperorsofGermanycrownedwithinherwallsmightwellatalltimesspeakinthenameof Germany But to-day she sends her greeting not as the proud mother ofGermanEmperorsbutastheproudermotherofthegreatestamongthepoetsofGermanyand it is fromtheveryhouse inwhichGoethe livedandwhichhassincebecometheseatofldquotheFreeGermanInstitute forScienceandArtrdquo thatthismessageof theGermanadmirersandloversofShakespearehasbeensentwhich I am asked to present to you theMayor and Council of Stratford-on-Avon
WhenhonorwastobedonetothememoryofShakespeareGermanycouldnotbeabsentfornexttoGoetheandSchillerthereisnopoetsotrulylovedbyussothoroughlyourownasyourShakespeareHeisnostrangerwithusnomereclassiclikeHomerorVirgilorDanteorCorneillewhomweadmireaswe[pg215]admireamarblestatueHehasbecomeoneofourselvesholdinghisownplace in the history of our literature applauded in our theatres read in ourcottagesstudiedknownlovedldquoasfarassoundstheGermantonguerdquoThereismany a student in Germany who has learned English solely in order to readShakespeareintheoriginalandyetwepossessatranslationofShakespearewithwhich few translations of any work can vie in any language What we inGermany owe to Shakespeare must be read in the history of our literatureGoethewasproudtocallhimselfapupilofShakespeareIshallatthismomentallude to one debt of gratitude only which Germany owes to the poet ofStratford-on-Avon I do not speak of the poet only and of his art so perfectbecause so artless I think of the man with his large warm heart with hissympathy for all that is genuine unselfish beautiful and good with hiscontemptforallthatispettymeanvulgarandfalseItisfromhisplaysthatour
youngmeninGermanyformtheirfirstideasofEnglandandtheEnglishnationandinadmiringandlovinghimwehavelearnedtoadmireandtoloveyouwhomayproudly call himyour ownAnd it is right that this shouldbe soAs theheightof theAlpsismeasuredbyMontBlanc let thegreatnessofEnglandbemeasuredbythegreatnessofShakespeareGreatnationsmakegreatpoetsgreatpoets make great nations Happy the nation that possesses a poet likeShakespeare Happy the youth of England whose first ideas of this world inwhich they are to live are taken from his pages The silent influence ofShakespearespoetryonmillionsofyoungheartsinEnglandinGermanyinalltheworldshowsthealmostsuperhumanpowerofhumangeniusIfwe[pg216]lookatthatsmallhouseinasmallstreetofasmalltownofasmallislandandthen think of the world-embracing world-quickening world-ennobling spiritthatburstforthfromthatsmallgarretwehavelearnedalessonandcarriedoffablessing forwhichnopilgrimagewouldhavebeen too longThough thegreatfestivalswhichinformerdaysbroughttogetherpeoplefromallpartsofEuropetoworshipattheshrineofCanterburyexistnomoreletushopeforthesakeofEnglandmoreeven than for the sakeofShakespeare that thiswillnotbe thelast Shakespeare festival in the annals of Stratford-on-Avon In this cold andcriticalageofoursthepowerofworshippingtheartofadmiringthepassionoflovingwhatisgreatandgoodarefastdyingoutMayEnglandneverbeashamedtoshowtotheworldthatshecanlovethatshecanadmirethatshecanworshipthegreatestofherpoetsMayShakespeareliveonintheloveofeachgenerationthatgrowsupinEnglandMaytheyouthofEnglandlongcontinuetobenursedtobefed tobereprovedand judgedbyhisspiritWith thatnationmdashthat trulyEnglishbecausetrulyShakespeariannationmdashtheGermannationwillalwaysbeunitedbythestrongestsympathiesforsuperaddedtotheircommonbloodtheircommonreligion theircommonbattlesandvictories theywillalwayshave inShakespeareacommonteacheracommonbenefactorandacommonfriend
April1864
[pg217]
XIBACONINGERMANY35
ldquoIfourGermanphilosophy isconsidered inEnglandand inFranceasGermandreaming we ought not to render evil for evil but rather to prove thegroundlessness of such accusations by endeavoring ourselves to appreciatewithoutanyprejudicethephilosophersofFranceandEnglandsuchastheyareand doing them that justice which they deserve especially as in scientificsubjects injustice means ignorancerdquo With these words M Kuno Fischerintroduces his work on Bacon to the German public and what he says isevidently intended not as an attack upon the conceit of French and theexclusivenessofEnglishphilosophersbutratherasanapologywhichtheauthorfeelsthatheowestohisowncountrymenItwouldseemindeedasifaGermanwasboundtoapologizefortreatingBaconasanequalofLeibnitzKantHegeland Schelling Bacons name is never mentioned by German writers withoutsomeprovisothatitisonlybyagreatstretchofthemeaningofthewordorbycourtesy that he canbe called aphilosopherHisphilosophy it ismaintainedendswhere all true philosophybegins and his style ormethodhas frequentlybeendescribed[pg218]asunworthyofasystematicthinkerSpinozawhohasexercisedsogreataninfluenceonthehistoryofthoughtinGermanywasamongthefirstwhospokeslightinglyoftheinductivephilosopherWhentreatingofthecausesoferrorhewritesldquoWhathe(Bacon)adducesbesidesinordertoexplainerrorcaneasilybetracedbacktotheCartesiantheoryitisthisthatthehumanwill is free and more comprehensive than the understanding or as Baconexpresseshimselfinamoreconfusedmannerintheforty-ninthaphorismlsquoThehumanunderstandingisnotapurelightbutobscuredbythewillrsquothinsprdquoInworksonthegeneralhistoryofphilosophyGermanauthorsfinditdifficulttoassignanyplace to Bacon Sometimes he is classed with the Italian school of naturalphilosophysometimesheiscontrastedwithJacobBoehmeHeisnamedasoneofthemanywhohelpedtodelivermankindfromthethralldomofscholasticismButanyaccountofwhathereallywaswhathedidtoimmortalizehisnameandto gain that prominent position among his own countrymen which he has
occupied to the present day we should look for in vain even in the mostcomplete and systematic treatises on the history of philosophy published inGermanyNordoesthisarisefromanywishtodepreciatetheresultsofEnglishspeculation ingeneralOn thecontrarywe find thatHobbesLockeBerkeleyandHumearetreatedwithgreatrespectTheyoccupywell-markedpositionsintheprogressofphilosophicthoughtTheirnamesarewrittenin largelettersonthechief stations throughwhich the trainofhuman reasoningpassedbefore itarrived at Kant and Hegel Lockes philosophy took for a time completepossessionoftheGermanmindandcalledforthsomeofthemostimportant[pg219]anddecisivewritingsofLeibnitzandKanthimselfowedhiscommandingpositiontothebattlewhichhefoughtandwonagainstHumeBaconalonehasneverbeeneitherattackedorpraisednorhavehisworksasitseemseverbeenstudiedverycloselybyGermansAsfaraswecangathertheirviewofBaconandofEnglishphilosophyissomethingasfollowsPhilosophytheysayshouldaccountforexperiencebutBacontookexperienceforgrantedHeconstructedacyclopaeligdia of knowledge but he never explainedwhat knowledge itselfwasHencephilosophyfarfrombeingbroughttoaclosebyhisldquoNovumOrganonrdquohadtolearnagaintomakeherfirststepsimmediatelyafterhistimeBaconhadbuiltamagnificentpalacebutitwassoonfoundthattherewasnostaircaseinitTheveryfirstquestionofallphilosophyldquoHowdoweknowrdquoorldquoHowcanweknowrdquohadneverbeenaskedbyhimLockewhocameafterhimwasthefirstto ask it and he endeavored to answer it in his ldquoEssay concerning HumanUnderstandingrdquo The result of his speculations was that themind is a tabularasa that this tabularasabecomesgradually filledwithsensuousperceptionsand that these sensuous perceptions arrange themselves into classes and thusgiverisetomoregeneralideasorconceptionsThiswasastepinadvancebuttherewasagainonethingtakenforgrantedbyLockemdashtheperceptionsThisledtothenextstepinEnglishphilosophywhichwasmadebyBerkeleyHeaskedthequestionldquoWhatareperceptionsrdquo andhe answered it boldly ldquoPerceptionsarethethingsthemselvesandtheonlycauseoftheseperceptionsisGodrdquoButthisboldstepwasinrealitybutaboldretreatHumeacceptedtheresultsbothofLockeandBerkeleyHe[pg220]admittedwithLocke that the impressionsofthesensesare thesourceofallknowledgeheadmittedwithBerkeley thatweknownothingbeyondtheimpressionsofoursensesButwhenBerkeleyspeaksof the cause of these impressions Hume points out that we have no right tospeak of anything like cause and effect and that the idea of causality ofnecessary sequence on which the whole fabric of our reasoning rests is anassumptioninevitable itmaybeyetanassumptionThusEnglishphilosophywhichseemedtobesosettledandpositiveinBaconendedinthemostunsettled
andnegativeskepticisminHumeanditwasonlythroughKantthataccordingtotheGermansthegreatproblemwassolvedatlastandmenagainknewhowtheyknew
FromthispointofviewwhichwebelievetobethatgenerallytakenbyGermanwritersofthehistoricalprogressofmodernphilosophywemaywellunderstandwhythestarofBaconshoulddisappearalmostbelowtheirhorizonAndifthoseonlyaretobecalledphilosopherswhoinquireintothecausesofourknowledgeorintothepossibilityofknowingandbeinganewnamemustbeinventedformenlikehimwhoareconcernedalonewiththerealitiesofknowledgeThetwoare antipodesmdashthey inhabit two distinct hemispheres of thoughtButGermanIdealismasMKunoFischersayswouldhavedonewellifithadbecomemorethoroughlyacquaintedwithitsopponentmdash
ldquoAnd if it beobjectedrdquohe says ldquothat thepointsof contactbetweenGermanandEnglishphilosophybetweenIdealismandRealismare less tobefound inBaconthan in other philosophers of his kind that it was not Bacon but Hume whoinfluencedKant that itwas notBacon butLockewho influencedLeibnitz thatSpinozaifhereceivedanyimpulseatallfrom[pg221]thosequartersreceivedit fromHobbes and not fromBacon ofwhom he speaks in several places verycontemptuouslymdashIanswerthatitwasBaconwhomDesCartestheacknowledgedfounder of dogmatic Idealism chose for his antagonist And as to those realisticphilosophers who have influenced the opposite side of philosophy in SpinozaLeibnitz and Kant I shall be able to prove that Hobbes Locke Hume are alldescendantsofBaconthattheyhavetheirrootsinBaconthatwithoutBacontheycannot be truly explained andunderstood but only be takenup in a fragmentaryformandasitwerepluckedoffBaconisthecreatorofrealisticphilosophyTheirage is but a development of theBaconiangerms everyoneof their systems is ametamorphosisofBaconianphilosophyTothepresentdayrealisticphilosophyhasneverhadagreatergenius thanBacon its foundernonewhohasmanifested thetruly realistic spirit that feels itself at home in the midst of life in socomprehensivesooriginalandcharacteristicsosoberandyetatthesametimesoidealandaspiringamannernoneagaininwhomthelimitsofthisspiritstandoutinsuchdistinctandnaturalreliefBaconsphilosophyisthemosthealthyandquiteinartificial expressionofRealismAfter the systemsofSpinoza andLeibnitz hadmovedme for a long time had filled and as itwere absorbedme the studyofBaconwastomelikeanewlifethefruitsofwhicharegatheredinthisbookrdquo
After a careful perusal ofM Fischers work we believe that it will not onlyserveinGermanyasausefulintroductiontothestudyofBaconbutthatitwillbereadwithinterestandadvantagebymanypersonsinEnglandwhoarealreadyacquaintedwiththechiefworksofthephilosopherTheanalysiswhichhegivesofBaconsphilosophy isaccurateandcompleteandwithout indulging inany
lengthycriticismshehasthrownmuchlightonseveralimportantpointsHefirstdiscussestheaimofhisphilosophyandcharacterizesitasDiscoveryingeneralas the conquest of nature byman (Regnumhominis interpretatio naturaelig) Hethenentersintothemeanswhichitsuppliesforaccomplishingthisconquestandwhichconsistchieflyinexperiencemdash
[pg222]
ldquoThechiefobjectofBaconsphilosophyis theestablishmentandextensionof thedominion of man Themeans of accomplishing this wemay call culture or theapplicationofphysicalpowerstowardhumanpurposesButthereisnosuchculturewithout discovery which produces the means of culture no discovery withoutsciencewhichunderstandsthelawsofnaturenosciencewithoutnaturalscienceno natural science without an interpretation of nature and this can only beaccomplishedaccordingtothemeasureofourexperiencerdquo
MFischerthenproceedstodiscusswhathecallsthenegativeordestructivepartofBaconsphilosophy(parsdestruens)mdashthatistosaythemeansbywhichthehumanmindshouldbepurifiedandfreedfromallpreconceivednotionsbeforeitapproachestheinterpretationofnatureHecarriesusthroughthelongwarwhichBaconcommencedagainsttheidolsoftraditionalorscholasticscienceWeseehowthe idola tribus the idolaspecus the idola foriand the idola theatriaredestroyed by his iconoclastic philosophy After all these are destroyed thereremains nothing but uncertainty and doubt and it is in this state of nudityapproaching very nearly to the tabula rasa of Locke that the human mindshould approach the new temple of nature Here lies the radical differencebetweenBaconandDesCartesbetweenRealismandIdealismDesCartesalsolikeBacondestroysallformerknowledgeHeprovesthatweknownothingforcertainButafterhehasdeprivedthehumanmindofallitsimaginaryricheshedoesnotleaditonlikeBacontoastudyofnaturebuttoastudyofitselfastheonlysubjectwhichcanbeknownforcertainCogitoergosumHisphilosophyleads toa studyof the fundamental lawsofknowingandbeing thatofBaconentersatonceintothegatesofnaturewiththeinnocenceofachild(tousehis[pg 223] own expression) who enters the kingdom of God Bacon speaksindeedofaPhilosophiaprimaasakindofintroductiontoDivineNaturalandHuman Philosophy but he does not discuss in this preliminary chapter theproblemofthepossibilityofknowledgenorwasitwithhimtherightplacetodosoItwasdestinedbyhimasaldquoreceptacleforallsuchprofitableobservationsandaxiomsasfallnotwithinthecompassofthespecialpartsofphilosophyor
sciences but aremore common and of a higher stagerdquoHementions himselfsome of these axioms such asmdashldquoSi inaeligqualibus aeligqualia addas omnia eruntinaeligqualiardquoldquoQuaeligineodemtertioconveniuntet interseconveniuntrdquoldquoOmniamutantur nil interitrdquo The problem of the possibility of knowledge wouldgenerallybeclassedundermetaphysicsbutwhatBaconcallsMetaphysique iswithhimabranchofphilosophytreatingonlyonFormalandFinalCauses inopposition toPhysique which treats onMaterial and Efficient Causes If weadopt Bacons division of philosophy we might still expect to find thefundamentalproblemdiscussedinhischapteronHumanPhilosophybuthereagain he treats man only as a part of the continent of Nature and when hecomes toconsider thesubstanceandnatureof thesoulormindhedeclines toenter into this subject because ldquothe true knowledge of the nature and state ofsoulmustcomebythesameinspirationthatgavethesubstancerdquoThereremainstherefore but one place in Bacons cyclopaeligdia where wemight hope to findsomeinformationonthissubjectmdashnamelywherehetreatsonthefacultiesandfunctionsofthemindandinparticularofunderstandingandreasonAndherehedwellsindeedonthedoubtfulevidenceof[pg224] thesensesasoneof thecausesoferrorsofrequentlypointedoutbyotherphilosophersButheremarksthatthoughtheychargedthedeceituponthesensestheirchieferrorsarosefromadifferentcause from theweaknessof their intellectualpowersand from themannerofcollectingandconcludinguponthereportsofthesensesAndhethenpointstowhatistobetheworkofhislifemdashanimprovedsystemofinventionconsistingoftheExperientiaLiterataandtheInterpretatioNaturaelig
Itmustbeadmittedthereforethatoneoftheproblemswhichhasoccupiedmostphilosophersmdashnaywhichinacertainsensemaybecalledthefirstimpulsetoallphilosophymdashthequestionwhetherwecanknowanythingisentirelypassedover by Bacon and we may well understand why the name and title ofphilosopherhasbeenwithheldfromonewholookeduponhumanknowledgeasanartbutneverinquiredintoitscausesandcredentialsThisisapointwhichMFischerhasnotoverlookedbuthehasnotalwayskeptitinviewandinwishingtosecuretoBaconhisplaceinthehistoryofphilosophyhehasdeprivedhimofthatmoreexaltedplacewhichBaconhimselfwishedtooccupyinthehistoryofthe world Among men like Locke Hume Kant and Hegel Bacon is andalwayswillbeastrangerBaconhimselfwouldhavedrawnaverystronglinebetweentheirprovinceandhisownHeknowswheretheirprovinceliesandifhe sometimes speaks contemptuously of formal philosophy it is only whenformalphilosophyhasencroachedonhisowngroundorwhenitbreaksintotheenclosure of revealed religion which he wished to be kept sacred There he
holdsthehumanmindshouldnotenterexceptintheattitudeoftheSemnoneswithchainedhands
[pg225]Baconsphilosophycouldneversupplant theworksofPlatoandAristotleandthoughhismethodmightproveusefulineverybranchofknowledgemdasheveninthemostabstrusepointsoflogicandmetaphysicsmdashyettherehasneverbeenaBaconianschoolofphilosophyinthesenseinwhichwespeakoftheschoolofLockeorKantBaconwasaboveorbelowphilosophyPhilosophyintheusualsenseofthewordformedbutapartofhisgreatschemeofknowledgeIthaditsplace therein side by side with history poetry and religion After he hadsurveyed thewholeuniverseofknowledgehewas struckby the small resultsthat had been obtained by somuch labor and he discovered the cause of thisfailure in thewant of a propermethod of investigation and combination Thesubstitution of a new method of invention was the great object of hisphilosophicalactivityandthoughithasbeenfrequentlysaidthattheBaconianmethod had been known long before Bacon and had been practiced by hispredecessors with much greater success than by himself or his immediatefollowersitwashischiefmerittohaveproclaimeditandtohaveestablisheditslegitimacy against all gainsayersM Fischer has some very good remarks onBaconsmethodof inductionparticularlyon the instantiaeligpraeligrogativaelig whichas he points out though they show theweakness of his system exhibit at thesame time the strength of his mind which rises above all the smallerconsiderationsofsystematicconsistencywherehigherobjectsareatstake
MFischerdevotesonechapter toBaconsrelationto theancientphilosophersandanother tohisviewsonpoetry In the latter henaturally comparesBaconwithhis contemporaryShakespeareWe recommend this chapter aswell as asimilaroneinaworkon[pg226]ShakespearebyGervinustotheauthoroftheingenious discovery that Bacon was the real author of Shakespeares playsBesides an analysis of the constructive part of Bacons philosophy or theInstauratioMagnaMFischergivesusseveralinterestingchaptersinwhichhetreatsofBaconasanhistoricalcharacterofhisviewsonreligionandtheologyandofhis reviewersHisdefenseofBacons political character is theweakestpart of hisworkHedraws an elaborate parallel between the spirit ofBaconsphilosophyandthespiritofhispublicactsDiscoveryhesayswastheobjectofthephilosophersuccess thatof thepoliticianButwhatcanbegainedbysuchparallelsWeadmireBaconsardentexertionsforthesuccessfuladvancementoflearningbut if his acts forhisownadvancementwereblamablenomoralist
whatevernotionshemayholdontherelationbetweentheunderstandingandthewill would be swayed in his judgment of Lord Bacons character by suchconsiderationsWemakenoallowancefortheimitativetalentsofatragedianifhestandsconvictedofforgerynorforthecourageofasoldierifheisaccusedof murder Bacons character can only be judged by the historian and by acarefulstudyofthestandardofpublicmoralityinBaconstimesAndthesamemaybesaidofthepositionwhichhetookwithregardtoreligionandtheologyWe may explain his inclination to keep religion distinct from philosophy bytakingintoaccountthepracticaltendenciesofallhislaborsButthereissuchawant of straightforwardness and we might almost say of real faith in histheologicalstatementsthatnoonecanbesurprisedtofindthatwhileheistakenastherepresentativeoforthodoxybysomehehasbeenattackedbyothersasthemost dangerous and [pg 227] insidious enemy of Christianity Writers of theschoolofDeMaistreseeinhimadecidedatheistandhypocrite
InaworkonBaconitseemstohavebecomeanecessitytodiscussBaconslastreviewerandMFischer thereforebreaksa lancewithMrMacaulayWegivesomeextracts from thischapter (page358seq)whichwill serve at the sametimeasaspecimenofourauthorsstylemdash
ldquoMrMacaulay pleads unconditionally in favor of practical philosophywhich hedesignatesby thenameofBaconagainstall theoreticalphilosophyWehavetwoquestionstoask1WhatdoesMrMacaulaymeanbythecontrastofpracticalandtheoreticalphilosophyonwhichhedwellssoconstantlyand2WhathashisownpracticalphilosophyincommonwiththatofBacon
ldquoMrMacaulaydecidesonthefateofphilosophywithareadyformulawhichlikemany of the same kind dazzles by means of words which have nothing behindthemmdashwords which become more obscure and empty the nearer we approachthem He says Philosophy was made for Man not Man for Philosophy In theformercaseitispracticalinthelattertheoreticalMrMacaulayembracesthefirstandrejectsthesecondHecannotspeakwithsufficientpraiseoftheonenorwithsufficient contempt of the other According to him the Baconian philosophy ispracticalthepre-BaconianandparticularlytheancientphilosophytheoreticalHecarriesthecontrastbetweenthetwotothelastextremeandheplacesitbeforeoureyesnotinitsnakedformbutveiledinmetaphorsandinwell-chosenfiguresofspeechwheretheimposingandcharmingimagealwaysrepresentsthepracticaltherepulsivethetheoreticalformofphilosophyBythisplayhecarriesawaythegreatmassofpeoplewholikechildrenalwaysrunafterimagesPracticalphilosophyisnot somuch a conviction with him but it serves him tomake a point whereastheoretical philosophy serves as an easy butt Thus the contrast between the twoacquires a certain dramatic charm The reader feels moved and excited by thesubjectbeforehimandforgetsthescientificquestionHisfancyiscaughtbyakind
ofmetaphorical[pg228]imageryandhisunderstandingsurrenderswhatisduetoitWhatisMrMacaulaysmeaninginrejectingtheoreticalphilosophybecausephilosophy is here the object and man the means whereas he adopts practicalphilosophybecausemanisheretheobjectandphilosophythemeansWhatdowegainbysuchcomparisonsaswhenhesaysthatpracticalandtheoreticalphilosophyare like works and words fruits and thorns a high-road and a treadmill SuchphrasesalwaysremindusoftheremarkofSocratesTheyaresaidindeedbutaretheywellandtrulysaidAccordingtothestrictmeaningofMrMacaulayswordsthere never was a practical philosophy for there never was a philosophy whichoweditsorigin topracticalconsiderationsonlyAndthereneverwasa theoreticalphilosophyforthereneverwasaphilosophywhichdidnotreceiveitsimpulsefromahumanwant that is to say froma practicalmotiveThis showswhere playingwithwordsmust always lead He defines theoretical and practical philosophy insuch a manner that his definition is inapplicable to any kind of philosophy HisantithesisisentirelyemptyButifwedroptheantithesisandonlykeeptowhatitmeansinsoberandintelligiblelanguageitwouldcometothismdashthatthevalueofatheory depends on its usefulness on its practical influence onhuman life on theadvantage which we derive from it Utility alone is to decide on the value of atheoryBeitsoButwhoistodecideonutilityIfallthingsareusefulwhichserveto satisfyhumanwantswho is to decideonourwantsWe takeMrMacaulaysownpointofviewPhilosophyshouldbepracticalitshouldservemansatisfyhiswants or help to satisfy them and if it fails in this let it be called useless andhollowButiftherearewantsinhumannaturewhichdemandtobesatisfiedwhichmakelifeaburdenunlesstheyaresatisfiedisthatnottobecalledpracticalwhichanswers to thesewantsAndifsomeof themareof thatpeculiarnature that theycan only be satisfied by knowledge or by theoretical contemplation is thisknowledgeisthistheoreticalcontemplationnotusefulmdashusefulevenintheeyesofthe most decided Utilitarian Might it not happen that what he calls theoreticalphilosophyseemsuselessandbarrentotheUtilitarianbecausehisideasofmenaretoonarrowItisdangerousandnotquitebecomingtolaydownthelawandsayfromtheveryfirstlsquoYoumustnothavemorethancertainwantsandthereforeyoudonotwantmorethanacertainphilosophyrsquoIfwemayjudgefromMr[pg229]MacaulaysillustrationshisideasofhumannaturearenotveryliberallsquoIfwewereforcedrsquohesayslsquotomakeourchoicebetweenthefirstshoemakerandSenecatheauthorof thebooksonAngerweshouldpronouncefor theshoemakerItmaybeworsetobeangrythantobewetButshoeshavekeptmillionsfrombeingwetandwedoubtwhetherSenecaeverkeptanybodyfrombeingangryrsquoIshouldnotselectSenecaas the representativeof theoreticalphilosophy still less take those formyallies whom Mr Macaulay prefers to Seneca in order to defeat theoreticalphilosophers Brennus threw his sword into the scale in order to make it moreweightyMrMacaulayprefers theawlButwhateverhemaythinkaboutSenecathereisanotherphilosophermoreprofoundthanSenecabutinMrMacaulayseyeslikewiseanunpracticalthinkerAndyetinhimthepoweroftheorywasgreaterthanthepowersofnature and themost commonwantsofmanHismeditations alonegaveSocrateshisserenitywhenhedrankthefatalpoisonIsthereamongallevilsonegreater thanthedreadofdeathAndtheremedyagainst this theworstofallphysicalevils is itnotpractical inthebestsenseofthewordTruesomepeoplemightheresaythatitwouldhavebeenmorepracticalifSocrateshadfledfromhisprisonasCritonsuggestedandhaddiedanoldanddecrepitmaninBœotiaButtoSocratesitseemedmorepracticaltoremaininprisonandtodieasthefirstwitnessandmartyrofthelibertyofconscienceandtorisefromthesublimeheightofhistheory to the seats of the immortals Thus it is thewant of the individualwhich
