thesis of ma linguistics
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TESTING ENGLISH GRAMMAR AT
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL AND ITS EFFECT
ON TEACHING AND LEARNING.
By:
PIR SUHAIL AHMED SARHANDI
THESIS
Presented to the department of English university of Karachi
In partial fulfillment of the requirement
For the degree of Masters in Linguistics
UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI
JULY 2005
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ABSTRACT
This research study is conducted in order to know how testing of English grammar at
Intermediate level effects the teaching and learning process. After discussing the test and
its types thoroughly in section two, I think I have provided the readers a well
understanding of testing and our testing system especially grammar testing at
Intermediate level. The question grammatical items in papers (I & II) of English
compulsory at Intermediate level were evaluated and analyzed with their impact on
learning and teaching. The results show that the testing system of grammar is not so
effective because they are devised for testing not for learning that lacks their validity.
And at last I have proposed sample items that are devised by me on the communicative
approach of testing grammar. The sample test items, if introduced, in the testing system
of grammar at Intermediate level would help to achieve the beneficial backwash effect on
teaching and learning.
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AKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Mr. Muhammad Ali Khan, my research supervisor, to the
core of my heart who has supported me and encouraged me throughout my research
work. Because of his kind supervision and beneficial suggestions, I became able to
complete my thesis.
I am also thankful to my grammar teachers: Ms.Dilshat Bano, Mr.Ghulam
Hussain Manganhar and Mr.Ahsan Ahmed Alavi, who taught me grammar in such a way
that paved me the way to work on my research on grammar testing.
I am also grateful to my teacher as well as a sincere friend Mr.Zubair Ahmed
Mangrio for his well wishes and precious suggestions throughout my linguistics
program.
At last but not least, I am extremely grateful and obliged to my family members
especially to my father, Pir Khalil Ahmed Sarhandi who always encourages me
throughout my education.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Page No.
SECTION ONE: Introduction to Research 1
1.1 Introduction to My Research 1
1.2 Proposed Research Methodology 3
1.3 My Research Methodology 4
1.4 Purpose of My research 4
1.5 Literature Review 5
SECTION TWO: Introduction to Testing 8
2.1 An overview of Testing 8
2.2 What is a good Test? 8
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2.3 Why do we need to Test? 9
2.4 Why do we need to Test Grammar? 11
2.5 Approaches to Language Testing 11
2.6 Types and purposes of Tests 14
2.7 Test Classification 17
(a) Kinds of Testing 19
2.8 Subjective and Objective Testing 22
2.9 Criteria for the evaluation of a Test 23
SECTION THREE: Backwash effect 27
3.1 Backwash Effect on Teaching and Learning 27
3.2 Harmful backwash effect 28
SECTION FOUR: Evaluation of English Compulsory Papers (I & II)
and some suggestions. 29
4.1 Evaluation of Grammatical items. 29
4.2 Advantages of Proposed Grammatical items 38
4.3 Conclusion 39
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REFERENCES 40
BIBLIOGRAPHY 41
APPENDICES
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SECTION ONE: Introduction to Research
1.1 Introduction to my Research
The thing that encouraged me to work on the Testing Grammar at Intermediate
Level was the inability of our students who after being in touch with English since sixth
standard or even theres a good number of those learners who have been taught English
since their Montessori class. The reason to work on only this topic was to know what is
lacking that our students are still unable to communicate in English. After pondering over
and discussing this problem with my friends and teachers I came to know that our testing
system is no so effective to produce the communicative competence in the learners.
According to Arthur Hughes:
Too often language tests have harmful effect on teaching and learning; and
too often they fail to measure accurately whatever it is they are intended to measure.
(2003:1)
One of the major problems, faced in English language teaching and learning is
the inappropriate administered tests at the end of the course. In our education
system, we have not been taught the language for the sake learning but for
testing.
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We are now in a communicative era, a time when we emphasize evaluation of
language use rather than language form. I have tried my level best to expose those
reasons that are in the way to communicative learning.
The reason to choose the topic on grammar testing is that in our society there is a
n impression that grammar has no concern in communicative language so it should not be
taught and tested. This idea has overwhelmed our society. I think the major reason behind
this idea is ineffective teaching and learning system in our society.
.testing has been one of the greatest single beneficial forces in changing the
direction of the greatest single beneficial forces in changing the direction of language in
many areas and in encouraging the more responsive teachers to examine not only their
own teaching methods but also the language they are teaching. Heaton (1988: 171)
The above words of Heaton inspired me to work on a research that deals with
testing in order to bring a change in the way grammar items are taught and learnt.
