thesis writing.doc

8/14/2019 thesis writing.doc

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HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 1

Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Chapter 1 of a thesis shoul !o"tai" a is!ussio" of ea!h of the follo#i"$ topi!s%

I"tro u!tio"

State&e"t of the Pro'le&

Assu&ptio"s a" H(potheses

Si$"ifi!a"!e or I&porta"!e of the Stu (

Defi"itio"s of Ter&s

S!ope a" Deli&itatio" of the Stu (

Co"!eptual )ra&e#or*

The I"tro u!tio"

Guidelines in writing the introduction. The introduction of a thesis should containa discussion of any or all of the following:

1. Presentation of the problem. The start of the introduction is the presentation ofthe problem, that is, what the problem is all about. This will indicate what will becovered by the study.

2. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution.

. !ationale of the study. The reason or reasons why it is necessary to conduct thestudy must be discussed.


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". #istorical bac$ground of the problem. %or a historical bac$ground of theresearch problem of the teaching of science, the first satellite to orbit the earthsent aloft by !ussia may be mentioned

&. ' desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation,circumstance, or phenomenon. (f the teaching of science in the high schools ofProvince ' is the topic, the researcher must explain his earnest desire to have adeeper and clearer understanding of the situation so that he will be in a betterposition to initiate remedial measures.

). ' desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product. Theresearcher must also explain his desire to find a better way of teaching science inthe high schools of Province ' to improve the outcome of instruction.

*. ' desire to discover something. (n connection with the teaching of science in thehigh schools of Province ', the researcher may have the desire to discover whatis wrong with the instruction and a desire to discover better ways of teaching thesub+ect. #e may discuss his desire to discover such things.

. Geographical conditions of the study locale. This is necessary ananthropological and economic studies. (f the sub+ect of investigation is riceproduction, then the terrain, soil, climate, rainfall, etc. of the study locale have tobe described.

-. ' lin$ between the introduction and the statement of the problem. ' sentence ortwo should show the lin$ between the introduction and the conducting of theresearcher.

State&e"t of the Pro'le&

There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by thespecific uestions or subproblems into which the general problem is bro$en up.These are already formulated at the beginning of the study and so they should onlybe copied in this section.


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Assu&ptio"s a" H(potheses

#istorical and descriptive investigations do not need explicit hypotheses andassumptions. /nly experimental studies need expressly written assumptions andhypotheses. 0ince these are already formulated at the start of the experiment, theyare +ust copied in this section.

I&porta"!e or Si$"ifi!a"!e of the Stu (

The importance of the whole study must contain explanations or discussions ofany or all of the following:

1. The rationale, timeliness, and or relevance of the study. The rationale,timeliness, and or relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explainedor discussed. %or instance, a survey test in science reveals that the performanceof the students in the high schools of Province ' is poor. (t must be pointed outthat this is a strong reason why an investigation of the teaching of science in thesaid high schools is necessary. 'lso, the study is very timely and relevantbecause today, it is science and technology that are ma$ing some nations veryhighly industriali ed and progressive. 0o, if science is properly studied andtaught and then applied, it can also ma$e the country highly industriali ed andprogressive.

2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactoryconditions. The poor performance of the students in the high schools of Province

' in a survey test in science should be explained as a problem and anunsatisfactory condition. 0o if the in uiry is made, the possible causes of the

poor performance of the students in the science survey test may be discoveredso that remedial measures may be instituted to solve the problem or theunsatisfactory situation.

. 3ho are to be benefitted and how they are going to be benefitted. (t must beshown who are the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in amore advantageous position on account of the study. (n the in uiry conductedabout the teaching of science, for instance, some wea$nesses of the instructionalprogram may be discovered. This will benefit the administrators of the highschools in Province ' because they can ma$e the findings of the study as abasis for formulating their supervisory plans for the ensuing year. They mayinclude in their plans some measures to correct the wea$nesses so as tostrengthen the instruction. (n turn, the students will also be benefitted forlearning more science. (n the long run, the whole country will en+oy the goodresults of the study.