decidesonthepracticalvalueofanactorofathoughtandthiswantdependsonthenatureofthehumansoulThereisadifferencebetweenindividualsindifferentages and there is a difference in their wants As long as the desire afterknowledgelivesinourheartswemustwiththepurelypracticalviewofsatisfyingthiswantstriveafterknowledgeinallthingseveninthosewhichdonotcontributetowardsexternalcomfortandhavenouseexceptthattheypurifyandinvigoratethemind What is theory in the eyes of Bacon lsquoA temple in the human mindaccording to themodelof theworldrsquoWhat is it in theeyesofMrMacaulayAsnug dwelling according to the wants of practical life The latter is satisfied ifknowledge is carried far enough to enable us to keep ourselves dry Themagnificenceof thestructureand itscompletenessaccording to themodelof theworld is to him useless by-work superfluous [pg 230] and even dangerousluxuryThisistheviewofarespectablerate-payernotofaBaconMrMacaulayreducesBacontohisowndimensionswhileheendeavorsatthesametimetoexalthimaboveallotherpeopleBaconsownphilosophywas likeallphilosophy atheory it was the theory of the inventive mind Bacon has not made any greatdiscoveries himself He was less inventive than Leibnitz the Germanmetaphysician If tomakediscoveriesbepracticalphilosophyBaconwasameretheoristandhisphilosophynothingbutthetheoryofpracticalphilosophyHowfarthespiritoftheoryreachedinBaconmaybeseeninhisownworksHedidnotwanttofettertheorybuttorenewandtoextendittotheveryendsoftheuniverseHispracticalstandardwasnotthecomfortoftheindividualbuthumanhappinesswhich involves theoretical knowledge That Bacon is not the Bacon of MrMacaulayWhatBaconwantedwasnewanditwillbeeternalWhatMrMacaulayandmanypeople at the present daywant in the nameofBacon is not new butnovelNewiswhatopposestheoldandservesasamodelforthefutureNoveliswhat flatters our times gains sympathies and dies away And history haspronouncedherfinalverdictItisthelastnegativeinstancewhichweopposetoMrMacaulaysassertionBaconsphilosophyhasnotbeentheendofall theoriesbutthe beginning of new theoriesmdashtheories which flowed necessarily fromBaconsphilosophy andnot oneofwhichwaspractical inMrMacaulays senseHobbeswasthepupilofBaconHisidealofaStateisopposedtothatofPlatoonallpointsButonepoint itshares incommonmdashit isasunpracticala theoryas thatofPlatoMrMacaulayhowevercallsHobbes themostacuteandvigorousspirit If thenHobbeswasapracticalphilosopherwhatbecomesofMacaulayspoliticsAndifHobbes was not a practical philosopher what becomes of Mr MacaulaysphilosophywhichdoeshomagetothetheoriesofHobbesrdquo
WehavesomewhatabridgedMFischersargument for thoughhewriteswelland intelligiblyhewantscondensationandwedonot think thathisargumenthasbeenweakenedbybeingshortenedWhathehasextendedintoavolumeofnearlyfivehundredpagesmighthavebeenreducedtoapithyessayof[pg231]one or two hundred without sacrificing one essential fact or injuring thestrengthofanyoneofhisargumentsTheartofwritinginourtimesistheartofcondensing and thosewho cannot condensewrite only for readers who havemoretimeattheirdisposalthantheyknowwhattodowith
Letus askonequestion inconclusionWhydoallGermanwriters change the
thoroughlyTeutonicnameofBaconintoBacoItisbadenoughthatweshouldspeakofPlato but this cannot behelpedButunlessweprotest againstBacogen Baconiswe shall soon be treated toNewtoNewtonis or even toKansKantis
1857
[pg232]
XIIAGERMANTRAVELLERINENGLAND36
AD1598
Lessing when he was Librarian at Wolfenbuumlttel proposed to start a reviewwhichshouldonlynoticeforgottenbooksmdashbookswrittenbeforereviewingwasinventedpublishedinthesmalltownsofGermanyneverreadperhapsexceptby theauthorandhis friends thenburiedon the shelvesof a libraryproperlylabeledandcataloguedandneveropenedagainexceptbyaninquisitiveinmateoftheseliterarymausoleumsThenumberofthoseforgottenbooksisgreatandas in former times few authorswrotemore than one or twoworks during thewholeoftheirlivestheinformationwhichtheycontainisgenerallyofamuchmoresubstantialandsolidkindthanourliterarypalatesarenowaccustomedtoIf aman now travels to the unexplored regions ofCentralAfrica his book iswrittenandout inayear It remainson thedrawing-room[pg233] table for aseason it is pleasant to read easy to digest and still easier to review and toforgetTwoorthreehundredyearsagothiswasverydifferentTravellingwasafarmoreseriousbusinessandamanwhohadspentsomeyearsinseeingforeigncountries coulddonothingbetter than employ the rest of his life inwriting abook of travels either in his own language or still better in LatinAfter hisdeath his book continued to be quoted for a time in works on history andgeographytillanewtravellerwentoverthesamegroundpublishedanequallylearnedbookandthusconsignedhispredecessortooblivionHereisacaseinpoint Paul Hentzner a German who of course calls himself PaulusHentznerus travelled in Germany France England and Italy and after hisreturn to his native place in Silesia he duly published his travels in a portlyvolume written in Latin There is a long title-page with dedicationsintroductions a preface for the Lector benevolus Latin verses and a tableshowingwhatpeopleoughttoobserveintravellingTravellingaccordingtoour
friend is the source of allwisdom and he quotesMoses and the Prophets insupportofhistheoryWeoughtalltotravelhesaysmdashldquovitanostraperegrinatioestrdquo and those who stay at home like snails (cochlearum instar) will remainldquoinhumaniinsolentessuperbirdquoetc
It would take a long time to follow Paulus Hentznerus through all hisperegrinationsbutletusseewhathesawinEnglandHearrivedhereintheyear1598HetookshipwithhisfriendsatDepavulgoDieppeandafteraboisterousvoyagetheylandedatRyeOntheirarrivaltheywereconductedtoaNotariuswho asked their names and inquired for what object they came to EnglandAftertheyhadsatisfied[pg234]hisofficialinquiriestheywereconductedtoaDiversoriumand treated toagooddinnerproregionismoreaccording to thecustom of the country From Rye they rode to London passing FlimwoltTumbridge and Chepsted on their way Then follows a long description ofLondon its origin and history its bridges churchesmonuments and palaceswith extracts from earlier writers such as Paulus Jovius PolydorusVergiliusetcAllinscriptionsarecopiedfaithfullynotonlyfromtombsandpicturesbutalsofrombookswhichthetravellerssawinthepubliclibrariesWhitehallseemsto have contained a royal library at that time and in itHentzner saw besidesGreekandLatinMSSabookwritten inFrenchbyQueenElizabethwith thefollowingdedicationtoHenryVIIImdash
ldquoA Tres haut et Tres puissant et Redoubte Prince Henry VIII de ce nom RoydAngleterredeFranceetdIrlandedefenseurdelafoyElizabethsaTreshumblefillerendsalutetobediencerdquo
After the travellers had seenSt PaulsWestminster theHouse ofParliamentWhitehall Guildhall the Tower and the Royal Exchange commonly calledBursamdashallofwhichareminutelydescribedmdashtheywenttothetheatresandtoplacesUrsorumetTaurorumvenationibusdestinatawherebearsandbullstiedfastbehindwerebaitedbybull-dogsIntheseplacesandeverywhereinfactasourtravellersayswhereyoumeetwithEnglishmen theyuseherbanicotianawhich they call by an American name Tobaca or Paetum The descriptiondeservestobequotedintheoriginalmdash
ldquoFistulaelig in hunc finem ex argillacirc factaelig orificio posteriori dictam herbam probeexiccatam ita ut in pulverem facile redigi possit immittunt et igne admotoaccenduntunde fumusab[pg235] anteriori parte ore attrahitur qui per naresrursum tamquamper infurnibulumexit etphlegmaaccapitisdefluxionesmagnacirc
copiacircsecumeducitrdquo
After they had seen everything in Londonmdashnot omitting the ship in whichFrancisDrakenobilissimuspyratawassaidtohavecircumnavigatedtheworldmdashthey went to Greenwich Here they were introduced into the presence-chamberandsawtheQueenThewallsoftheroomwerecoveredwithprecioustapestrythefloorstrewedwithhayTheQueenhadtopassthroughongoingtochapel Itwas aSundaywhenall thenobility came topay their respectsTheArchbishopofCanterburyandtheBishopofLondonwerepresentWhendivineservicebegantheQueenappearedprecededandfollowedbythecourtBeforeherwalked twobarons carrying the sceptre and the sword andbetween themthe Great Chancellor of England with the seal The Queen is thus minutelydescribedmdash
ldquoShewas said (rumor erat) to be fifty-five years old Her face was rather longwhiteandalittlewrinkledHereyessmallblackandgracioushernosesomewhatbenther lipscompressedher teethblack (fromeating toomuchsugar)Shehadear-ringsofpearlsredhairbutartificialandworeasmallcrownHerbreastwasuncovered(asisthecasewithallunmarriedladiesinEngland)androundherneckwasachainwithpreciousgemsHerhandsweregracefulherfingerslongShewasofmiddle stature but stepped onmajestically Shewas gracious and kind in heraddressThedress sheworewasofwhite silkwithpearlsas largeasbeansHercloak was of black silk with silver lace and a long train was carried by amarchionessAsshewalkedalongshespokemostkindlywithmanypeoplesomeof themambassadorsShespokeEnglishFrenchand Italianbut sheknowsalsoGreek and Latin and understands Spanish Scotch andDutch Thosewhom sheaddressedbent theirkneesandsomeshe liftedupwithherhandToaBohemiannoblemanofthenameofSlawatawhohadbroughtsomeletterstotheQueenshegave her right hand after [pg 236] taking off her glove and he kissed itWhereversheturnedhereyespeoplefellontheirkneesrdquo
TherewasprobablynobodypresentwhoventuredtoscrutinizethepoorQueenso impertinently asPaulusHentznerusHegoeson to describe the ladieswhofollowed the Queen and how they were escorted by fifty knightsWhen shecametothedoorofthechapelbookswerehandedtoherandthepeoplecalledoutldquoGodsavetheQueenElizabethrdquowhereupontheQueenansweredldquoIthankeyoumyn good peuplerdquo Prayers did not last more than half an hour and themusicwasexcellentDuringthetimethattheQueenwasinchapeldinnerwaslaidandthisagainisdescribedinfulldetail
ButwecannotaffordtotarrywithourGermanobservernorcanwefollowhim
toGrantbridge (Cambridge) orOxenfordwhere he describes the colleges andhalls(eachofthemhavingalibrary)andthelifeofthestudentsFromOxfordhe went toWoodstock then back to Oxford and from thence to Henley andMadenhoodtoWindsorEtonalsowasvisitedandherehesayssixtyboyswereeducatedgratuitouslyandafterwardssenttoCambridgeAftervisitingHamptonCourtandtheroyalpalaceofNonesuchourtravellersreturnedtoLondon
WeshallfinishourextractswithsomeremarksofHentzneronthemannersandcustomsoftheEnglishmdash
ldquoTheEnglisharegrave like theGermansmagnificentathomeandabroadTheycarrywiththemalargetrainoffollowersandservantsThesehavesilvershieldsontheir left arm and a pig-tail The English excel in dancing andmusic They areswiftandlivelythoughstouterthantheFrenchTheyshavethemiddleportionofthe face but leave the hair untouched on each side They are good sailors andfamous [pg237] pirates clever perfidious and thievishAbout three hundredarehangedinLondoneveryyearAttabletheyaremorecivilthantheFrenchTheyeatlessbreadbutmoremeatandtheydressitwellTheythrowmuchsugarintotheirwineTheysufferfrequentlyfromleprosycommonlycalledthewhiteleprosywhichissaidtohavecometoEnglandinthetimeoftheNormansTheyarebravein battle and always conquer their enemies At home they brook no manner ofservitudeTheyareveryfondofnoisesthatfilltheearssuchasexplosionsofgunstrumpetsandbells InLondonpersonswhohavegotdrunkarewont tomountachurchtowerforthesakeofexerciseandtoringthebellsforseveralhoursIftheysee a foreigner who is handsome and strong they are sorry that he is not anAnglicusmdashvulgoEnglishmanrdquo
Onhis return toFranceHentzner paid a visit toCanterbury and after seeingsomeghostsonhisjourneyarrivedsafelyatDoverBeforehewasallowedtogoonboardhehadagaintoundergoanexaminationtogivehisnametoexplainwhathehaddoneinEnglandandwherehewasgoingandlastlyhisluggagewas searchedmost carefully in order to seewhether he carriedwith him anyEnglishmoneyfornobodywasallowedtocarryawaymorethantenpoundsofEnglishmoney all the restwas taken away and handed to the royal treasuryAndthusfarewellCarissimeHentzneriandslumberonyourshelfuntiltheeyeof some other benevolent reader glancing at the rows of forgotten books iscaughtbythequaintletteringonyourbackldquoHentzneriItinrdquo
1857
[pg238]
XIIICORNISHANTIQUITIES37
ItisimpossibletospendevenafewweeksinCornwallwithoutbeingimpressedwiththeairofantiquitywhichpervadesthatcountyandseemslikeamorningmisthalftoconcealandhalftolightupeveryoneofitshillsandvalleysItisimpossible to look at any pile of stones at any wall or pillar or gate-postwithoutaskingonesselfthequestionIsthisoldoristhisnewIsittheworkofSaxonorofRomanorofCeltNayonefeelssometimestemptedtoaskIsthistheworkofNatureorofman
ldquoAmongtheserocksandstonesmethinksIseeMorethantheheedlessimpressthatbelongsTolonelyNaturescasualworktheybearAsemblancestrangeofpowerintelligentAndofdesignnotwhollywornawayrdquomdashExcursion
ThelateKingofPrussiasremarkaboutOxfordthatiniteverythingoldseemednew and everything new seemed old applies with even greater truth toCornwallThereisacontinuitybetweenthepresentandthepastofthatcuriouspeninsulasuchasweseldomfindinanyotherplaceAspringbubblingupinanaturalgranitebasinnowameeting-placeforBaptists[pg239]orMethodistswasbutafewcenturiesagoaholywellattendedbybusyfriarsandvisitedbypilgrims who came there ldquonearly lamerdquo and left the shrine ldquoalmost able towalkrdquoStillfurtherbackthesamespringwasacentreofattractionfortheCelticinhabitants and the rocks piled up around it stand there as witnesses of acivilization and architecture certainlymore primitive than the civilization andarchitecture of Roman Saxon orNorman settlersWe need not look beyondHow long thatgranitebuttressofEnglandhas stood theredefying the furyoftheAtlanticthegeologistalonewhoisnotawedbyageswoulddaretotellusBut the historian is satisfied with antiquities of a more humble and homelycharacter and inbespeaking the interest and itmaybe the active supportof
ourreadersinfavorofthefewrelicsofthemostancientcivilizationofBritainwe promise to keep within strictly historical limits if by historical weunderstandwiththelateSirGCLewisthatonlywhichcanbeauthenticatedbycontemporaneousmonuments
ButeventhushowwideagulfseemstoseparateusfromthefirstcivilizersoftheWestofEnglandfromthepeoplewhogavenamestoeveryheadlandbayandhillofCornwallandwhofirstplannedthoselanesthatnowlikethrobbingveinsrunineverydirectionacrossthatheath-coveredpeninsulaNodoubtitiswell known that the original inhabitants of Cornwall were Celts and thatCornishisaCelticlanguageandthatifwedividetheCelticlanguagesintotwoclassesWelshwithCornishandBretonformsoneclass theCymricwhiletheIrish with its varieties as developed in Scotland and the Isle of Man formsanotherclasswhich iscalled theGaelicorGadhelic [pg240] Itmay also bemore or less generally known that Celticwith all its dialects is anAryan orIndo-Europeanlanguagecloselyallied toLatinGreekGermanSlavonicandSanskritandthattheCeltsthereforewerenotmerebarbariansorpeopletobeclassedtogetherwithFinnsandLappsbutheraldsoftruecivilizationwherevertheysettledintheirworldwidemigrationstheequalsofSaxonsandRomansandGreekswhether in physical beauty or in intellectual vigorAnd yet there is astrange want of historical reality in the current conceptions about the CelticinhabitantsoftheBritishIslesandwhiletheheroesandstatesmenandpoetsofGreeceandRomethoughbelongingtoamuchearlieragestandoutinboldandsharp relief on the tableof aboysmemory his notionsof the ancientBritonsmaygenerallybesummedupldquoinhousesmadeofwicker-workDruidswithlongwhitebeardswhitelinenrobesandgoldensicklesandwarriorspaintedbluerdquoNaystrangetosaywecanhardlyblameaboyforbanishingtheancientbardsandDruids fromthesceneof realhistoryandassigning to themthatdarkandshadowycornerwhere the gods andheroes ofGreece live peacefully togetherwiththeghostsandfairiesfromthedreamlandofourownSaxonforefathersForeven the little that is told in ldquoLittle Arthurs History of Englandrdquo about theancient Britons and the Druids is extremely doubtful Druids are nevermentionedbeforeCaeligsarFewwritersifanybeforehimwereabletodistinguishbetweenCeltsandGermansbutspokeofthebarbariansofGaulandGermanyas theGreeks spoke of Scythians or aswe ourselves speak of the negroes ofAfrica without distinguishing between races so different from each other asHottentotsandKaffirsCaeligsarwas[pg241]oneofthefirstwriterswhoknewofanethnologicaldistinctionbetweenCelticandTeutonicbarbariansandwemaythereforetrusthimwhenhesaysthattheCeltshadDruidsandtheGermanshad
noneButhisfurtherstatementsabout theseCelticpriestsandsagesarehardlymore trustworthy than the account which an ordinary Indian officer at thepresentdaymightgiveusof theBuddhistpriestsand theBuddhist religionofCeylonCaeligsars statement that theDruidsworshippedMercuryApolloMarsJupiterandMinervaisofthesamebasemetalasthestatementsofmoremodernwritersthattheBuddhistsworshiptheTrinityandthattheytakeBuddhafortheSonofGodCaeligsarmostlikelyneverconversedwithaDruidnorwasheabletocontrol if he was able to understand the statements made to him about theancient priesthood the religion and literature ofGaulBesidesCaeligsar himselftellsusverylittleaboutthepriestsofGaulandBritainandthethrillingaccountsofthewhiterobesandthegoldensicklesbelongtoPlinysldquoNaturalHistoryrdquobynomeansasafeauthorityinsuchmatters38
Wemustbesatisfiedindeedtoknowverylittle[pg242]aboutthemodeoflifethe formsofworship the religiousdoctrinesor themysteriouswisdomof theDruids and their flocks But for this very reason it is most essential that ourmindsshouldbeimpressedstronglywiththehistoricalrealitythatbelongstotheCeltic inhabitants and to the work which they performed in rendering theseislandsforthefirsttimefitforthehabitationofmanThathistoricallessonanda very important lesson it is is certainly learnedmore quickly and yetmoreeffectuallybyavisittoCornwallorWalesthanbyanyamountofreadingWemaydoubtmany things thatCeltic enthusiasts tell us butwhere everyvillageand field every cottage and hill bear names that are neither English norNorman nor Latin it is difficult not to feel that the Celtic element has beensomething real and permanent in the history of theBritish Isles TheCornishlanguageisnodoubtextinctifbyextinctwemeanthatitisnolongerspokenbythepeopleButinthenamesoftownscastlesriversmountainsfieldsmanorsand families and in a few of the technical terms of mining husbandry andfishing Cornish lives on and probably will live on for many ages to comeThereisawell-knownversemdash
ldquoByTreRosPolLanCaerandPenYoumayknowmostCornishmenrdquo39
But itwillhardlybebelieved thataCornishantiquarianDrBannisterwhoiscollectingmaterialsforaglossaryofCornishpropernameshasamassednolessthan2400nameswithTre500withFen400withRos300withLan200withPoland200withCaer
[pg243]AlanguagedoesnotdieallatoncenorisitalwayspossibletofixtheexactdatewhenitbreatheditslastThusinthecaseofCornishitisbynomeanseasytoreconciletheconflictingstatementsofvariouswritersastotheexacttimewhenitceasedtobethelanguageofthepeopleunlesswebearinmindthatwhatwastruewith regard to thehigherclasseswasnotsowith regard to the lowerandlikewise that in some parts of Cornwall the vitality of the language mightcontinue while in others its heart had ceased to beat As late as the time ofHenryVIII thefamousphysicianAndrewBorde tellsus thatEnglishwasnotunderstood by many men and women in Cornwall ldquoIn Cornwal is twospeechesrdquohewritesldquotheoneisnaughtyEnglysheandtheothertheCornyshespecheAndtherebemanymenandwomenthewhichcannotspeakeonewordeofEnglyshebutallCornysherdquoDuringthesameKingsreignwhenanattemptwasmadetointroduceanewchurchservicecomposedinEnglishaprotestwassignedbytheDevonshireandCornishmenutterlyrefusingthisnewEnglishmdash
ldquoWewillnotreceivethenewServicebecauseitisbutlikeaChristmasgamebutwewillhaveouroldServiceofMatinsMassEvensongandProcessioninLatinasitwasbeforeAndsowetheCornishmen(whereofcertainofusunderstandnoEnglish)utterlyrefusethisnewEnglishrdquo40
YetinthereignofElizabethwhentheliturgywasappointedbyauthoritytotaketheplaceof themass theCornish it is said41 desired that it should be in theEnglish language About the same time we are told [pg 244] that Dr JohnMoreman42 taught his parishioners the Lords Prayer the Creed and the TenCommandments in the English tongue From the time of the Reformationonward Cornish seems constantly to have lost ground against Englishparticularly in places near Devonshire Thus Norden whose description ofCornwallwasprobablywrittenabout1584thoughnotpublishedtill1728givesaveryfullandinterestingaccountofthestrugglebetweenthetwolanguagesmdash
ldquoOflaterdquohesays(p26)ldquotheCornishemenhavemucheconformedthemselvestotheuseoftheEnglishetoungeandtheirEnglisheisequalltothebesteespetiallyintheeasternepartesevenfromTruroeastwardeitisinmannerwhollyEnglisheInthe weste parte of the countrye as in the hundreds of Penwith and Kerrier theCornishetoungeismosteinuseamongstetheinhabitantesandyet(whicheistobemarveyled) though the husband and wife parentes and children master andservantesdoemutuallycommunicate in theirnative languageyet ther isnoneofthem in manner but is able to convers with a straunger in the Englishe toungeunlessitbesomeobscurepeoplethatseldomeconferrwiththebettersorteButit
seemeth that in few yeares the Cornishe language will be by litle and litleabandonedrdquo
Carewwhowrote about the same timegoes so far as to say thatmostof theinhabitantsldquocannowordofCornishbutveryfeware ignorantof theEnglishthoughtheysometimesaffecttoberdquoThismayhavebeentruewithregardtotheupperclassesparticularly in thewestofCornwallbut it isneverthelessa factthataslateas1640MrWilliamJackmanthevicarofFeock43wasforced toadministerthesacramentinCornishbecausetheagedpeopledidnotunderstandEnglish nay the rector of Landewednak [pg 245] preached his sermons inCornishaslateas1678MrScawentoowhowroteaboutthattimespeaksofsomeold folkswho spokeCornish only andwould not understand aword ofEnglishbuthetellsusatthesametimethatSirFrancisNorththeLordChiefJusticeafterwardsLordKeeperwhenholdingtheassizesatLancestonin1678expressedhisconcernat the lossanddecayof theCornishlanguageThepoorpeopleinfactcouldspeakoratleastunderstandCornishbuthesaysldquoTheywerelaughedatbytherichwhounderstooditnotwhichis theirownfault innotendeavoringafteritrdquoAboutthebeginningofthelastcenturyMrEdLhuyd(died1709)thekeeperoftheAshmoleanMuseumwasstillabletocollectfromthe mouths of the people a grammar of the Cornish language which waspublishedin1707HesaysthatatthistimeCornishwasonlyretainedinfiveorsix villages towards the Lands End and in his ldquoArchaeligologia Britannicardquo headdsthatalthoughitwasspokeninmostofthewesterndistrictsfromtheLandsEndtotheLizardldquoagreatmanyoftheinhabitantsespeciallythegentrydonotunderstandittherebeingnonecessitythereofinregardtheresnoCornishmanbutspeaksgoodEnglishrdquoItisgenerallysupposedthatthelastpersonwhospokeCornishwasDollyPentreathwhodied in1778and towhosememoryPrinceLouis Lucien Bonaparte has lately erected a monument in the churchyard atPaulTheinscriptionismdash
ldquoHereliethinterredDorothyPentreathwhodiedin1778saidtohavebeenthelastpersonwhoconversedintheancientCornishthepeculiarlanguageofthiscountryfromtheearliestrecordstillitexpiredinthisparishofStPaulThisstoneiserectedbythePrinceLouisLucienBonaparteinunionwiththeRevJohnGarretvicarofStPaulJune1860rdquo
[pg246]ItseemshardlyrighttodeprivetheoldladyofherfairnamebuttherearemanypeopleinCornwallwhomaintainthatwhentravellersandgrandeescametosee
hershewouldtalkanythingthatcameintoherheadwhilethosewholistenedtoherwere pleased to think that they had heard the dying echoes of a primevaltongue44ThereisaletterextantwritteninCornishbyapoorfishermanofthenameofWilliamBodenerItisdatedJuly31776thatistwoyearsbeforethedeathofDollyPentreathandthewritersaysofhimselfinCornishmdash