Teachers dont teach the grammatical items according to their function and use in real life
communication so they dont test these items accordingly.
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Widdowson describes the importance of grammar in these words:
A communicative approach, properly conceived, doesnt involve a recognition
of its central mediating role in the use and learning of language. (1990:88)
Little-Wood (1986) while stressing the importance of grammar writes:
Communicative language use is only possible by virtue of the grammatical
system and its creative potential. ( Little Wood 1986 quoted in Lock, 1996:66)
1.2 Proposed Research Methodology
Methodology is a general approach studying a research topic. It establishes how
one will go about studying any phenomenon. In social research, examples of
methodologies are positivism (which seeks to discover laws using quantitative methods)
and, of course, qualitative methodology (which is often concerned with including
hypotheses from field research). Like theories, methodologies cannot be true or false,
only more or less useful. (Interpreting Qualitative Data by David Silverman 1993)
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Definition
Qualitative is the collection and analysis of extensive data in order to gain insightinto a situation of interest. It involves intensive data collection that is the collection of
extensive data on many variables over an extended period of time in a naturalistic setting.
It is much broader in scope.
Qualitative research assumes that all knowledge is relative, that there is a
subjective element to all knowledge and research, and that holistic ungeneralisable
studies are justifiable (an ungeneralisable study is one in which the insights and outcomes
generated by the research cannot be applied to contexts or situations beyond those in
which the data were collected. Reinhardt and Cook (1979)
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1.3 My Research Methodology
My methodology for conducting this research is Qualitative because I think thebest to do the research on my topic Testing English Grammar at Intermediate Level and
its impact on Teaching and Learning is to evaluate and observe the data extensively in
informal way.
For this research study I have selected the Intermediate level in which I will
analyze and evaluate the papers (I & II) and the impact of testing grammatical items onteaching and learning. The purpose of choosing the Intermediate level for my research
work is that, in my opinion, these two years of study (first year and Inter) are the
foundation stones for a learners coming up professional life. As English is the utmost
need for a bright future in our country and the major problem in learning this language is
mostly caused by grammar so I have decided to evaluate the grammatical items and try to
give some effective suggestions to improve testing system of grammar which would
automatically change the teaching system as well.
For this study only those grammatical items are chosen which are found
constantly in the Intermediate papers of English for some years. These items include:
articles, preposition, English tense system, idioms, phrases and translation.
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1.4 Purpose of my Research:
The main purpose of my research work is to discuss the possible implications
testing grammar may have for the teaching and learning of English grammar at
Intermediate Level. In Intermediate examinations, grammar is tested in isolated
sentences, which are not connected to each other. They are mechanical in a sense that the
learners can do them without really understanding the meaning of the sentences.
J.B.Heaton defines the purpose of tests of grammar and usage that
these tests measure students ability to recognize appropriate grammatical
forms and to manipulate structures. (1988:9)
The testers of grammar at Intermediate level here are quite contrary to the
purpose of these tests defined above. It is my fundamental aim to analyze the
Intermediate grammar papers in the light of the above definition and derive the attention
of teachers to the usage of grammar in English language.
My research study would help the testers to set the effective grammatical items
so that the testees focus would remain on the practical usage of grammar.
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1.5 Literature Review
Testing has been a burning question since long different writers have different
opinions about its purpose.
John Bright Heaton defines the purpose of testing as
devices to reinforce learning and to motivate students or primarily as a means
of assessing. (1988:7)
In his book Writing English Language Tests (1988), J.B.Heaton has given a
brief introduction to testing. He discusses almost all the language skills to be tested in
English language. The book analyses the methods and techniques used in assessing the
English tests. Criteria and types are also given importance in the book. Heaton has
also provided proposals for the better testing in all skills.
Harold.S.Madsen in his book Techniques in Testing has noticed the other
purpose of testing and says:
Good tests can sustain or enhance class morale and aid learning. (1983:4)
In his book he gives a thorough introduction to testing and its types very clearly
explained with numerous examples. The book contains a good number of activities and
techniques that help the teachers to focus on teaching and evaluating in the class.
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The newly re-edited book Testing for Language Teachers by Arthur Hughes
(2003) may be said to be the most current publication on Testing.
In his book Hughes analyses and differentiates what makes a good test. This
book considers the different purposes of testing, discusses how testing encourages
good and effective teaching and learning.
