thinking sills_robert fisher

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Robert

Fisher

Teaching thinking and creativity

Developing creative minds and creative futures
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Thinking Skills

Robert Fisher

A version of this paper is to be published in Arthur J, Grainger T &Wray D (eds) (in press)Learning to teach in primary school, Routledge

Faler

We need to think better if we are to become better people.Paul, aged10

Introduction

In recent years there has been growing interest across the world inways of developing childrens thinking and learning skills (Fisher

00!"# $his interest has been fed by new knowledge about how thebrain works and how people learn, and evidence that specificinterventions can i%prove childrens thinking and intelligence# $heparticular ways in which people apply their %inds to solving proble%sare called thinking skills# &any researchers suggest that thinking skillsare essential to effective learning, though not all agree on thedefinition of this ter%# If thinking is how children %ake sense oflearning then developing their thinking skills will help the% get %oreout of learning and life# $his chapter looks at the i%plications ofresearch into ways to develop thinking children, thinking classroo%sand thinking schools#

Objectives

$he ai%s of this chapter are to enable you to'

infor% your understanding of thinking skills and their role in learning

understand so%e key principles that e%erge fro% research into

teaching thinking

know the %ain approaches to developing childrens thinking

see how you %ight integrate a thinking skills approach into

classroo% teaching

)hat are thinking skills*

$hinking skills are not %ysterious entities e+isting so%ewhere in the%ind# or are they like %ental %uscles that have a physical presencein the brain# )hat the ter% refers to is the hu%an capacity to think inconscious ways to achieve certain purposes# -uch processes include
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re%e%bering, .uestioning, for%ing concepts, planning, reasoning,i%agining, solving proble%s, %aking decisions and /udge%ents,translating thoughts into words and so on# $hinking skills are ways inwhich hu%ans e+ercise the sapienspart of being homo sapiens#

skill is co%%only defined as a practical ability in doing so%ething orsucceeding in a task# sually we refer to skills in particular conte+ts,such as being good at cooking but they can also refer to generalareas of perfor%ance, such as having a logical %ind, good %e%ory,being creative and so on# thinking skill is a practical ability to think inways that are /udged to be %ore or less effective or skilled# $hey arethe habits of intelligent behaviour learned through practice, fore+a%ple children can beco%e better at giving reasons or asking.uestions the %ore they practice doing so#

If thinking skills are the %ental capacities we use to investigate theworld, to solve proble%s and %ake /udge%ents then to identify everysuch skill would be to enu%erate all the capacities of the hu%an %indand the list would be endless# &any researchers have atte%pted toidentify the key skills in hu%an thinking, and the %ost fa%ous of theseis 2loo%s $a+ono%y (see Fig 1"#

2loo%3s ta+ono%y of thinking skills (what he called the cognitive goalsof education" has been widely used by teachers in planning theirteaching# 4e identifies a nu%ber of basic or lower order cognitiveskills 5 knowledge, co%prehension and application, and a nu%ber of

higher order skills 6 analysis, synthesis and evaluation# $he followingare the various categories identified by 2loo% and processes involvedin the various thinking levels#

Blooms Taxonomy (-ource' 2loo% 7 8rathwohl 19!:"

Cognitive goal ------------------------- Thinking cues

1 8nowledge 55555555555555555555555555555-ay what you know, or re%e%ber,describe, (knowing and re%e%bering" repeat, define, identify, tell who,when, which, where, what

;o%prehension 5555555555555555555555


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proble%s, de%onstrate

> nalysis 55555555555555555555555555555555 )hat are the parts, the order, the

reasons why, (taking apart, being critical" thecauses?proble%s?solutions?conse.uences

! -ynthesis 55555555555555555555555555555 4ow %ight it be different, how else,what if, (connecting, being creative" suppose, put together, develop,i%prove, create your own

: @valuation 5555555555555555555555555555 4ow would you /udge it, does itsucceed, will it (/udging and assessing" work, what would you prefer,

why you think so

Aou could plan or analyse %any learning activities in ter%s of theabove categories# For e+a%ple when telling a story, a teacher %ightask the following kinds of .uestions,

1 8nowledge What happened in the story? ;o%prehension Why did it happen that way?= pplication What would you have done?> nalysis Which part did you like best?! -ynthesis Can you think of a different ending?

