HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN BISCUIT TMANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF-LIFE

STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN BUISCUIT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND

ASSESMENT ITSSHELF-LIFE

This dissertation submitted to the Department of Food Engineering, & Technology, State University of Bangladesh for the partial fulfillment of

Masters of Science in Food Engineering & Technology.

Submitted by

SADIA AFRIN JOTI ID: PG20-04-13-010

Department of Food Engineering & TechnologyState University of Bangladesh

May, 2014

A Thesis for the partial fulfillment of the Degree of M.Sc. in Food Engineering and Techonology

STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN BISCUIT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF

LIFE

This dissertation submitted to the Department of Food Engineering, & Technology, State University of Bangladesh for the partial fulfillment of Masters

of Science in Food Engineering & Technology.

Submitted by

SADIA AFRIN JOTI ID: PG20-04-13-010

Supervisor

Anis Alam Siddiqui

Head & Associate ProfessorDepartment of Food Engineering & Technology

State University of BangladeshMay, 2014

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project entitled “STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000

IMPLEMENTATION IN BISCUIT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND

ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF LIFE” Submitted by SADIA AFRIN JOTI, ID:

PG20-04-13-010, M.Sc. student, Department of Food Engineering & Technology, State

University of Bangladesh, has been carried out under my supervision. This is further to

certify that this project work is carried out as partial requirement for fulfillment of the

M.Sc. Degree in Food Engineering & Technology.

Supervisor

Anis Alam SiddiquiHead & Associate Professor

Department of FoodEngineering & Technology

State University of Bangladesh

DEDICATION

“Dedicated to my parent and teachers for their unconditional

support with my study, I am honored to have them as my family.

Thank you for giving me a chance to prove and improve myself

through all my walks of life”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The study entitled “HACCP & ISO 22000 implementation biscuit manufacturing industry and assessment of its shelf life” has been

undertaken for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master

in Food Engineering and Technology at State University of Bangladesh, Dhaka..

It is with great admiration and pleasure that I express my deepest regards and

sense of gratitude to my respected supervisor Anis Alam Siddiqui, Associate

Professor & Head, Department of Food Engineering & Technology for his

sincere co-operation, personal attention, inspiration and continuous guidance

from designing to submission of this work. His critical and constructive

suggestions lead to me the completion of my dissertation.

My cordial thanks to all of my class mates for helping and supporting me in every

step during the study.

ABSTRACTBefore implementing HACCP, basic good hygiene conditions and practices called prerequisites must be in place. HACCP can then be used to control steps in the business which are critical in ensuring the preparation of safe food. The National Standards Authority of Ireland (NSAI) has produced sector specific Irish Standards (I.S.) to good hygienic practice. All food businesses are advised to use the appropriate standard for their sector .

The HACCP team should list all of the hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur at each step from primary production, processing, manufacture, and distribution until the point of consumption. The HACCP team must then consider what control measures, if any, exist which can be applied for each hazard

HACCP provides businesses with a cost effective system for control of food safety, from ingredients right through to production, storage and distribution to sale and service of the final consumer. The preventive approach of HACCP not only improves food safety management but also complements other quality management systems.

ISO 22000 is the International Food Safety Management Standard.

It combines and supplements the core elements of ISO 9001 and HACCP to provide an effective framework for the development, implementation and continual improvement of a Food Safety Management System (FSMS).

ISO 22000 aligns with other management systems, such as ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, to enable effective systems integration.

The physicochemical and organoleptic attributes of the three types of biscuit

were evaluated. Results showed significant different (p<0.05) in terms of ash,

protein, crude fiber and total carbohydrate among biscuits. Chickpea biscuit was

significantly (p<0.05) highest in protein and resistant starch content among the

three types of biscuits. The mung bean biscuits was significantly (p<0.05)

highest in weight, diameter, height and spread ratio. Textural measurement

showed chickpeas biscuits was significantly highest (p<0.05) in hardness,

crispiness, elasticity, gumminess, and chewiness than the other two types of

samples evaluated. For sensory evaluation, chickpeas biscuits showed

significant high difference in flavor, crispiness and aftertaste attributes but

insignificant (p>0.05) different between mung bean biscuits in term of overall

acceptability. Chickpea biscuits had the best flavor, crispiness and acceptability.

LIST OF CONTENTS

PageIntroduction 11History of Baking 12Commercial Baking 13Foods and Techniques 13Equipment 15Process 15Prerequisite Hygiene Requirements 16Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System and Guidelines For Its Application

17

Preamble 17Definitions 17Principles of The HACCP System 19Guidelines For The Application of The HACCP

System19

Application of HACCP 20Training 24Benefits of HACCP 24Microbiological Criteria 28Risks Assessment 34

Food Safety 42ISO 22000 - Food Safety Management 42Cookies 46

Flour 49Ingredients, Equipments and Recipes 53Cookie Formulation and Preparation 57Various Type of Cookies: 61Wheat Quality & Carbohydrate Research 79Shelf Life of Cookies 87Preservation of Cookies 89

Results and Discussion 91Sensory Evaluation 93Panel Test 93Conclusion 94References 95

LIST OF DIAGRAM AND TABLE

Diagram 1. Logic Sequence For The Application of HACCP 25

Diagram 2. Example of Decision Tree To Identify CCPs 26

Diagram 3. Example of A HACCP Worksheet 27

Figure 1: Frozen Sugar Cookie Production Flowchart 53

Table(I): Shelf Life of Cookies 88

Table1: Formulation of Cookies 58

Table 2: Physical Characteristics of Three Types Cookies 59

Table3: Results of Texture of Tree Types Cookies 60

Table 4:Proximate Composition of Mung Bean And Chickpea Flour 92

Table 5: Proximate Composition of Three Types of Cookies 92

Table 6: Results of Sensory Evaluation of Three Type’s Cookies 93

STUDY ON HACCP & ISO 22000 IMPLEMENTATION IN BISCUIT MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY AND ASSESMENT OF ITS SHELF

LIFE

INTRODUCTION

Baking is a food cooking method that uses prolonged dry heat by convection, rather than by thermal radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many other types of foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred "from the surface of cakes, biscuit and breads to their centre. As heat travels through it transforms batters and dough’s into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre”. Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant, by using both methods simultaneously or one before the other, cooking twice. Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit.