In my opinion, testing cannot be fully assessed without focusing on the teaching
process. Both, testing and teaching are interrelated fields, which cannot be separated
from each other.
Heaton defines the purpose of tests of grammar and usage that
these tests measure students ability to recognize appropriate grammatical
forms and manipulate structures. (1988:9)
Properly made English tests can help create positive attitude toward instruction
by giving students a sense of accomplishment and a feeling that the teachers evaluation
of them matches what s/he has taught them. Heaton (1988:4)
In the light of the above statements I would analyze and observe the impact of
Testing English grammar at Intermediate level on teaching and learning.
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SECTION TWO: AN OVERVIEW OF TESTING
2.1 What is Testing?
Testing is not an easily definable term. Since long, it has been a burning
question if Teaching and Testing are two different fields. Its obvious that we cannot
separate these terms from each other. Both are interrelated fields for without focusing on
teaching process or methods we cannot think of proper or better assessment.
Testing is a multifaceted process so one cannot stick with its only one
definition. WE have to go through many definitions given by different scholars in order
to grasp this term. Carroll (1968) defined the term test, cited in Bachman (1990:20) as;
A psychologist or educational test is a procedure designed to elicit certain
behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an
individual. (Carroll 1968:46)
2.2 What is a good Test?
Hughes has given the characteristics of a good test, which facilitates our
understanding of the nature of the test. They can be enumerated as followed:
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1. It should attempt to measure students actual ability to communicate in language,
pointing out that a good test is never a mechanical test only.
2. It should have a beneficial influence on syllabuses and teaching strategies. In other
words, the test should enable the teacher to locate which part of the course has been
found difficult and problematic by the class. In this way the teacher can evaluate the
effectiveness of the course as well as his teaching strategies. (Arthur Hughes 2003: 8)
Harold.S.Madsen says:
Good tests can sustain or enhance class morale and aid learning. (1983:04)
Considering the above points, I will measure the efficacy of Intermediate Test
papers. There is no denying the fact that teaching and testing are related and this is best
explained by the term BACKWASH EFFECT. This term is further defined in details in
Section Three. Things start becoming clear when we identify different purposes and types
of tests.
2.3 Why do we need to test?
Testing as already discussed is a great source of teaching and learning especially
because of its backwash effect. It is a tool which encourages the teachers and up to date
them with their teaching process. For students it acts as an achievement of their struggle
while learning.
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According to Madsen:
Properly made tests can help create positive attitude towards instructions by
giving students a sense of accomplishment and a feeling that the teachers evaluation of
them matches what he has taught them. Good English tests also can help the students
learn the language by requiring them to study hard, emphasizing course objectives and
showing them where they need to improve. (1983:5)
John Bright Heaton defines the purposes of testing as:
devices to reinforce learning and to motivate students or primarily as a means
of assessing students performance in the language. (1988: 06)
It is essential to give a list of the aims and purpose of the tests before conducting the test.
Language testing both serves and is served by research in language
acquisition and in language teaching. Language tests, for example, are frequently
used as criterion measures of language abilities in second language acquisition
research. Similarly language tests can be valuable sources of information about the
effectiveness of learning and teaching.
Bachman (1990: 2- 3)
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According to Hughes:
The first thing that testers have to be clear about is the purpose of testing in
any particular situation. Different purposes will usually require different kinds of tests.
This may seem obvious but it is something which seems not always be recognized.
(Hughes 2003:7)
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2.4 Why do we need to test grammar?
These tests measure students ability to recognize appropriate grammaticalforms and to manipulate structures: says Heaton (1988:9)
Arther Hughes (1989) while discussing the testing of grammatical items he says
that if it is language skill which is to be tested then they should be tested directly instead
of the abilities that seem to underlie them. Firstly because by underlying skills one cannot
accurately predict the mastery of a skill and secondly, the backwash effect of directtesting would be preferable to that of indirect testing.
As it is essential to have a good command of particular grammatical structures to
communicate, thats why its also necessary top test these grammatical items.
2.5 Approaches to Language Testing
Language tests may be classified according to four main approaches to testing:
a. The essay-translation approach;
b. The structuralist approach;
c. The integrative approach;
d. The communicative approach.