: @valuation What did you think of the story? Why?

2loo%s ta+ono%y built on earlier research by Piaget and Bygotskythat suggested that thinking skills and capacities are developed bycognitive challenge. $eachers need to challenge children to think %oredeeply and %ore widely and in %ore syste%atic and sustained ways#Cr as $o%, aged 10 put it' good teacher %akes you think ### evenwhen you dont want to# Cne way inwhich you, as a good teacher, cando this is by asking .uestions that challenge childrens thinking#

TASK 1: Questions for thinking

;hoose a story, poe%, te+t or topic that you would like to use withchildren as a sti%ulus for their thinking# sing 2loo%s $a+ono%ycreate a series of .uestions to think about and discuss after you haveshared the sti%ulus with the%# Dist your .uestions under 2loo%s si+categories' knowledge, co%prehension and application, analysis,synthesis and evaluation#


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h! are thinking skills i"#ortant$

$hinking skills are i%portant because %astery of the basics ineducation (literacy, %aths, science etc#", however well taught, are not

sufficient to fulfil hu%an potential, or to %eet the de%ands of thelabour %arket or of active citiEenship# ;ountries across the world arerecognising that a broad range of co%petencies are needed toprepare children for an unpredictable future# $hese higher orderthinking skills are re.uired, in addition to basic skills, becauseindividuals cannot store sufficient knowledge in their %e%ories forfuture use# Infor%ation is e+panding at such a rate that individualsre.uire transferable skills to enable the% to address different proble%sin different conte+ts at different ti%es throughout their lives# $heco%ple+ity of %odern /obs re.uires people who can co%prehend,

/udge and participate in generating new knowledge and processes#

&odern de%ocratic societies re.uire its citiEens to assi%ilateinfor%ation fro% %ultiple sources, deter%ine its truth and use it to%ake sound /udge%ents#

$he challenge is to develop educational progra%%es that enable allindividuals, not /ust an elite, to beco%e effective thinkers becausethese co%petencies are now re.uired of everyone# thinking skillsapproach suggests that learners %ust develop awareness ofthe%selves as thinkers and learners, practise strategies for effectivethinking and to develop the habits of intelligent behaviour that areneeded for lifelong learning# s Paul, aged 10, put it' )e need to think

better if we are going to beco%e better people#

hat does research tell us about thinking$

Research in cognitive science and psychology is providing a clearerpicture of the brain and the processes associated with thinking (-%ith00"# $his brain research has so%e i%portant i%plications forteachers# For e+a%ple we now know that %ost of the growth in thehu%an brain occurs in early childhood' by the age of si+, the brain in%ost children is appro+i%ately 90 of its adult siEe# $his i%plies thatintervention, while the brain is still growing, %ay be %ore effective

than waiting until the brain is fully developed# ;ognitive challenge isi%portant at all stages, but especially in the early years of education#

Psychologists and philosophers have helped to e+tend ourunderstanding of the ter% thinking, including the i%portance ofdis#ositions, such as attention and %otivation, co%%only associatedwith thinking (;la+ton 00"# $his has pro%pted a %ove away fro% asi%ple %odel of thinking skills as isolated cognitive capacities to a


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view of thinking as ine+tricably connected to e%otions anddispositions, including e%otional intelligence, which is our ability tounderstand our own e%otions and the e%otions of others (Gole%an199!"#

$here is also a growing realisation that we need to teach not onlycognitive skills and strategies but also develop the higher%etacognitive functions involved in %etacognition# $his involves%aking learners aware of the%selves as thinkers and how theyprocess?create knowledge by learning how to learn (see sections on-elf wareness in the Pri%ary ational -trategy, "#

%etacognitioninvolves thinking about ones own thinking#&etacognition includes knowledge of oneself, for e+a%ple of what oneknows, what one has learnt, what one can and cannot do and ways to

i%prove ones learning or achieve%ent# &etacognition also involvesskills of recognising proble%s, representing features of proble%s,planning what to do in trying to solve proble%s, %onitoring progressand evaluating the outco%es of ones own thinking or proble%5solvingactivity#