Baking has been traditionally done at home by women for domestic consumption, by men in bakeries and restaurants for local consumption and when production was industrialized, by machines in large factories. The art and skill of baking remains a fundamental one and important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common food, economically and culturally important. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker.

Snack food consumption has been on the increase as a result of urbanization and increase in the number of working women. Food based industry can exploit this development by fabricating nutritious snack foods. biscuit have become one of the most desirable snack for both youth and elderly people due to their low manufacturing lost, more convenience, long shelf-life and ability to serve as a vehicle for important nutrients (Akubor, 2003; Honda and Jood, 2005).

It represents the largest category of snack item among baked food products throughout the world (Pratima and Yadava, 2000). Biscuit are not considered as staple food as in bread, but may be feasible fiber carriers because of their long shelf life and thus enable large scale production and widespread distribution (Vratania and Zabik, 1978). In many countries, biscuit are prepared with fortified or composite flour to increase its nutritive value (Gonzalez-Galan et al., 1991).

Legumes are high in nutrient especially in protein (18-24%) than cereal grain. Thus it can be used to provide amino acids such as lysine, tryptophan, or

methionine (Potter, 1986). Unless certain raw or cooled cooked foods are considered, contain substantial amounts of resistant starch (RS) (Marlett and Longacre, 1996). Resistant starch increases amount of indigestible substances in the colon and demonstrates the physiological benefits of dietary fiber. Annelisse et al. (2011) reported that incorporation of RS into a cereal matrix may increase the intake of dietary fiber and hence help against chronic disease such as cardiovascular disease and type-2 diabetes.

The purpose of this study is to determine the physicochemical and sensory attributes of wheat flour substituted cookies with legume flours (mung bean and chick pea).

HISTORY OF BAKING

The first evidence of baking occurred when humans took wild grass grains, soaked them in water, and mixed everything together, mashing it into a kind of broth-like paste. The paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat, hot rock, resulting in a bread-like substance. Later, this paste was roasted on hot embers, which made bread-making easier, as it could now be made any time fire was created. The Ancient Egyptians baked bread using yeast which they had previously been using to brew beer. Bread baking began in Ancient Greece around 600 BC, leading to the invention of enclosed ovens. "Ovens and worktables have been discovered in archaeological digs from Turkey (Hacilar) to Palestine (Jericho) and these dates from about 5600 BCE."

Baking flourished in the Roman Empire. In about 300 BC, the pastry cook became an occupation for Romans (known as the pastillarium). This became a respected profession because pastries were considered decadent, and Romans loved festivity and celebration. Thus, pastries were often cooked especially for large banquets, and any pastry cook who could invent new types of tasty treats was highly prized. Around 1 AD, there were more than three hundred pastry chefs in Rome, and Cato wrote about how they created all sorts of diverse foods, and flourished because of those foods. Cato speaks of an enormous number of breads; included amongst these are the libum (sacrificial cakes made with flour), placenta (groats and cress), spira (our modern day flour pretzels), scibilata (tortes), savaillum (sweet cake), and globes apherica (fritters). A great selection of these, with many different variations, different ingredients, and varied patterns, were often found at banquets and dining halls. The Romans baked bread in an oven with its own chimney, and had mills to grind grain into flour. A bakers' guild was established in 168 BC in Rome.

Eventually, the Roman art of baking became known throughout Europe, and eventually spread to the eastern parts of Asia. From the 19th century, alternative leavening agents became more common, such as baking soda. Bakers often

baked goods at home and then sold them in the streets. This scene was so common that Rembrandt, among others, painted a pastry chef selling pancakes in the streets of Germany, with children clamoring for a sample. In London, pastry chefs sold their goods from handcarts. This developed into a system of delivery of baked goods to households, and demand increased greatly as a result. In Paris, the first open-air café of baked goods was developed, and baking became an established art throughout the entire world.

COMMERCIAL BAKING

Baking developed into an industry using machinery that enabled more goods to be produced and which then had to be distributed more widely. In the United States the baking industry "was built on marketing methods used during feudal times and production techniques developed by the Romans." Some makers of snacks such as potato chips or crisps have produced baked versions of their snack items as an alternative to the usual cooking method of deep-frying in an attempt to reduce the calorie or fat content of their snack products. Baking has opened up doors to businesses such as cake making factories and private cake shops where the baking process is done with larger amounts in bigger and open furnaces.

The aroma and texture of baked goods as they come out of the oven is strongly appealing but it is a quality that is quickly lost. Since the flavor and appeal largely depend on this freshness, commercial producers have had to compensate by using food additives as well as imaginative labeling. As baked goods are more and more purchased from commercial suppliers, producers try to capture that original appeal by adding the label "home-baked". Such a usage seeks to make an emotional link to the remembered freshness of baked goods and seeks also to attach any positive associations the purchaser has with the idea of "home" to the bought product. Freshness is such an important quality that restaurants, although they are commercial (and not domestic) preparers of food, bake their own products for their customers. For example, scones at The Ritz London Hotel "are not baked until early afternoon on the day they are to be served, to make sure they are as fresh as possible."

FOODS AND TECHNIQUES

All types of food can be baked but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have been developed to provide this protection. Pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers and pretzels also produce using the bread baking process. These popular items are known collectively as "baked goods" and are sold at a bakery.