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A useful test will generally have features of several of these approaches. Actually,
a test may have certain innate weaknesses simply because it is limited to one approach,
however attractive that approach may appear.
a) The Essay-translation approach:
This approach is commonly referred to as the pre-scientific stage of language
testing. No special skill in testing is required. Tests usually consist of essay writing,
translation, and grammatical analysis.
b) The Structuralist approach:
This approach is based on the view that language learning is chiefly concerned
with the systematic acquisition of a set of habits. All the four skills are separated from
one another as much possible because it is considered essential to test one thing at a time.
c) The Integrative approach:
This approach involves the testing of language in context and is thus concerned
primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse. This approach of
testing tests the language skills integratedly. The language is tested in context, chiefly
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concerned. Integrative tests do not seek to separate language skills into neat divisions in
order to improve test reliability. Oral interviews, translation and essay writing are also
included in many integrative tests.
d) The Communicative approach:
According to Heaton
This approach is sometimes linked to the integrative approach. However, both
approaches emphasise the importance of the meaning of the utterances rather than their
form and structure, there are nevertheless fundamental differences between the two
approaches. Communicative tests are concerned primarily (if not totally) with how
language is used in communication. (1988:19)
This approach focuses on the function and the meaning of the utterances rather
than their form and function.
B.J.Caroll says:
The ultimate criterion of language mastery is therefore the teachers
effectiveness in communication for the setting he finds himself in.
Defining in a single sentence I say: Communicative approach is mainly
concerned with how language is used in real life communication.
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2.6 Kinds of tests and their purposes.
Lyle F. Bachman has suggested five features to classify tests
.language tests can be classified according to five distinctive features: the
purpose, or use, for which they are intended; the content upon which they are based; the
frame of reference within which their result are to interpreted; the way in which they are
scored, and the specific technique or method they employ.
Bachman (1990:70)
There is some confusion regarding the terminology used to denote the different
types of language tests in use. Most test specialists, however, agree on the following
types of test divisions:
a) Achievement/ attainment tests,
b) Proficiency tests,
c) Aptitude tests, and
d) Diagnostic tests.
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a) Achievement tests:
This group can be further subdivided into progress achievement tests and
(standardized) achievement tests.
According to Hughes:
Progress achievement tests, as their name suggests, are intended to measure
the progress that students are making. (2003:14)
(Standardised) Final achievement test are administered at the end of the course
indicating the extent to which an individual has mastered in the specific skills.
Achievement tests are directly related to language courses, their purpose being
to establish how successful individual, groups of students or the courses themselves have
been in achieving objectives.
Hughes (2003:13)
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b) Proficiency tests:
Madsen defines it as:
Proficiency tests can measure overall mastery of English or how well prepared
one is to use English in a particular setting. (1983:9)
The proficiency test is concerned simply with measuring a students control of the
language in the light of what s/he will be expected to do with it in future performance of a
particular task.
According to Arthur Hughes:
Proficiency tests are designed to measure peoples ability in a language, regardless of any
training they may have had in that language. (2003:11)
c) Aptitude tests:
Heaton defines it as:
A language aptitude test is designed to measure the students probable
performance in a foreign language, which s/he has not started to learn: i.e. it assesses
aptitude for learning a language. (1988:173)
Aptitude tests try to tell us how well a person will do in learning a foreign
language: says Madsen (1983:189)
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d) Diagnostic tests:
The teachers in the classroom conduct these tests in order to know what is stilllacking in teaching and learning.
Diagnostic tests are used to identify learners strengths and weaknesses. They
are intended primarily to ascertain what learning still needs to take place . Hughes
(2003:15)
2.7 Test Classification:
Here are some of the ways tests can be classified given by Harold.S.Madsen in his
book Techniques in Testing.
Table 1. CONTRASTING CATEGORIES OF ESL TESTS
Knowledge Tests Performance (or Sills) Tests
Subjective TestsObjective Tests
Productive TestsReceptive Tests
Language Subskill TestsCommunication Skills Tests
Norm-referenced Tests.Criterion-referenced Tests
Discrete-point Tests. Integrative Tests
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Proficiency Tests..Achievement Tests
Review of the contrasts shown in Table 1.
1. Tests of Knowledge are used in various school subjects, from math and
geography to literature and language. While ESL knowledge exams show how well
students know facts about the language, ESL performance exams show how well a
student can use language.
2. Subjective tests, like translation and essay, have the advantage of measuring
language skills naturally, almost the way English is used in real life. By contrast
Objective tests such as multiple-choice or matching tests , can be scored quickly and
consistently.
3. Productive test measures, like speaking exams, requires active or creative
answers, while receptive testmeasures, like multiple-choice reading tests, tends to rely on
recognition, with students simply choosing the best answer.