&etacognition is pro%oted by helping pupils to reflect on their thinkingand decision5%aking processes# &etacognition is developed whenpupils are helped to be strategic in organising their activities and areencouraged to reflect before, during and after proble%5solvingprocesses# $he i%plication is that you need to plan ti%e for debriefing

and review in lessons to encourage children to think about theirlearning and how to i%prove it# $his can be done through discussion ina plenary session, or by finding ti%e for reflective writing in their ownthinking or learning logs#

$he hu%an %ind is %ade up of %any faculties or capacities thatenable learning to take place# Cur general capacity for understandingor intelligencewas once thought to be innate and un%odifiable# s achild once put it' @ither youve got or you havent# $he notion ofinborn intelligence which do%inated educational practice until the %id50 th century was challenged by Bygotsky, Piaget and others who

developed a constructivist psychology based on a view of learners asactive creators of their own knowledge# -o%e researchers argue thatintelligence is not one generic capacity but is %ade up of %ultipleintelligences (Gardner 199="# 4oward Gardners theory of %ultipleintelligence has had a growing influence in recent years oneducational theory and practice, although not all are convinced of itsclai%s# )hether intelligence is viewed as one general capacity or%any, what researchers are agreed upon is that it is %odifiable and


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can be developed#

8ey principles that e%erge fro% this research include the need forteachers and carers to provide'

cognitive challenge, challenging childrens thinking fro% the earliest

years collaborative learning, e+tending thinking through working with

others

metacognitive discussion, reviewing what they think and how they

learn

$his research and the pioneering work of Feuerstein, who created of aprogra%%e called Instru%ental @nrich%ent, &atthew Dip%an, whofounded Philosophy for ;hildren, and other leading figures such as

@dward de 2ono, creator of lateral thinking, have inspired a widerange of curriculu% and progra%%e develop%ents (Fisher 199!"#$hese include a range of teaching approaches that you could use,including cognitive acceleration, brain5based approaches (such asaccelerated learning" and philosophical approaches that ai% atdeveloping the %oral and e%otional as well as intellectual aspects ofthinking 5 caring and collaborative as well as critical and creativethinking# $hese are discussed below#

2y the end of the twentieth century there was a widespread realisationthat key or core skills of thinking, creativity and proble%5solving lay

at the heart of successful learning and should be e%bedded in pri%aryand secondary school curricula# )hen the


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and conte+tualised %aterials, e+plicit pedagogy, teacher support andprogra%%e evaluation (p1="#

In @ngland the revised ational ;urriculu% (


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profor%a could be used for recording the evidence, such as the onebelow#

Identif!ing thinking skills

)hat thinking skills are being used or developed in this lesson*Identify e+a%ples of'

Infor"ation #rocessing

Finding relevant infor%ation

Crganising infor%ation

Representing or co%%unicating infor%ation

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

,easoning

Giving reasons

&aking inferences or deductions

rguing or e+plaining a point of view

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

'nuir!

sking .uestions

Planning research or study

@ngaging in en.uiry or process of finding outHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

HHH

Creative thinking

Generating ideas

I%agining or hypothesising


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# ;ognitive conflict creates a challenge for the %ind

=# -ocial construction dialogue with others, discussion that e+tendsthinking

># &etacognition reflection on how we tackled the proble%

!# 2ridging reviewing where else we can use this thinking and learning

;-@ lessons have also been developed for young children, calledDets $hinkK which ai%s to raise achieve%ent by developing Aear 1pupils3 general thinking patterns and teachers understanding ofchildrens thinking#


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)hat the Dets $hinkK approach ai%s to do is to accelerate cognitivedevelop%ent between two types of thinking# $he first type of thought iswhat Piaget (19!=" called pre5operational, when children still find itdifficult to engage in what adults perceive as rational thought# $he ne+t

stage, which Piaget described as concrete operational, involves%anipulating at least two ideas in order to produce a third, new idea,which is what the sessions encourage the children to do# Dets $hinkai%s to accelerate the transition between the two types of thought inorder to help pupils %ake better sense of their learning and i%provegeneral achieve%ent# $hey do this, as you %ight, by ensuring theirteaching includes cognitive challenge, collaborative activity andchildren thinking about how they think and learn#