Meat, including cured meats, such as ham can also be baked, but baking is usually reserved for meatloaf, smaller cuts of whole meats, and whole meats that contain stuffing or coating such as bread crumbs or buttermilk batter. Some foods are surrounded with moisture during baking by placing a small amount of liquid (such as water or broth) in the bottom of a closed pan, and letting it steam up around the food, a method commonly known as braising or slow baking. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are more often roasted, which is a similar process, using higher temperatures and shorter cooking times. Roasting, however, is only suitable for the finer cuts of meat, so other methods have been developed to make the tougher meat cuts palatable after baking. One of these is the method known as en croûte (French for "in a crust"), which protects the food from direct heat and seals the natural juices inside. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en croûte. Well-known examples include Beef Wellington, where the beef is encased in pastry before baking; pâté en croûte, where the terrine is encased in pastry before baking; and the Vietnamese variant, a meat-filled pastry called pâté chaud. The en croûte method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favorite method of cooking venison. In this case, the protective case (or crust) is made from a paste of flour and water and is discarded before eating. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten. Another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking is to cook it en papillote (French for "in parchment"). In this method, the food is covered by baking paper (or aluminium foil) to protect it while it is being baked. The cooked parcel of food can be served unopened, with an element of surprise, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves.

Eggs can be baked to produce savory or sweet dishes. In combination with dairy products and/or cheese, they are often prepared to serve as a dessert. Although a baked custard, for example, can be made using starch (in the form of flour, corn flour, arrowroot or potato flour), the flavour of the dish is much more

delicate if eggs are used as the thickening agent. Baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an oven's direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose. The cooking container is half submerged in water in another, larger one, so that the heat in the oven is more gently applied during the baking process. Baking a successful soufflé requires that the baking process be carefully controlled – the oven temperature must be absolutely even and the oven space not shared with another dish. These factors, along with the theatrical effect of an air-filled dessert, have given this baked food a reputation for being a culinary achievement. Similarly, good baking techniques (and a good oven) are also needed to create a baked Alaska because of the difficulty of baking hot meringue and cold ice cream at the same time.

Baking can also be used to prepare various other foods, such as for example, baked potatoes, baked apples, baked beans, some casseroles and pasta dishes such as lasagna.

EQUIPMENT

Baking needs an enclosed space for heating - an oven. The fuel can be supplied by wood or coal; gas or electricity. Adding and removing items from an oven may be done by a long handled tool called a peel.

Many commercial ovens are provided with two heating elements: one for baking, using convection and thermal conduction to heat the food, and one for broiling or grilling, heating mainly by radiation. Another piece of equipment still used in the 21st century for baking is the Dutch oven. "Also called a bake kettle, bastable, bread oven, fire pan, bake oven kail pot, tin kitchen, roasting kitchen, doufeu (French: "gentle fire") or feu de compagne (French: "country

oven") [it] originally replaced the cooking jack as the latest fireside cooking technology," combining "the convenience of pot-oven and hangover oven."

PROCESS

There are eleven events that occur concurrently during baking. These are:Fats melt

But some of them, such as starch gelatinization would not occur at room temperature.

The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The browning is caused by caramelization of sugars and the Millard reaction. Millard browning occurs when "sugars break down in the presence of proteins". Because foods contain many different types of sugars and proteins, Millard browning contributes to the flavor of a wide range of foods, including nuts, roast beef and baked bread." The moisture is never entirely "sealed in"; over time, an item being baked will become dry. This is often an advantage, especially in situations where drying is the desired outcome, like drying herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.

The baking process does not require any fat to be used to cook in an oven. When baking, consideration must be given to the amount of fat that is contained in the food item. Higher levels of fat such as margarine, butter or vegetable shortening will cause an item to spread out during the baking process.

With the passage of time breads harden; they become stale. This is not primarily due to moisture being lost from the baked products, but more a reorganization of the way in which the water and starch are associated over time. This process is similar to re-crystallization, and is promoted by storage at cool temperatures, such as in a domestic refrigerator.

PREREQUISITE HYGIENE REQUIREMENTS

Before implementing HACCP, basic good hygiene conditions and practices called prerequisites must be in place. HACCP can then be used to control steps in the business which are critical in ensuring the preparation of safe food. The National Standards Authority of Ireland (NSAI) has produced sector specific Irish Standards (I.S.) to good hygienic practice. All food businesses are advised to use the appropriate standard for their sector (e.g. catering, retail, processing).

Prerequisites include where appropriate:

Cleaning and Sanitation Maintenance Personnel Hygiene and

Training Pest Control Plant and Equipment Premises and Structure

Waste Management Zoning (physical separation of

activities to prevent potential food contamination) 

Services (compressed air, ice, steam, ventilation, water etc.)

Storage, Distribution and Transport

HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP) SYSTEM AND GUIDELINES FOR ITS APPLICATION

Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3 (1997)

PREAMBLE

The first section of this document sets out the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system adopted by the Codex Alimentations Commission. The second section provides general guidance for the application of the system while recognizing that the details of application may vary depending on the circumstances of the food operation.

The HACCP system, which is science based and systematic, identifies specific hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP is a tool to assess hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention rather than relying mainly on end-product testing. Any HACCP system is capable of accommodating change, such as advances in equipment design, processing procedures or technological developments.

HACCP can be applied throughout the food chain from primary production to final consumption and its implementation should be guided by scientific evidence of risks to human health. As well as enhancing food safety, implementation of HACCP can provide other significant benefits. In addition, the application of HACCP systems can aid inspection by regulatory authorities and promote international trade by increasing confidence in food safety.

The successful application of HACCP requires the full commitment and involvement of management and the work force. It also requires a multidisciplinary approach; this multidisciplinary approach should include, when appropriate, expertise in agronomy, veterinary health, production, microbiology, medicine, public health, food technology, environmental health, chemistry and engineering, according to the particular study. The application of HACCP is compatible with the implementation of quality management systems, such as the ISO 9000 series, and is the system of choice in the management of food safety within such systems.

While the application of HACCP to food safety was considered here, the concept can be applied to other aspects of food quality.

DEFINITIONS

Control (verb): To take all necessary actions to ensure and maintain compliance with criteria established in the HACCP plan.

Control (noun): The state wherein correct procedures are being followed and criteria are being met.

Control measure: Any action and activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.