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". Possible contribution to the fund of $nowledge. (f in the study it is found out thatthe inductive method is very effective in the teaching of science, it should bepointed out that this can be a contribution of the study to the fund of $nowledge.

&. Possible implications. (t should be discussed here that the implications includethe possible causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of theproblems, and the remedial measures to solve the problems. (mplications alsoinclude the good points of a system which ought to be continued or to beimproved if possible.

Defi"itio" of Ter&s

1. /nly terms, words, or phrases which have special or uni ue meanings in thestudy are defined. %or instance, the term non4teaching facilities may be used inthe study of the teaching of science. 5on4teaching facilities may be defined asfacilities needed by the students and teachers may be defined as facilitiesneeded by the students and teachers but are not used to explain the lesson norma$e instructions clearer.

2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study.%or instance, a study is made about early marriage. 3hat is meant by earlymarriage6 To ma$e the meaning clear, early marriage may be defined as one inwhich the contracting parties are both below eighteen years of age.

. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of theterm defined. Thus, a house of light materials may be defined as one withbamboo or small wooden posts7 nipa, buri, or nipa walls7 split bamboo floor7 andcogon or nipa roof. This is also an operational definition.

". 8efinitions may be ta$en from encyclopedias, boo$s, maga ines and newspaperarticles, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must

ac$nowledge his sources. 8efinitions ta$en from published materials are calledconceptual or theoretical definitions.

&. 8efinitions should be as brief, clear, and une uivocal as possible.


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). 'cronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly$nown or if it is used for the first time.

S!ope a" li&itatio"s of the Stu (

The scope and delimitations should include the following:

1. ' brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

2. The sub+ect matter and topics studied and discussed.

. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the

data belong.

". The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. Thismust be large enough to ma$e generali ations significant.

&. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during whichthe data were gathered.

Li&itatio"s of the Stu (

9imitations of the study include the wea$nesses of the study beyond the controlof the researcher. This is especially true in descriptive research where the variablesinvolved are uncountables or continuous variables such as ade uacy, effectiveness,efficiency, extent, etc. The wea$nesses spring out of the inaccuracies of theperceptions of the respondents. %or instance, library facilities may be rated as veryade uate by & students, ade uate by *& students, fairly ade uate by students,

inade uate by 2 students, and very inade uate by 1& students. ;ertainly, with theseratings, not all of them could be correct in their assessment. 0ome could haveinaccurate if not entirely wrong perceptions.

Co"!eptual )ra&e#or*


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%rom the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate atheoretical scheme for his research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation ortheoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for theformulation of research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framewor$ consists of theinvestigator


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HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER +

Chapter + RELATED LITERAT,RE AND ST,DIES

Guidelines in ;iting !elated 9iterature and 0tudies

A- Chara!teristi!s of the Materials Cite

The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that should becited:

1. The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of therapid social, political, scientific, and technological changes. 8iscoveries inhistorical and archaeological research have also changed some historical facts.!esearchers in education and psychology are also ma$ing great strides. 0o,findings fifteen years ago may have little value today unless the study is acomparative in uiry about the past and the present. >athematical and statisticalprocedures, however, are a little more stable.


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2. >aterials must be as ob+ective and unbiased as possible. 0ome materials areextremely one sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should beavoided.

. >aterials must be relevant to the study. /nly materials that have some similarityto or bearing on the problem researched on, should be cited.

". >aterials must not be too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enoughto give the researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of thepresent investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability ofrelated materials. This is especially a problem with pioneering studies.5aturally, there are few related materials or even none at all. /rdinarily, fromfifteen to twenty4five may do for a masteraterials which were written earliershould be cited first before those which were written later. This can be done


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especially when citation is by author or writer. (f citation is by topic,chronological citation can be done in the footnote.