ldquoMyageisthreescoreandfiveIamapoorfishermanIlearntCornishwhenIwasaboyIhavebeentoseawithmyfatherandfiveothermenintheboatandhavenotheardonewordofEnglishspokeintheboatforaweektogetherIneversawaCornishbookIlearnedCornishgoingtoseawitholdmenThereisnotmorethanfour or five in our town can talk Cornish nowmdashold people fourscore years oldCornishisallforgotwithyoungpeoplerdquo45
ItwouldseemthereforethatCornishdiedwiththe[pg247]lastcenturyandnoonenowlivingcanboasttohavehearditssoundwhenactuallyspokenforthesakeofconversationItseemstohavebeenamelodiousandyetbynomeansaneffeminatelanguageandScawenplacesitinthisrespectabovemostoftheotherCelticdialectsmdash
ldquoCornishrdquohesaysldquoisnot tobegutturallypronouncedas theWelshfor themostpart is normutteringly as theArmorick nor whiningly as the Irish (which twolatter qualities seem to have been contracted from their servitude) but must belivelyandmanlyspokenlikeotherprimitivetonguesrdquo
Although Cornish must now be classed with the extinct languages it hascertainly shownamarvelousvitalityMore than fourhundredyearsofRomanoccupationmorethansixhundredyearsofSaxonandDanishswayaNormanconquest aSaxonReformation and civilwars have all passedover the landbut like a tree that may bend before a storm but is not to be rooted up thelanguageoftheCeltsofCornwallhaslivedoninanunbrokencontinuityforatleasttwothousandyearsWhatdoesthismeanItmeansthatthroughthewholeofEnglishhistoryto theaccessionof theHouseofHanover the inhabitantsofCornwallandthewesternportionofDevonshireinspiteofintermarriageswithRomansSaxons andNormanswereCelts and remainedCelts People speakindeedofbloodandinterminglingofbloodasdeterminingthenationalityofapeople but what is meant by blood It is one of those scientific idols thatcrumbletodustassoonaswetrytodefineorgraspthemitisavaguehollowtreacheroustermwhichforthepresentatleastoughttobebanishedfromthedictionaryofeverytruemanofscienceWecangiveascientificdefinitionofa
Celticlanguagebutnoonehas[pg248]yetgivenadefinitionofCelticbloodoraCelticskullItisquitepossiblethathereafterchemicaldifferencesmaybediscoveredinthebloodofthosewhospeakaCelticandofthosewhospeakaTeutonic language It is possible also that patient measurements like thoselately published by Professor Huxley in the ldquoJournal of Anatomy andPhysiologyrdquomayleadin timetoareallyscientificclassificationofskullsandthatphysiologistsmaysucceedintheendincarryingoutaclassificationofthehumanraceaccordingtotangibleandunvaryingphysiologicalcriteriaButtheirdefinitionsand theirclassificationswillhardlyeversquarewith thedefinitionsorclassificationsofthestudentof languageandtheuseofcommontermscanonlybeasourceofconstantmisunderstandingsWeknowwhatwemeanbyaCelticlanguageandinthegrammarofeachlanguageweareabletoproduceamost perfect scientific definitionof its real character If thereforewe transferthetermCeltictopeoplewecanifweuseourwordsaccuratelymeannothingbutpeoplewhospeakaCelticlanguagethetrueexponentayetheverylifeofCeltic nationalityWhateverpeoplewhetherRomans orSaxons orNormansorassomethinkevenPhœniciansandJewssettledinCornwalliftheyceasedtospeaktheirownlanguageandexchangedit forCornish theyarebefore thetribunal of the science of language Celts and nothing but Celts whilewheneverCornishmenlikeSirHumphreyDavyorBishopColensohaveceasedtospeakCornishandspeaknothingbutEnglish theyareno longerCeltsbuttrueTeutonsorSaxons intheonlyscientificallylegitimatesenseofthatwordStrangestoriesindeedwouldberevealedifbloodcouldcryoutandtellofitsrepeatedmixturessince[pg249]thebeginningoftheworldIfwethinkoftheearly migrations of mankind of the battles fought before there werehieroglyphics to record them of conquests leadings into captivity piracyslavery and colonization all without a sacred poet to hand them down toposteritymdashweshallhesitate indeedtospeakofpureracesorunmixedbloodevenattheverydawnofrealhistoryLittleasweknowoftheearlyhistoryofGreeceweknowenoughtowarnusagainstlookingupontheGreeksofAsiaorEuropeasanunmixed raceAEliggyptuswithhisArabianEthiopian andTyrianwivesCadmusthesonofLibyaPhœnixthefatherofEuropamdashallpointtoanintercourse ofGreecewith foreign countrieswhatever else theirmythologicalmeaningmaybeAssoonasweknowanythingofthehistoryoftheworldweknow of wars and alliances between Greeks and Lydians and Persians ofPhœniciansettlementsallovertheworldofCarthaginianstradinginSpainandencamped in ItalyofRomansconqueringandcolonizingGaulSpainBritaintheDanubianPrincipalitiesandGreeceWesternAsiaandNorthernAfricaThenagainatalatertimefollowthegreatethnicconvulsionsofEasternEuropeand
thedevastationand re-populationof theancient seatsof civilizationbyGothsandLombardsandVandalsandSaxonswhileatthesametimeandformanycenturiestocomethefewstrongholdsofcivilizationintheEastwereagainandagainoverwhelmedbytheirresistiblewavesofHunnishMongolicandTartaricinvadersAndwith all this people at the latter end of the nineteenth centuryventure to speak for instance ofpureNormanbloodas somethingdefiniteordefinable forgetting how the ancient Norsemen carried their [pg 250] wivesaway from the coasts of Germany or Russia from Sicily or from the veryPiraeligus while others married whatever wives they could find in the North ofFrance whether of Gallic Roman or German extraction and then settled inEnglandwheretheyagaincontractedmarriageswithTeutonicCelticorRomandamsels Inourowndays ifwesee thedaughterofanEnglishofficerandanIndianRaneemarriedtothesonofaRussiannoblemanhowarewetoclasstheoffspringof thatmarriageThe IndianRaneemayhavehadMongolblood somay the Russian nobleman but there are other possible ingredients of pureHinduandpureSlavonicofNormanGermanandRomanbloodmdashandwhoisthe chemist bold enough to disengage them all There is perhaps no nationwhichhasbeenexposedtomorefrequentadmixtureofforeignbloodduringtheMiddle Ages than the Greeks Professor Fallmerayer maintained that theHellenic populationwas entirely exterminated and that the peoplewho at thepresentdaycallthemselvesGreeksarereallySlavoniansItwouldbedifficulttorefute him by arguments drawn either from the physical or the moralcharacteristicsofthemodernGreeksascomparedwiththemanyvarietiesoftheSlavonic stock But the following extract from ldquoFeltons Lectures on GreeceAncient and Modernrdquo contains the only answer that can be given to suchchargeswithoutpointorpurposeldquoInoneof thecoursesof lecturesrdquohesaysldquowhichIattendedin theUniversityofAthens theProfessorofHistoryaveryeloquent man as well as a somewhat fiery Greek took this subject up HisaudienceconsistedofabouttwohundredyoungmenfromeverypartofGreeceHis indignant comments on the learned [pg 251] German that notoriousΜισέλληνorGreek-hater ashe stigmatizedhimwere receivedbyhishearerswithaprofoundsensationTheysatwithexpandednostrilsandflashingeyesmdashasplendid illustration of the oldHellenic spirit roused to fury by the charge ofbarbarian descent lsquoIt is truersquo said the eloquent professor lsquothat the tide ofbarbaricinvaderspoureddownlikeadelugeuponHellasfillingwithitssurgingfloodsourbeautiful plains our fertilevalleysTheGreeks fled to theirwalledtowns andmountain fastnesses By and by thewater subsided and the soil ofHellasreappearedTheformerinhabitantsdescendedfromthemountainsasthetide receded resumed their ancient lands and rebuilt their ruined habitations
and the reignof thebarbariansoverHellaswasherself againrsquoThree or fourroundsofapplausefollowedthecloseofthelecturesofProfessorManousesinwhich I heartily joined I could not help thinking afterwards what a singularcomment on theGerman anti-Hellenic theorywas presented by this scenemdashaGreekprofessor in aGreekuniversity lecturing to twohundredGreeks in theGreeklanguagetoprovethattheGreekswereGreeksandnotSlavoniansrdquo46
Andyetwehear the sameargumentsusedover andover againnotonlywithregard to theGreeksbutwith regard tomanyothermodernnationsandevenmenwhosemindshavebeentrainedintheschoolofexactscienceusethetermldquobloodsrdquo in this vague and thoughtless manner The adjective Greek mayconnotemanythingsbutwhatitdenotesislanguagePeoplewhospeakGreekastheirmother[pg252]tongueareGreeksandifaTurkish-speakinginhabitantofConstantinoplecouldtracehispedigreestraighttoPericleshewouldstillbeaTurkwhateverhisnamehisfaithhishairfeaturesandstaturemdashwhateverhisbloodmightbeWecanclassifylanguagesandaslanguagespresupposepeoplethat speak themwe can so far classifymankind according to their grammarsanddictionarieswhileallwhopossessscientifichonestymustconfessandwillconfess that as yet it has been impossible to devise any truly scientificclassificationofskulls tosaynothingofbloodorbonesorhairThelabelononeoftheskullsintheMunichCollectionldquoEtruscan-TyrolorInca-Peruvianrdquocharacterizes not too unfairly the present state of ethnological craniology Letthosewho imagine that thegreatoutlines at leastof a classificationof skullshavebeenfirmlyestablishedconsultMrBracesusefulmanualofldquoTheRacesoftheWorldrdquowherehehascollectedtheopinionsofsomeofthebestjudgesonthesubjectWequoteafewpassages47mdash
ldquoDr Bachmann concludes from the measurements of Dr Tiedemann and DrMorton that thenegroskull thoughless thantheEuropean iswithinoneinchaslarge as the Persian and the Armenian and three square inches larger than theHindu and Egyptian The scale is thus given byDrMorton European skull 87cubicinchesMalay85Negro83Mongol82AncientEgyptian80American79 The ancient Peruvians and Mexicans who constructed so elaborate acivilizationshowacapacityonlyoffrom75to79inchesOtherobservationsbyHuschke make the average capacity of the skull of Europeans 4088 oz ofAmericans3913ofMongols3839ofNegroes3757ofMalays3641rdquo
ldquoOf theshapeof theskullasdistinctiveofdifferentorigin[pg253] ProfessorMJWeberhassaidthereisnopropermarkofadefiniteracefromthecraniumsofirmly attached that itmay not be found in some other race Tiedemann hasmetwith Germans whose skulls bore all the characters of the negro race and an
inhabitantofNukahiwa according toSilesiusandBlumenbach agreedexactly inhisproportionswiththeApolloBelvedererdquo
Professor Huxley in his ldquoObservations on the Human Skulls of Engis andNeanderthalrdquoprintedinSirCharlesLyellsldquoAntiquityofManrdquop81remarksthat ldquothe most capacious European skull yet measured had a capacity of 114cubic inches the smallest (as estimated by weight of brain) about 55 cubicincheswhileaccordingtoProfessorSchaaffhausensomeHinduskullshaveassmallacapacityas46cubicinches(27ozofwater)rdquoandhesumsupbystatingthatldquocranialmeasurementsaloneaffordnosafeindicationofracerdquo
Andevenifascientificclassificationofskullsweretobecarriedoutifinsteadofmerelybeingable toguess that thismaybeanAustralianand thisaMalayskull we were able positively to place each individual skull under its owndefinitecategorywhatshouldwegainintheclassificationofmankindWhereis the bridge from skull to man in the full sense of that wordWhere is theconnecting link between the cranial proportions and only one other of manscharacteristicpropertiessuchaslanguageAndwhatappliestoskullsappliestocolor and all the rest Even a black skin and curly hair are mere outwardaccidentsascomparedwithlanguageWedonotclassifyparrotsandmagpiesbythecoloroftheirplumagestilllessbythecagesinwhichtheyliveandwhatistheblackskinor thewhite skinbut themereoutwardcoveringnot to say themerecagein[pg254]whichthatbeingwhichwecallmanlivesmovesandhashisbeingAmanlikeBishopCrowtherthoughanegroinbloodisinthoughtand speech anAryanHe speaksEnglish he thinksEnglish he acts EnglishandunlesswetakeEnglishinapurelyhistoricalandnotinitstrulyscientificielinguisticsenseheisEnglishNodoubttherearemanyinfluencesatworkmdasholdproverbsoldsongsandtraditionsreligiousconvictionssocial institutionspoliticalprejudicesbesidesthesoilthefoodandtheairofacountrymdashthatmaykeepupevenamongpeoplewhohavelosttheirnationallanguagethatkindofvaguesimilaritywhichisspokenofasnationalcharacter48Thisisasubjectonwhich many volumes have been written and yet the result has only been tosupply newspapers with materials for international insults or internationalcourtesies as the casemay beNothing sound or definite has been gained bysuchspeculationsand inanage thatprides itselfon thecarefulobservanceofthe rules of inductive reasoning nothing ismore surprising than the sweepingassertionswithregardtonationalcharacterandtherecklesswayinwhichcasualobservations that may be true of one two three or it may be ten or even ahundred individuals are extended to millions However if there is one safe
exponent of national character it is language Take away the language of apeople and you destroy at once that powerful chain [pg 255] of tradition inthoughtandsentimentwhichholdsallthegenerationsofthesameracetogetherifwemay use an unpleasant simile like the chain of a gang of galley-slavesTheseslaveswearetoldverysoonfallintothesamepacewithoutbeingawarethat theirmovements depend altogether on themovements of thosewhowalkbeforethemItisnearlythesamewithusWeimaginewearealtogetherfreeinourthoughtsoriginalandindependentandwearenotawarethatourthoughtsaremanacledandfetteredby languageand thatwithoutknowingandwithoutperceivingitwehavetokeeppacewiththosewhowalkedbeforeusthousandsand thousands of years agoLanguage alone binds people together and keepsthem distinct from others who speak different tongues In ancient timesparticularlyldquolanguagesandnationsrdquomeantthesamethingandevenwithusourrealancestorsare thosewhose languagewespeak the fathersofour thoughtsthe mothers of our hopes and fears Blood bones hair and color are mereaccidentsutterlyunfit toserveasprinciplesofscientificclassification for thatgreat familyof livingbeings theessentialcharacteristicsofwhichare thoughtandspeechnotfibrineserumcoloringmatterorwhateverelseentersintothecompositionofblood
If this be true the inhabitants of Cornwall whatever the number of RomanSaxon Danish or Norman settlers within the boundaries of that county mayhavebeencontinuedtobeCeltsaslongastheyspokeCornishTheyceasedtobeCeltswhentheyceasedtospeakthelanguageoftheirforefathersThosewhocanappreciatethecharmsofgenuineantiquitywillnotthereforefindfaultwiththeenthusiasmofDaines[pg256]BarringtonorSirJosephBanksinlisteningtothe strangeutterancesofDollyPentreath forher language if genuine carriedthem back and brought them as it were into immediate contact with peoplewho long before the Christian era acted an important part on the stage ofhistorysupplyingtheworldwithtwoofthemostpreciousmetalsmorepreciousthenthangoldorsilverwithcopperandtintheverymaterialsitmaybeofthefinestworksof art inGreece aye of the armorwrought for theheroesof theTrojanWar as described so minutely by the poets of the ldquoIliadrdquo There is acontinuity in language which nothing equals and there is an historicalgenuinenessinancientwordsifbutrightlyinterpretedwhichcannotberivaledbymanuscriptsorcoinsormonumentalinscriptions
ButthoughitisrighttobeenthusiasticaboutwhatisreallyancientinCornwallmdashand there is nothing so ancient as languagemdashit is equally right to be
discriminating The fresh breezes of antiquity have intoxicated many anantiquarian Words purely Latin or English though somewhat changed afterbeing admitted into the Cornish dictionary have been quoted as the originalsfromwhichtheRomanorEnglishwerein turnderivedTheLatin liberbookwas supposed to be derived from theWelsh llyvyr litera letter fromWelshllythyrpersonapersonfromWelshpersonandmanymoreofthesamekindWalls builtwithin thememoryofmenhavebeen admitted as relics ofBritisharchitecturenayLatininscriptionsofthesimplestcharacterhavebutlatelybeeninterpretedbymeansofCornishascontainingstrainsofamysteriouswisdomHere too a study of the language gives some useful hints as to the propermethod of disentangling the truly ancient from the more modern [pg 257]elementsWhateverintheCornishdictionarycannotbetracedbacktoanyothersourcewhetherLatinSaxonNormanorGermanmaysafelybeconsideredasCornishandthereforeasancientCelticWhateverintheantiquitiesofCornwallcannot be claimed by Romans Saxons Danes or Normans may fairly beconsidered as genuine remains of the earliest civilization of this island as theworkoftheCelticdiscoverersofBritain
TheCornishlanguageisbynomeansapureorunmixedlanguagemdashatleastwedonotknow it in itspure state It is in fact amereaccident that any literaryremainshavebeenpreservedandthreeorfoursmallvolumeswouldcontainallthat is left tousofCornish literature ldquoThere isapoemrdquo to quoteMrNorrisldquowhichwemaybycourtesycallepicentitledlsquoMountCalvaryrsquothinsprdquoItcontains259stanzas of eight lines each in heptasyllabicmetre with alternate rhyme It isascribed to the fifteenth century and was published for the first time byMrDaviesGilbertin182649Thereisbesidesaseriesofdramasormystery-playsfirstpublishedbyMrNorris for theUniversityPressofOxford in1858Thefirst is called ldquoTheBeginning of theWorldrdquo the second ldquoThe Passion of ourLordrdquothethirdldquoTheResurrectionrdquoThelastisinterruptedbyanotherplayldquoTheDeathofPilaterdquoTheoldestMSintheBodleianLibrarybelongstothefifteenthcenturyandMrNorrisisnotinclinedtoreferthecompositionoftheseplaystoa much earlier date AnotherMS likewise in the Bodleian Library containsboth the text and a [pg 258] translation by Keigwyn (1695) Lastly there isanothersacreddramacalledldquoTheCreationoftheWorldwithNoahsFloodrdquoItis inmany places copied from the dramas and according to theMS it waswrittenbyWilliamJordanin1611TheoldestMSbelongsagaintotheBodleianLibrarywhichlikewisepossessesaMSofthetranslationbyKeigwynin169150
Thesemystery-plays as wemay learn from a passage in Carews ldquoSurvey of
Cornwallrdquo (p 71) were still performed in Cornish in his time ie at thebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturyHesaysmdash
ldquoPastimes to delight theminde the Cornishmen haveGuarymiracles and threemens songs and for the exercise of the body hunting hawking shootingwrastlinghurlingandsuchothergames
ldquoTheGuarymiraclemdashinEnglishamiracle-playmdashisakindofenterludecompiledinCornishoutof someScripturehistorywith thatgrosseneswhichaccompaniedtheRomanesvetusComediaForrepresentingittheyraiseanearthenamphitheatreinsomeopenfieldhavingthediameterofhisenclosedplaynesomefortyorfiftyfootThecountrypeopleflockfromallsidesmanymilesoff toheareandseeitfortheyhavethereindevilsanddevicestodelightaswelltheeyeastheearetheplayers conne not their parts without booke but are prompted by one called theOrdinarywhofollowethattheirbackwiththebookeinhishandandtelleththemsoftly what theymust pronounce aloudWhichmanner once gave occasion to apleasant conceyted gentleman of practising a mery pranke for he undertaking(perhapsof setpurpose)anactors roomewasaccordingly lessoned (beforehand)bytheOrdinarythathe[pg259]mustsayafterhimHisturncameQuoththeOrdinary Goe forth man and shew thy selfe The gentleman steps out upon thestageandlikeabadClarkeinScripturematterscleavingmoretotheletterthanthesensepronouncedthosewordsaloudOh(sayesthefellowesoftlyinhiseare)youmarreall theplayAndwith thishispassion theactormakes theaudience in likesortacquaintedHereontheprompterfallstoflatraylingandcursinginthebitteresttermeshecoulddevisewhichthegentlemanwithasetgestureandcountenancestillsoberlyrelateduntilltheOrdinarydrivenatlastintoamadderagewasfainetogivealloverWhichtroussethoughitbrakeofftheenterludeyetdefraudednotthebeholdersbutdismissedthemwithagreatdealemoresportandlaughterthansuchGuariescouldhaveaffordedrdquo51
Scawenattheendoftheseventeenthcenturyspeaksofthesemiracle-playsandconsidersthesuppressionoftheGuirrimears52orGreatPlaysorSpeeches53asoneofthechiefcausesofthedecayoftheCornishlanguage
ldquoTheseGuirrimearsrdquo he says ldquowhichwere used at the great conventions of thepeopleatwhichtheyhadfamousinterludescelebratedwithgreatpreparationsandnotwithoutshowsofdevotioninthemsolemnizedingreatandspaciousdownsofgreat capacity encompassed about with earthen banks and some in part stone-workoflargenesstocontainthousandstheshapesofwhichremaininmanyplacesat thisday though theuseof them long sincegoneThiswasagreatmeans tokeepinusethetonguewithdelightandadmirationTheyhadrecitations[pg260]in them poetical and divine one of which I may suppose this small relique ofantiquity to be in which the passion of our Saviour and his resurrection isdescribedrdquo
Iftothesemystery-playsandpoemsweaddsomeversionsoftheLordsPrayertheCommandments and theCreed a protestation of the bishops inBritain toAugustinethemonkthePopeslegateintheyear600afterChrist(MSGough4) thefirstchapterofGenesisandsomesongsproverbsriddlesa taleandaglossarywehaveanalmostcompletecatalogueofwhataCornishlibrarywouldbeatthepresentday
NowifweexaminethelanguageaspreservedtousinthesefragmentswefindthatitisfullofNormanSaxonandLatinwordsNoonecandoubtforinstancethatthefollowingCornishwordsarealltakenfromLatinthatisfromtheLatinoftheChurchmdash
AbatanabbotLatabbasAlteraltarLataltareApostolapostleLatapostolusClaustercloisterLatclaustrumColomdoveLatcolumbaGwesparvespersLatvesperCantuilcandleLatcandelaCantuilbrencandlestickLatcandelabrumAilangelLatangelusArchailarchangelLatarchangelus
Other words though not immediately connected with the service and thedoctrineoftheChurchmayneverthelesshavepassedfromLatinintoCornisheitherdirectlyfromthedailyconversationofmonkspriestsandschoolmastersor indirectly fromEnglishorNorman inbothofwhich the sameLatinwordshadnaturallybeenadopted thoughslightlymodifiedaccordingtothephoneticpeculiaritiesofeachThusmdash
[pg261]
AncaranchortheLatinancoraThismighthavecomeindirectlythroughEnglishorNorman-French
Aradarplough theLatinaratrumThismusthavecomedirect fromLatin as itdoesnotexistinNormanorEnglish
Arghanssilverargentum
KeghinkitchencoquinaThisistakenfromthesameLatinwordfromwhichtheRomancelanguagesformedcuisinecucinanotfromtheclassicalLatinculina
Liverbookliberoriginallythebarkoftreesonwhichbookswerewritten
DinaircoindenariusSetharrowsagittaCaus cheese caseusCaul cabbagecaulis
These words are certainly foreign words in Cornish and the other Celticlanguages in which they occur and to attempt to supply for some of them apurely Celtic etymology shows a complete want of appreciation both of thehistoryofwordsandofthephoneticlawsthatgoverneachfamilyoftheIndo-European languages Sometimes no doubt the Latin words have beenconsiderably changed andmodified according to the phonetic peculiarities ofthedialects intowhich theywere receivedThusgwespar forvesperseth forsagittacausforcaseushardlylooklikeLatinwordsYetnorealCelticscholarwould claim them as Celtic and the Rev RobertWilliams the author of theldquoLexiconCornu-Britannicumrdquo in speaking of a list of words borrowed fromLatinbytheWelshduringthestayoftheRomansinBritainisnodoubtrightinstatingldquothatitwillbefoundmuchmoreextensivethanisgenerallyimaginedrdquo
LatinwordswhichhavereachedtheCornishaftertheyhadassumedaFrenchorNormandisguiseareforinstancemdash
EmperurinsteadofLatinimperator(Welshymherawdwr)
LaiantheFrenchloyalbutnottheLatinlegalisLikewisedislaiandisloyal
[pg262]
FruitfruitLatfructusFrenchfruit
FuntenfountaincommonlypronouncedfentonLatfontanaFrenchfontaine
Gromersyiegrandmercythanks
HoyzhoyzhoyzhearhearTheNorman-FrenchOyez
Thetown-crierofAberconwymaystillbeheardprefacinghisnoticeswiththeshout of ldquoHoyz hoyz hoyzrdquowhich in other places has been corrupted to ldquoOyesrdquo
The following words adopted into Cornish and other Celtic dialects clearlyshowtheirSaxonoriginmdash
CaforachaferGermkaumlferCraftartcraftRediorareaderStorcastorkLethindranceletpreservedintheGermanverletzen54
[pg263]Considering that Cornish and other Celtic dialects are members of the samefamilytowhichLatinandGermanbelongitissometimesdifficulttotellatoncewhetheraCelticwordwasreallyborrowedorwhetheritbelongstothatancientstockofwordswhichalltheAryanlanguagesshareincommonThisisapointwhichcanbedeterminedbyscholarsonlyandbymeansofphonetictestsThustheCornishhuirorhoerisclearlythesamewordastheLatinsororsisterButthechangeofsintohwouldnothavetakenplaceifthewordhadbeensimplyborrowedfromLatinwhilemanywordsbeginningwithsinSanskritLatinandGerman change the s intoh inCornish aswell as inGreek andPersianTheCornish hoer sister is indeed curiously like the Persian khaacuteher the regularrepresentativeoftheSanskritsvasartheLatinsororThesameappliestobraudbrotherdedh daydri three andmanymorewordswhich form theprimitivestock of Cornish and were common to all the Aryan languages before theirearliestdispersion