Corrective action: Any action to be taken when the results of monitoring at the

CCP indicate a loss of control.

Critical Control Point (CCP): A step at which control can be applied and is

essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an

acceptable level.

Critical limit: A criterion which separates acceptability from unacceptability.

Deviation: Failure to meet a critical limit.

Flow diagram: A systematic representation of the sequence of steps or

operations used in the production or manufacture of a particular food item.

HACCP: A system which identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards which are

significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP

to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety in the segment

of the food chain under consideration.

Hazard: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the

potential to cause an adverse health effect.

Hazard analysis: The process of collecting and evaluating information on

hazards and conditions leading to their presence to decide which are significant

for food safety and therefore should be addressed in the HACCP plan.

Monitor: The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or

measurements of control parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control.

Step: A point, procedure, operation or stage in the food chain including raw

materials, from primary production to final consumption.

Validation: Obtaining evidence that the elements of the HACCP plan are

effective.

Verification: The application of methods, procedures, tests and other

evaluations, in addition to monitoring to determine compliance with the HACCP

plan.

PRINCIPLES OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

The HACCP system consists of the following seven principles:

PRINCIPLE 1

Conduct a hazard analysis.

PRINCIPLE 2

Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).

PRINCIPLE 3

Establish critical limit(s).

PRINCIPLE 4

Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP.

PRINCIPLE 5

Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a particular CCP is not under control.

PRINCIPLE 6

Establish procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is working effectively.

PRINCIPLE 7

Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles and their application.

GUIDELINES FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

Prior to application of HACCP to any sector of the food chain, that sector should be operating according to the Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, the appropriate Codex Codes of Practice, and appropriate food safety legislation. Management commitment is necessary for implementation of an effective HACCP system. During hazard identification, evaluation, and subsequent operations in designing and applying HACCP systems, consideration must be given to the impact of raw materials, ingredients, food manufacturing practices, role of manufacturing processes to control hazards, likely end-use of the product, categories of consumers of concern, and epidemiological evidence relative to food safety.

The intent of the HACCP system is to focus control at CCPs. Redesign of the operation should be considered if a hazard which must be controlled is identified but no CCPs are found.

HACCP should be applied to each specific operation separately. CCPs identified in any given example in any Codex Code of Hygienic Practice might not be the only ones identified for a specific application or might be of a different nature.

The HACCP application should be reviewed and necessary changes made when any modification is made in the product, process, or any step.

It is important when applying HACCP to be flexible where appropriate, given the context of the application taking into account the nature and the size of the operation.

APPLICATION OF HACCP

The application of HACCP principles consists of the following tasks as identified in the Logic Sequence for Application of HACCP (Diagram 1).

1. Assemble HACCP team

The food operation should assure that the appropriate product specific knowledge and expertise is available for the development of an effective HACCP plan. Optimally, this may be accomplished by assembling a multidisciplinary team. Where such expertise is not available on site, expert advice should be obtained from other sources. The scope of the HACCP plan should be identified. The scope should describe which segment of the food chain is involved and the general classes of hazards to be addressed (e.g. does it cover all classes of hazards or only selected classes).

2. Describe product

A full description of the product should be drawn up, including relevant safety information such as: composition, physical/chemical structure (including Aw, pH, etc.), microbial/static treatments (heat-treatment, freezing, brining, smoking, etc.), packaging, durability and storage conditions and method of distribution.

3. Identify intended use

The intended use should be based on the expected uses of the product by the end user or consumer. In specific cases, vulnerable groups of the population, e.g. institutional feeding, may have to be considered.

4. Construct flow diagram

The flow diagram should be constructed by the HACCP team. The flow diagram should cover all steps in the operation. When applying HACCP to a given operation; consideration should be given to steps preceding and following the specified operation.

5. On-site confirmation of flow diagram

The HACCP team should confirm the processing operation against the flow diagram during all stages and hours of operation and amend the flow diagram where appropriate.

6. List all potential hazards associated with each step, conduct a hazard analysis, and consider any measures to control identified hazards

PRINCIPLE 1: Conduct a hazard analysis.

The HACCP team should list all of the hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur at each step from primary production, processing, manufacture, and distribution until the point of consumption.

The HACCP team should next conduct a hazard analysis to identify for the HACCP plan which hazards are of such a nature that their elimination or reduction to acceptable levels is essential to the production of a safe food.

In conducting the hazard analysis, wherever possible the following should be included:

The likely occurrence of hazards and severity of their adverse health effects;

The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the presence of hazards;

survival or multiplication of microorganisms of concern;

production or persistence in foods of toxins, chemicals or physical agents; and,

Conditions leading to the above.

The HACCP team must then consider what control measures, if any, exist which can be applied for each hazard.

More than one control measure may be required to control a specific hazard(s) and more than one hazard may be controlled by a specified control measure.

7. Determine Critical Control Points

PRINCIPLE 2: Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).

There may be more than one CCP at which control is applied to address the same hazard. The determination of a CCP in the HACCP system can be facilitated by the application of a decision tree (e.g. Diagram 2), which indicates

a logic reasoning approach. Application of a decision tree should be flexible, given whether the operation is for production, slaughter, processing, storage, distribution or other. It should be used for guidance when determining CCPs. This example of a decision tree may not be applicable to all situations. Other approaches may be used. Training in the application of the decision tree is recommended.

If a hazard has been identified at a step where control is necessary for safety, and no control measure exists at that step, or any other, then the product or process should be modified at that step, or at any earlier or later stage, to include a control measure.

8. Establish critical limits for each CCP

PRINCIPLE 3: Establish critical limit(s)

Critical limits must be specified and validated if possible for each Critical Control Point. In some cases more than one critical limit will be elaborated at a particular step. Criteria often used include measurements of temperature, time, moisture level, pH, Aw, available chlorine, and sensory parameters such as visual appearance and texture.

9. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP

PRINCIPLE 4: Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP.

Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation of a CCP relative to its critical limits. The monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at the CCP. Further, monitoring should ideally provide this information in time to make adjustments to ensure control of the process to prevent violating the critical limits. Where possible, process adjustments should be made when monitoring results indicate a trend towards loss of control at a CCP. The adjustments should be taken before a deviation occurs. Data derived from monitoring must be evaluated by a designated person with knowledge and authority to carry out corrective actions when indicated. If monitoring is not continuous, then the amount or frequency of monitoring must be sufficient to guarantee the CCP is in control. Most monitoring procedures for CCPs will need to be done rapidly because they relate to on-line processes and there will not be time for lengthy analytical testing. Physical and chemical measurements are often preferred to microbiological testing because they may be done rapidly and can often indicate the microbiological control of the product. All records and documents associated with monitoring CCPs must be signed by the person(s) doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official(s) of the company.

10. Establish corrective actions

PRINCIPLE 5: Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a particular CCP is not under control.

Specific corrective actions must be developed for each CCP in the HACCP system in order to deal with deviations when they occur.

The actions must ensure that the CCP has been brought under control. Actions taken must also include proper disposition of the affected product. Deviation and product disposition procedures must be documented in the HACCP record keeping.

11. Establish verification procedures

PRINCIPLE 6: Establish procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is working effectively.

Establish procedures for verification. Verification and auditing methods, procedures and tests, including random sampling and analysis, can be used to determine if the HACCP system is working correctly. The frequency of verification should be sufficient to confirm that the HACCP system is working effectively. Examples of verification activities include:

Review of the HACCP system and its records;

Review of deviations and product dispositions;

Confirmation that CCPs are kept under control.

Where possible, validation activities should include actions to confirm the efficacy of all elements of the HACCP plan.

12. Establish Documentation and Record Keeping

PRINCIPLE 7: Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles and their application.

Efficient and accurate record keeping is essential to the application of a HACCP system. HACCP procedures should be documented. Documentation and record keeping should be appropriate to the nature and size of the operation.

Documentation examples are:

Hazard analysis; CCP determination; Critical limit determination. Record examples are: CCP monitoring activities;

Deviations and associated corrective actions;

Modifications to the HACCP system.

An example of a HACCP worksheet is attached as Diagram 3.

Benefits of HACCP

HACCP provides businesses with a cost effective system for control of food safety, from ingredients right through to production, storage and distribution to sale and service of the final consumer. The preventive approach of HACCP not only improves food safety management but also complements other quality management systems. The main benefits of HACCP are:

DIAGRAM 2. EXAMPLE OF DECISION TREE TO IDENTIFY CCPS (answer questions in sequence)

DIAGRAM 3. EXAMPLE OF A HACCP WORKSHEET

MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA

These Principles are intended to give guidance on the establishment and application of microbiological criteria for foods at any point in the food chain from primary production to final consumption.

The safety of foods is principally assured by control at the source, product design and process control, and the application of Good Hygienic Practices during production, processing (including labeling), handling, distribution, storage, sale, preparation and use, in conjunction with the application of the HACCP system. This preventive approach offers more control than microbiological testing because the effectiveness of microbiological examination to assess the safety of foods is limited. Guidance for the establishment of HACCP based systems is detailed in Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System and Guidelines for its Application (Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3-1997, Amd. 1999).

Microbiological criteria should be established according to these principles and be based on scientific analysis and advice, and, where sufficient data are available, a risk analysis appropriate to the foodstuff and its use. Microbiological criteria should be developed in a transparent fashion and meet the requirements of fair trade. They should be reviewed periodically for relevance with respect to emerging pathogens, changing technologies, and new understandings of science.

1. DEFINITION OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERION

A microbiological criterion for food defines the acceptability of a product or a food lot, based on the absence or presence, or number of microorganisms including parasites, and/or quantity of their toxins/metabolites, per unit(s) of mass, volume, area or lot.

2. COMPONENTS OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR FOODS

A microbiological criterion consists of:

a statement of the microorganisms of concern and/or their toxins/metabolites and the reason for that concern (see § 5.1);

the analytical methods for their detection and/or quantification (see § 5.2);

a plan defining the number of field samples to be taken and the size of the analytical unit (see § 6);

microbiological limits considered appropriate to the food at the specified point(s) of the food chain (see § 5.3);

The number of analytical units that should conform to these limits.

A microbiological criterion should also state:

the food to which the criterion applies;

the point(s) in the food chain where the criterion applies; and

Any actions to be taken when the criterion is not met.

When applying a microbiological criterion for assessing products, it is essential, in order to make the best use of money and manpower, that only appropriate tests be applied (see § 5) to those foods and at those points in the food chain that offer maximum benefit in providing the consumer with a food that is safe and suitable for consumption.

3. PURPOSES AND APPLICATION OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR FOODS

3.1 Application by regulatory authorities3.2 Application by a food business operator

Microbiological criteria may be used to formulate design requirements and to indicate the required microbiological status of raw materials, ingredients and end-products at any stage of the food chain as appropriate. They may be relevant to the examination of foods, including raw materials and ingredients, of unknown or uncertain origin or when other means of verifying the efficacy of HACCP-based systems and Good Hygienic Practices are not available. Generally, microbiological criteria may be applied to define the distinction between acceptable and unacceptable raw materials, ingredients, products, lots, by regulatory authorities and/or food business operators. Microbiological criteria may also be used to determine that processes are consistent with the General Principles of Food Hygiene.

3.1 Application by regulatory authorities

Microbiological criteria can be used to define and check compliance with the microbiological requirements.

Mandatory microbiological criteria shall apply to those products and/or points of the food chain where no other more effective tools are available, and where they are expected to improve the degree of protection offered to the consumer. Where these are appropriate they shall be product-type specific and only applied at the point of the food chain as specified in the regulation.

In situations of non-compliance with microbiological criteria, depending on the assessment of the risk to the consumer, the point in the food chain and the product-type specified, the regulatory control actions may be sorting,

reprocessing, rejection or destruction of product, and/or further investigation to determine appropriate actions to be taken.