C- What to Cite

(t should be emphasi ed that only the ma+or findings, ideas,generali ations, principles, or conclusions in related materials relevant tothe problem under investigation should be discussed in this chapter.Generally, such findings, ideas, generali ations, principles, or conclusionsare summari ed, paraphrased, or synthesi ed.

D- .uoti"$ a Material

' material may be uoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it iscontroversial and it is not too long. (t is written single spaced with widermargins at the left and right sides of the paper but without any uotationmar$s.

/ustifi!atio" of the Stu (

(t should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The presentin uiry may only be a replication of another study. (t should be stressed also thatinspite of similar studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings ofstudies in other places are also true in the locale of the present study. There may alsobe a need to continue with the present investigation to affirm or negate the findings ofother in uiries about the same research problem or topic so that generali ation orprinciples may be formulated. These generali ations and principles would be thecontributions of the present investigation together with other studies to the fund of$nowledge. This is one of the more important purposes of research: the contributionthat it can give to the fund of $nowledge.


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;hapter

!?0?'!;# >?T#/8/9/G@;hapter 1

P!/=9?> '58 (T0 =';AG!/B58


Chapter 0 METHODS O) RESEARCH AND PROCED,RES

Generally, the research design is explained in this chapter. 'mong those topicsincluded in the research design which need to be given some $ind of explanations arethe following:

>ethod of !esearch Bsed

>ethod of ;ollecting 8ata and 8evelopment of the !esearch (nstrument

0ampling 8esign

0tatistical Treatment

Metho of Resear!h

The method of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimentalshould be explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness tothe study, and some of its advantages should be given attention and should be welldiscussed.


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The descriptive method of research was used in this study. 8escriptive methodof research is a fact4finding study with ade uate and accurate interpretation of thefindings. (t describes what is. (t describes with emphasis what actually exist such ascurrent conditions, practices, situations, or any phenomena. 0ince the present study orinvestigation was concerned with the present status of the teaching of science in the

high schools of Province ', the descriptive method of research was the mostappropriate method to use.

Metho of Colle!ti"$ Data a" De elop&e"t of the Resear!h I"stru&e"t

The method of collecting data and the development of the instrument forgathering data must also be explained.

?xample: The method of collecting data used was the normative survey. This isconcerned with loo$ing into the commonality of some elements. 0ince the presentsresearch is a status study, the normative survey was the most appropriate method touse in gathering data.

The instrument used to collect data was the uestionnaire. This was usedbecause it gathers data faster than any other method. =esides, the respondents wereteachers and students and so they are very literate. They could read and answer the

uestionnaire with ease.

Development of the instrument. 'fter reading and studying samples ofuestionnaire from related studies, the researcher prepared his own uestionnaire. #e

also consulted some $nowledgeable people about how to prepare one. The researchersaw to it that there were enough items to collect data to cover all aspects of the problemand to answer all the specific uestions under the statement of the problem. Then hesubmitted the uestionnaire to his adviser for correction after which it was finali ed.

%or validation purposes, the uestionnaire was given to ten high school scienceteachers for them to fill up. These teachers did not participate in the study. 'fter theyhad filled up the copies they were interviewed by the researcher to find out theirassessment of the uestionnaire. They were as$ed if all the items were clear andune uivocal to them7 if the number of items were ade uate enough to collect data aboutall aspects of the teaching of science7 if the uestions were interesting and not boring7 ifall the items were ob+ective and not biased except for a few unavoidable essay

uestions7 if all the items were relevant to the research problem7 and if the


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uestionnaire was not too long. 'll of them said the items were clear and une uivocalexcept a few, relevant, interesting and ob+ective uestions, and the length was alright.The few uestioned items were revised for more clarity and definiteness.

The copies of the uestionnaire were then distributed personally by theresearcher to the respondents. 'fter a few days, all the copies distributed wereretrieved also personally by the researcher.