$hinking %aths lessons for pri%ary children are part of a relatedpro/ect called ;&@ ( ;ognitive cceleration of &athe%atics

@ducation "# $hese lessons involve discussion5based tasks in %athsthat ai% to develop childrens conceptual thinking rather than the%echanics of doing the %aths# $hey differ fro% open5endedinvestigations in that each lesson has a specific concept to develop#$he activities are planned to generate group and whole classdiscussion rather than written work with an e%phasis on how did youget your answer rather than what is the answer# s the ;&@approach suggests if your e%phasis in teaching is' 4ow did you getyour answer* rather than Is your answer correct* it is a far %oreproductive way of generating childrens thinking and learning#

+0 2rain-based3 a##roaches

&any educationalists are influenced by recent research into how thehu%an brain works and draw on so%e of the i%plications of thisresearch for teachers and schools# ccelerated Dearning and &ultipleIntelligence approaches all draw on these broad ideas together withresearch into learning styles# $he co%%on feature is the reliance onbrain research to inspire teaching techni.ues in the classroo%#

$here are %any theories of learning styles# $hey are rooted in aclassification of psychological types and the fact that individuals tend

to process infor%ation differently# "#

Accelerated learning

ccelerated learning approaches include applying B8 5 visual,


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auditory and kinaesthetic learning styles to teaching # B8 stands for'

visual 6 learning best through pictures, charts, diagra%s, video, I;$

etc#

auditory 6 learning best through listening

kinaesthetic 6 learning best through being physically engaged in a

task

For e+a%ple in teaching her class to spell a word a teacher %ightshow the% how to chunk the word into three pieces, and e%phasisethis by using different colours for each section of the word and tovisualise it in their heads# -he %ight also ask the% to write the word inthe air with their fingers# ccelerated learning e%phasises thei%portance of including a range of learning e+periences, visual, verbaland physical, in your teaching, so that children are challenged to think

in different ways#

$hese and other brain5based teaching strategies such as 2rainGy%(which usesi%ple but challenging aerobic e+ercises to focus the %indand sti%ulate the brain" offer %uch scope for your own research in theclassroo%#

4e 2ono

ccording to @dward de 2ono we tend to think in restricted andpredictable ways# $o beco%e better thinkers we need to learn new

habits# 4is teaching strategy known as thinking hats helps learnerstry different approaches to thinking# @ach thinking hat represents adifferent way to think about a proble% or issue# ;hildren areencouraged to try on the different hats or approaches to a proble% togo beyond their usual thinking habits (de 2ono 1999"# $he hatsorthinking approaches, together with .uestions you %ight ask, are asfollows'

)hite hat N infor%ation What do we know?

Red hat N feelings What do we feel?

Purple hat N proble%s What are the drawbacks?

Aellow hat N positives What are the benefits?

Green hat N creativity What ideas have we got?


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2lue hat N control What are our aims?


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interesting or puEEling about the story# fter so%e .uiet thinking ti%ethe teacher asked for their co%%ents or .uestions, and writes eachchild3s .uestions on the board, adding their na%e after their .uestion#$he children then chose fro% the list of .uestions which one they

would like to discuss# $he teacher then invites the children toco%%ent, and who agreed or disagreed with particular co%%ents%ade# If children do not give reasons or evidence fro% the story fortheir opinions the teacher asked 3)hy do you think that*3 or 34ave yougot a reason for that*3

)hen asked the value of a 3-tories for $hinking3 lesson one child said'3Aou have to ask .uestions and think hard about the answers#3 nothersaid' 3-o%eti%es you change your %ind and so%eti%es you don3t# third reply was' 3It is better than /ust doing reading or writing becauseyou have to say what you really think#3 $eachers note that in 3-tories

for $hinking3 lessons, in which they %ay also uses poe%s, pictures,ob/ects or other te+ts for thinking, the children have beco%e %orethoughtful, better at speaking and listening to each other, at asking.uestioning and using the language of reasoning, %ore confident inposing creative ideas and in /udging what they and others think anddo and are %ore confident about applying their thinking to freshchallenges in learning and in life (Fisher 1999"#

What stories or other forms of stimulus could you use to really engage your

children in thinking? How could you create an enquiring classroom?