3.2 Application by a food business operator

In addition to checking compliance with regulatory provisions (see § 3.1.1) microbiological criteria may be applied by food business operators to formulate design requirements and to examine end-products as one of the measures to verify and/or validate the efficacy of the HACCP plan.

Such criteria will be specific for the product and the stage in the food chain at which they will apply. They may be stricter than the criteria used for regulatory purposes and should, as such, not be used for legal action.

Microbiological criteria are not normally suitable for monitoring Critical Limits as defined in Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System and Guidelines for its Application (Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3-1997). Monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at a Critical Control Point (CCP). Monitoring should provide this information in time for corrective actions to be taken to regain control before there is a need to reject the product. Consequently, on-line measurements of physical and chemical parameters are often preferred to microbiological testing because results are often available more rapidly and at the production site. Moreover, the establishment of Critical Limits may need other considerations than those described in this document.

4. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING PRINCIPLES FOR ESTABLISHING AND APPLYING MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA

A microbiological criterion should be established and applied only where there is a definite need and where its application is practical. Such need is demonstrated, for example, by epidemiological evidence that the food under consideration may represent a public health risk and that a criterion is meaningful for consumer protection, or as the result of a risk assessment. The criterion should be technically attainable by applying Good Manufacturing Practices (Codes of Practice).

To fulfill the purposes of a microbiological criterion, consideration should be given to:

the evidence of actual or potential hazards to health;

the microbiological status of the raw material(s);

the effect of processing on the microbiological status of the food;

the likelihood and consequences of microbial contamination and/or growth during subsequent handling, storage and use;

the category(s) of consumers concerned;

the cost/benefit ratio associated with the application of the criterion; and

the intended use of the food.

The number and size of analytical units per lot tested should be as stated in the sampling plan and should not be modified. However, a lot should not be subjected to repeat testing in order to bring the lot into compliance.

5. MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CRITERIA

5.1 Microorganisms, parasites and their toxins/metabolites of importance in a particular food5.2 Microbiological methods5.3 Microbiological limits

5.1 Microorganisms, parasites and their toxins/metabolites of importance in a particular food

For the purpose of this document these include:

bacteria, viruses, yeasts, moulds, and algae;

parasitic protozoa and helminthes;

Their toxins/metabolites.

The microorganisms included in a criterion should be widely accepted as relevant - as pathogens, as indicator organisms or as spoilage organisms - to the particular food and technology. Organisms whose significance in the specified food is doubtful should not be included in a criterion.

The mere finding, with a presence-absence test, of certain organisms known to cause food borne illness (e.g. Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus andVibrio parahaemolyticus) does not necessarily indicate a threat to public health.

Where pathogens can be detected directly and reliably, consideration should be given to testing for them in preference to testing for indicator organisms. If a test

for an indicator organism is applied, there should be a clear statement whether the test is used to indicate unsatisfactory hygienic practices or a health hazard.

5.2 Microbiological methods

Whenever possible, only methods for which the reliability (accuracy, reproducibility, inter- and intra-laboratory variation) has been statistically established in comparative or collaborative studies in several laboratories should be used. Moreover, preference should be given to methods which have been validated for the commodity concerned preferably in relation to reference methods elaborated by international organizations. While methods should be the most sensitive and reproducible for the purpose, methods to be used for in-plant testing might often sacrifice to some degree sensitivity and reproducibility in the interest of speed and simplicity. They should, however, have been proved to give a sufficiently reliable estimate of the information needed.

Methods used to determine the suitability for consumption of highly perishable foods, or foods with a short shelf-life, should be chosen wherever possible so that the results of microbiological examinations are available before the foods are consumed or exceed their shelf-life.

The microbiological methods specified should be reasonable with regard to complexity, availability of media, equipment etc., and ease of interpretation, time required and costs.

5.3 Microbiological limits

Limits used in criteria should be based on microbiological data appropriate to the food and should be applicable to a variety of similar products. They should therefore be based on data gathered at various production establishments operating under Good Hygienic Practices and applying the HACCP system.

In the establishment of microbiological limits, any changes in the micro flora likely to occur during storage and distribution (e.g. decrease or increase in numbers) should be taken into account.

Microbiological limits should take into consideration the risk associated with the microorganisms, and the conditions under which the food is expected to be handled and consumed. Microbiological limits should also take account of the likelihood of uneven distribution of microorganisms in the food and the inherent variability of the analytical procedure.

If a criterion requires the absence of a particular microorganism, the size and number of the analytical unit (as well as the number of analytical sample units) should be indicated.

6. SAMPLING PLANS, METHODS AND HANDLING

A sampling plan includes the sampling procedure and the decision criteria to be applied to a lot, based on examination of a prescribed number of sample units and subsequent analytical units of a stated size by defined methods. A well-designed sampling plan defines the probability of detecting microorganisms in a lot, but it should be borne in mind that no sampling plan can ensure the absence of a particular organism. Sampling plans should be administratively and economically feasible.

In particular, the choice of sampling plans should take into account:

Risks to public health associated with the hazard;

The susceptibility of the target group of consumers;

the heterogeneity of distribution of microorganisms where variables sampling plans are employed; and

The Acceptable Quality Level and the desired statistical probability of accepting a non-conforming lot.

For many applications, 2-or 3-class attribute plans may prove useful.

The statistical performance characteristics or operating characteristics curve should be provided in the sampling plan. Performance characteristics provide specific information to estimate the probability of accepting a non-conforming lot. The sampling method should be defined in the sampling plan. The time between taking the field samples and analysis should be as short as reasonably possible, and during transport to the laboratory the conditions (e.g. temperature) should not allow increase or decrease of the numbers of the target organism, so that the results reflect - within the limitations given by the sampling plan - the microbiological conditions of the lot.

7. REPORTING

The test report shall give the information needed for complete identification of the sample, the sampling plan, the test method, the results and, if appropriate, their interpretation.