The Sa&pli"$ Desi$"

=efore the collection of data starts in any research pro+ect, the proportion of thepopulation to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the

sample must have been finished. 0o, what the researcher has to do here is to writeabout the complete procedure he used in determining his sample. 'mong the thingsthat he should explain are:

a. The si e of the population7

b. The study population7

c. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used7

d. The type or techni ue of sampling used whether pure random ampling,systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling or acombination of two or more techni ues7

e. The actual computation of the sample7 and

f. The sample.

The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. #e must beable to show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that heused the appropriate techni ue of sampling. This is very important because if itappears that his sample is not representative, his findings and conclusions will befaulty and hence, not valid and reliable.


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Statisti!al Treat&e"t of Data

The last part of this chapter usually described the statistical treatment of data.The $ind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especiallythe specific problems, and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypothesesparticularly determine the $ind of statistics to be used.

The role of statistics in research. 3ith the advent of the computer age, statisticsis now playing a vital role in research. This is true especially in science andtechnological research. 3hat functions do statistics perform in research6 0ome arethe following:

1. 0tatistical methods help the researcher in ma$ing his research design,particularly in experimental research. 0tatistical methods are always involved inplanning a research pro+ect because in some way statistics directs theresearcher how to gather his data.

2. 0tatistical techni ues help the researcher in determining the validity and reliabilityof his research instruments. 8ata gathered with instruments that are not validand reliable are almost useless and so the researcher must have to be sure thathis instruments are valid and reliable. 0tatistics helps him in doing this.

. 0tatistical manipulations organi e raw data systematically to ma$e the latterappropriate for study. Bnorgani ed data cannot be studied. 5o inferences nordeductions can be made from unorgani ed data. 0tatistics organi ed datasystematically by ordered arrangement, ran$ing, score distribution, classfre uency distribution or cumulative fre uencies. These ma$e the dataappropriate for study.

". 0tatistics are used to test the hypotheses. 0tatistics help the researcherdetermine whether his hypotheses are to be accepted or to be re+ected.

&. 0tatistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data. %or instance, if thestandard deviation of the class fre uency of a group is small, we $now that the


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group is more or less homogeneous but if it is large, the group is more or lessheterogeneous.

). 0tatistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of significanceof vital statistical measures. These statistical measures are the bases for ma$inginferences, interpretations, conclusions or generali ations.

Some guidelines in the selection and application of statistical procedures. Theresearcher must have at least a rudimentary $nowledge of statistics so that hewill be able to select and apply the appropriate statistical methods for his data.0ome suggestions for the selection and application of statistical techni uesfollows:

1. %irst of all, the data should be organi ed using any or all of the followingdepending upon what is desired to be $nown or what is to be computed:talligram Ctabulation tableD, ordered arrangement of scores, score distribution,class CgroupedD fre uency distribution, or scattergram.

2. 3hen certain proportions of the population based on certain variables suchas age, height, income, etc. are desired to be $nown, fre uency counts withtheir fre uency percents may be used. %or further analysis, cumulativefre uencies Cup and downD with their respective cumulative fre uencypercents Cup and downD may also be utili ed.

. 3hen the typical, normal, or average is desired to be $nown, the measures ofcentral tendency such as the median, the mean or the mode may becomputed and used.

". 3hen the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that theycannot be counted individually such as ade uacy, efficiency, excellence,extent, seriousness Cof problemsD, and the li$e, the weighted mean may becomputed and used if the average is desired to be $nown. The variable isdivided into categories of descending degree of uality and then each degreeof uality is given a weight. %or instance, the uestion is E#ow ade uate arethe facilities of the school6F 'de uacy may be divided into five degrees of

uality such as Every ade uateF with a weight of &, Eade uateF with a weight of" E%airly ade uateF with a weight of , Einade uateF with a weight of 2, andEvery inade uateF with a weight of 1. Then the weighted mean is computed.