Task 5: Creating a thinking classroo"

What would a thinking classroom look like?

1# ;ollect words to describe what a thinking classroo% %ight look like#$hese %ight include so%e reference to the teachers behaviour,childrens behaviour, classroo% environ%ent or kinds of activity thathelp children to think and learn well#

# -ort your ideas into s%all groups and give each group a heading thatyou think appropriate#

=# ;hoose one idea fro% each group and consider how you could

develop this in your classroo%#

70 Teaching strategies across the curriculu"

growing nu%ber of progra%%es and strategies ai% to help teachersdevelop childrens thinking and learning across the curriculu%, suchas the $-; ($hinking ctively in a -ocial ;onte+t" and ;$-(ctivating ;hildrens $hinking -kills"# It is difficult to evaluate the


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success of these and other interventions because of the %anyvariables involved in the teaching situation# $here is %uch scope herefor your own research into teaching strategies in the classroo% and fordeveloping new strategies#

nu%ber of specific teaching strategies have been identified to helpsti%ulate childrens thinking in different sub/ect areas and %any ofthese are included in the Pri%ary ational -trategy guidance forteachers ("# For e+a%ple 3Cdd Cne Cut3 is a teachingtechni.ue to identify pupils3 understanding of key concepts in differentsub/ects# teacher %ight in a nu%eracy lesson put three nu%bers onthe board, such as 9, ! and 10M or in science three %aterialsM or in@nglish three characters to co%pare and contrast 5 then ask thechildren to choose the 3odd one out3 and to give a reason# $eacherswho use this strategy clai% it can reveal gaps in the knowledge that

she has taught and the knowledge and vocabulary that the childrenare then able to use# $he children think of it as a ga%e and are usedto thinking up e+a%ples and ideas which show their thinking indifferent curriculu% sub/ects# $his approach encourages creativethinking and reasoning (4iggins et al 001"# ;an you think of threethings and give reasons why one, two or each of the% %ight be theodd one out*

Concept mapping

&any approaches include the use of thinking diagra%s or graphic

organisers or concept %aps as an aid to %aking thinking visual ande+plicit#

;oncept %apping is an infor%ation5processing techni.ue with a longhistory# $ony 2uEan developed this techni.ue into a version he calls&ind &apping (2uEan 199="# ;oncept %aps are tools that help %akethinking visible 5 and involves writing down, or %ore co%%onlydrawing, a central idea and thinking up new and related ideas whichradiate out fro% the centre# 2y focussing on key ideas written down inchildrens own words, and then looking for branches out andconnections between the ideas, they are %apping knowledge in a

%anner which can help the% understand and re%e%ber newinfor%ation# si%ple concept %ap %ight be used to %ap out theconnections between characters in a story# ;hildren %ight also draw%aps fro% %e%ory to test what they re%e%ber or know# $eachershave found concept %aps helpful in finding out or revising whatchildren know and the techni.ue is especially popular when used inpairs or groups# ;hildren can learn fro% the techni.ue fro% an earlyage and %any find it %otivating# s one young child put it' ;oncept


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%apping gets you to think and try %ore# ;oncept %apping is a usefulteaching and revision techni.ue for e+tending thinking and %aking itvisually %e%orable (;aviglioni 7 4arris 000"#

)hen you are planning your ne+t topic or activity with children think ofways of %aking your own or your childrens thinking visible, fore+a%ple by creating a %ind%ap of a story, a process or collection ofideas#

Co"#uters and thinking

Research shows that there are several ways in which I;$ couldparticularly enhance the teaching and learning of thinking skills# $hereis evidence that the use of co%puters can lead to i%provedinfor%ation5processing skills# I;$ enables %ultiple and co%ple+

representations of infor%ation, allowing learners for e+a%ple to thinkwith a richer knowledge base# s a%es aged J said' I didnt knowthere was so %uch to knowK@ ducational software can act like a teacher to pro%pt and directen.uiry through asking .uestions, giving clues and suggestingavenues of investigation# It can also act as a resource while learnersdiscuss and e+plore ideas, pro%pting reflection around a si%ulationfor e+a%ple# etworks via the internet and including video5conferencing, can allow children to engage directly in collaborativelearning and knowledge sharing with others who are not physicallypresent#