RISKS ASSESSMENT

Risks from microbiological hazards are of immediate and serious concern to human health. Microbiological risk analysis is a process consisting of three components: Risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication, which has the overall objective to ensure public health protection.

This document deals with risk assessment which is a key element in assuring that sound science is used to establish standards, guidelines and other recommendations for food safety to enhance consumer protection and facilitate international trade. The microbiological risk assessment process should include quantitative information to the greatest extent possible in the estimation of risk. A microbiological risk assessment should be conducted using a structured approach such as that described in this document. This document will be of primary interest to governments although other organizations, companies, and other interested parties who need to prepare a microbiological risk assessment will find it valuable. Since microbiological risk assessment is a developing science, implementation of these guidelines may require a period of time and may also require specialized training in the countries that consider it necessary. This may be particularly the case for developing countries. Although microbiological risk assessment is the primary focus of this document, the method can also be applied to certain other classes of biological hazards.

A. SCOPE

The scope of this document applies to risk assessment of microbiological hazards in food.

B. DEFINITIONS

The definitions cited here are to facilitate the understanding of certain words or phrases used in this document.

Where available the definitions are those adopted for microbiological, chemical, or physical agents, risk management and risk communication on an interim basis at the 22nd Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The CAC adopted these definitions on an interim basis because they are subject to modification in the light of developments in the science of risk analysis and as a result of efforts to harmonize similar definitions across various disciplines.

Dose-Response Assessment - The determination of the relationship between the magnitude of exposure (dose) to a chemical, biological or physical agent and the severity and frequency of associated adverse health effects (response).

Exposure Assessment - The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the likely intake of biological, chemical, and physical agents via food as well as exposures from other sources if relevant.

Hazard - A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect.

Hazard Characterization - The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the nature of the adverse health effects associated with the hazard. For the purpose of microbiological risk assessment the concerns relate to microorganisms and/or their toxins.

Hazard Identification - The identification of biological, chemical, and physical agents capable of causing adverse health effects and which may be present in a particular food or group of foods.

Quantitative Risk Assessment - A risk assessment that provides numerical expressions of risk and indication of the attendant uncertainties (stated in the 1995 Expert Consultation definition on Risk Analysis).

Qualitative Risk Assessment - A risk assessment based on data which, while forming an inadequate basis for numerical risk estimations, nonetheless, when conditioned by prior expert knowledge and identification of attendant uncertainties permits risk ranking or separation into descriptive categories of risk.

Risk - A function of the probability of an adverse health effect and the severity of that effect, consequential to a hazard(s) in food.

Risk Analysis - A process consisting of three components: Risk assessment, risk management and risk communication.

Risk Assessment - A scientifically based process consisting of the following steps: (I) hazard identification, (ii) hazard characterization, (iii) exposure assessment, and (iv) risk characterization.

Risk Characterization - The process of determining the qualitative and/or quantitative estimation, including attendant uncertainties, of the probability of occurrence and severity of known or potential adverse health effects in a given population based on hazard identification, hazard characterization and exposure assessment.

Risk Communication - The interactive exchange of information and opinions concerning risk and risk management among risk assessors, risk managers, consumers and other interested parties.

Risk Estimate - Output of risk characterization.

Risk Management - The process of weighing policy alternatives in the light of the results of risk assessment and, if required, selecting and implementing appropriate control[5] options, including regulatory measures.

Sensitivity analysis - A method used to examine the behavior of a model by measuring the variation in its outputs resulting from changes to its inputs.

Transparent - Characteristics of a process where the rationale, the logic of development, constraints, assumptions, value judgements, decisions, limitations and uncertainties of the expressed determination are fully and systematically stated, documented, and accessible for review.

Uncertainty analysis - A method used to estimate the uncertainty associated with model inputs, assumptions and structure/form.

C. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MICROBIOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT

1. Microbiological risk assessment should be soundly based upon science.

2. There should be a functional separation between risk assessment and risk management.

3. Microbiological risk assessment should be conducted according to a structured approach that includes hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment, and risk characterization.

4. A microbiological risk assessment should clearly state the purpose of the exercise, including the form of risk estimate that will be the output.

5. The conduct of a microbiological risk assessment should be transparent.

6. Any constraints that impact on the risk assessment such as cost, resources or time, should be identified and their possible consequences described.

7. The risk estimate should contain a description of uncertainty and where the uncertainty arose during the risk assessment process.

8. Data should be such that uncertainty in the risk estimate can be determined; data and data collection systems should, as far as possible, be of sufficient quality and precision that uncertainty in the risk estimate is minimized.

9. A microbiological risk assessment should explicitly consider the dynamics of microbiological growth, survival, and death in foods and the complexity of the interaction (including squeal) between human and agent following consumption as well as the potential for further spread.

10. Wherever possible, risk estimates should be reassessed over time by comparison with independent human illness data.

11. A microbiological risk assessment may need reevaluation, as new relevant information becomes available.

D. GUIDELINES FOR APPLICATION

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONSB. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF RISK ASSESSMENTC. HAZARD IDENTIFICATIOND. EXPOSURE ASSESSMENTE. HAZARD CHARACTERIZATIONF. RISK CHARACTERIZATIONG. DOCUMENTATIONH. REASSESSMENT

These Guidelines provide an outline of the elements of a Microbiological Risk Assessment indicating the types of decisions that need to be considered at each step.

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The elements of risk analysis are: Risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication. The functional separation of risk assessment from risk management helps assure that the risk assessment process is unbiased. However, certain interactions are needed for a comprehensive and systematic risk assessment process. These may include ranking of hazards and risk assessment policy decisions. Where risk management issues are taken into account in risk assessment, the decision-making process should be transparent. It is the transparent unbiased nature of the process that is important, not who is the assessor or who is the manager.

Whenever practical, efforts should be made to provide a risk assessment process that allows contributions by interested parties. Contributions by interested parties in the risk assessment process can improve the transparency of the risk assessment, increase the quality of risk assessments through additional expertise and information, and facilitate risk communication by increasing the credibility and acceptance of the results of the risk assessment.