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&. 3hen the variability of the population is desired to be $nown, the measures ofvariability such as the range, uartile deviation, average deviation or thestandard deviation may be computed and used. 3hen the measure ofvariability or dispersion is small, the group is more or less homogeneous butwhen the measure of variability is large, the group is more or less

heterogeneous.

). 3hen the relative placements of scores or positions are desired to be $nown,ran$ing, uartile or percentile ran$ may be computed and used. Thesemeasures indicate the relative positions of scores in an ordered arrangementof the scores.

*. 3hen the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as agroup toward a certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be $nownbut in which there is a neutral position, the chi4s uare of e ual probability,single group, is computed and interpreted.

. 3hen the significance of the difference between the reactions, or opinions oftwo distinct groups in which there is a neutral position is desired to be $nown,the chi4s uare of e ual probability, two4group, is computed and used.

-. To determine how one variable varies with another, the coefficient ofcorrelation is computed, as for instance, how the scores of a group of

students in a >athematics test vary with the scores of the same group ofstudents in an ?nglish test. This is also used to determine the validity of atest by correlating it with a test of $nown validity. 3hen the coefficient ofcorrelation between the two tests is $nown and a prediction is to be made asto what score a student gets in a second test after $nowing his score in thefirst, the so4called regression e uation is to be utili ed.

1 . (f the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two groupsabout a certain situation is to be studied, the computation of the differencebetween means is to be made. ?xample: (s there a significant difference

between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students about thefacilities of the school6 To answer this uestion, the significance of thedifference of two means is to used. The statistical measure computed iscalled t .


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The t is also used to determine the usefulness of a variable to which one groupcalled the experimental group is exposed and a second group called control group is notexposed.

11. To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing thingsto which different randomi ed groups are respectively exposed to and only apost test is given to the different groups, analysis of variance is appropriate touse.

12. To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to whichthey are related, partial and multiple correlations are suggested to be used.The process of partial and multiple correlation will reveal the pure and soleeffect of each of the independent variables upon the dependent variable, thepassing of the licensing examination.

1 . To determine the association between two independent variables, the chi4s uare of independence or chi4s uare of multiplication may be used. The

uestion answered by this statistical process is: (s there an associationbetween education and leadership6 /r, the level of education and the abilityto ac uire wealth6 /r, between social ability and economic status6

(ndeed, there are lots of research situations in which different statisticalprocedures may or can be used and if the researcher is not so sure that he is in theright path, he better consult good statistical boo$s, or ac uire the service of a goodstatistician plus the services of a computer especially if the statistical procedures arecomplex ones.


Chapter 2 3 ANAL4SIS5 PRESENTATION5 AND INTERPRETATION O) DATA

(n this chapter, the researcher ma$es his analysis, presentation, andinterpretation of his data.


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'nalysis

'nalysis is the process of brea$ing up the whole study into its constituents partsof categories according to the specific uestions under the statement of the problem.This is to bring out into focus the essential features of the study. 'nalysis usuallyprecedes presentation.

?xample: (n the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province ', the whole study may be divided into its constituent parts as follows according to thespecific uestions:

1. ?ducational ualifications of the science teachers

2. >ethods and strategies used in the teaching of science

. %acilities available for the teaching of science

". %orms of supervisory assistance

&. 8ifferences between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the studentsconcerning the teaching or science

). Problems encountered in the teaching of science

*. Proposed solutions to the problems

. (mplications of the findings

?ach constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories. ?xample: Theeducational ualifications of the teachers may further be subdivided into the following:

1. 8egrees earned in pre4service education

2. >a+ors or speciali ations

. Bnits earned in science

". Teacher


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). =oo$s, +ournals, and other materials in science being read

*. 'dvanced studies

. 5umber of years in science teaching

Then under degrees earned are

1. =achelor of 'rts

2. =achelor of 0cience in ?ducation

. >aster of 'rts

The other constituent parts may also be similarly divided and subdivided. The dataare then grouped under the categories or parts to which they belong.