WhatappliestothelanguageofCornwallapplieswithequalforcetotheotherrelicsofantiquityofthatcuriouscountyIthasbeentrulysaidthatCornwallispoorinantiquitiesbutitisequallytruethatitisrichinantiquityThedifficultyistodiscriminateandtodistinguishwhatisreallyCornishorCelticfromwhatmaybelateradditionsofRomanSaxonDanishandNormanoriginNowhereas[pg264]wesaidbeforethesafestruleisclearlythesameasthatwhichwefollowed in our analysis of language Let everything be claimed for EnglishNormanDanish andRomansources that canclearlybeproved tocome fromthencebutletwhatremainsunclaimedbeconsideredasCornishorCelticThusif we do not find in countries exclusively inhabited by Romans or Saxonsanything like a cromlech surely we have a right to look upon these strangestructuresasremnantsofCeltictimesItmakesnodifferenceifitcanbeshownthat below these cromlechs coins have occasionally been found of theRomanEmperorsThisonlyprovesthatevenduringthedaysofRomansupremacytheCornishstyleofpublicmonumentswhethersepulchralorotherwiseremainedNay why should not even a Roman settled in Cornwall have adopted the
monumental style of his adopted countryRoman andSaxonhandsmayhavehelpedtoerectsomeofthecromlechswhicharestilltobeseeninCornwallbuttheoriginalideaofsuchmonumentsandhencetheirnameispurelyCeltic
CromlecirchinCornishorcromlechinWelshmeansabentslabfromtheCornishcrombentcurved roundedand lecirchaslabThoughmanyof thesecromlechshave been destroyed Cornwall still possesses some fine specimens of theseancient stone tripodsMostof themare largegranite slabs supportedby threestones fixed in thegroundThese supporters are likewisehuge flat stones butthe capstone is always the largest and itsweight inclining towards one pointimpartsstrengthtothewholestructureAtLanyonhoweverwherethetop-stoneof a cromlech was thrown down in 1816 by a violent storm the supportersremainedstanding[pg265]andthecapstonewasreplacedin1824thoughnotit would seem at its original height Dr Borlase relates that in his time themonumentwashighenoughforamantositonhorsebackunder itAtpresentsuchafeatwouldbeimpossiblethecover-stonebeingonlyaboutfivefeetfromthe ground These cromlechs though very surprising when seen for the firsttime represent in reality one of the simplest achievements of primitivearchitectureItisfareasiertobalanceaheavyweightonthreeunevenpropsthanto rest it level on twoor four even supportersThere are however cromlechsrestingonfourormorestonesthesestonesformingakindofchamberorakist-vaen which is supposed to have served originally as a sepulchre Thesestructures presuppose a larger amount of architectural skill still more so thegiganticportalsofStonehengewhichareformedbytwopillarsofequalheightjoinedbyasuperincumbentstoneHereweightalonewasnolongerconsideredsufficientforimpartingstrengthandsafetybutholeswereworkedintheupperstonesandthepointedtopsofthepillarswerefittedintothemIntheslabsthatformthecromlechswefindnosuchtracesofcarefulworkmanshipandthisaswellasotherconsiderationswouldsupport theopinionthatinStonehengewehave one of the latest specimens of Celtic architectureMarvelous as are theremains of that primitive style of architectural art the only real problem theyofferishowsuchlargestonescouldhavebeenbroughttogetherfromadistanceandhowsuchenormousweightscouldhavebeenliftedupThefirstquestionisanswered by ropes [pg 266] and rollers and themural sculptures of Ninevehshowuswhat canbedoneby such simplemachineryWe there see thewholepictureofhowthesecolossalblocksofstoneweremovedfromthequarryontotheplacewheretheywerewantedGivenplentyoftimeandplentyofmenandoxenandthereisnoblockthatcouldnotbebroughttoitsrightplacebymeansof ropesandrollersAnd thatour forefathersdidnotstint themselveseither in
timeorinmenorothercattlewhenengagedinerectingsuchmonumentsweknowevenfromcomparativelymoderntimesUnderHaroldHarfagrtwokingsspent threewholeyears in erectingone single tumulus andHaroldBlatand issaid to have employed the whole of his army and a vast number of oxen intransportingalargestonewhichhewishedtoplaceonhismotherstombAstothe second question we can readily understand how after the supporters hadoncebeenfixedinthegroundanartificialmoundmightberaisedwhichwhentheheavyslabhadbeenrolleduponaninclinedplanemightberemovedagainandthusleavetheheavystonepoisedinitsstartlingelevation
Asskeletonshavebeenfoundundersomeof thecromlechs therecanbe littledoubt that the chambers inclosed by them the so-called kist-vaens wereintendedtoreceivetheremainsofthedeadandtoperpetuatetheirmemoryAndas these sepulchralmonuments aremost frequent in those parts of theBritishIsleswhichfromtheearliesttothelatesttimeswereinhabitedbyCelticpeopletheymaybeconsideredasrepresentativeof theCelticstyleofpublic[pg267]sepultureKist-vaen orcist-vaenmeans a stone-chamber from cista a chestand vaen the modified form ofmaen ormecircn stone Their size is with fewexceptions not less than the size of a human body But although thesemonuments were originally sepulchral we may well understand that theburying-placesofgreatmenofkingsorpriestsorgeneralswerelikewiseusedforthecelebrationofotherreligiousritesThuswereadintheBookofLecanldquothatAmhalgaithbuiltacairnforthepurposeofholdingameetingoftheHy-Amhalgaitheveryyearandtoviewhisshipsandfleetgoingandcomingandasa place of interment for himselfrdquo55 Nor does it follow as some antiquariansmaintain that every structure in the style of a cromlech even in England isexclusively Celtic We imitate pyramids and obelisks why should not theSaxonshavebuilttheKittsCottyHousewhichisfoundinathoroughlySaxonneighborhood after Celtic models and with the aid of Celtic captives Thiscromlech stands in Kent on the brow of a hill about amile and a half fromAylesford to the rightof thegreat road fromRochester toMaidstoneNear itacross theMedwayare thestonecirclesofAddingtonThestoneon thesouthsideis8fthighby7-frac12broadand2ftthickweightabout8tonsThatonthenorthis8ftby8and2thickweight8tons10cwtTheendstone5ft6inhighby5ftbroadthickness14inweight2tons8-frac14cwtTheimpostis11ftlongby8ftbroadand2ftthickweight10tons7cwtItishigherthereforethan theCornish cromlechs but in other respects it is a true specimen of thatclassofCelticmonumentsThecover-stoneofthecromlechatMolfrais9ft8inby14ft3initssupporters[pg268]are5fthighThecover-stoneofthe
Chucircncromlechmeasures12-frac12ftinlengthand11ftinwidthThelargestslabis that atLanyonwhichmeasures 18-frac12 ft in length and 9 ft at the broadestpart
Thecromlechsarenodoubtthemostcharacteristicandmoststrikingamongthemonuments of Cornwall Though historians have differed as to their exactpurposenoteventhemostcarelesstravellercouldpassthembywithoutseeingthattheydonotstandtherewithoutapurposeTheyspeakforthemselvesandthey certainly speak in a language that is neither Roman Saxon Danish norNorman Hence in England they may by a kind of exhaustive process ofreasoningbeclaimedasrelicsofCelticcivilizationThesameargumentappliestothecromlechsandstoneavenuesofCarnac inBrittanyHere too languageandhistoryattesttheformerpresenceofCelticpeoplenorcouldanyotherracethat influenced the historical destinies of the North of Gaul claim suchstructuresastheirownEveninstillmoredistantplacesintheSouthofFrancein Scandinavia orGermanywhere similarmonuments have been discoveredtheymaythoughmorehesitatinglybeclassedasCelticparticularlyiftheyarefound near the natural high roads on which we know that the Celts in theirwestwardmigrationsprecededtheTeutonicandSlavonicAryansButthecaseistotallydifferentwhenwehearofcromlechscairnsandkist-vaensintheNorthofAfrica inUpperEgyptontheLebanonnear theJordan inCircassiaor intheSouthofIndiaHereandmoreparticularlyintheSouthofIndiawehavenoindicationswhateverofCelticAryansonthecontraryifthatnameistakeninitsstrictscientificmeaningitwouldbeimpossibletoaccountforthepresence[pg269]ofCelticAryans in those southern latitudesat any timeafter theoriginaldispersionof theAryanfamily It isverynatural thatEnglishofficers living inIndiashouldbesurprisedatmonumentswhichcannotbutremindthemofwhattheyhadseenathomewhetherinCornwallIrelandorScotlandAdescriptionof some of these monuments the so-called Pandoo Coolies in Malabar wasgiven byMr J Babington in 1820 and published in the third volume of theldquoTransactions of theLiterarySociety ofBombayrdquo in 1823CaptainCongrevecalledattentiontowhatheconsideredScythicDruidicalremainsintheNilghirihills in a paper published in 1847 in the ldquoMadras Journal of Literature andSciencerdquoand thesamesubjectwas treated in thesamejournalby theRevWTaylor A most careful and interesting description of similar monuments haslately been published in the ldquoTransactions of the Royal Irish Academyrdquo byCaptainMeadowsTaylorunder the titleofldquoDescriptionofCairnsCromlechsKist-vaensandotherCelticDruidicalorScythianMonumentsintheDekhanrdquoCaptainTaylorfoundthesemonumentsnear thevillageofRajunkolloor in the
principality of Shorapoor an independent native state situated between theBheema and Krishna rivers immediately above their junction Others werediscoverednearHuggeritgiotherson thehillofYemmeeGoodaothersagainnearShapoorHyderabadandotherplacesAllthesemonumentsintheSouthofIndia arenodoubt extremely interestingbut to call themCelticDruidical orScythic isunscientificoratalleventsexceedinglyprematureThere is inallarchitecturalmonumentsanaturalorrationalandaconventionaloritmaybeirrationalelementAstrikingagreementinpurelyconventional[pg270]featuresmayjustifytheassumptionthatmonumentssofardistantfromeachothersasthecromlechsofAngleseaandtheldquoMori-MunnirdquoofShorapoorowetheirorigintothe same architects or to the same races But an agreement in purely naturalcontrivancesgoesfornothingoratleastforverylittleNowthereisverylittlethat canbecalledconventional inamere stonepillaror inacairn that is anartificialheapofstonesEventheerectionofacromlechcanhardlybeclaimedasaseparatestyleofarchitectureChildrenallovertheworldifbuildinghouseswith cards will build cromlechs and people all over the world if theneighborhoodsupplieslargeslabsofstonewillputthreestonestogethertokeepoutthesunor thewindandputafourthstoneonthetoptokeepout therainBefore monuments like those described by Captain Meadows Taylor can beclassed as Celtic orDruidical a possibility at all eventsmust be shown thatCeltsinthetruesenseofthewordcouldeverhaveinhabitedtheDekhanTillthatisdoneitisbettertoleavethemanonymousortocallthembytheirnativenamesthantogivetothemanamewhichisapttomisleadthepublicatlargeandtoencouragetheorieswhichexceedthelimitsoflegitimatespeculation
Returning to Cornwall we find there besides the cromlechs pillars holedstones and stone circles all of which may be classed as public monumentsTheyallbearwitnesstoakindofpublicspiritandtoacertainadvanceinsocialandpoliticallifeatthetimeoftheirerectionTheyweremeantforpeoplelivingatthetimewhounderstoodtheirmeaningifnotasmessagestoposterityandifsoas trulyhistoricalmonuments forhistorybeginswhenthe livingbegin[pg271] tocareaboutagoodopinionof thosewhocomeafter themSomeof thesingleCornishpillarstelluslittleindeednothinginrealitybeyondthefactthattheywereerectedbyhumanskillandwithsomehumanpurposeSomeofthesemonoliths seem to have been of a considerable size In a village calledMecircnPerhen in Constantine parish there stood ldquoabout five years agordquomdashso DrBorlaserelatesintheyear1769mdashalargepyramidalstonetwentyfeetabovethegroundandfourfeetinthegrounditmadeabovetwentystonepostsforgateswhenitwascloveupbythefarmerwhogavetheaccounttotheDoctor56Other
stonesliketheMecircnScrifahaveinscriptionsbuttheseinscriptionsareRomanandofcomparativelylatedateTherearesomepillarslikethePipersatBolleitwhichareclearlyconnectedwiththestonecirclesclosebyremnantsitmaybeof old stone avenues or beacons from which signals might be sent to otherdistantsettlementsTheholedstonestooaregenerallyfoundincloseproximityto other large stone monuments They are called mecircn-an-tol hole-stones inCornwall and the name of tol-men or dol-men which is somewhatpromiscuouslyusedbyCelticantiquariansshouldberestrictedtomonumentsofthisclasstollbeingtheCornishwordforholemecircnforstoneandanthearticleFrenchantiquarianstakingdolortocirclasacorruptionoftabulausedolmaninthesenseoftable-stonesandassynonymouswithcromlechwhiletheyfrequentlyusecromlechinthesenseofstonecirclesThiscanhardlybejustifiedandleadsatalleventstomuchconfusion
The stone circles whether used for religious or judicial purposesmdashand therewas in ancient times very little [pg 272] difference between the twomdashwereclearlyintendedforsolemnmeetingsThereisaveryperfectcircleatBoscawen-ucircnwhichconsistedoriginallyofnineteen stonesDrBorlasewhoseworkonthe Antiquities of the County of Cornwall contains the most trustworthyinformation as to the state of Cornish antiquities about a hundred years agomentionsthreeothercircleswhichhadthesamenumberofstoneswhileothersvaryfromtwelvetoseventy-two
ldquoThefigureofthesemonumentsrdquohesaysldquoiseithersimpleorcompoundedOfthefirstkindareexactcirclesellipticalorsemicircularTheconstructionoftheseisnotalways the same some having their circumference marked with large separatestonesonlyothershavingridgesofsmallstonesintermixedandsometimeswallsandseatsservingtorendertheinclosuremorecompleteOthercircularmonumentshavetheirfiguremorecomplexandvariedconsistingnotonlyofacirclebutofsomeotherdistinguishingproperties Inornear thecentreofsomestandsastonetaller than the rest as at Boscawen-ucircn in the middle of others a kist-vaen Acromlecirchdistinguishes thecentreof somecirclesandone remarkable rock thatofothers somehave only one line of stones in their circumference and somehavetwo some circles are adjacent some contiguous and some include and someintersecteachotherSometimesurnsarefoundinornearthemSomearecuriouslyerected on geometrical plans the chief entrance facing the cardinal points of theheavenssomehaveavenuesleadingtothemplacedexactlynorthandsouthwithdetached stones sometimes in straight lines to the east and west sometimestriangular These monuments are found in many foreign countries in IcelandSwedenDenmarkandGermanyaswellasinalltheislesdependentuponBritain(theOrkneysWesternIslesJerseyIrelandandtheIsleofMan)andinmostpartsofBritainitselfrdquo
ModerntraditionshaveeverywhereclusteredroundthesecuriousstonecirclesBeingplaced inacircularorder soas tomakeanarea fordancing theywerenaturallycalledDawns-mecircn iedancingstones [pg273]Thisnamewassooncorrupted into dancemen and a legend sprang up at once to account for thenamenamely that thesemenhaddancedonaSundayandbeenchanged intostonesAnothercorruptionofthesamenameintoDanis-mecircnledtothetraditionthat thesecircleswerebuiltby theDanesAstillmorecuriousname for thesecirclesisthatofldquoNineMaidensrdquowhichoccursatBoscawen-ucircnandinseveralother places in Cornwall Now the Boscawen-ucircn circle consists of nineteenstonesandthereareveryfewldquoNineMaidensrdquothatconsistofninestonesonlyYet the name prevails and is likewise supported by local legends of ninemaidens having been changed into stones for dancing on a Sunday or someothermisdeedOnepartofthelegendmayperhapsbeexplainedbythefactthatmecircdnwouldbeacommoncorruptioninmodernCornishformecircnstoneaspenbecomes pedn and gwyn gwydn etc and that the Saxons mistook CornishmecircdnfortheirownmaidenButevenwithoutthislegendsofasimilarcharacterwould springupwherever thepopularmind is startledby strangemonumentsthe history and purpose of which has been forgotten Thus CaptainMeadowsTaylortellsusthatatVibat-Hulliethepeopletoldhimldquothatthestonesweremenwhoas theystoodmarkingout theplaces for theelephantsof thekingof thedwarfswereturnedintostonebyhimbecausetheywouldnotkeepquietrdquoAndMdeCambryasquotedbyhimsaysinregardtoCarnacldquothattherockswerebelieved to be an army turned into stone or theworkof theCroinsmdashmenordemons two or three feet high who carried these rocks in their hands andplacedthemthererdquo
A second class of Cornish antiquities comprises private buildings whethercastlesorhutsorcaves[pg274]WhatarecalledcastlesinCornwallaresimpleintrenchmentsconsistingoflargeandsmallstonespiledupabouttenortwelvefeethighandheldtogetherbytheirownweightwithoutanycementThereareeverywhere tracesof aditch thenof awall sometimes as atChucircnCastleofanother ditch and another wall and there is generally some contrivance forprotecting the principal entrance bywalls overlapping the ditches Near thesecastles barrows are found and in several cases there are clear traces of acommunicationbetweenthemandsomeancientCelticvillagesandcaveswhichseem to have been placed under the protection of these primitive strongholdsMany of the cliffs in Cornwall are fortified towards the land by walls andditches thuscuttingoff theseextremepromontories fromcommunicationwiththe land as they are by nature inaccessible from the sea Some antiquarians
ascribedthesecastlestotheDanestheverylastpeopleonewouldthinktoshutthemselvesup insuchhopeless retreatsHere tooas inothercasesapopularetymologymayhavetakentheplaceofanhistoricalauthorityandtheCornishword for castle beingDinas as inCastle-an-Dinas Pendennis etc the laterSaxon-speakingpopulationmayhavebeenremindedbyDinasoftheDanesandonthestrengthofthisvaguesimilarityhaveascribedtothesepiratestheerectionoftheCornishcastles
Itisindeeddifficultwithregardtothesecastlestobepositiveastothepeopleby whom they were constructed Tradition and history point to Romans andSaxons as well as to Celts nor is it at all unlikely that many of these half-natural half-artificial strongholds though originally planned by the CelticinhabitantswereafterwardstakenpossessionofandstrengthenedbyRomansorSaxons
[pg275]But no such doubts are allowed with regard to Cornish huts of which somestriking remains have been preserved inCornwall and other parts ofEnglandparticularlyinthosewhichtotheverylastremainedthetruehomeoftheCelticinhabitantsofBritainThehousesandhutsoftheRomanswererectangularnoristhereanyevidencetoshowthattheSaxoneverapprovedofthecircularstyleindomesticarchitecture
Ifthenwefindtheseso-calledbee-hivehutsinplacespeculiarlyCelticandifwerememberthatsoearlyawriterasStrabo57wasstruckwiththesamestrangestyle of Celtic architecture we can hardly be suspected of Celtomania if weclaimthemasCelticworkmanshipanddwellwithamorethanordinaryinterestontheseancientchambersnowlongdesertedandnearlysmotheredwithfernsandweeds but in their general planning as well as in their masonry clearlyexhibitingbeforeussomethingoftheartsandthelifeoftheearliestinhabitantsof these islesLetanybodywhohasasenseofantiquityandwhocanfeel thespark which is sent on to us through an unbroken chain of history when westandontheAcropolisorontheCapitolorwhenwereadaballadofHomerorahymnof theVedamdashnay ifwebut read inaproperspiritachapterof theOldTestament toomdashlet such a man look at the Celtic huts at Bosprennis orChysauster and discover for himself through the ferns and brambles the oldgray walls slightly sloping inward and arranged according to a design thatcannotbemistakenandmiserableastheseshapelessclumpsmayappeartothethoughtless traveller theywill convey to the true historian a lessonwhich he
couldhardlylearnanywhereelseThe[pg276]ancientBritonswillnolongerbeamerenametohimnomerePelasgiansorTyrrheniansHehasseentheirhomesand theirhandiworkhehasstoodbehind thewallswhichprotected their livesandpropertyhehas touched thestoneswhich theirhandspiledup rudelyyetthoughtfully And if that small spark of sympathy for those who gave thehonored name ofBritain to these islands has once been kindled among a fewwhohave thepowerof influencingpublicopinion inEnglandwe feel certainthat somethingwill be done to preserve what can still be preserved of Celticremains from further destruction It does honor to the British Parliament thatlarge sums are granted when it is necessary to bring to these safe shoreswhatever can still be rescued from the ruins of Greece and Italy of LyciaPergamos Palestine Egypt Babylon or Nineveh But while explorers andexcavators are sent to those distant countries and the statues of Greece thecoffins of Egypt and the winged monsters of Nineveh are brought home intriumph to the portals of theBritishMuseum it is painful to see the splendidgranite slabsofBritish cromlechs throwndownand carted away stone circlesdestroyed tomakeway for farming improvements andancienthutsandcavesbrokenuptobuildnewhousesandstableswiththestonesthusreadytohandItishightimeindeedthatsomethingshouldbedoneandnothingwillavailbuttoplace every truly historical monument under national protection Individualeffortsmayanswerhereandthereandarightspiritmaybeawakenedfromtimetotimebylocalsocietiesbutduringintervalsofapathymischiefisdonethatcanneverbemendedandunlessthedamagingofnationalmonumentseventhoughtheyshouldstand[pg277]onprivategroundismadeamisdemeanorwedoubtwhether two hundred years hence any enterprising explorer would be asfortunate as Mr Layard and Sir H Rawlinson have been in Babylon andNinevehandwhetheronesinglecromlechwouldbeleftforhimtocarryawaytotheNationalMuseumoftheMaorisItiscuriousthatthewillfuldamagedonetoLoganStonesonceinthetimeofCromwellbyShrubsallandmorerecentlyby Lieutenant Goldsmith should have raised such indignation while acts ofVandalismcommittedagainstrealantiquitiesareallowedtopassunnoticedMrScaweninspeakingofthemischiefdonebystrangersinCornwallsaysmdash
ldquoHere too we may add what wrong another sort of strangers has done to usespeciallyinthecivilwarsandinparticularbydestroyingofMincamberafamousmonumentbeingarockofinfiniteweightwhichasaburdenwaslaiduponothergreatstonesandyetsoequallythereonpoisedupbyNatureonlyasalittlechildcouldinstantlymoveitbutnoonemanormanyremoveitThisnaturalmonumentall travellers that came that way desired to behold but in the time of OliversusurpationwhenallmonumentalthingsbecamedespicableoneShrubsalloneof
OliversheroesthenGovernorofPendennisbylaborandmuchadocausedtobeunderminedandthrowndowntothegreatgriefofthecountrybuttohisowngreatglory ashe thoughtdoing it ashe saidwitha small cane inhishand Imyselfhaveheardhimtoboastofthisactbeingaprisonerthenunderhimrdquo
MrScawenhoweverdoesnottellusthatthisShrubsallinthrowingdowntheMincamberietheMecircnamberactedveryliketheoldmissionariesinfellingthesacredoaksinGermanyMerlinitwasbelievedhadproclaimedthatthisstoneshouldstanduntilEnglandhadnokingandasCornwallwasastrongholdoftheStuarts the destruction of this loyal stonemay have seemed amatter ofwisepolicy
[pg278]EventhefoolishexploitofLieutenantGoldsmithin1824wouldseemtohavehad some kind of excuse Dr Borlase had asserted ldquothat it was morallyimpossiblethatanyleverorindeedforcehoweverappliedinamechanicalwaycould remove the famous Logan rock at Trereen Dinas from its presentpositionrdquoPtolemythesonofHephaeligstionhadmadeasimilarremarkabouttheGigomanrock58statingthatitmightbestirredwiththestalkofanasphodelbutcouldnotbe removedbyany forceLieutenantGoldsmith living inanageofexperimentalphilosophyundertooktheexperimentinordertoshowthatitwasphysicallypossibletooverthrowtheLoganandhediditHewashoweververyproperly punished for this unscientific experiment and he had to replace thestoneathisownexpense
As this matter is really serious we have drawn up a short list of acts ofVandalism committed inCornwallwithin thememory of livingmanThat listcouldeasilybeincreasedbutevenasitiswehopeitmayrousetheattentionofthepublicmdash
BetweenStIvesandZennoronthelowerroadoverTregarthenDownsstoodaLogan rock An old man perhaps ninety years of age told Mr Hunt whomentions this and other cases in the preface to his charming collection ofCornishtalesandlegendsthathehadoftenloggeditandthatitwouldmakeanoisewhichcouldbeheardformiles
AtBalnoon betweenNancledrea andKnillsSteeple someminers cameuponldquotwo slabs of granite cemented togetherrdquowhich covered awalled grave threefeetsquareanancientkist-vaenInittheyfoundan[pg279]earthenwarevesselcontaining someblack earth and a leaden spoonThe spoonwas given toMr
PraedofTrevethowthekist-vaenwasutterlydestroyed
InBosprennisCross therewasavery largecoitorcromlech It issaid tohavebeenfifteenfeetsquareandnotmorethanonefootthickinanypartThiswasbrokenintwopartssomeyearssinceandtakentoPenzancetoformthebedsoftwoovens
ThecuriouscavesandpassagesatChysausterhavebeendestroyedforbuildingpurposeswithinlivingmemory
AnotherCornishmanMrBellowsreportsasfollowsmdash