4. Tests of language subskills measure the separate components of English, such as;
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Communicative skills tests, on the other hand,
show how well the language in actually exchanging ideas and information.5. Norm-referenced tests compare each student with his/her classmates but criterion-
referenced exams rate students against certain standards, regardless of how other students
do.
6. In discrete-point exams, each item tests something very specific as a preposition
or a vocabulary item. Integrative tests are those like dictation that combine various
language subskills much the way we do when we communicate in real life.
7. The final classification isproficiency and achievement tests. Proficiency tests can
measure overall mastery of English or how well prepared one is to use English in a
particular setting, such as; an auto mechanics course or a university. Achievement tests,
on the other hand, simply measure progress-gains for example, in mastery of count-
noncount noun, use or mastery of the skills presented in an entire language text or course.
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It is obvious from the above discussion that several labels can be applied to any one test.
But more often, we apply only one pair of labels at a time.
(The above words under the title Test Classification are the abstract of the
topic Test Classification from the book Techniques in Testing 2003: 8 by Harold .S.
Madsen)
2.7 (a) Kinds of Testing.
(i) Direct versus Indirect Testing.
According to Hughes,
Testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidates to perform precisely
the skill that we wish to measure. If we want to know how well candidates can write
compositions, we get them to write compositions. If we want to know how well they
pronounce a language, we get them to speak. The tasks and the texts that are used should
be as authentic as possible.
Direct testing is easier to carry out when it is intended to measure theproductive skills of speaking and writing.
Direct testing has a number of attractions. First provided that we are clear about
just what abilities we want to assess, it is relatively straightforward to create the
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conditions, which will elicit the behavior on which to base, our judgments. Secondly, at
least in the case of the productive skills, the assessment and interpretation of students
performance is also quite straightforward. Thirdly, since practice for the test involves
practice of the skills that we wish to foster, there is likely to be a helpful backwash
effect.
Hughes (2003:17-18)
Hughes also goes on defining indirect testing,
Indirect testing attempts to measure the abilities that underlie the skills in
which we are interested.
The main problem with indirect tests is that the relationship between
performance on them and performance of the skills in which we are usually more
interested tends to be rather weak in strength and uncertain in nature. Hughes (2003:18)
(ii) Discrete Point versus Integrative Testing.
Definition given by Hughes would best define it, before him :
Discrete point testing refers to the testing of: one element at a time; item by
item. This might, for example, take the form of a series of items, each testing a particular
grammatical structure. Integrative testing, by contrast, requires the candidates to combine
many language elements in a completion of a task. This might involve writing a
composition, making notes while listening to a lecture, taking a dictation, or completing a
close passage. Discrete point tests will almost always be indirect, while integrative tests
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will tend to be direct. However, some integrative testing methods, such as the cloze
procedure, are indirect.
Hughes (2003:19)
(iii) Norm-referenced versus criterion-referenced testing.
According to Bachman (1990).
Norm-referenced (NR) tests are designed to enable the test user to make
normative interpretations of test results. That is, test results are interpreted with
reference to the performance of a given group, or norm. The norm group is typically a
large group of individuals who are similar to the individuals for whom the test is
designed. Bachman (1990:72)
Criterion-referenced (CR) tests are designed to enable the test user to interpret
a test score with reference to a criterion level of ability or domain of content. An example
would be the case in which students are evaluated in terms of their relative degree of
mastery of course content, rather than with respect to their relative ranking in the class.
Bachman (1990:74)
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(iv) Objective testing versus subjective testing.
It would be better to define this topic according to Hughes, he writes:
The distinction here is between methods of scoring, and nothing
else. If no judgment is required on the part of the scorer, then the scoring
is objective. A multiple-choice test, with the correct responses
unambiguously identified, would be a case in point. If judgment is called
for, the scoring is said to be subjective. Hughes (2003:22)
2.8 Subjective and Objective Testing:
Subjective and objective are the terms used to refer to the scoring of tests.
Students are always required to exercise a subjective judgment while attempting a test
paper irrespective of how the tests are devised. In an essay test, a candidate is to think
what to say and in which manner s/he expresses the ideas; in a multiple-choice test, a
candidate has to be rationale in selecting the proper answer from the various alternatives
given.
Hughes defines:
The distinction here is between methods of scoring, and nothing else. If no
judgment on the part of the scorer, then the scoring is objective. A multiple-choice test,
with the correct responses unambiguously identified, would be a case in point. If
judgment is called for, the scoring is said to subjective. (2003:22)
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It is only the scoring of the test that can be described as objective because all the
tests are devised subjectively by the test developer, who decides which areas of language
to test and how to test those particular areas.