$he %ain criticis% of the co%puter as a tutor %odel is that directedco%puter teaching does not allow children to be creative learners,able to think and %ake connections for the%selves, and so is unlikelyto support the develop%ent of higher order thinking# $his can betransfor%ed however by collaboration around I;$ activities, which hasbeen shown to have the potential to enhance the learning oftransferable thinking skills#

@ffective collaborative learning still needs to be structured# Dearnersshould be taught how to reason and learn together before they are

asked to work collaboratively with I;$, because having to articulateand e+plain strategies to others is %ore likely to lead to transfer than/ust doing things without thinking or talking the% through# For e+a%pleworking with DCGC, is not /ust %anipulating a screen turtle# It is aboutreasoning and developing effective proble% solving strategies that canbe achieved %uch better with a learning partner or s%all groupthrough discussion# In the lesson plenary, by reflecting on this processof collaborative proble% solving, the teacher can help children to


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bridge their thinking fro% their e+perience with Dogo or co%puterprogra% to different areas of the curriculu%#

;o%puters can help develop childrens thinking skills when used as

part of a larger dialogue about thinking and learning ()egerif 00" #$he challenge for you as a teacher is to find ways to use the co%puterto encourage thinking with and discussion between children#

Recent test results show that standards in schools are rising 6 butslowly# ;ould the teaching of thinking provide a key to raisingachieve%ent* $he e+perience of %any teachers suggests that whenpupils are taught the habits of effective thinking they grow inconfidence, their learning is enriched and they are better prepared toface the challenges of the future# ;hildren think so too 6 as rran,aged 9, put it' )hen you get out in the real world you have to think for

yourself, thats why we need to practise it in school#

Good teaching is about helping children to think for the%selves, whichis why it is both a challenge and an adventure#

TASK 7: 6lanning for teaching thinking

;hoose a teaching strategy or approach fro% published %aterials

which ai%s to develop childrens thinking skills# $hink how you %ight use this strategy or approach in a chosen area

of the curriculu%#

Plan a lesson which incorporates this strategy, identifying a specificthinking or learning skill in your lesson ob/ectives#

-hare your plan or teaching ideas with others#

$each and evaluate your lesson for thinkingK

Su""ar!

In recent years there has been %uch research into ways of developingchildrens thinking and learning skills# $his has been infor%ed bygrowing knowledge about how the brain works, how people learn andhow teaching approaches can help i%prove childrens ability to thinkand learn# $hinking skills is a ter% often used to refer to the %anycapacities involved in thinking and learning# $hese skills are seen asfunda%ental to lifelong learning, active citiEenship and e%otionalintelligence# Research shows that thinking is developed throughcognitive challenge and opportunities for collaborative work and%etacognitive discussion# -uccessful approaches to teaching thinking


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include cognitive acceleration, brain5based and philosophicalapproaches# $hese and other teaching strategies can help raisestandards of achieve%ent and create thinking children, thinkingclassroo%s and thinking schools#

,eferences

dey, P# and -hayer, (00" !earning "ntelligence2uckingha%'Cpen niversity Press

2loo%, 2# 7 8rathwohl,


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-tanley $hornes

Fisher R# (00!" ( nd ed" #eaching Children to !earn, ;heltenha%'-tanley $hornes

Gole%an < (199!" %motional "ntelligenceew Aork' 2anta%

Gardner 4 (199="M ,ultiple "ntelligences) #he theory in practice2asic2ooks ew AorkM

4iggins, -# 2au%field, B# 7 Deat, < (001" #hinking #hrough rimary#eaching;a%bridge' ;hris 8ington#

Dip%an, (00=" (nd @d#" #hinking in %ducation;a%bridge';a%bridge niversity Press

&cGuinness, ;# (1999" 2rom #hinking /kills to thinking classrooms) areview and evaluation of approaches for developing pupils thinking.Dondon'


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thinking sills_robert fisher

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