ldquoIn a field between the recently discovered Beehive hut and the Boscawen-ucircncircleoutofthepublicroadwediscoveredpartofalsquoNineMaidensrsquoperhapsthethirdof thecircle the restof thestonesbeingdraggedoutandplacedagainst thehedgetomakeroomfortheploughrdquo
Thesameintelligentantiquarianremarksmdash
ldquoThe Boscawen-ucircn circle seems to have consisted originally of twenty stonesSeventeenofthemareuprighttwoaredownandagapexistsofexactlythedoublespaceforthetwentiethWefoundthemissingstonenottwentyyardsoffAfarmerhadremoveditandmadeitintoagate-postHehadcutaroadthroughthecircleandinsuchamannerthathewasobligedtoremovetheoffendingstonetokeepitstraightFortunatelythepresentproprietressisaladyoftasteandhassurroundedthecirclewithagoodhedgetopreventfurtherVandalismrdquo
Of theMecircn-an-tol atBoleitwehave received the followingdescription fromMrBotterellwhosuppliedMrHuntwithsomanyofhisCornishtalesmdash
ldquoThesestonesarefromtwentytotwenty-fivefeetabovethesurfaceandweweretoldby some folksofBoleit thatmore than ten feethadbeen sunknearwithoutfinding the base The Mecircn-an-tol have both been displaced and removed aconsiderable[pg280]distancefromtheiroriginalsiteTheyarenowplacedinahedgetoformthesideofagatewayTheupperportionofoneissomuchbrokenthatonecannotdeterminetheangleyetthatitworkedtoanangleisquiteapparentTheotheristurneddownwardandservesasthehanging-postofagateFromtheheadbeing buried so deep in the ground only part of the hole (which is in bothstonesaboutsixinchesdiameter)couldbeseenthoughtheholeistoosmalltopopthesmallestorallbutthesmallestbabythroughthepeoplecallthemcrick-stonesandmaintaintheyweresocalledbeforetheywerebornCrick-stoneswereusedfordraggingpeoplethroughtocurethemofvariousdiseasesrdquo
The samegentlemanwriting tooneof theCornishpapers informs thepublicthatafewyearsagoarockknownbythenameofGarrack-zansmightbeseeninthetown-placeofSawahintheparishofStLevananotherinRoskestalinthesame parish One is also said to have been removed from near the centre ofTrereenbythefamilyofJanstomakeagranderapproachtotheirmansionThe
ruinswhichstillremainareknownbythenameoftheJansHousealthoughthefamily became extinct soon after perpetrating what was regarded by the oldinhabitants as a sacrilegious act The Garrack-zans may still be remaining inRoskestalandSawahbutasmuchalterationhas recently takenplace in thesevillagesinconsequenceofbuildingnewfarm-housesmakingnewroadsetcitisagreatchanceiftheyhavenotbeeneitherremovedordestroyed
Mr J T Blight the author of one of the most useful little guide-books ofCornwallldquoAWeekat theLandsEndrdquostates thatsomeeightor tenyearsagotheruinsoftheancientChapelofStEloyinStBurianwerethrownoverthecliff by the tenant of the estate without the knowledge or permission of theownerofthepropertyChucircnCastlehesaysoneof[pg281]thefinestexamplesofearlymilitaryarchitectureinthiskingdomhasformanyyearsbeenresortedtoasasortofquarryThesameappliestoCastle-an-Dinas
From an interesting paper on Castallack Round by the same antiquarian wequote the following passages showing the constantmischief that is going onwhetherduetodownrightVandalismortoignoranceandindifferencemdash
ldquoFromadescriptionofCastallackRoundintheparishofStPaulwrittenbyMrCrozierperhapsfourteenor fifteenyearsago itappears that therewasamassiveouterwallwithanentranceonthesouthfromwhichacolonnadeofstonesledtoaninnerinclosurealsoformedwithstonesandninefeetindiameterMrHaliwellsorecentlyas1861referstotheavenueofuprightstonesleadingfromtheoutertotheinnerinclosure
ldquoOnvisitingthespotafewdaysago(in1865)Iwassurprisedtofindthatnotonlywere there no remains of an avenue of stones but that the existence of an innerinclosurecouldscarcelybetracedItwasinfactevidentthatsomemodernVandalhadherebeenatworkAlaboreremployedinthefieldclosebywithacomplaisantsmileinformedmethattheoldRoundhadbeendugintolastyearforthesakeofthestonesIfoundhoweverenoughoftheworklefttobeworthyofafewnotessufficient to show that itwas a kindred structure to that atKerris known as theRoundagoanddescribedandfiguredinBorlaseslsquoAntiquitiesofCornwallrsquoMrCrozieralsoreferstoastonefivefeethighwhichstoodwithinahundredyardsoftheCastallackRoundandfromwhichthePipersatBoleitcouldbeseen
ldquoTheattentionoftheRoyalInstitutionofCornwallhasbeenrepeatedlycalledtothedestruction of Cornish antiquities and the interference of landed proprietors hasbeenfrequentlyinvokedinaidoftheirpreservationbutitunfortunatelyhappensinmost cases that important remains are demolished by the tenants without theknowledgeorconsentofthelandlordsOncomparingthepresentconditionoftheCastallackRoundwithadescriptionofitsappearancesorecentlyasin1861Ifind
that the greater and more interesting part has been barbarously and irreparablydestroyed and I regret to say I could drawup a [pg282] long list of ancientremainsinCornwallpartiallyortotallydemolishedwithinthelastfewyearsrdquo
Wecanhardlyhopethatthewholesomesuperstitionwhichpreventedpeopleinformerdaysfromdesecratingtheirancientmonumentswillbeanyprotectiontothemmuchlongerthoughthefollowingstoryshowsthatsomegrainsoftheoldleavenarestill left in theCornishmindNearCarleen inBreageanoldcrosshasbeenremovedfromitsplaceandnowdoesdutyasagate-postThefarmeroccupying the farmwhere the cross stood set his laborer to sink a pit in therequiredspotforthegate-postbutwhenitwasintimatedthatthecrossstandingat a littledistanceoffwas tobeerected therein themanabsolutely refused tohaveanyhandinthematternotonaccountofthebeautifulortheantiquebutfor fear of theoldpeopleAnother farmer related that hehad a neighborwholdquohaeleddownalotofstoanscalledtheRoundagoandsoldemforbuildingthedocksatPenzanceButnotapennyofthemoneyhegotforemeverprosperedandtherewasntwanofthehossesthathaeldemthatlivedoutthetwelvemonthandtheydosaythatsomeofthestoansdoweepbloodbutIdontbelievethatrdquo
Therearemanyantiquarianswhoaffect todespise the rudearchitectureof theCelts nay who would think the name of architecture disgraced if applied tocromlechs and bee-hive huts But even thesewill perhaps bemorewilling tolendahelpinghandinprotectingtheantiquitiesofCornwallwhentheyhearthatevenancientNormanmasonryisnolongersafeinthatcountryAnantiquarianwrites tous fromCornwall ldquoI heardof some farmers inMeneage (theLizarddistrict)whodraggeddownanancientwelland rebuilt itWhencalled to taskfor it they said lsquoThe[pg283]ould thingwas so shaky that awasnt fit tobeseensowethoughtwedputtentorightsandbuildunupfittyrsquothinsprdquo
SuchthingswefeelsureshouldnotbeandwouldnotbeallowedanylongerifpublicopinionorthepublicconsciencewasoncerousedLetpeoplelaughatCelticmonumentsasmuchastheylike if theywillonlyhelptopreservetheirlaughing-stocksfromdestructionLetantiquariansbeasskepticalastheylikeiftheywill onlyprevent thedishonestwithdrawalof the evidenceagainstwhichtheirskepticismisdirectedArelake-dwellingsinSwitzerlandareflint-depositsin France is kitchen-rubbish in Denmark so very precious and are themagnificent cromlechs the curious holed stones and even the rock-basins ofCornwallsocontemptibleThereisafashioneveninscientifictastesForthirtyyearsMBoucherdePerthescouldhardlygetahearingforhisflint-headsand
now he has become the centre of interest for geologists anthropologists andphysiologistsThereiseveryreasontoexpectthattheinterestonceawakenedintheearlyhistoryofourownracewillgoonincreasingandtwohundredyearshencetheantiquariansandanthropologistsofthefuturewillcallushardnamesif they find out how we allowed these relics of the earliest civilization ofEnglandtobedestroyedItiseasytosayWhatisthereinaholedstoneItisastonewithaholeinitandthatisallWedonotwishtopropoundnewtheoriesbut in order to show how full of interest even a stone with a hole in it maybecome we will just mention that theMecircn-an-tol or the holed stone whichstandsinoneofthefieldsnearLanyonisflankedbytwootherstonesstandingerectoneachsideLetanyonegotheretowatchasunsetaboutthetimeofthe[pg284]autumnalequinoxandhewillseethattheshadowthrownbytheerectstonewouldfallstraight throughtheholeof theMecircn-an-tolWeknowthat thegreatfestivalsoftheancientworldwereregulatedbythesunandthatsomeofthese festive seasonsmdashthe winter solstice about Yule-tide or Christmas thevernalequinoxaboutEasterthesummersolsticeonMidsummer-eveaboutStJohnBaptistsdayandtheautumnalequinoxaboutMichaelmasmdasharestillkeptunderchangednamesandwithnewobjects inourowntimeThisMecircn-an-tolmaybeanolddialerectedoriginallytofixthepropertimeforthecelebrationofthe autumnal equinox and though itmayhavebeenapplied tootherpurposeslikewisesuchasthecuringofchildrenbydraggingthemseveraltimesthroughtheholestillitsoriginalintentionmayhavebeenastronomicalItiseasytotestthisobservationandtofindoutwhetherthesameremarkdoesnotholdgoodofother stones inCornwall as for instance theTwoPipersWe do notwish toattribute to this guess as to the original intention of the Mecircn-an-tol moreimportancethanitdeservesnorwouldweinanywaycountenancetheopinionofthosewhobeginningwithCaeligsarascribetotheCeltsandtheirDruidseverykind ofmysteriouswisdomAmere shepherd though he had never heard thenameoftheequinoxmighthaveerectedsuchastoneforhisownconvenienceinordertoknowthetimewhenhemightsafelybringhisflocksoutortakethembacktotheirsaferstablesButthiswouldinnowaydiminishtheinterestoftheMecircn-an-tol Itwouldstill remainoneof the fewrelicsof thechildhoodofourrace one of the witnesses of the earliest workings of the human mind in itsstruggleagainstandinitsalliancewith thepowersofnatureoneof[pg285]thevestigesof thefirstcivilizationof theBritishIslesEventheRomanswhocarried their Roman roads in a straight line through the countries they hadconqueredundeterredbyanyobstaclesunawedbyanysanctuaries respectedascanhardlybedoubtedSilburyHillandmadetheroadfromBathtoLondondivergefromtheusualstraightlineinsteadofcuttingthroughthattime-honored
mound Would the engineers of our railways show a similar regard for anynational monument whether Celtic Roman or Saxon When Charles II in1663 went to see the Celtic remains of Abury sixty-three stones were stillstandingwithin the intrenched inclosureNot quite a hundred years later theyhad dwindled down to forty-four the rest having been used for buildingpurposesDrStukeleywhopublishedadescriptionofAbury in1743 tellsusthat he himself saw the upper stone of the great cromlech there broken andcarried away the fragments of itmakingno less than twenty cart-loadsAfteranother century had passed seventeen stones only remained within the greatinclosureandthesetooarebeinggraduallybrokenupandcartedawaySurelysuchthingsoughtnottobeLetthosewhomitconcernslooktoitbeforeitistoolate These Celtic monuments are public property as much as London StoneCoronation Stone or Westminster Abbey and posterity will hold the presentgeneration responsible for the safe keeping of the national heirlooms ofEngland59
[pg287]
XIVARETHEREJEWSINCORNWALL
There is hardly a book on Cornish history or antiquities inwhichwe are notseriouslyinformedthatatsometimeorothertheJewsmigratedtoCornwallorworked as slaves in Cornish mines Some writers state this simply as a factrequiring no further confirmation others support it by that kind of evidencewhichHerodotus no doubt would have considered sufficient for establishingtheformerpresenceofPelasgiansindifferentpartsofGreecebutwhichwouldhardly have satisfiedNiebuhr still less SirGCLewisOld smelting-housesthey tell us are still called Jews houses in Cornwall and if even after thatanybodycouldbesoskepticalastodoubtthattheJewsafterthedestructionofJerusalemweresentinlargenumberstoworkasslavesintheCornishminesheissilencedatoncebyanappealtothenameofMarazionthewell-knowntownoppositeStMichaelsMountwhichmeanstheldquobitternessofZionrdquoandisalsocalledMarketJewManyatravellerhasnodoubtshakenhisunbelievingheadandaskedhimselfhowitisthatnorealhistorianshouldeverhavementionedthemigrationoftheJewstotheFarWestwhetherittookplaceunderNeroorunderone of the later Flavian [pg 288] Emperors Yet all the Cornish guides arepositiveonthesubjectandtheprimacircfacieevidenceiscertainlysostartlingthatwe can hardly wonder if certain anthropologists discovered even the sharplymarkedfeaturesoftheJewishraceamongthesturdyfishermenofMountsBay
BeforeweexaminethefactsonwhichthisJewishtheoryisfoundedmdashfactsaswillbeseenchieflyderivedfromnamesofplacesandotherrelicsoflanguagemdashitwillbewelltoinquirealittleintothecharacteroftheCornishlanguagesothatwemayknowwhatkindofevidencewehaveanyrighttoexpectfromsuchawitness
TheancientlanguageofCornwallasiswellknownwasaCelticdialectcloselyallied to the languages of Brittany andWales and less nearly though by nomeans distantly related to the languages of Ireland Scotland and the Isle of
ManCornishbegantodieout inCornwallabout the timeof theReformationbeing slowly but surely supplanted by English till it was buried with DollyPentreathandsimilarworthiesabouttheendofthelastcentury60Nowthereisinmost languages but more particularly in those which are losing theirconsciousnessortheirvitalitywhatbyanameborrowedfromgeologymaybecalled ametamorphic process It consists chiefly in this that words as theyceasetobeproperlyunderstoodareslightlychangedgenerallywiththeobjectof imparting to themoncemore an intelligiblemeaningThis newmeaning ismostlyamistakenoneyetitisnotonlyreadilyacceptedbutthewordinitsnewdressandwith itsnewcharacter is frequentlymade tosupport factsor fictionswhichcouldbesupportedbyno[pg289]otherevidenceWhodoesnotbelievethatsweethearthassomethingtodowithheartYetitwasoriginallyformedlikedrunk-arddull-ardandnigg-ard andpoetsnotgrammariansare responsiblefor the mischief it may have done under its plausible disguise By the sameprocessshamefastformedlikesteadfastandstillproperlyspeltbyChaucerandin the early editions of theAuthorizedVersion of theBible has long becomeshamefacedbringingbeforeustheblushingrosesofalovelyfaceTheVikingsmerepiratesfromtheviksorcreeksofScandinaviahavebythesameprocessbeenraisedtothedignityofkingsjustascoatcardsmdashthekingandqueenandknaveintheirgorgeousgownsmdashwereexaltedintocourtcards
Although this kind of metamorphosis takes place in every language yet it ismostfrequentincountrieswheretwolanguagescomeincontactwitheachotherandwhereintheendoneissupersededbytheotherRobertusCurtustheeldestsonoftheConquerorwasbytheSaxonscalledCurt-hoseThenameofOxfordcontainsinitsfirstsyllableanoldCelticwordthewell-knowntermforwaterorriverwhichoccursasuxinUxbridgeasexinExmouthasaxinAxmouthandinmanymoredisguisesdowntothewhiskofwhiskeytheScotchUsquebaugh61In thenameof the Isis andof thesuburbofOsney the sameCelticwordhasbeenpreservedTheSaxonskepttheCelticnameoftheriverandtheycalledtheplacewhereoneof theRoman roads crossed the riverOxOxfordThenamehoweverwas soonmistaken and interpreted as purely Saxon and if any oneshould doubt thatOxfordwas a kind ofBosphorus andmeant a ford for [pg290]oxentheancientarmsofthecitywerereadilyappealedtoinordertocutshort all doubts on the subject TheWelsh nameRyt-yhcen for Oxford was aretranslationintoWelshofanoriginalCelticnametowhichanewformandanewmeaninghadbeengivenbytheSaxonconquerors
Similar accidents happened to Greek words after they were adopted by the
peopleofItalyparticularlybytheRomansTheLatinorichalcumforinstanceissimplytheGreekwordὀρείχαλκοςfromὄροςmountainandχαλκόςcopperWhyitwascalledmountain-coppernooneseemstoknowItwasoriginallyakindoffabulousmetalbrought to lightfromthebrainsof thepoetrather thanfromthebowelsof theearthThoughthepoetsandevenPlatospeakof itasaftergold themostpreciousofmetalsAristotle sternlydenies that there everwas any real metal corresponding to the extravagant descriptions of theὀρείχαλκοςAfterwardsthesamewordwasusedinamoresoberandtechnicalsensethoughitisnotalwayseasytosaywhenitmeanscopperorbronze(iecopperandtin)orbrass(iecopperandzinc)TheLatinpoetsnotonlyadoptedtheGreekwordinthefabuloussenseinwhichtheyfounditusedinHomerbutforgetting that the first portionof thenamewasderived from theGreekὄροςhilltheypronouncedandevenspeltitasifderivedfromtheLatinaurumgoldandthusfoundanewconfirmationofitsequalitywithgoldwhichwouldhavegreatlysurprisedtheoriginalframersofthatcuriouscompound62
In a county like Cornwall where the ancient Celtic dialect continued to bespoken though disturbed and [pg 291] overlaid from time to time by LatinSaxonandNormanwhereCeltshad toadoptcertainSaxonandNormanandSaxonsandNormanscertainCelticwordswehavearight toexpectanamplefieldforobservingthismetamorphicprocessandfortracingitsinfluenceinthetransformationofnamesandintheformationoflegendstraditionsnayevenasweshallseeintheproductionofgenerallyacceptedhistoricalfactsTocallthisprocessmetamorphicusingthatnameinthesensegiventoitbygeologistsmayatfirstsightseempedanticandfar-fetchedButifweseehowanewlanguageformswhatmaybecalledanewstratumcoveringtheoldlanguagehowthelifeorheatoftheoldlanguagethoughapparentlyextinctbreaksforthagainthroughthe superincumbent crust destroys its regular features and assimilates itsstratifiedlayerswithitsownigneousorvolcanicnatureourcomparisonthoughsomewhatelaboratewillbejustifiedtoagreatextentandweshallonlyhavetoask our geological readers tomake allowance for this that in languages theforeign element has always to be considered as the superincumbent stratumCornish forming the crust to English or English to Cornish according as thespeakerusestheoneortheotherashisnativeorashisacquiredspeech
Our firstwitness in support of thismetamorphic process isMr Scawenwholived about two hundred years ago a true Cornishman though he wrote inEnglishor inwhathe ispleasedsotocall InblamingtheCornishgentryandnobilityforhavingattemptedtogivetotheirancientandhonorablenamesakind
of Norman varnish and for having adopted new-fangled coats of arms MrScawen remarks on the several mistakes intentional or unintentional thatoccurredinthis[pg292]foolishprocessldquoThegroundsoftwoseveralmistakesrdquohewritesldquoareveryobvious1stupontheTreorTer2dupontheRossorRoseTre orTer in Cornish commonly signifies a town or rather place and it hasalwaysanadjunctwithitTriisthenumber3ThosemenwillinglymistakeoneforanotherAndso inFrenchheraldry terms theyused to fancyandcontrivethose with any such three things as may be like or cohere with or may beadaptedtoanythingorthingsintheirsurnameswhetherveryhandsomeornotisnotmuchstooduponAnotherusualmistakeisuponRosswhichastheyseemtofancyshouldbeaRosebutRossinCornishisavaleorvalleyNowforthistheirFrench-LatintutorswhentheygointothefieldofMarsputthemintheircoat armor prettily to smell out aRose or flower (a fadinghonor insteadof adurableone)soanythreesuchthingsagreeableperhapsalittletotheirnamesare takenup and retained fromabroadwhen their own at homehave amuchbetterscentandmorelastingrdquo
Someamusing instancesofwhatmaybecalledSaxonpunsonCornishwordshavebeencommunicatedtomebyaCornishfriendofmineMrBellowsldquoTheoldCornishnameforFalmouthrdquohewritesldquowasPennycomequick63andtheytellamostimprobablestorytoaccountforitIbelievethewholecompoundistheCornishPen y cwmgwic lsquoHead of the creek valleyrsquo In likemanner theyhave turned Bryn uhella (highest hill) into Brown Willy and Cwm ty goed(woodhouse valley) intoCome togoodrdquoTo thismight be added the commonetymologies ofHelstone andCamelford The former name has nothing to dowiththeSaxonhelstoneacoveringstoneorwiththeinfernalregions[pg293]butmeantldquoplaceontheriverrdquothelatterinspiteofthecamelinthearmsofthetown meant the ford of the river Camel A frequent mistake arises from themisapprehensionoftheCelticdunhillwhichentersinthecompositionofmanylocalnamesandwaschangedbytheSaxonsintotownortunThusMeli-dunumisnowMoultonSeccan-dunisSeckingtonandBeamdunisBampton64
This transformation of Celtic into Saxon or Norman terms is not confinedhowevertothenamesoffamiliestownsandvillagesandweshallseehowthefablestowhichithasgivenrisehavenotonlydisfiguredtherecordsofsomeofthemostancientfamiliesinCornwallbuthavethrownahazeovertheannalsofthewholecounty
Returning to the Jews in theirCornish exilewe find no doubt asmentioned
before that even in the Ordnancemaps the little town opposite StMichaelsMount is calledMarazion andMarket JewMarazion sounds decidedly likeHebrew and might signify Macircracirch ldquobitterness griefrdquo Zion ldquoof Zionrdquo MEsquirosabelieverinCornishJewsthinksthatMaramightbeacorruptionoftheLatinAmarabitterbutheforgetsthatthisetymologywouldreallydefeatitsvery object and destroy the Hebrew origin of the name The next questiontherefore is What is the real origin of the nameMarazion and of its aliasMarketJewItcannotbetoooftenrepeatedthatinquiriesintotheoriginoflocalnames are in the first place historical and only in the second placephilologicalToattemptanexplanationofanynamewithouthavingfirsttracedit back to the earliest form in which we can find it is to set at defiance theplainest rules of the [pg294] scienceof language aswell as of the scienceofhistoryEveniftheinterpretationofalocalnameshouldberightitwouldbeofno scientific value without the preliminary inquiry into its history whichfrequentlyconsistsinasuccessionofthemoststartlingchangesandcorruptionsThosewhoareatall familiarwith thehistoryofCornishnamesofplaceswillnot be surprised to find the same name written in four or five nay in tendifferentwaysThefactisthatthosewhopronouncedthenameswerefrequentlyignorantoftheirrealimportandthosewhohadtowritethemdowncouldhardlycatch their correct pronunciation Thus we find that Camden calls MarazionMerkiuCarewMarcaiewLelandinhisldquoItineraryrdquo(about1538)usesthenamesMarkesinMarkine (vol iii fol4) and inanotherplace (volvii fol119)heappliesitwouldseemtothesametownthenameofMarasdeythyonWilliamofWorcester(about1478)writespromiscuouslyMarkysyoo(p103)MarchewandMargew (p133)MarchasyoweandMarkysyow (p98) InacharterofQueenElizabethdated1595thenameiswrittenMarghasieweinanotheroftheyear1313Markesioninanotherof1309MarkasyoninanotherofRichardEarlofCornwall(RexRomanorum1257)Marchadyonwhichseemstheoldestandatthesametimethemostprimitiveform65BesidestheseDrOliverhasfoundindifferent title-deeds [pg 295] the following varieties of the same namemdashMarghasionMarkesiowMarghasiewMaryazion andMarazion The onlyexplanationof thenamewhichwemeetwith in earlywriters suchasLelandCamden and Carew is that it meant ldquoThursday Marketrdquo Leland explainsMarasdeythyon by forumJovisCamdenexplainsMerkiu in the samemannerandCarewtakesMarcaiewasoriginallyMarhasdiew ieldquoThursdaiesmarketforthenituseththistraffikerdquo
This interpretation ofMarhasdiew as Thursday Market appears at first veryplausible and it has at all events far better claims on our acceptance than the
modernHebrewetymologyofldquoBitternessofZionrdquoButstrangetosayalthoughfrom a charter of Robert Earl of Cornwall it appears that the monks of theMount had the privilege of holding amarket on Thursday (die quintaelig feriaelig)there is no evidence andnoprobability that a town so close to theMount asMarazioneverheldamarketonthesameday66ThursdayinCornishwascalleddeyownotdiewTheonlyadditionalevidencewegetisthisthatinthetaxationofBishopWalterBronescombemadeAugust 12 1261 andquoted inBishopStapledonsregisterof1313 theplace iscalledMarkesiondeparvomercato67and that in a charter of Richard King of the Romans and Earl of Cornwallpermissionwasgranted to thepriorofStMichaelsMount that threemarketswhich formerly had been held inMarghasbigan on ground not belonging tohim should in future be held on his own ground [pg 296] in MarchadyonParvusmercatus is evidently the same place asMarghasbigan forMarghas-biganmeansinCornishthesameasMercatusparvusnamelyldquoLittleMarketrdquoThecharterofRichardEarlofCornwallismoreperplexinganditwouldseemto yield no sense unless we again take Marchadyon as a mere variety ofMarghasbigan and suppose that the privilege granted to the prior of StMichaelsMountconsistedreallyintransferringthefairfromlandinMarazionnotbelongingtohimtolandinMarazionbelongingtohimAnyhowitisclearthatinMarazionwehavesomekindofnameformarket