Unfortunately, in our education system the students are taught by a person who
follows the syllabus and an unknown person, who is not in touch with the teaching and
learning process throughout the course, is the test developer and the third one is required
to check it. How can it be expected to achieve the beneficial backwash effect on teaching
and learning in such a situation? This issue will be discussed later on in Section Three.
Effects of subjective and objective testing:
In his book
Writing English Language Tests (1988) Heaton writes two main points of
criticism on Objective testing:
1. Objective tests are frequently criticized on the grounds that they are simpler to
answer than subjective tests.
2. Objective tests of the multiple-choice type encourage guessing.
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In subjective testing, according to J.B.Heaton (1988) the tests are not reliable
because the scoring depends on the personal impressions of the teachers, while there is no
personal impression or favour on the part of teachers in objective tests so they are more
reliable.
2.9 Criteria for the Evaluation of a Test]
Issues of validity:
It is essential for a good test to respect the issues of validity. The test must aim to
provide a true measure of the particular skill, which it is intended to measure: to the
extent that it measures external knowledge and other skills at the same time, it will not
be a valid test.
Madsen defines:
A valid test is one that in fact measures what it claims to be measuring.
(1983:178)
According to Heaton:
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The test must cover an adequate and representative section of those areas and
skills it is desired to test. (1988:12)
Content validity:
A test is said to have content validity if its content constitutes representative
sample of language skills, structure, etc with which it is meant to be concerned.
Hughes (2003:22)
What is the importance of content validity? First, the greater the tests content
validity, the more likely it is to be an accurate measure of what it is supposed to measure.
i.e. to have construct validity. Secondly, a test, lacking in content validity, is likely to
have harmful backwash effect. Areas that are not tested are likely to become areas
ignored in teaching and learning. Hughes (2003:26-27)
Face validity:
Heaton defines it as:
If a test item looks right to other testers, teachers, moderators, and testees, it
can be described as having at least face validity. (1988:159)
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Construct validity:
This term can be well defined in the words of Heaton. He defines:
It (construct validity) is capable of measuring certain specific characteristics in
accordance with a theory of language behaviour and learning. (1988:161)
Empirical validity:
According to Heaton:
This validity is obtained as a result of comparing the results of the test with the
results of some criterion measure. (1988:161)
Issues of Reliability:
When we construct, administer and score tests in such a way that scores
actually obtained on a test on a particular occasion are likely to be very similar to those
which would have been obtained if it had administered to same students with the same
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ability, but at different time. The more similar the scores would have the reliable, the
reliable the test is said to be. Hughes (2003:28)
For a reliable test what we have to do is construct, administer and score tests in
such a way that the scores actually obtained on a test on a particular occasion are likely to
be very similar to those which would have been obtained if it had been administered to
the same students with the same ability, but at a different time. The more similar the
scores would have been, the more reliable the test is said to be. Hughes (2003:36)
Madsen defines it as:
A reliable test is one that produces essentially the same results consistently on
different occasions when the conditions of the test remain the same. (1983:179)
Practicality:
A test being reliable and valid is not positive or effective if it creates problems for
the administration and practicability of performance required by learner.
A test must be practicable: in other words, it must be fairly straight forward to
administer. Heaton (1988:167)
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SECTION THREE: Backwash Effect
3.1 Backwash Effect on Teaching And Learning:
The effect of testing on teaching and learning is known as backwash, and can
be harmful and beneficial. If a test is regarded as important, if the stakes are high,
preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities. And if the test
contents and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course there is
likely to be a harmful backwash. Hughes (2003:1)
The term is used to account for how the tests effects on teaching and learning
process. It is required that the test techniques and the test content should meet the
objectives of the course, only then the beneficial backwash effect can be achieved.
Arthur Hughes defines the backwash effect in the following words:
The effect of testing on the teaching and learning is known as backwash.
(2003:1)
That is the reason why the national examinations or tests of much high value for
the learners have a major impact on the teaching. And teachers often teach to the test as
phrased by James Popham (1989)
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Teaching to the testmeans teaching only what is to be tested. It is quite clear that
in order to bring about the changes in teaching one must bring about the changes in
testing.