Classification of data. ;lassification is grouping together data with similarcharacteristics. ;lassification is a part of analysis. The bases of classification are thefollowing:

a. Qualitative (kind). Those having the same uality or are of the same $ind aregrouped together. The grouping of elements in the examples given under

analysis is ualitative.

b. Quantitative. 8ata are grouped according to their uantity. (n age, for instance,people may be grouped into ages of 1 4" , 1&41-, 2 42", 2&42-, etc.

c. Geographical. 8ata may be classified according to their location.

d. Chronological. (n this, data are classified according to the order of theiroccurrence.

Cross-classification. This is further classifying a group of data into subclasses. Thisis brea$ing up or dividing a big class into smaller classes.


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Arrangement of data or classes of data. The bases of arrangement of data orgroups of data are the same as those of classification.

a. Qualitative. 8ata may be arranged alphabetically, or from the biggest class tothe smallest class as from phylum to specie in classifying animals or vice versa,or listing the biggest country to the smallest one or vice versa, or from theimportant to the least important, or vice versa, etc. !an$ing of studentsaccording to brightness is ualitative arrangement.

b. Quantitative. This is arranging data according to their numerical magnitudes,from the greatest to the smallest number or vice versa. 0chools may bearranged according to their population, from the most populated to the leastpopulated, and so with countries, provinces, cities, towns.

c. Geographical. 8ata may be arranged according to their geographical location oraccording to direction. 8ata from the (locos region may be listed from north tosouth by province as (locos 5orte, 'bra, (locos 0ur, and 9a Bnion.

d. Chronological. This is listing down data that occurred first and last those thatoccurred last, or vice versa according to the purpose of presentation. This isespecially true in historical research.

;lassification, cross4classification and arrangement of data are done for purposes oforgani ing the thesis report and in presenting them in tabular form. (n tables, data areproperly and logically classified, cross4classified, and arranged so that theirrelationships are readily seen.

Group6 eri e Ge"erali7atio"

/ne of the main purposes of analy ing research data is to form inferences,interpretations, conclusions, and or generali ations from the collected data. (n so doingthe researcher should be guided by the following discussions about group4derivedgenerali ations.


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The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a method ofcollecting data for research implies the study of groups. %rom the findings areformulated conclusions in the form of generali ations that pertain to the particular groupstudied. These conclusions are called group4derived generali ations designed torepresent characteristics of groups and are to be applied to groups rather than to

individual cases one at a time. These are applicable to all $inds of research, be theysocial, science or natural science research. There are several types of these but arediscussed under four categories by Good and 0cates. The $ey sentences are of thisauthor.

1. Generall ! onl proportional predictions can "e made . /ne type of generali ationis that which is expressed in terms of proportion of the cases in a group, often inthe form of probability. 3hen this type is used, we do not have enoughinformation about individual cases to ma$e predictions for them, but we cannevertheless predict for a group of future observations. 's to individual event,however, we can say nothing7 probability is distinctly a group concept and appliesonly to groups.

uality control in manufacturing is an example. =ased on the recognition thatproducts cannot be turned out as precisely as intended, but that so long as a givenproportion of the cases fall within assigned limits of variation, that is all that is expected.(n the biological field, certain proportions of offspring, inherit certain degrees ofcharacteristics of parents, but individual predictions cannot be made. (n the social field,in insurance especially, based on demographic and actuarial data, life tables indicatelife expectancies of groups but nothing whatsoever is $nown about the life expectancyof any particular individual.

2. The average can "e made to represent the #hole group . ' second type ofgroup4derived generali ation results from using the average as a representationof the group of cases and offering it as a typical result. This is ignoring theindividuals comprising the group or the variation existing in the group but theaverage represents the whole group. Generally, the mean and the median areused to denote the averages of scale position but other statistical measures suchas the common measures of variation, correlation, regression lines, are also

structurally considered as averages. These are group functions conveying nosure $nowledge about any individual case in the group.