TheoldCornishwordformarketismarchasacorruptionoftheLatinmercatusOriginallytheCornishwordmusthavebeenmarchadandthisformispreservedinArmoricanwhileinCornishthechgraduallysunktohandthefinaldtosThischangeofd intos isof frequentoccurrence inmodernascomparedwithancientCornishandthehistoryofourwordwillenableustoacertainextenttofix the time when that change took place In the charter of Richard Earl ofCornwall(about1257)wefindMarchadyon inacharterof1309MarkasyonThechangeofdintoshadtakenplaceduringthesefiftyyears68ButwhatistheterminationyonConsideringthatMarazioniscalledtheLittleMarketIshouldliketoseeinyonthediminutiveCornishsuffixcorrespondingtotheWelshynButifthisshouldbeobjectedtoonthegroundthatnosuchdiminutivesoccurintheliterary[pg297]monumentsoftheCornishlanguageanotherexplanationisopen which was first suggested to me byMr BellowsMarchadion may betaken as a perfectly regular plural in Cornish and we should then have tosupposethat insteadofbeingcalledtheMarketor theLittleMarket theplacewascalledfromitsthreestatutemarketsldquoTheMarketsrdquoAndthiswouldhelpustoexplainnotonlythegradualgrowthofthenameMarazionbutlikewiseIthink the gradual formation of ldquoMarket Jewrdquo for another termination of the
pluralinCornishisieuwhichaddedtoMarchadwouldgiveusMarchadieu69
Now it is perfectly true that no real Cornishman I mean nomanwho spokeCornishwouldeverhave takenMarchadiew forMarket Jewor JewsMarketThename for Jew inCornish isquitedifferent It isEdhowYedhowYudhowcorrupted likewise into Ezow plural Yedhewon etc But to a Saxon ear theCornishnameMarchadiewmightwellconveytheideaofMarketJewandthusbyametamorphicprocessanamemeaninginCornishtheMarketswouldgiverise in a perfectly natural manner not only to the two names Marazion andMarketJewbutlikewisetothehistoricallegendsofJewssettledinthecountyofCornwall70
[pg298]But there still remain the Jews houses the name given it is said to the olddesertedsmelting-houses[pg299] inCornwalland inCornwallonlyThoughintheabsenceofanyhistoricalevidenceastotheemploymentofthistermJewshouse informerages itwillbemoredifficult toarriveat itsoriginalformandmeaningyetanexplanationoffers itselfwhichbyaprocedureverysimilar tothatwhichwasappliedtoMarazionandMarketJewmayaccountfortheoriginofthisnamelikewise
TheCornishnameforhousewasoriginallytyInmodernCornishhowevertoquotefromLhuydsGrammarthasbeenchangedtotshastithoutshei tyahousetsheywhichtshisalsosometimeschangedtodzhasolmeinydzkyildquoallinthehouserdquoOutofthisdzhyiwemayeasilyunderstandhowaSaxonmouthandaSaxonearmighthaveelicitedasoundsomewhatliketheEnglishJew
ButwedonotgetatJewshousebysoeasyaroadifindeedwegetatitatallWe are told that a smelting-house was called a White-house in CornishChiwiddenwiddenstandingforgwydnwhichisacorruptionoftheoldCornishgwynwhiteThisnameofChiwiddenisafamousnameinCornishhagiographyHewasthecompanionofStPerranorStPiranthemostpopularsaintamongtheminingpopulationofCornwall
MrHuntwhoinhis interestingworkldquoThePopularRomancesof theWestofEnglandrdquo has assigned a separate chapter to Cornish saints tells us how StPiranwhile livinginIrelandfedtenIrishkingsandtheirarmiesfor tendaystogether with three cows Notwithstanding this and other miracles some ofthese kings condemned him to be cast off a precipice into the sea with a
millstoneroundhisneckStPiranhoweverfloatedonsafelytoCornwallandhe[pg300]landedonthe5thofMarchonthesandswhichstillbearhisnamePerranzabuloeorPerranontheSands
Thelivesofsaintsformoneof themostcurioussubjectsfor thehistorianandstillmoreforthestudentoflanguageandthedaynodoubtwillcomewhenitwill be possible to take those wonderful conglomerates of fact and fiction topieces and as in one of those huge masses of graywacke or rubblestone toassigneachgrainandfragment to thestratumfromwhich itwas takenbeforethey were all rolled together and cemented by the ebb and flow of populartraditionWithregardtothelivesofIrishandScotchandBritishsaintsitoughtto be stated for the credit of the pious authors of the ldquoActa Sanctorumrdquo thateven they admit their tertiary origin ldquoDuring the twelfth centuryrdquo they sayldquowhenmanyof theancientmonasteries in Irelandwerehandedover tomonksfromEnglandandmanynewhouseswerebuiltforthemthesemonksbegantocompile the acts of the saints with greater industry than judgment TheycollectedalltheycouldfindamongtheuncertaintraditionsofthenativesandinobscureIrishwritingsfollowingtheexampleofJocelinwhoseworkontheactsofStPatrickhadbeenreceivedeverywherewithwonderfulapplauseButmanyofthemhavemiserablyfailedsothatthefoolishhavelaughedatthemandthewisebeenfilledwithindignationrdquo(ldquoBollandiActardquo5thofMarchp390B)Inthesamework(p392A)itispointedoutthattheIrishmonkswhenevertheyheardofanysaints inotherpartsofEnglandwhosenamesand lives remindedthemofIrishsaintsatonceconcludedthattheywereofIrishoriginandthatthepeopleinsomepartsofEnglandastheypossessednowrittenactsof[pg301]theirpopularsaintsweregladtoidentifytheirownwiththefamoussaintsoftheIrishChurchThishasevidentlyhappenedinthecaseofStPiranStPiraninoneofhischaracters iscertainlya trulyCornishsaintbutwhenthemonksinCornwallheardthewonderfullegendsoftheIrishsaintStKirantheyseemtohave grafted their own St Piran on the Irish St Kiran The difference in thenamesmusthaveseemedlesstothemthantousforwordswhichinCornisharepronounced with p are pronounced as a rule in Irish with k Thus head inCornish ispen in Irishceann son ismap in IrishmacThe townbuilt at theeasternextremityof thewallofSeveruswascalledPenguaul iepen caputguaulwalls theEnglish call itPenel-tunwhile in Scotch itwas pronouncedCenail71ThatStKiranhadoriginallynothingtodowithStPirancanstillbeproved for the earlier Lives of St Kiran though full of fabulous storiesrepresenthimasdyinginIrelandHissaintsdaywasthe5thofMarchthatofStPiran the2dofMayThelaterLiveshowever thoughtheysaynothingas
yet of the millstone represent St Kiran when a very old man as suddenlyleaving his country in order that he might die in Cornwall We are told thatsuddenlywhenalreadynearhisdeathhecalledtogetherhislittleflockandsaidto themldquoMydearbrothers and sons according to adivinedisposition ImustleaveIrelandandgotoCornwallandwaitfortheendofmylifethereIcannotresist thewillofGodrdquoHe then sailed toCornwall andbuilthimself ahousewhere he performedmanymiraclesHewas buried inCornwall on the sandysea fifteenmiles from Petrokstowe and twenty-fivemiles fromMousehole72[pg 302] In this manner the Irish and the Cornish saints who originally hadnothingincommonbuttheirnamesbecameamalgamated73andthesaintsdayofStPiranwasmovedfromthe2dofMayto the5thofMarchYetalthoughthuswelded into one nothing couldwell be imaginedmore different than thecharacters of the Irish and of the Cornish saint The Irish saint lived a trulyascetic lifehepreachedwroughtmiracles anddiedTheCornish saintwasajollyminernotalwaysverysteadyonhis legs74Letushearwhat theCornishhavetotellofhimHisnameoccursinseveralnamesofplacessuchasPerranZabuloePerranUthnoinPerrantheLittleandinPerranAr-worthallHisnamepronouncedPerranorPiranhasbeenfurthercorruptedintoPicrasandPicrousthoughsomeauthoritiessupposethatthisisagainadifferentsaintfromStPiranAnyhowbothStPerranandStPicrasliveinthememoryoftheCornishmineras the discoverers of tin and the tinners great holiday the Thursday beforeChristmas isstillcalledPicrousday75The legend relates thatStPiranwhenstill inCornwallemployedaheavyblackstoneasapartofhisfire-placeThefirewasmoreintensethanusualandastreamofbeautifulwhitemetalflowedoutofthefireGreatwasthejoyof[pg303]thesaintandhecommunicatedhisdiscoverytoStChiwiddenTheyexaminedthestonetogetherandChiwiddenwho was learned in the learning of the East soon devised a process forproducing thismetal in largequantitiesThe two saints called theCornishmentogetherTheytoldthemoftheirtreasuresandtheytaughtthemhowtodigtheorefromtheearthandhowbytheagencyoffiretoobtainthemetalGreatwasthe joy in Cornwall and many days of feasting followed the announcementMead andmetheglin with other drinks flowed in abundance and vile rumorsaysthesaintsandtheirpeoplewererenderedequallyunstabletherebyldquoDrunkasaPerranerrdquohascertainlypassedintoaproverbfromthatday
It is quite clear from these accounts that the legendary discoverer of tin inCornwall was originally a totally different character from the Irish saint StKiranIfonemightindulgeinaconjectureIshouldsaythatthereprobablywasintheCelticlanguagearootkarwhichintheCymbricbranchwouldassumethe
formparNowcair inGaelicmeans todig to raiseandfromitasubstantivemightbederivedmeaningdiggerorminerInIrelandKiranseemstohavebeensimplyapropernamelikeSmithorBakerforthereisnothinginthelegendsofSt Kiran that points to mining or smelting In Cornwall on the contrary StPiran before he was engrafted on St Kiran was probably nothing but apersonification or apotheosis of the Miner as much as Dorus was thepersonificationoftheDoriansandBrutusthefirstKingofBritain
The rule ldquonoscitur a sociisrdquo may be applied to St Piran His friend andassociate StChiwidden or StWhitehouse is a personification of thewhite-house ie the smelting-house without which St Piran the [pg 304] minerwould have been a very useless saint If Chywidden ie the smelting-housebecame the St Chywidden why should we look in the Cornish St Piran foranythingbeyondPiranietheminer
HoweverwhatisofimportancetousforourpresentobjectisnotStPiranbutStChywiddenthewhite-houseorsmelting-houseWearelookingallthistimefor theoriginalmeaningof theJewshousesand thequestion ishowcanwestarting fromChywidden arrive at Jews-house I amafraidwecannotdo sowithout a jump or two all we can do is to show that they are jumps whichlanguageherselfisfondoftakingandwhichthereforewemustnotshirkifwewishtoridestraightafterher
Wellthenthefirstjumpwhichlanguagefrequentlytakesisthisthatinsteadofusinganounwithaqualifyingadjectivesuchaswhite-housethenounbyitselfisusedwithout any suchqualificationThis canof course bedonewithveryprominentwordsonlywordswhichareusedsooftenandwhichexpressideassoconstantlypresenttothemindofthespeakerthatnomistakeislikelytoariseIn English ldquothe Houserdquo is used for the House of Commons in later Latinldquodomusrdquowasusedfor theHouseofGodAmongfishermaninScotlandldquofishrdquomeans salmon InGreekλίθος stone in the feminine is used for themagnetoriginallyΜαγνῆτιςλίθοςwhilethemasculineλίθοςmeansastoneingeneralInCornwallorebyitselfmeanscopperoreonlywhiletinoreiscalledblacktinIntimesthereforewhenthewholeattentionofCornwallwasabsorbedbyminingand smelting and when smelting-houses were most likely the only largebuildings that seemed to deserve the name of houses there is nothingextraordinary in tshey or dzhyi [pg 305] even withoutwidden white havingbecometherecognizednameforsmelting-houses
Butnowcomesasecondjumpandagainonethatcanbeprovedtohavebeenavery favorite one with many languages When people speaking differentlanguages live together in the same country they frequently in adopting aforeigntermaddtoitbywayofinterpretationthewordthatcorrespondstoitintheirownlanguageThusPortsmouth isanamehalfLatinandhalfEnglishPortus was the Roman name given to the harbor This was adopted by theSaxonsbutinterpretedatthesametimebyaSaxonwordnamelymouthwhichreally means harbor This interpretation was hardly intentional but arosenaturallyPortfirstbecameakindofpropernameandthenmouthwasaddedsothatldquothemouthofPortrdquoieoftheplacecalledPortusbytheRomansbecameatlastPortsmouthButthisdoesnotsatisfytheearlyhistoriansandashappensso frequentlywhen there is anything corrupt in language a legend springs upalmostspontaneouslytoremovealldoubtsanddifficultiesThuswereadinthevenerableSaxonChronicleunder theyear501ldquothatPortcame toBritainwithhis two sons Bieda and Maegla with two ships and their place was calledPortsmouth and they slew a British man a very noble manrdquo76 Such is thegrowthoflegendsayeandinmanycasesthegrowthofhistory
FormedonthesameprincipleasPortsmouthwefindsuchwordsasHayle-rivertheCornishhalbyitselfmeaningsaltmarshmoororestuaryTrevilleorTrou-villewheretheCeltictre townisexplainedbytheFrenchville theCotswoldHillswheretheCelticwordcotwood isexplainedby theSaxonwoldor [pg306]wealdawoodInDun-bar-ton theCelticworddunhill isexplainedbytheSaxonbarforbyrigburgtonbeingaddedtoformthenameofthetownthatroseupundertheprotectionofthehill-castleInPenhow thesameprocesshasbeen suspectedhow theGermanHoumlhe77 expressing nearly the same idea aspenheadInConstantineinCornwalloneofthelargestoneswithrock-basinsiscalledtheMecircn-rock78rockbeingsimplytheinterpretationoftheCornishmecircn
If then we suppose that in exactly the samemanner the people of Cornwallspoke of Tshey-houses orDshyi-houses is it so very extraordinary that thishybridwordshouldatlasthavebeeninterpretedasJew-housesorJewshousesIdonotsaythatthehistoryofthewordcanbetracedthroughallitsphaseswiththe same certainty as that ofMarazion all Imaintain is that in explaining itshistorynostephasbeenadmittedthatcannotbeprovedbysufficientevidencetobeinstrictkeepingwiththewell-knownmovementsorifitisrespectfultosaysothewell-knownanticsoflanguage
ThusvanishtheJewsfromCornwallbuttherestillremaintheSaracensOneis
surprised tomeetwithSaracens in theWest ofEngland stillmore tohearoftheirhavingworkedinthetin-minesliketheJewsAccordingtosomewritershoweverSaracenisonlyanothernameforJewsthoughnoexplanationisgivenwhythisdetestednameshouldhavebeenappliedtotheJewsinCornwallandnowhereelseThisview isheld for instancebyCarewwhowrites [pg 307]ldquoThe Cornish maintain these works to have been very ancient and the firstwroughtbytheJewswithpickaxesofholmboxhartshorntheyprovethisbythe names of those places yet enduring towitAttall-Sarazin (or as in someeditionsSazarin)inEnglishtheJewsOffcastrdquo
Camden(p69)saysldquoWearetaughtfromDiodorusandAEligthicusthattheancientBritonshadworkedhardattheminesbuttheSaxonsandNormansseemtohaveneglected them for a long time or to have employed the labor of Arabs orSaracensfortheinhabitantscalldesertedshaftsAttall-SarazinietheleavingsoftheSaracensrdquo
Thus then we have not only the Saracens in Cornwall admitted as simply amatter of history but their presence actually used in order to prove that theSaxonsandNormansneglectedtoworktheminesintheWestofEngland
AstillmorecircumstantialaccountisgivenbyHalsasquotedbyGilbertinhisldquoParochial History of Cornwallrdquo Here we are told that King Henry III byproclamationletoutallJewsinhisdominionsatacertainrenttosuchaswouldpoll and rifle them and amongst others to his brother Richard King of theRomanswhoafterhehadplunderedtheirestatescommittedtheirbodiesashisslavestolaborinthetin-minesofCornwallthememoryofwhoseworkingsisstill preserved in the names of several tin works called Towle Sarasin andcorruptlyAttallSaracenie therefuseoroutcastofSaracensthatistosayofthoseJewsdescendedfromSarahandAbrahamOtherworkswerecalledWheleEtherson(aliasEthewon)theJewsWorksorUnbelieversWorksinCornish
[pg308]Hereweseehowhistoryismadeandifourinquiriesledtonootherresulttheywouldstillbeusefulasawarningagainstputtingimplicitfaithinthestatementsof writers who are separated by several centuries from the events they arerelating Here we have men like Carew and Camden both highly cultivatedlearned and conscientious and yet neither of them hesitating in a work ofhistoricalcharactertoassertasafactwhataftermakingeveryallowancecanonlybecalledaveryboldguessHaveweanyreasontosupposethatHerodotus
andThucydideswhen speaking of the original abodes of the various races ofGreeceoftheirmigrationstheirwarsandfinalsettlementshadbetterevidencebefore themorweremore cautious inusing their evidence thanCamdenandCarew And is it likely that modern scholars however learned and howevercarefulcaneverarriveatreallysatisfactoryresultsbysiftingandarrangingandrearrangingtheethnologicalstatementsoftheancientsastotheoriginalabodesorthelatermigrationsofPelasgiansTyrrheniansThraciansMacedoniansandIllyriansorevenofDoriansAEligoliansandIoniansWhatisCarewsevidenceinsupportofhis statement that the Jews firstworked the tin-minesofCornwallSimplythesayingsofthepeopleinCornwallwhosupporttheirsayingsbythenamegiventodesertedminesAttallSarazinNowadmittingthatAttallSarazinorAttallSazarinmeant the refuseof theSaracens how is it possible in coldbloodtoidentifytheSaracenswithJewsandwhereisthereatittleofevidenceto prove that the Jews were the first to work these minesmdashmines be itrememberedwhichaccordingtothesameCarewwerecertainlyworkedbeforethebeginningofourera
[pg309]ButleavingtheJewsofthetimeofNeroletusexaminethemoredefiniteandmoremoderatestatementsofHalsandGilbertAccordingtothemthedesertedshaftsarecalledbyaCornishnamemeaningtherefuseoftheSaracensbecauseaslateasthethirteenthcenturytheJewsweresenttoworkintheseminesItisdifficultnodoubttoproveanegativeandtoshowthatnoJewseverworkedintheminesofCornwallAllthatcanbedoneinacaselikethisistoshowthatnoonehasproducedanatomofevidenceinsupportofMrGilbertsopinionTheJewswerecertainlyilltreatedplunderedtorturedandexiledduringthereignofthe Plantagenet kings but that they were sent to the Cornish mines nocontemporarywriterhaseverventuredtoassertThepassageinMatthewParistowhichMrGilbertmostlikelyalludessaystheverycontraryofwhathedrawsfromitMatthewParissaysthatHenryIIIextortedmoneyfromtheJewsandthat when they petitioned for a safe conduct in order to leave Englandaltogether he sold them to his brother Richard ldquout quos Rex excoriaveratComesevisceraretrdquo79But this sellingof the Jewsmeantnomore than that inreturn formoneyadvancedhimbyhisbrother theEarlofCornwall theKingpawnedtohimforanumberofyearsthetaxeslegitimateorillegitimatewhichcouldbeextortedfromtheJewsThatthiswastherealmeaningofthebargainbetween theKing andhis brother theEarl ofCornwall canbeprovedby thedocument printed in Rymers ldquoFœderardquo vol i p 543 ldquoDe Judaeligis ComitiCornubiaeligassignatisprosolutionepecuniaeligsibiaRegedebitaeligrdquo80Anyhowthere
isnotasinglewordabout [pg310] theJewshavingbeensent toCornwallorhavinghadtoworkintheminesOnthecontraryMatthewParissaysldquoComespepercitiisrdquoldquotheEarlsparedthemrdquo
AfterthuslookinginvainforanytrulyhistoricalevidenceinsupportofJewishsettlements in Cornwall I suppose they may in future be safely treated as aldquoverbalmythrdquoofwhich therearemore indeed indifferentchaptersofhistorybothancientandmodernthaniscommonlysupposedAsinCornwallthenameofamarkethasgivenrisetothefableofJewishsettlementsthenameofanothermarketinFinlandledtothebeliefthattherewereTurkssettledinthatnortherncountry Abo the ancient capital of Finland was called Turku which is theSwedishword torg market Adam of Bremen enumerating the various tribesadjoining the Baltic mentionsTurci among the rest and theseTurci were byothersmistakenforTurks81
Evenafter suchmythshavebeen laidopen to thevery roots there is a strongtendencynot todropthemaltogetherThusMrHMerivale isfar toogoodanhistoriantoadmitthepresenceofJewsinCornwallasfarbackasthedestructionofJerusalem82Heknowsthereisnoevidenceforitandhewouldnotrepeatamere fable however plausible Yet Marazion and the Jews houses evidentlylinger inhismemoryandhethrowsoutahint that theymayfindanhistoricalexplanation in the fact that under the Plantagenet kings the Jews commonlyfarmedorwroughttheminesIsthereanycontemporaryevidence[pg311]evenfor this I do not think so Dr Borlase indeed in his ldquoNatural History ofCornwallrdquo(p190)saysldquoInthetimeofKingJohnIfindtheproductoftininthiscountyveryinconsiderabletherightofworkingfortinbeingasyetwhollyin theKing thepropertyof tinnersprecariousandunsettledandwhat tinwasraisedwasengrossedandmanagedbytheJewstothegreatregretofthebaronsand their vassalsrdquo It is a pity that Dr Borlase should not have given hisauthoritybutthereislittledoubtthathesimplyquotedfromCarewCarewtellsushowtheCornishgentlemenborrowedmoneyfromthemerchantsofLondongiving them tin as security (p14) and thoughhedoesnot call themerchantsJews yet he speaks of them as usurers and reproves their ldquocut throate andabominabledealingrdquoHecontinuesafterwardsspeakingofthesameusurers(p16) ldquoAfter such time as the Jewes by their extreme dealing had wornethemselvesfirstoutoftheloveoftheEnglishinhabitantsandafterwardsoutofthe land itselfe and so left the mines unwrought it hapned that certainegentlemen being lords of seven tithings in Blackmoore whose grounds werebest stored with this minerall grewe desirous to renew this benefitrdquo etc To
judgefromseveralindicationsthisisreallythepassagewhichDrBorlasehadbefore himwhenwriting of the Jews as engrossing andmanaging the tin thatwasraisedandinthatcaseneitherisCarewacontemporarywitnessnorwoulditfollowfromwhathesaysthatonesingleJeweversetfootonCornishsoilorthatanyJewsevertastedtheactualbitternessofworkinginthemines
Having thus disposed of the Jews we now turn to [pg 312] the Saracens inCornwallWe shall not enterupon the curious andcomplicatedhistoryof thatname It is enough to refer to a short note inGibbon83 in order to show thatSaracenwasanameknowntoGreeksandRomanslongbeforetheriseofIslambutneverappliedtotheJewsbyanywriterofauthoritynotevenbythosewhosawintheSaracensldquothechildrenofSarahrdquo
What then it may be asked is the origin of the expressionAttal Sarazin inCornwallAttal orAtal is said to be aCornishword theWelshAdhail andmeans refusewaste84 As to Sarazin it is most likely another Cornish wordwhich by ametamorphic process has been slightly changed in order to yieldsomesenseintelligibletoSaxonspeakersWefindinCornishtaradmeaningapierceraborerandinanotherformtardarisdistinctlyusedtogetherwithaxeand hammer as the name of a mining implement The Latin taratrum GrτέρετρονFr tariegravere all come from the samesource If from taradwe formapluralwegettaradionInmodernCornishwefindthatdsinksdowntoswhichwould give us taras85 and plural tarasion Next the final l of atal may likeseveralfinallsinthecloselyalliedlanguageofBrittanyhave[pg313]infectedtheinitialtoftarasionandchangedittothwhichthagainwouldinmodernCornishsinkdowntos86ThusataltharasionmighthavebeenintendedfortherefuseoftheboringspossiblytherefuseoftheminesbutpronouncedinSaxonfashion it might readily have been mistaken for the Atal or refuse of theSarasionorSaracens
POSTSCRIPT
The essay on the presence of Jews in Cornwall has given rise to muchcontroversyandasIrepublishitherewithoutanyimportantalterationsIfeelitincumbenttosayafewwordsinanswertotheobjectionsthathavebeenbroughtforwardagainst itNoone I think can readmyessaywithoutperceiving thatwhatIquestionisnotthepresenceofsingleJewsinCornwallbutthemigrationoflargenumbersofJewsintotheextremeWestofBritainwhetheratthetimeofthe Phœnicians or at the period of the destruction of Jerusalem or under the
FlavianprincesorevenatalatertimeTheRevDrBannisterinapaperonldquotheJewsinCornwallrdquopublishedintheJournaloftheRoyalInstitutionofCornwall1867doesindeedrepresentmeashavingmaintainedldquothatonesingleJewneversetfootonCornishsoilrdquoButifmyreaderswillrefertothepassagethusquotedfrommyessaybyDrBannistertheywillseethatitwasnotmeantinthatsenseIn thepassage thusquotedwith inverted commas87 I simply argued that fromcertainwordsusedbyCarewonwhichgreatstresshadbeenlaiditwouldnotevenfollowldquothatonesingleJeweversetfootonCornishsoilrdquowhichsurelyisverydifferentfromsayingthatImaintainedthatnosingleJeweversetfootonCornishsoilItwouldindeed[pg314]bethemostextraordinaryfactifCornwallhadneverbeenvisitedbyJewsIfitweresoCornwallwouldstandaloneasfarassuchanimmunityisconcernedamongall thecountriesofEuropeButit isonethingforJewstobescatteredaboutintowns88orevenforoneortwoJewsto have actually worked in tin mines and quite another to speak of townsreceivingHebrewnamesinCornwallandofdesertedtin-minesbeingcalledtheworkingsoftheJewsToexplainsuchstartlingfactsiffactstheybeakindofJewishexodustoCornwallhadtobeadmittedandwasadmittedaslongassuchnamesasMarazionandAttalSarazinwereacceptedintheirtraditionalmeaningMyownopinionwasthatthesenameshadgivenrisetotheassumedpresenceofJewsinCornwallandnotthatthepresenceofJewsinCornwallhadgivenrisetothesenames
If therefore it could be proved that some Jewish families had been settled inCornwallinveryearlytimesorthatafewJewishslaveshadbeenemployedasminersmytheorywouldnotatallbeaffectedButImustsaythattheattemptsatprovingevensomuchhavebeenfarfromsuccessfulSurelytheoccurrenceofOldTestamentnamesamongthepeopleofCornwallsuchasAbrahamJosephorSolomon (there is aSolomonDukeofCornwall)doesnotprove that theirbearerswereJewsAgainifwereadinthetimeofEdwardIIthatldquoJohnPeverelheldHametethyofRogerleJeurdquowemaybequitecertainthat leJeudoesnotmeanldquotheJewrdquoandthatinthetimeofEdwardIInoJohnPeverelheldlandofaJewAgain if in the timeofEdwardIIIwereadofoneldquoAbraham the tinnerwho employed 300 men in the stream-works of Brodhokrdquo it would requirestrongerproofthanthemerenametomakeusbelievethatthisAbrahamwasaJew