According to Hughes:
Davies (1968) has said that the good test is an obedient servant since it
follows and apes the teaching. I find it difficult to agree. The proper relationship
between testing and teaching is surely that of partnership. (2003:2)
Anjum Saleemi says:
Good backwash means that the test and the course of instruction influence
each other reciprocally, and that testing is beneficial to teaching-learning process. The
test objectives and the course objectives, ideally speaking, should be the same, or at least
should correspond very closely. (1988:261)
3.2 Harmful Backwash Effect:
According to Hughes:
It should hardly be necessary to point out that where a test that is important to
students is multiple-choice in nature, there is a danger that practice for the test will have a
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harmful effect on learning and teaching. Practice at multiple-choice (especially when-as-
happen-as much attention is to paid to improving ones educated guessing as to the
content of items) will not usually be the best way for students to improve their command
of a language. (2003:78)
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SECTION FOUR: Evaluation of English Compulsory Papers (I & II) and some
suggestions.
4.1 Evaluation Of Grammatical items:
Grammatical items are tested in isolated and decontextualised sentences in
Intermediate English compulsory papers. The sentences, which are given in grammatical
items, are not connected with each other and form an artificial use of language. The items
that are tested are mechanical. They are mechanical in the sense that the students can do
them with understanding semantically and sometimes they do the activities without
understanding meaning. The grammatical items are tested on the basis of rote learning as
well as teaching.
Hughes criticizes the idea of rote learning as:
In the view of some testers, the content of a final achievement test should be
based directly on a detailed course syllabus or on the books and other material used. This
has been referred to as the syllabus content approach. The disadvantage is that if the
syllabus is badly designed, or the books and other materials are badly chosen, the result
of a test can be very misleading. Hughes (2003: 13)
After going through the Intermediate papers(I&II), I have come to know that the
paper developers have set the paper not on the modern approach of testing grammar but
they still stick to the traditional approach of grammar testing. However, they are using
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modern techniques of testing grammar but the purpose of testing grammar is not achieved
because of their approach to testing.
Heaton defines the purpose of grammar tests in the way that:
These tests (grammar and usage) measure students ability to recognize
appropriate grammatical forms and to manipulate structures. (1988:9)
Marianne and Hilles (1988) suggested that grammatical items should be tested in
such a way that learners would have to prove that how the grammatical structure is used
meaningfully in the context.
Unfortunately in our system grammar is taught in isolated, unconnected sentences
and that is how it is tested which gives a fragmented, unrealistic picture of English and
makes it difficult for students to apply what they have learnt.
Madsen (1983) says that grammatical items should be tested in such that they
would result in achieving positive backwash.
According to my observation of some papers of Intermediate level, all the
grammatical are being tested with the support of disconnected, isolated and
decontextualised sentences, which with the change of context would have meant
something entirely different.
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Heaton says:
Note that context is of the utmost importance in all tests. Decontextualised
multiple-choice items can do considerable harm by conveying the impression that
language can be learnt and used free of any context. Both linguistic context and
situational context are essential in using language. Isolated sentences in a multiple-choice
test simply add to artificiality of the test situation and give rise to ambiguity and
confusion. (1988:28)
Hence in the case of articles and prepositions it is required to have the knowledge
of when and why of their use which is out of question in these papers. The grammatical
items of these papers are discussed below one by one.
Question on the use of correct tense form of verbs:
In the Intermediate paper (I) there is a question that requires the testees to put theverbs given in the brackets in their correct tense forms.
In these types of questions are required the appropriate forms of verbs and the
sentences were provided with the neutral form. These types of questions only provide the
students to transform the tense in a sentence but the actual purpose of the grammar in a
language (its usage and function according to the context) is lacking. Another drawback
of these are, in appropriate test techniques there is a possibility of more than one possible
answer. E.g., In English paper I (2003) (see appendices paper (1) 2003 P.no)
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Questions on the correct use of prepositions and articles:
The questions on the appropriate use of articles and prepositions are imperative inthe Intermediate English compulsory paper I. The candidates are asked to fill in the
blanks with articles, where necessary and fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions.
E.g.; In Intermediate compulsory paper (I) 2004 (see appendices paper I 2004 P.no ii)
Q.6 a) Insert a, an, the in the following blanks:-
i) ______ honest man is _____ noblest work of God.
ii) He is _____ only person I trust.
iii) ______ copper is ____ useful metal.
Context is very important in the case of article, for many of the cases it is context,which determines whether to use the indefinite article (a/an) or the definite article (the)
and the absence of context makes them totally form focused.
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According to Heaton:
The context provides students with enough background knowledge and details
to avoid ambiguity and alternative interpretations.(1988:36)
This type of test also shows invalidity so it would be better to avoid practicing
these tests in the test papers.