. $ull-fre%uenc distri"ution reveals characteristics of a group. 's a third type of$nowledge growing out of the study of groups, we have the full4fre uencydistribution H the most characteristic device, perhaps of all statistical wor$.Perhaps too, the most inferential characteristics of fre uency distribution areshape and spread. %re uency distributions carry the implication of probability.


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/ne implication is as follows. 0uppose the heights of Grade ( pupils are ta$enand then grouped into a class fre uency distribution, using height as the trait orbasis of distribution in groups. Then the suppliers of chairs and tables for thepupils will be able to $now the number of chairs and tables to suit the heights ofthe pupils.

". A group itself generates ne# %ualities! characteristics! properties! or aspects not present in individual cases. %or instance, there are many chairs in a room. Thechairs can be arranged in a variety of ways. #owever, if there is only one chair,there can be no arrangement in any order. #ence, order and arrangement aregroup properties and they represent relationships within a group, propertieswhich can arise only if there are two or more cases.

/ther group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, opposition,organi ation, speciali ation, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing ofemotions which vanish in individual cases.

Two more categories of generali ation may be added at this point.

1. ' generali ation can also be made about an individual case. %or instance, ahigh school graduating student is declared valedictorian of his class. 3e cangenerali e that, that student is the brightest in his class. This is a group4derivedgenerali ation because it cannot be made if there is only one student. #ere isanother example. ' teacher declares that Iuan is the best behaved pupil in herclass. This is a group4derived generali ation because this statement cannot bemade if there is only one pupil. There are many instances of this $ind.

2. (n certain cases, predictions on individual cases can be made. (t has beenmentioned earlier that, generally, only proportional predictions can be made.#owever, in correlation and regression studies, one variable can be predictedfrom another. Ta$e the case of the civil engineering graduate ta$ing the

licensing examination. (f the coefficient of correlation between the school gradesof those who too$ the licensing examination and their scores in the examinationis computed and it is high, it is possible to predict the chance of an individualgraduate of passing the licensing examination by the use of regressione uations. The accuracy of prediction is high if C1D there is linearity in therelationship of the two variables if graphed, C2D the distributions in the twovariables are normal or not badly s$ewed, and C D the spread or scatter of thetwo variables is the same for each column or row in the correlation table.


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Prepari"$ Data for Prese"tatio"

=efore presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in theform of statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a tabulation diagram which maybe called talligram, a contraction of tally and diagram. The individual responses to a

uestionnaire or interview schedule have to be tallied one by one.

&o# to construct a talligram. ' talligram may be constructed as follows:

1. 8etermine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their respective

numbers.

2. >a$e rows for the classes by drawing hori ontal lines with appropriate spacesbetween the lines and the number of the rows should be two more than thenumber of classes.

. >a$e columns for the subclasses by drawing vertical lines with appropriatespaces between the lines and the number of columns should be two more than

the number of subclasses.

Prese"tatio" of Data

Presentation is the process of organi ing data into logical, se uential, andmeaningful categories and classifications to ma$e them amenable to study andinterpretation. 'nalysis and presentation put data into proper order and in categoriesreducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationshipsbetween the research specific uestions and their intended answers can be established.There are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular, and graphical.

Te8tual Prese"tatio" of Data


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Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describedata. The main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some importantdata and to supplement tabular presentation.

The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to read and thereader may not even be able to grasp the uantitative relationships of the datapresented. The reader may even s$ip some statements.

Ta'ular Prese"tatio" of Data

Statistical ta"le defined. ' statistical table or simply table is defined as asystematic arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical facts or data are

given each a row and their subclasses are given each a column in order to present therelationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, andunderstandable form or forms.

'urpose of a ta"le. The purpose is to facilitate the study and interpretation, thema$ing of inferences and implications of the relationships of statistical data. Tableconstruction for data presentation is a part of analysis because the data are separatedand grouped according to class or category.

'dvantages of tabular over textual

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