IhadendeavoredtoshowthattherewasnoevidenceastotheEarlofCornwallthebrotherofHenryIIIhavingemployedJewsintheCornishminesandhadpointed out a passage fromRymers ldquoFœderardquowhere it is stated that the Earl
spared them (pepercit) Dr Bannister remarks ldquoThough we are told that hespared them might not this be similar to Josephs brethren sparing himmdashbycommittingtheirbodiesashisslavestoworkinthetin-minesrdquoItmightbesonodoubtbutwedonotknowitAgainDrBannisterremarksldquoJerometellsus[pg 315] that when Titus took Jerusalem an incredible number of Jewsweresold like horses and dispersed over the face of thewhole earth The accountgivenby Josephus is that of those spared after indiscriminate slaughter someweredispersed through theprovinces for theuseof the theatres asgladiatorsothersweresenttotheEgyptianminesandotherssoldasslavesIftheRomansatthistimeworkedtheCornishmineswhymaynotsomehavebeensenthererdquoIcanonlyanswerasbeforetheymayhavebeennodoubtbutwedonotknowit
I hadmyself searched very carefully for any documents thatmight prove thepresenceevenofsingleJewsinCornwallprevioustothetimewhentheywerebanished the realm by Edward I But my inquiries had not proved moresuccessfulthanthoseofmypredecessorsPearceinhisldquoLawsandCustomsofthe Stanariesrdquo published in London 1725 shares the common belief that theJewsworkedintheCornishminesldquoThetinnersrdquohesays(pii)ldquocalltheantientworksbythenameoftheWorkingoftheJewsanditismostmanifestthattherewere Jews inhabiting here until 1291 and this they prove by the names yetenduring vizAttall Sarazin in English The Jews Feastrdquo But in spite of hisstrong belief in the presence of Jews in Cornwall Pearce adds ldquoButwhethertheyhad liberty toworkand search for tindoesnot appearbecause theyhadtheirdwellingschieflyingreatTownsandCitiesandbeinggreatUsurerswereinthatyearbanishedoutofEnglandtothenumberof15060bythemostnoblePrinceEdwardIrdquo
AtlasthoweverwiththekindassistanceofMrMacrayIdiscoveredafewrealJews inCornwall in the thirdyearofKing John1202namelyoneSimon deDenaoneDeudonethesonofSamuelandoneAaronSomeoftheirmonetarytransactions are recorded in the ldquoRotulus Cancellarii vel AntigraphumMagniRotuliPipaeligdetertioannoRegniRegisJohannisrdquo(printedunderthedirectionoftheCommissionersofthePublicRecordsin1863p96)andwehaveherenotonlytheirnamesasevidenceoftheirJewishoriginbuttheyareactuallyspokenofasldquopraeligdictusJudensrdquoTheirtransactionshoweverarepurelyfinancialanddonotleadustosupposethattheJewsinordertomaketincondescendedinthe timeofKingJohnoratanyother time to thedrudgeryofworking in tin-mines
July1867
[pg316]
XVTHEINSULATIONOFSTMICHAELSMOUNT89
StMichaelsMount inCornwall issowellknowntomostpeopleeither fromsightor from report that adescriptionof its peculiar featuresmaybedeemedalmostsuperfluousbutinordertostartfairIshallquoteashortaccountfromthe pen of an eminent geologistMr Pengelly to whom I shall have to referfrequentlyinthecourseofthispaper
ldquoStMichaelsMountinCornwallhesaysldquoisanislandatveryhighwaterandwithrareexceptionsapeninsulaatverylowwaterThedistancefromMarazionCliff the nearest point of themainland to spring-tide high-watermark on itsown strand is about 1680 feet The total isthmus consists of the outcrop ofhighly inclined Devonian slate and associated rocks and in most cases iscoveredwithathinlayerofgravelorsandAtspring-tidesinstillweatheritisathigh-waterabouttwelvefeetbelowandat low-watersixfeetabove thesealevel In fine weather it is dry from four to five hours every tide butoccasionallyduringverystormyweatherandneaptidesitisimpossibletocrossfromthemainlandfortwoorthreedaystogetherrdquo
[pg317]ldquoTheMountisanoutlierofgranitemeasuringatitsbaseaboutfivefurlongsincircumferenceandrisingtotheheightofonehundredandninety-fivefeetabovemeantideAthigh-wateritplungesabruptlyintotheseaexceptonthenorthorlandwardsidewhere thegranitecomes intocontactwithslateHere there isasmallplainoccupiedbyavillageThecountryimmediatelybehindornorthofthetownofMarazionconsistsofDevonianstratatraversedbytrapsandelvansandattainsaconsiderableelevationrdquo
At themeetingof theBritishAssociation in1865MrPengelly inapaperon
ldquoTheInsulationofStMichaelsMountinCornwallrdquomaintainedthatthechangewhichconvertedthatMountfromapromontoryintoanislandmusthavetakenplacenotonlywithinthehumanperiodbutsinceCornwallwasoccupiedbyapeople speaking the Cornish language As a proof of this somewhat startlingassertion he adduced the ancient British name of St Michaels Mountsignifying theHoarrock in thewoodNobodywould thinkofapplyingsuchanametotheMountinitspresentstateandasweknowthatduringthelasttwothousand years the Mount has been as it is now an island at high and apromontoryatlowtideitwouldindeedseemtofollowthatitsnamemusthavebeen framedbefore the destructionof the ancient forest bywhich itwas oncesurroundedandbeforetheseparationoftheMountfromthemainland
SirHenryJamesinaldquoNoteontheBlockofTindredgedinFalmouthHarborrdquoassertsitistruethattherearetreesgrowingontheMountinsufficientnumberstohave justified theancientdescriptivenameofldquotheHoar rock in thewoodrdquobutthoughtherearetracesoftreesvisibleontheengravingspublished[pg318]ahundredyearsagoinDrBorlasesldquoAntiquitiesofCornwallrdquothesearemostlikelyduetoartisticembellishmentonlyAtpresentnowriterwilldiscoverinStMichaels Mount what could fairly be called either trees or a wood even inCornwall
Thatthegeographicalchangefromapromontoryintoarealislanddidnottakeplace during the last two thousand years is proved by the description whichDiodorusSiculusalittlebeforetheChristianeragivesofStMichaelsMountldquoTheinhabitantsof thepromontoryofBeleriumrdquohesays(libvc22)ldquowerehospitable and on account of their intercourse with strangers eminentlycivilizedintheirhabitsThesearethepeoplewhoworkthetinwhichtheymeltintotheformofastragaliandthencarryittoanislandinfrontofBritaincalledIctisThis island is leftdryat low tideand they then transport the tin incartsfrom the shoreHere the traders buy it from the natives and carry it toGaulover which it travels on horseback in about thirty days to the mouths of theRhonerdquoThattheIslandofIctisdescribedbyDiodorusisStMichaelsMountseemstosaytheleastveryprobableandwasatlastadmittedevenbythelateSir G C Lewis In fact the description which Diodorus gives answers socompletely towhat StMichaelsMount is at the present day that fewwoulddenythatiftheMounteverwasaldquoHoarrockinthewoodrdquoitmusthavebeensobefore the time ofwhichDiodorus speaks that is at least before the last twothousandyearsThenineapparent reasonswhyStMichaelsMountcannotbetheIctisofDiodorusandtheirrefutationmaybeseeninMrPengellyspaper
ldquoOntheInsulationofStMichaelsMountrdquop6seq
Mr Pengelly proceeded to show that the geological [pg 319] change whichconvertedthepromontoryintoanislandmaybeduetotwocausesFirstitmayhave taken place in consequence of the encroachment of the sea This woulddemandabelief thatat least20000yearsagoCornwallwas inhabitedbymenwho spokeCornish Secondly this changemayhave taken place by a generalsubsidenceofthelandandthisistheopinionadoptedbyMrPengellyNoexactdatewasassignedtothissubsidencebutMrPengellyfinishedbyexpressinghisdecidedopinionthatsubsequenttoaperiodwhenCornwallwasinhabitedbyarace speaking aCeltic language StMichaelsMountwas ldquoa hoar rock in thewoodrdquoandhassincebecomeinsulatedbypowerfulgeologicalchanges
InamorerecentpaperreadattheRoyalInstitution(April51867)MrPengellyhas somewhat modified his opinion Taking for granted that at some time orotherStMichaelsMountwasapeninsulaandnotyetan islandhecalculatesthat itmust have taken 16800 years before the coast line could have recededfrom the Mount to the present cliffs He arrived at this result by taking theretrocessionofthecliffsattenfeetinacenturythedistancebetweentheMountandthemainlandbeingatpresent1680feet
IfhowevertheseveranceoftheMountfromthemainlandwastheresultnotofretrocession but of the subsidence of the countrymdasha rival theory whichMrPengelly still admits as possiblemdashthe former calculation would fail and theonlymeansoffixingthedateofthisseverancewouldbesuppliedbytheremainsfound in the forests thatwere carrieddownby that subsidence andwhicharesupposed to belong to the mammoth era This mammoth era we are told isanterior to the lake-dwellingsofSwitzerlandandthe[pg320]kitchenmiddensof Denmark for in neither of these have any remains of the mammoth beendiscoveredThemammothinfactdidnotoutlivetheageofbronzeandbeforethe end of that age therefore StMichaelsMountmust be supposed to havebecomeanisland
Inall thesediscussions it is taken forgranted thatStMichaelsMountwasatone timeunquestionablyaldquohoar rock in thewoodrdquoand that the landbetweentheMountandthemainlandwasoncecoveredbyaforestwhichextendedalongthewholeoftheseaboardThattherearesubmergedforestsalongthatseaboardisattestedbysufficientgeologicalevidencebutIhavenotbeenabletodiscoverany proof of the unbroken continuity of that shore-forest still less of the
presence of vegetable remains in the exact localitywhich is of interest to usnamely between the Mount and the mainland It is true that Dr Borlasediscovered the remainsof trunksof treeson the10thof January1757buthetells us that these forest trees were not found round the Mount but midwaybetwixtthepiersofStMichaelsMountandPenzancethatistosayaboutonemiledistantfromtheMountalso thatoneofthemwasawillow-treewiththebarkon it another ahazel-branchwith thebark still fat andglossyTheplacewhere these trees were found was three hundred yards below full-sea markwherethewateristwelvefeetdeepwhenthetideisin
CarewalsoatanearlierdatespeaksofrootsofmightytreesfoundinthesandabouttheMountbutwithoutgivingtheexactplaceLelant(1533-40)knowsofldquoSpereHeddesAxis forWarre andSwerdesofCopperwrappedup in lynistscantperishidrdquothathadbeenfoundoflateyearsnearthe[pg321]MountinStHilarysparishintinworksbutheplacesthelandthathadbeendevouredoftheseabetweenPenzanceandMouseholeiemorethantwomilesdistantfromtheMount
Thevalueofthiskindofgeologicalevidencemustofcoursebedeterminedbygeologists It is quite possible that the remains of trunks of treesmay still befoundontheveryisthmusbetweentheMountandthemainlandbutitistosaytheleastcuriousthatevenintheabsenceofsuchstringentevidencegeologistsshould feel so confident that theMount once stood on themainland and thatexactlythesamepersuasionshouldhavebeensharedbypeoplelongbeforethename of geologywas known There is a powerful spell in popular traditionsagainstwhichevenmenofsciencearenotalwaysproofandisjustpossiblethatifthetraditionoftheldquohoarrockinthewoodrdquohadnotexistednoattemptswouldhavebeenmadetoexplainthecausesthatseveredStMichaelsMountfromthemainland But even then the question remains How was it that people quiteguiltlessofgeologyshouldhaveframedthepopularnameoftheMountandthepopulartraditionofitsformerconnectionwiththemainlandLeavingthereforefor the present all geological evidence out of view it will be an interestinginquirytofindoutifpossiblehowpeoplethatcouldnothavebeenswayedbyanygeologicaltheoriesshouldhavebeenledtobelieveinthegradualinsulationofStMichaelsMount
Theprincipalargumentbroughtforwardbynon-geologicalwritersinsupportoftheformerexistenceofaforestsurroundingtheMountistheCornishnameofStMichaelsMountCaraclowse in cowsewhich inCornish is said tomean
ldquothe hoar rock in the woodrdquo [pg 322] In his paper read before the BritishAssociationatManchesterMrPengellyadducedthatverynameasirrefragableevidencethatCornishieaCelticlanguageanAryanlanguagewasspokenintheextremewestofEuropeabout20000yearsagoInhismorerecentpaperMrPengelly has given up this position and he considers it improbable that anyphilologercouldnowgiveatrustworthytranslationofalanguagespoken20000years ago This may be or not but before we build any hypothesis on thatCornishnamethefirstquestionwhichanhistorianhastoanswerisclearlythismdash
Whatauthority is there for that nameWheredoes it occur for the first timeanddoesitreallymeanwhatitissupposedtomean
Now the first mention of the Cornish name as far as I am aware occurs inRichardCarewsldquoSurveyofCornwallrdquowhichwaspublishedin1602ItistruethatCamdens ldquoBritanniardquo appeared earlier in 1586 and thatCamden (p 72)toomentionsldquotheMonsMichaelisDinsololimutinlibroLandavensihabeturincolisCaregCowse90ierupiscanardquoButitwillbeseenthatheleavesoutthemostimportantpartoftheoldnamenorcantherebemuchdoubtthatCamdenreceived his information about Cornwall direct from Carew before CarewsldquoSurveyofCornwallrdquowaspublished
After speaking of ldquothe countrie of Lionesse which the sea hath ravined fromCornwallbetweenethelandsendandtheIslesofScilleyrdquoCarewcontinues(p3)ldquoMoreover theancientnameofSaintMichaelsMountwasCara-clowse inCowse in English [pg 323] The hoare Rocke in theWood which now is ateverie floud incompassed by the Sea and yet at some low ebbes rootes ofmightie trees are discryed in the sands about it The like overflowing hathhappened in Plymmouth Haven and divers other placesrdquo Now while in thisplace Carew gives the name Cara-clowse in Cowse it is very important toremarkthatonpage154hespeaksofitagainasldquoCaraCowzinClowzethatisthehoarerockinthewoodrdquo
TheoriginalCornishnamewhetheritwasCaraclowseinCowseorCaraCowzinClowzecannotbetracedbackbeyondtheendofthesixteenthcenturyfortheCornishPilchardsonginwhichthenamelikewiseoccursismuchmorerecentat least in that form in which we possess it The tradition however that StMichaelsMount stood in a forest and even theSaxondesignation ldquotheHoarrockinthewoodrdquocanbefolloweduptoanearlierdate
At least one hundred and twenty-five years before Carews time William ofWorcester thoughnotmentioningtheCornishnamenotonlygives theMountthe name of ldquohoar rock of the woodrdquo but states distinctly that St MichaelsMountwasformerlysixmilesdistantfromtheseaandsurroundedbyadenseforest ldquoPREDICTUS LOCUS OPACISSIMA PRIMO CLAUDEBATURSYLVA AB OCEANO MILIARIBUS DISTANS SEXrdquo As William ofWorcester nevermentions theCornishname it is not likely that his statementshouldmerelybederivedfromthesupposedmeaningofCaraCowzinClowzeand it is but fair to admit that he may have drawn from a safer source ofinformationWemust thereforeinquiremorecloselyintothecredibilityof thisimportant witness He is an important witness for if it were not for him Ibelieveweshouldnever[pg324]haveheardof the insulationofStMichaelsMountatallThepassageinquestionoccursinWilliamofWorcestersItinerarytheoriginalMSofwhichispreservedinCorpusChristiCollegeatCambridgeIt was printed at Cambridge by James Nasmith in the year 1778 from theoriginalMSbutasitwouldseemwithoutmuchcareWilliamBotonerorasheiscommonlycalledWilliamofWorcesterwasbornatBristolin1415andeducatedatOxfordabout1434HewasamemberoftheAulaCervinawhichatthattimebelongedtoBalliolCollegeHisldquoItinerariumrdquoisdated1478Ithardlydeserves the grand title which it bears ldquoItinerarium sive liber memorabiliumWillWinviagiodeBristolusqueadmontemStMichaelisrdquoItisnotabookoftravelsinoursenseofthewordanditwashardlydestinedforthepublicintheforminwhichwepossess it It issimplyanotebookinwhichWilliamenteredanythingthatinterestedhimduringhisjourneyanditcontainsnotonlyhisownobservations but all sorts of extracts copies notices thrown togetherwithoutany connecting thread He hardly tells us that he has arrived at StMichaelsMountbeforehebeginstocopyanoticewhichhefoundpostedupinthechurchThisnoticeinformedallcomersthatPopeGregoryhadremittedathirdoftheirpenancestoallwhoshouldvisitthischurchandgivetoitbenefactionsandalmsItcanbefullyprovedthatthisnoticewhichwasintendedtoattractpilgrimsandvisitors repeats ipsissimisverbis thecharterofLeofricBishopofExeterwhoexemptedthechurchandconventfromallepiscopaljurisdictionThiswasintheyear 1088 when St Michaels Mount was handed over by Robert Earl ofMortain half-brother ofWilliam theConqueror to theAbbey of St [pg 325]Michel in Normandy This charter may be seen in Dr Olivers ldquoMonasticonDiocesisExoniensisrdquo1846ThepassagecopiedbyWilliamofWorcesterfromanotice in the church of StMichaelsMount occurs at the end of the originalcharter ldquoEt omnibus illis qui illam ecclesiam suis cum beneficiis elemosinisexpetierintetvisitaverinttertiampartempenitentiarumcondonamusrdquo
ThoughitisnotquitecorrecttosaythatthiscondonationwasgrantedbyPopeGregoryyetitisperfectlytruethatitwasgrantedbytheBishopofExeteratthecommand and exhortation of the Pope ldquoJussione et exhortatione dominireverentissimi Gregoriirdquo The date also given by William 1070 cannot becorrect forGregory occupied the papal throne from 1073-86 It wasGregoryVIInotGregoryVIasprintedbyDrOliver
Immediately after this memorandum inWilliams diary we meet with certainnoteson the apparitionsofStMichaelHedoesnot say fromwhat sourcehetakeshisinformationonthesubjectbutwemaysupposethatheeitherrepeatedwhatheheardfromthemonksinconversationorthathecopiedfromsomeMSintheirlibraryIneithercaseitisstartlingtoreadthattherewasanapparitionoftheArchangelStMichaelinMountTumbaformerlycalledtheHorerockinthewoddStMichaelseemsindeedtohavepaidfrequentvisitstohisworshippersif we may trust the ldquoChronicon apparitionum et gestorum S MichaelisArchangelirdquopublishedbyMichNaveusin1632YethisvisitswerenotmadeatrandomandevenNaveusfindsitdifficulttosubstantiateanyapparitionofStMichaelsofarnorthasCornwallexceptbyinvectivesagainsttheimpudentaetignorantiaofProtestanthereticswhodaredtodoubtsuchoccurrences
[pg326]But this short sentence of William contains one word which is of greatimportance for our purposes He says that ldquothe Hore-rock in the woddrdquo wasformerlycalledTumbaIsthereanyevidenceofthis
ThenameTumbaasfarasweknowbelongedoriginallytoMontStMichelinNormandyThereafamousandfarbetterauthenticatedapparitionofStMichaelis related to have taken place in the year 708which led to the building of achurchandmonasterybyAutbertBishopofAvranchesThechurchwasbuiltinclose imitation of the Church of St Michael in Mount Garganus in Apuliawhichhad been founded as early as 49391 If thereforeWilliamofWorcesterrelatesanapparitionofStMichaelinCornwallataboutthesamedatein710itis clear thatMont StMichel inNormandy has here been confounded by himwithStMichaelsMountinCornwallInordertoexplainthisstrangeconfusionandtheconsequenceswhichitentaileditwillbenecessarytobearinmindthepeculiar relationswhich existed between the two ecclesiastical establishmentsperchedtheoneontheislandrockofStMichelinNormandytheotheronStMichaels Mount in Cornwall In physical structure there is a curiousresemblancebetweenthetwomountsBotharegraniteislandsandbothsonear
thecoastthatatlowwateradrypassageisopentothemfromthemainlandTheMounton theNormancoast is larger andmoredistant from thecoast thanStMichaels Mount yet for all that their general likeness is very striking NowMont St Michel was called Tumba at least as far back as the tenth centuryMabillon inhis ldquoAnnalesBenedictinirdquo (vol ii p 18) quotes froman ancientauthorthefollowingexplanation[pg327]ofthenameldquoNowthisplacetousethe words of an ancient author is called Tumba by the inhabitants becauseemergingas itwere from the sands like ahill it risesupby the spaceof twohundredcubitseverywheresurroundedbytheoceanitissixmilesdistantfromtheshorebetweenthemouthsoftheriversSegiaandSenunasixmilesdistantfromAvrancheslookingwestwardanddividingAvranchesfromBrittanyHeretheseabyitsrecessallowstwiceapassagetothepiouspeoplewhoproceedtothethresholdofStMichaeltheArchangelrdquoldquoHicigiturlocusutverbisantiquiautoris utarTumba vocitatur ab incolis ideo quod inmorem tumuli quasi abarenisemergensadaltumSPATIODUCENTORUMCUBITORUMporrigiturOCEANOUNDIQUECINCTUSSEXMILLIBUSABAEligSTUOCEANIinterostia situs ubi immergunt semari flumina Segia (Seacutee) et Senuna (Selure) abAbrincatensi urbe (Avranches) sex distans millibus oceanum prospectansAbrincatensempagumdirimitaBritanniaIllicmaresuorecessudevotispopulisdesideratumbispraeligbetiterpetentibusliminabeatiMichaelisarchangelirdquo
ThisfixesTumbaas thenameofMontStMichelbefore the tenthcentury fortheancientauthor fromwhomMabillonquoteswrotebefore themiddleof thetenthcenturyandbeforeDukeRichardhadreplacedthepriestsofStMichelbyBenedictine monks Tumba remained in fact the recognized name of theNormanMountandhassurvivedtothepresentdayThechurchandmonasterytherewerecalledldquoinmonteTumbardquoorldquoadduasTumbasrdquotherebeinginrealitytwo islands the principal one called Tumba the smaller Tumbella orTumbellana This name ofTumbellana was afterwards changed into [pg 328]tumbaHelenaeliggivingrisetovariouslegendsaboutElaineoneoftheheroinesof the Arthurian cycle nay the name was cited by learned antiquarians as aproofoftheancientworshipofBelusinthesenorthernlatitudes
ThehistoryofMontStMichelinNormandyiswellauthenticatedparticularlyduring the period which is of importance to us Mabillon quoting from thechroniclerwhowrotebeforethemiddleofthetenthcenturyrelateshowAutberttheBishopofAvrancheshadavisionandafterhavingbeenthriceadmonishedbyStMichaelproceededtobuildonthesummitoftheMountachurchunderthepatronageoftheArchangelThiswasin708orpossiblyafewyearsearlier
ifPagiusisrightinfixingthededicationofthetemplein70792Mabillonpointsout that this chronicler says nothing as yet of the miracles related by laterwriters particularly of the famous hole in the Bishops skull which it wasbelievedStMichaelhadmadewhenonexhortinghimthethirdtimetobuildhischurch he gently touched him with his archangelic finger In doing this thefinger went through the skull and left a hole The perforated skull did notinterferewiththeBishopshealthanditwasshownafterhisdeathasavaluablerelic The new church was dedicated by Autbert himself and the day of thededication(xviiKalendNovemb)wascelebratednotonlyinFrancebutalsoinEnglandas isshownbyadecreeof theSynodheldatOxfordin1222ThefurtherhistoryofthechurchandmonasteryofStMichelmaybereadwithallitsminutedetails inMabillonor in theldquoNeustriaPiardquo (p 371) or in the ldquoGalliaChristianardquo(volixp[pg329]517E870A)WhatisofinteresttousisthatsoonaftertheConquestwhentheecclesiasticalpropertyofEnglandhadfallenintothehandsofherNormanconquerorsRobertEarlofMortainandCornwallthe half-brother of William the Conqueror endowed the Norman with theCornish Mount A priory of Benedictine monks had existed on the CornishMount for some time and had been richly endowed in 1044 by Edward theConfessorNay ifwemay trust thecharterofEdward theConfessor itwouldseemthatevenatthattimetheCornishMountanditsprioryhadbeengrantedbyhimto theNormanAbbeyfor thecharter iswitnessedbyNormanbishopsand its original is preserved in the Abbey of Mont St Michel In that caseWilliamtheConquerororhishalf-brotherRobertwouldonlyhaverestoredtheCornishpriory to its rightfulowners themonksofMontStMichelwhohadwell deserved the gratitude of the Conqueror by supplying him after theConquest with six ships and a number of monks destined to assist in therestoration of ecclesiastical discipline in England After that time the Cornishpriory shared the fate of other so-called alien priories or cells The priorwasbound to visit in person or by proxy themother-house every year and to paysixteenmarksofsilverasanacknowledgmentofdependenceWheneverawarbrokeoutbetweenEnglandandFrancetheforeignpriorieswereseizedthoughsome and among them the priory of StMichaelsMount obtained in time adistinct corporate character and during the reigns of Henry IV andHenryVwereexemptedfromseizureduringwar
Under these circumstances we can well understand how in the minds of themonkswhospent their lives [pg330]partly in themother-house partly in itsdependenciestherewasnoveryclearperceptionofanydifferencebetweenthefoundersbenefactorsandpatronsofthesetwinestablishmentsAmonkbrought
up atMont StMichel would repeat as an oldman the legends he had heardaboutStMichelandBishopAutberteventhoughhewasendinghisdaysintheprioryoftheCornishMountRelicsandbookswouldlikewisetravelfromoneplacetotheotherandacharteroriginallybelongingtotheonemightafterwardsformpartofthearchivesofanotherhouse
After these preliminary remarks let us look again at the memoranda whichWilliamofWorcestermadeatStMichaelsMountanditwillappearthatwhatwe anticipated has actually happened and that a book originally belonging toMont St Michel in Normandy and containing the early history of thatmonasterywastransferred(eitherintheoriginalorinacopy)toCornwallandthere used by William of Worcester in the belief that it contained the earlyhistoryoftheCornishMountandtheCornishpriory