Q.6 b) Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions:-
i) I came _____ an old friend yesterday.
ii) He was observed_______ deep thinking.
iii) He went _____ college ____ noon.
iv) I brought a gift ______ my father.
To use the prepositions in the sentences in the absence of context, the potential
knowledge of meaning remain unrealized but as students are to use them in the sentences
so they memorize them because prepositions, that are questioned in the papers, are
limited in numbers.
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Q.6 (c) Put the appropriate forms of the verbs in the following sentences.
(ii) If they (miss) the flight, they (not reach) Islamabad to attend the seminar.
Possible answers:
(i) If they will miss the flight, they would not reach Islamabad. OR
(ii) If they miss the flight, they would not reach Islamabad. OR
(iii) If they have missed the flight, they would not have reached Islamabad.
By evaluating the above questions it is quite clear that these questions lack
content validity and face validity.
The greater the tests content validity, the more likely it is to be an accurate
measure of what it is supposed to measure. Hughes (2003:27)
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Question On Translation:
The Intermediate English compulsory paper I contains a question that is:
Q.8 Translate the following into English:- OR
Translate the following passage into Urdu or Sindhi.
(See appendices Intermediate paper I on p.no.3)
The question on translation directly drives my mind to the essay-translation
approach (defined in section two), which is now referred to as the pre-scientific stage of
language testing.
Tests of translation, however tend to be unreliable because of the complex
nature of the various skills involved and the methods of scoring. In too many instances,
the unrealistic expectations of examiners result in the setting of highly artificial sentences
and literary texts for translation. Students are expected to display an ability to make fine
syntactical judgments and appropriate lexical distinctions- an ability which can only beacquired after achieving a high degree of proficiency not only in English and the mother
tongue but also in comparative stylistics and translation methods. Heaton (1988:18)
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This traditional approach in language teaching and testing has its limitations,
because we use the sentences/utterances to perform a function and purpose in real life,
not just merely complete, make a translate the sentences.
According to Heaton:
Translation attempts to test multi items at the same time which is not effective
and suggestive in learning and teaching a language. (1988:44)
Question on the use of Idioms and Phrase:
Idioms and phrases are also given in the Intermediate English Compulsory Paper I
&II, the candidates are asked to make sentences using them.
(See appendices Intermediate English Compulsory Paper I&II.)
The purpose of these tests is to test students vocabulary and their ability to use
them in writing correctly. But this test item fails to serve its objective because the idioms
e.g. at sixes and sevens, to look down upon, crocodile tears, etc are repeated so often that
the students can almost guess the ones they will be required to make sentences in the
papers. Hence, this test item only tests candidates memory i.e. how well they can utilize
it in exams. So these test items cause a negative backwash effect. I think it would be
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suitable to apply other testing techniques like; asking the students to match the idioms
with their meanings or the idioms should be used in the sentences and students would be
required to paraphrase or rewrite the sentences in simple words, etc. These techniques
would enable the learners to infer the meaning of the idioms and phrases from
meaningful contexts.
Question on Narration:
Question on narration only appears in Intermediate English Compulsory Paper II.
Q.6 Change the following into indirect speech:-
Certainly, cried little Hans, I take quite as a compliment your coming to me,
and I will start off at once. But lend me your lantern, as the night is so dark that I amafraid I might fall into the ditch. (See appendices Intermediate English Paper I 2004.)
I think this is the only question that needs no change. The question Change the
following into indirect speech is according to communicative approach of testing. This
item is not in isolated or unconnected sentences. Context is used in order to develop
semantics and pragmatics sense in the candidate. In my opinion, this technique of testing
narration is a fit in the Intermediate English Compulsory Paper II.
In support to this item I must quote the Madsen here. He says:
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The best exams are those that combine various skills as we do when
exchanging ideas orally or in written. (1983:7)
After analyzing and evaluating the papers I here recommend that the testing
system on the traditional approach should be replaced with the communicative language
testing approach which requires that the grammar be tested in a meaningful context,
preferably using authentic material (newspaper articles etc). I design a sample test on the
communicative approach that would, I think, better serve to test the grammatical
competence of the students in general and especially to the college students.
4.2 Advantages of my proposed grammatical items:
The technique that I have chosen to test grammatical items is Cloze Procedure.
The reason to choose this vary technique of testing is that it provides ease to the paper
developers in preparing test and to checkers in scoring it. It is based on integrative testing
(