The Memorandum of William of Worcester runs thus ldquoApparicio SanctiMichaelisinmonteTumbaanteavocataleHore-rokinthewoddetfuerunttamboscus quarn prata et terra arabilis inter dictummontem et insulas Syllye etfuerunt140ecclesiasparochialesinteristummontemetSyllysubmersse
ldquoPrimaapparicioSanctiMichaelisinmonteGorgoninregnoApuliaefuitannoChristi 391 Secunda apparicio fuit circa annum domini 710 in Tumba inCornubiajuxtamare
ldquoTertia apparicio Romaelig fuit tempore Gregorii papaelig legitur accidisse namtemporemagnaeligpestilenciaeligetc
[pg331]ldquoQuartaappariciofuitinierarchiisnostrorumangelorum
ldquoSpacium loci mentis Sancti Michaelis est DUCENTORUM CUBITORUMUNDIQUEOCEANOCINCTUM et religiosimonachi dicti loci AbrincensisantistesAubertusnomineutinhonoreSanctiMichaelisconstrueretpredictusLOCUS OPACISSIMA PRIMO CLAUDEBATUR SYLVA AB OCEANOMILIARIBUSDISTANSSEX aptissimam prasbens latebram ferarum in quolocoolimcomperimusMONACHOSdominoservientesrdquo
Thetextissomewhatcorruptandfragmentarybutmaybetranslatedasfollowsmdash
ldquoTheapparitionofStMichael in theMountTumbaformerlycalledtheHore-
rockinthewoddandtherewereaforestandmeadowsandarablelandbetweenthe said mount and the Syllye Isles and there were 140 parochial churchesswallowedbytheseabetweenthatmountandSylly
ldquoThefirstapparitionofStMichaelinMountGorgonintheKingdomofApuliawasintheyear391Thesecondapparitionwasabouttheyear710inTumbainCornwallbythesea
ldquoThe third apparition is said to have happened at Rome in the time of PopeGregoryforatthetimeofthegreatpestilenceetc
ldquoThefourthapparitionwasinthehierarchiesofourangels
ldquoThespaceofStMichaelsMountis200cubitsitiseverywheresurroundedbythe sea and there are religious monks of that place The head of AbrincaAubertus by name that he might erect a church93 in [pg 332] honor of StMichael The aforesaid placewas at first enclosed by a very dense forest sixmiles distant from the ocean furnishing a good retreat for wild animals InwhichplaceweheardthatformerlymonksservingtheLordrdquoetc
The onlyway to explain this jumble is to suppose thatWilliam ofWorcestermadetheseentriesinhisdiarywhilewalkingupanddownintheChurchofStMichaelsMountandlisteningtooneofthemonksreadingtohimfromaMSwhich had been brought from Normandy and referred in reality to the earlyhistoryoftheNormanbutnotoftheCornishMountThefirstlineldquoApparicioSanctiMichaelisinmonteTumbardquowasprobablythetitleortheheadingoftheMS ThenWilliam himself added ldquoantea vocata le Hore-rok in the woddrdquo anamewhichheevidentlyheardonthespotandwhichnodoubtconveyedtohimthe impression that the rock had formerly stood in the midst of a wood ForinsteadofcontinuinghisaccountoftheapparitionsofStMichaelhequotesatradition in supportof the formerexistenceofa forest surrounding theMountOnly strange to say instead of producing the evidence which he producedafterwardsinconfirmationofStMichaelsMounthavingbeensurroundedbyadenseforestheheregivesthetraditionaboutLionessethesunkenlandbetweenthe Lands End and the Scylly Isles This is evidently amistake for no otherwritereversupposed thesunken landofLionesse tohavereachedasfarasStMichaelsMount
ThenfollowstheentryaboutthefourapparitionsofStMichaelHerewemust
readldquoinmonteGarganordquoinsteadofldquoinmonteGorgonrdquoOpinionsvaryastotheexactdateof theapparition inMountGarganus [pg333] in theSouthof Italybut391iscertainlyfartooearlyandhastobechangedinto491or493Inthesecondapparitionall isright ifweleaveoutldquoinCornubiajuxtamarerdquowhichwasaddedeitherbyWilliamorbythemonkwhowasshowinghimthebookItrefers to thewell-knownapparitionofStMichaelatAvranchesThe thirdandfourthapparitionsareofnoconsequencetous
AswereadonwecomenexttoWilliamsownmeasurementsfixingtheextentofStMichaelsMountattwohundredcubitsAfterthatwearemetbyapassagewhichthoughithardlyconstruescanbeunderstoodinonesenseonlynamelyasgivinganaccountoftheAbbeyofStMichelinNormandyIsupposeitisnottoo bold if I recognize inAubertusAutbertus and inAbrincensis antistes theAbrincatensisepiscopusorantistestheBishopofAvranches
Now it iswell known that theMontStMichel inNormandywas believed tohave been originally surrounded by forests andmeadowsDuMoustier in theldquoNeustriaPiardquorelates(p371)ldquoHaeligcrupesantiquitusMonseratcinctussylvisetsaltibusrdquoldquoThisrockwasofoldamountsurroundedbyforestsandmeadowsrdquoButthisisnotallIntheoldchronicleofMontStMichelquotedbyMabillonwhichwaswrittenbefore themiddleof the tenth century the sameaccount isgiven and if we compare that account with the words used by William ofWorcesterwecannolongerdoubtthattheoldchronicleoritmaybeacopyofithadbeenbroughtfromFrancetoEnglandandthatwhatwasintendedforadescriptionoftheNormanabbeyanditsneighborhoodwastakenintentionallyorunintentionallyasadescriptionoftheCornishMountThesearethewordsofthe Norman chronicler as [pg 334] quoted by Mabillon compared with thepassageinWilliamofWorcestermdash
MontStMichel StMichaelsMountldquoAdditidemauctorhunclocumOPACISSIMAOLIMSILVACLAUSUMfuisseetMONACHOSIBIDEMINHABITASSEduasqueadsuumusquetempusexstitisseecclesiasquasilliscilicetmonachiincolebantrdquo
ldquoPredictusLOCUSOPACISSIMAOLIMCLAUDEBATURSylvaaboceanomiliaribusdistanssexaptissimampraeligbenslatebramferaruminquolocoolimcomperimusMONACHOSDOMINOSERVIENTESrdquo
ldquoThe same author adds that this placewas formerly inclosed by a very denseforestandthatmonksdweltthereandthattwochurchesexistedthereuptohisowntimewhichthosemonksinhabitedrdquo
The words CLAUSUM OPACISSIMA SILVA are decisive The phrase ABOCEANOMILIARIBUSDISTANSSEXtoois takenfromanearlierpassageofthesameauthorquotedabovewhichpassagemaylikewisehavesuppliedtheidentical phrases OCEANO UNDIQUE CINCTUS and the SPATIUMDUCENTORUMCUBITORUMwhich are hardly applicable to StMichaelsMountTheldquotwochurchesstillexistinginMontStMichelrdquohadtobeleftoutfortherewasnotraceoftheminStMichaelsMountButthemonkswholivedinthemwereretainedandtogivealittlemorelifethewildbeastswereaddedEventheexpressionofantistesinsteadofepiscopusoccursintheoriginalwherewe read ldquoHaeligc loci facies erat ante sancti Michaelis apparitionem hoc annofactam religiosissimo Autberto Abrincatensi episcopo admonentis se velle utsibi in ejus montis vertice ecclesia sub ipsius patrocinio erigeretur HaeligrentiANTISTITItertioidemintimatumrdquoetc
Thus vanishes the testimony of William of Worcester so often quoted byCornish antiquarians as to the dense forest by which StMichaelsMount inCornwall [pg 335]was once surrounded and all the evidence that remains tosubstantiate the former presence of trees on and around theCornishMount isreduced to the name ldquotheHoar rock in thewoodrdquo given byWilliam and theCornish names ofCara clowse in Cowse orCara Cowz in Clowze given byCarewHowmuchorhowlittledependencecanbeplacedonoldCornishnamesof places and their supposed meaning has been shown before in the case ofMarazionCarewcertainlydidnotunderstandCornishnordidthepeoplewithwhomhehadintercourseandthereisnodoubtthathewrotedowntheCornishnamesasbesthecouldandwithoutanyattemptatdeciphering theirmeaningHewastoldthatldquoCaraclowseinCowserdquomeanttheldquoHoarrockintheWoodrdquoandhehadnoreasontodoubtitEvenaverysmallknowledgeofCornishwouldhaveenabledCareworanybodyelseathistimetofindoutthatcowzmightbemeant for the Cornish word for wood and that careg was rockClowse toomight easily be taken in the sense of gray as gray inCornishwasglosThenwhyshouldwehesitate toacceptCaraclowseincowseas theancientCornishnameoftheMountandwhyobjecttoMrPengellysargumentthatitmusthavebeengivenatatimewhentheMountwassurroundedbyaverydenseforestandthatafortioriatthatdistantperiodCornishmusthavebeenthespokenlanguageofCornwall
Thefirstobjection is that theoldword forldquowoodrdquo inCornishwascuitwith afinaltandthatthechangeofafinaltintozisaphoneticcorruptionwhichtakesplaceonlyinthelaterstageoftheCornishlanguageTheancientCornishcuitldquowoodrdquo occurs in Welsh as coed in Armorican as koat and koad and issupposed to exist in Cornish names of places such as Penquite [pg 336]Kilquite etc Cowz therefore could not have occurred in a Cornish namesupposedtohavebeenformedatleast2000ifnot20000yearsago
This thrustmight no doubt be parried by saying that the nameof theMountwouldnaturallychangewith thegeneral changesof theCornish languageYetthisisnotalwaysthecasewithpropernamesasmaybeseenbythenamesjustquotedPenquiteandKilquiteAt all eventswebegin to seehowuncertain isthegroundonwhichwestand
IfwetakethefactsscantyanduncertainastheyarewemayadmitthatatthetimeofWilliamofWorcestertheMounthadmostlikelyaLatinaCornishandaSaxonappellationIt iscuriousthatWilliamshouldsaynothingofaCornishnamebutonlyquotetheSaxononeHoweverthisSaxonnameldquotheHoarrockin the Woodrdquo sounds decidedly like a translation and is far too long andcumbrousforacurrentnameMichelstow ismentionedbyothersas theSaxonnameof theMount (Naveusp233)TheLatinnamegiven to theMountbutonlyafterithadbecomeadependencyofMontStMichelinNormandywasaswe saw fromWilliam of Worcesters diaryMons Tumba orMons Tumba inCornubia and after his time the name of St Michael in Tumbacirc or inMonteTumbacirc is certainly used promiscuously for theCornish andNormanmounts94Now tumba after [pg 337]meaning hillock became the recognized name fortombandthemediaeligvalLatintumbatoowasalwaysunderstoodinthatsenseIf therefore thenameldquoMons in tumbardquohad toberendered inCornishfor thebenefitof theCornish-speakingmonksof theBenedictinepriory tumbawouldactually be taken in the sense of tomb One form of the Cornish name aspreservedbyCarewisCaracowzinclowzeandthisifinterpretedwithoutanypreconceivedopinionwouldmeaninCornishldquotheoldrockofthetombrdquoCarastands for carak a rock Cowz is meant for coz the modern Cornish andArmorican form corresponding to the ancientCornish coth old95Clowze is amodern and somewhat corrupt form in Cornish corresponding to the Welshclawdh a tombCladh-va in Cornishmeans a burying-place and cluddu toburyhasbeenpreservedasaCornishverbcorrespondingtotheWelshcladhuIn Gaelic too cladh is a tomb or burying-place and in Armorican whichgenerally follows the same phonetic changes as theCornishwe actually find
kleuzandklocirczfortomborinclosure(SeeLeGonidecldquoDictBreton-Franccedilaisrdquos v)The enmight either be theCornish preposition yn or itmay have beenintended for the article in the genitive an The old rock in the tomb ie intumbacirc or the old rock of the tomb Cornish carag goz an cloz would beintelligibleandnaturalrenderingsoftheLatinMonsintumba
But though this would fully account for the origin of the Cornish name aspreservedbyCarewitwouldstillleavetheSaxonappellationtheldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquounexplainedHowcouldWilliamofWorcester[pg338]havegotholdofthisnameLetusrememberthatWilliamdoesnotmentionanyCornishnameoftheMountandthatnothingiseversaidathistimeoftheldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquo being a translation of an old Cornish name All we know is that themonks of theMount used that name and it is hardly likely that so long andcumbrous a name should ever have been used much by the people in theneighborhoodHowthemonksofStMichaelsMountcametocall theirplacetheldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquoatthetimeofWilliamofWorcesterandprobablylongbeforehistimeishowevernotdifficulttoexplainafterwehaveseenhowthey transferred the traditionswhich originally referred toMont StMichel totheirownmonasteryHavingtoldthestoryoftheldquosylvaopacissimardquobywhichtheirmountwasformerlysurroundedtomanyvisitorsastheytoldittoWilliamofWorcester thenameof theldquoHorerock in thewoddrdquomighteasilyspringupamong them andbekeptupwithin thewallsof their prioryNor is there anyevidencethatinthispeculiarformthenameeverspreadbeyondtheirwallsButitispossiblethatheretoolanguagemayhaveplayedsometricksThenumberofpeoplewhousedthesenamesandkeptthemalivecanneverhavebeenlargeand hence theywere exposedmuchmore to accidents arising from ignoranceandindividualcapricethannamesofvillagesortownswhichareinthekeepingofhundredsandthousandsofpeopleThemonksofStMichaelsMountmayintimehaveforgottentheexactpurportofldquoCaracowzinclowzerdquoldquotheoldrockofthe tombrdquo really the ldquoMons in tumbardquo and theirminds being full of the oldforestbywhich theybelieved their island likeMontStMichel tohavebeenformerlysurrounded[pg339]whatwonderifcaracowzinclowzeglidedawayinto cara clowse in cowze and thus came to confirm the old tradition of theforestForcowzwouldatoncebetakenasthemodernCornishwordforwoodcorrespondingtotheoldCornishcuitwhileclowsemightwithalittleeffortbeidentifiedwith theCornishglosgray theArmoricanglacirczCarew it shouldbeobservedsanctionsbothformstheoriginalonecaracowzinclowzeldquotheoldrockof the tombrdquoand theothercaraclowse in cowzemeaningpossiblyldquothegrayrockinthewoodrdquoThesoundofthetwoissolikethatparticularlytothe
peoplenotveryfamiliarwiththelanguagethesubstitutionofonefortheotherwouldcomeverynaturallyandasareasoncouldmoreeasilybegivenforthelatterthanfortheformernameweneednotbesurprisedifinthefewpassageswhere the name occurs after Carews time the secondary name apparentlyconfirming the monkish legend of the dense forest that once surrounded StMichaelsMountshouldhavebeenselectedinpreferencetotheformerwhichbuttoascholarandanantiquariansoundedvagueandmeaningless
If my object had been to establish any new historical fact or to support anynoveltheoryIshouldnothaveindulgedsofreelyinwhattoacertainextentmaybecalledmereconjectureButmyobjectwasonlytopointouttheuncertaintyofthe evidence which Mr Pengelly has adduced in support of a theory whichwould completely revolutionize our received views as to the early history oflanguageandthemigrationsoftheAryanraceAtfirstsighttheargumentusedby Mr Pengelly seems unanswerable Here is St Michaels Mount whichaccordingtogeologicalevidencemayformerlyhavebeenpart[pg340]of themainlandHere is anoldCornishname forStMichaelsMountwhichmeansldquothegray rock in thewoodrdquoSuchaname itmightwell be argued couldnothavebeengiventotheislandafterithadceasedtobeagrayrockinthewoodtherefore it must have been given previous to the date which geologicalchronologyfixesfortheinsulationofStMichaelsMountThatdatevariesfrom16000to20000yearsagoAndasthenameisCornishitfollowsthatCornish-speakingpeoplemusthavelivedinCornwallatthatearlygeologicalperiod
Nothing as I said could sound more plausible but before we yield to theargumentwemust surely ask Is there no otherway of explaining the namesCaracowzinclowzeandCaraclowseincowzeAndherewefindmdash
(1)ThatthelegendofthedenseforestbywhichtheMountwasbelievedtohavebeensurroundedexistedsofarasweknowbeforetheearliestoccurrenceoftheCornish name and that it owes its origin entirely to a mistake which can beaccountedforbydocumentaryevidenceAlegendtoldofMontStMichelhadbeentransferredipsissimisverbistoStMichaelsMountandthemonksofthatprioryrepeatedthestorywhichtheyfoundintheirchronicletoallwhocametovisit their establishment in Cornwall They told the name among others toWilliamofWorcesterandtopreventanyincredulityonhisparttheygavehimchapter and verse from their chronicle which he carefully jotted down in hisdiary96
[pg341](2)WefindthatwhentheCornishnamefirstoccursitlendsitselfinoneformtoaverynaturalinterpretationwhichdoesnotgivethemeaningofldquoHorerockin thewoddrdquobut shows thenameCaracowz in clowze tohavebeena literalrenderingoftheLatinnameldquoMonsintumbardquooriginallythenameofMontStMichelbutatanearlydateappliedincharterstoStMichaelsMount
(3)WefindthatthesecondformoftheCornishnamenamelycaraclowseincowzemayeitherbeamerelymetamorphiccorruptionofcaracowzinclowzereadilysuggestedandsupportedbythenewmeaningwhichityieldedofldquograyrockinthewoodrdquoorevenifweacceptitasanoriginalnamethatitwouldbenomore thananameframedby theCornish-speakingmonksof theMount inordertoembodythesamespurioustraditionwhichhadgivenrisetothenameofldquoHorerockinthewoddrdquo
Ineedhardlyadd that in thusarguingagainstMrPengellysconclusions Idonot venture to touch his geological arguments StMichaelsMountmay havebeenunitedwiththemainlanditmayforallweknowhavebeensurroundedbyadenseforestanditmaybeperfectlypossiblegeologicallytofixthedatewhenthatforestwasdestroyedandtheMountseveredsofarasitisseveredfromtheCornishcoastAllIprotestagainstisthatanyoneofthesefactscouldbeprovedor even supported by theCornish name of theMountwhether cara cowz inclowze or cara clowse in cowze or by the English name communicated byWilliamofWorcesterldquothe[pg342]Hore rock in thewoddrdquoor finallyby thelegend which gave rise to these names and which as can be proved byirrefragable evidence was transplanted by mistake from the Norman to theCornishcoastTheonlyquestionwhichinconclusionIshouldliketoaddresstogeologists isthisAsgeologistsareobligedtoleaveitdoubtfulwhethertheinsulationofStMichaelsMountwasduetothewashingofthesea-shoreortoageneralsubsidenceofthecountrymayitnothavebeenduetoneitherofthesecausesandmaynottheMounthavealwaysbeenthatkindofhalf-islandwhichitcertainlywastwothousandyearsago
1867
[pg343]
XVIBUNSEN97
OursisnodoubtaforgetfulageEverydaybringsneweventsrushinginuponusfromallpartsoftheworldandthehoursofrealrestwhenwemightponderoverthepastrecallpleasantdaysgazeagainonthefacesofthosewhoarenomore are few indeed Men and women disappear from this busy stage andthough for a time they had been the radiating centres of social political orliterarylifetheirplacesaresoontakenbyothersmdashldquotheplacethereofshallknowthem nomorerdquo Few only appear again after a time claiming oncemore ourattentionthroughthememoirsoftheirlivesandtheneitherflittingawayforeveramongtheshadesofthedepartedorassumingafreshapoweroflifeaplaceinhistoryandaninfluenceonthefutureoftenmorepowerfuleventhanthatwhichtheyexercisedon theworldwhile living in itTocall thegreat andgood thusback from thegrave is no easy task it requires not only thepowerof avatessacer but theheartof a loving friendFew [pg344]men live great and goodlivesstillfewercanwritethemnayoftenwhentheyhavebeenlivedandhavebeen written the world passes by unheeding as crowds will pass without aglance by the portraits of a Titian or aVanDykeNow and then however abiographytakesrootandthenactsasalessonasnootherlessoncanactSuchbiographies have all the importance of anEcceHomo showing to the worldwhatmancanbeandpermanentlyraisingtheidealofhumanlifeItwassoinEnglandwiththelifeofDrArnolditwassomorelatelywiththelifeofPrinceAlbertitwillbethesamewiththelifeofBunsen
ItseemsbutyesterdaythatBunsenleftEnglandyetitwasin1854thathishouseinCarltonTerraceceasedtobetherefreshingoasisinLondonlifewhichmanystill remember and that the powerful thoughtful beautiful loving face of thePrussianAmbassadorwasseenforthelasttimeinLondonsocietyBunsenthenretired from public life and after spending six more years in literary workstruggling with death yet reveling in life he died at Bonn on the 28th ofNovember1860Hiswidowhasdevotedtheyearsofhersolitudetothenoble
workof collecting thematerials for a biographyof her husband andwehavenowintwolargevolumesallthatcouldbecollectedoratleastallthatcouldbeconveniently published of the sayings and doings of Bunsen the scholar thestatesmanandaboveallthephilosopherandtheChristianThroughoutthetwovolumes theoutwardeventsaresketchedbythehandof theBaronessBunsenbutthererunsasbetweenwoodedhillsthemainstreamofBunsensmindtheoutpouringsofhisheartwhichweregivensofreelyandfullyinhisletterstohisfriendsWhensuchmaterialsexist therecanbenomoresatisfactory [pg345]kind of biography than that of introducing the man himself speakingunreservedlytohismostintimatefriendsonthegreateventsofhislifeThisisanautobiographyinfactfreefromalldrawbacksHereandtherethatprocessitistrueentailsagreaterfullnessofdetailthanisacceptabletoordinaryreadershowever highly Bunsens own friends may value every line of his familiarletters But general readersmay easily pass over letters addressed to differentpersonsortreatingofsubjectslessinterestingtothemselveswithoutlosingthethreadofthestoryofthewholelifewhileitissometimesofgreatinteresttoseethe same subject discussed byBunsen in letters addressed to different peopleOneseriousdifficultyintheselettersisthattheyarenearlyalltranslationsfromthe German and in the process of translation some of the original charm isinevitably lostThe translationsarevery faithful and theydonot sacrifice thepeculiar turn of German thought to the requirements of strictly idiomaticEnglishEventhenarrativeitselfbetraysoccasionallytheGermanatmosphereinwhich it waswritten but thewhole book brings back all themore vividly tothosewhoknewBunsen the language and thevery expressionsof hisEnglishconversationThetwovolumesaretoobulkyandonesarmsachewhileholdingthemyetoneislothtoputthemdownandtherewillbefewreaderswhodonotregretthatmorecouldnothavebeentoldusofBunsenslife
Allreallygreatandhonestmenmaybesaidtolivethreelivesthereisonelifewhichisseenandacceptedbytheworldatlargeamansoutwardlifethereisasecond lifewhich is seenbyamansmost intimate friendshishousehold lifeandthereisathirdlifeseenonlybythemanhimselfandbyHim[pg346]whosearcheth the heart which maybe called the inner or heavenly life MostbiographersareandmustbesatisfiedwithgivingthetwoformeraspectsoftheirheroslifemdashtheversionoftheworldandthatofhisfriendsBothareimportantbothcontainsometruth thoughneitherof themthewholetruthButthereisathird lifea life led incommunionwithGoda lifeofaspiration rather thanoffulfillmentmdashthatlifewhichweseeforinstanceinStPaulwhenhesaysldquoThegoodthatIwouldIdonotbuttheevilwhichIwouldnotthatIdordquoIt isbut
seldomthatwecatchaglimpseofthosedeepspringsofhumancharacterwhichcannot rise to the surface even in themost confidential intercourse which inevery-daylifearehiddenfromamansownsightbutwhichbreakforthwhenheisalonewithhisGodinsecretprayermdashayeinprayerswithoutwordsHereliesthecharmofBunsenslifeNotonlydoweseethemanthefatherthehusbandthebrother that standsbehind theambassadorbutwe seebehind themanhisangelbeholding thefaceofhisFatherwhich is inheavenHisprayerspouredforth in the criticalmoments of his life have been preserved to us and theyshowuswhat theworldought toknow that our greatestmen can alsobeourbestmenandthatfreedomofthoughtisnotincompatiblewithsincerereligionThosewhoknewBunsenwellknowhowthatdeepreligiousundercurrentofhissoulwasconstantlybubblingupandbreakingforthinhisconversationsstartlingeventhemereworldlingbyanearnestnessthatfrightenedawayeverysmileItwassaidofhimthathecoulddriveoutdevilsandhecertainlycouldwithhissolemnyetlovingvoicesoftenheartsthatwouldyieldtonootherappealandseewithonelookthroughthatmask[pg347]whichmanwearsbuttooofteninthemasqueradeoftheworldHencehisnumerousandenduringfriendshipsofwhich these volumes contain so many sacred relics Hence that confidencereposedinhimbymenandwomenwhohadoncebeenbroughtincontactwithhimTothosewhocanseewiththeireyesonlyandnotwiththeirheartsitmayseemstrangethatSirRobertPeelshortlybeforehisdeathshouldhaveutteredthenameofBunsenTothosewhoknowthatEnglandoncehadprimeministerswho were found praying on their knees before they delivered their greatestspeechesSirRobertPeels recollectionor itmaybedesireofBunsen in thelastmomentsofhislifehasnothingstrangeBunsenslifewasnoordinarylifeandthememoirsofthatlifearemorethananordinarybookThatbookwilltellinEnglandandinGermanyfarmorethanintheMiddleAgesthelifeofanewsaintnoraretheremanysaintswhosereallifeifsiftedasthelifeofBunsenhasbeenwouldbearcomparisonwiththatnoblecharacterofthenineteenthcentury
Bunsenwasbornin1791atCorbachasmall towninthesmallprincipalityofWaldeck His father was poor but a man of independent spirit of moralrectitude and of deep religious convictions Bunsen the son of his old agedistinguishedhimselfatschoolandwassenttotheUniversityofMarburgattheageofseventeenAllhehadthentodependonwasanexhibitionofaboutpound7ayearandasumofpound15whichhisfatherhadsavedforhimtostarthiminlifeThismayseemasmallsumbutifwewanttoknowhowmuchofpaternalloveand self-denial it represented we ought to read an entry in his fathers diaryldquoAccountofcashreceiptsbyGodsmercy[pg348]obtainedfortranscribinglaw