Scientific evidence may be limited, incomplete or conflicting. In such cases, transparent informed decisions will have to be made on how to complete the risk assessment process. The importance of using high quality information when conducting a risk assessment is to reduce uncertainty and to increase the reliability of the risk estimate. The use of quantitative information is encouraged to the extent possible, but the value and utility of qualitative information should not be discounted.

It should be recognized that sufficient resources will not always be available and constraints are likely to be imposed on the risk assessment that will influence the quality of the risk estimate. Where such resource constraints apply, it is important for transparency purposes that these constraints be described in the formal record. Where appropriate, the record should include an evaluation of the impact of the resource constraints on the risk assessment.

B. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF RISK ASSESSMENT

At the beginning of the work the specific purpose of the particular risk assessment being carried out should be clearly stated. The output form and possible output alternatives of the risk assessment should be defined. Output might, for example, take the form of an estimate of the prevalence of illness, or an estimate of annual rate (incidence of human illness per 100,000) or an estimate of the rate of human illness and severity per eating occurrence.

The microbiological risk assessment may require a preliminary investigation phase. In this phase, evidence to support farm-to-table modeling of risk might be structured or mapped into the framework of risk assessment.

C. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION

For microbial agents, the purpose of hazard identification is to identify the microorganisms or the microbial toxins of concern with food. Hazard identification will predominately be a qualitative process. Hazards can be identified from relevant data sources. Information on hazards can be obtained from scientific literature, from databases such as those in the food industry, government agencies, and relevant international organizations and through solicitation of opinions of experts. Relevant information includes data in areas such as: clinical studies, epidemiological studies and surveillance, laboratory animal studies, investigations of the characteristics of microorganisms, the interaction between microorganisms and their environment through the food chain from primary production up to and including consumption, and studies on analogous microorganisms and situations.

D. EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

Exposure assessment includes an assessment of the extent of actual or anticipated human exposure. For microbiological agents, exposure assessments might be based on the potential extent of food contamination by a particular agent or its toxins, and on dietary information. Exposure assessment should specify the unit of food that is of interest, i.e., the portion size in most/all cases of acute illness.

Factors that must be considered for exposure assessment include the frequency of contamination of foods by the pathogenic agent and its level in those foods over time. For example, these factors are influenced by the characteristics of the

pathogenic agent, the microbiological ecology of the food, the initial contamination of the raw material including considerations of regional differences and seasonality of production, the level of sanitation and process controls, the methods of processing, packaging, distribution and storage of the foods, as well as any preparation steps such as cooking and holding. Another factor that must be considered in the assessment is patterns of consumption. This relates to socio-economic and cultural backgrounds, ethnicity, seasonality, age differences (population demographics), regional differences, and consumer preferences and behavior. Other factors to be considered include: the role of the food handler as a source of contamination, the amount of hand contact with the product, and the potential impact of abusive environmental time/temperature relationships.

Microbial pathogen levels can be dynamic and while they may be kept low, for example, by proper time/temperature controls during food processing, they can substantially increase with abuse conditions (for example, improper food storage temperatures or cross contamination from other foods). Therefore, the exposure assessment should describe the pathway from production to consumption. Scenarios can be constructed to predict the range of possible exposures. The scenarios might reflect effects of processing, such as hygienic design, cleaning and disinfection, as well as the time/temperature and other conditions of the food history, food handling and consumption patterns, regulatory controls, and surveillance systems.

Exposure assessment estimates the level, within various levels of uncertainty, of microbiological pathogens or microbiological toxins, and the likelihood of their occurrence in foods at the time of consumption. Qualitatively foods can be categorized according to the likelihood that the foodstuff will or will not be contaminated at its source; whether or not the food can support the growth of the pathogen of concern; whether there is substantial potential for abusive handling of the food; or whether the food will be subjected to a heat process. The presence, growth, survival, or death of microorganisms, including pathogens in foods, are influenced by processing and packaging, the storage environment, including the temperature of storage, the relative humidity of the environment, and the gaseous composition of the atmosphere. Other relevant factors include pH, moisture content or water activity (aw), nutrient content, the presence of antimicrobial substances, and competing micro flora. Predictive microbiology can be a useful tool in an exposure assessment.

E. HAZARD CHARACTERIZATION

This step provides a qualitative or quantitative description of the severity and duration of adverse effects that may result from the ingestion of a microorganism or its toxin in food. A dose-response assessment should be performed if the data are obtainable.

There are several important factors that need to be considered in hazard characterization. These are related to both the microorganism, and the human host. In relation to the microorganism the following are important: microorganisms are capable of replicating; the virulence and infectivity of microorganisms can change depending on their interaction with the host and the environment; genetic material can be transferred between microorganisms leading to the transfer of characteristics such as antibiotic resistance and virulence factors; microorganisms can be spread through secondary and tertiary transmission; the onset of clinical symptoms can be substantially delayed following exposure; microorganisms can persist in certain individuals leading to continued excretion of the microorganism and continued risk of spread of infection; low doses of some microorganisms can in some cases cause a severe effect; and the attributes of a food that may alter the microbial pathogenicity, e.g., High fat content of a food vehicle.

In relation to the host the following may be important: genetic factors such as human leukocyte antigen (HLA) type; increased susceptibility due to breakdowns of physiological barriers; individual host susceptibility characteristics such as age, pregnancy, nutrition, health and medication status, concurrent infections, immune status and previous exposure history; population characteristics such as population immunity, access to and use of medical care, and persistence of the organism in the population.

A desirable feature of hazard characterization is ideally establishing a dose-response relationship. When establishing a dose-response relationship, the different end points, such as infection or illness, should be taken into consideration. In the absence of a known dose-response relationship, risk assessment tools such as expert elicitations could be used to consider various factors, such as infectivity, necessary to describe hazard characterizations. Additionally, experts may be able to devise ranking systems so that they can be used to characterize severity and/or duration of disease.

F. RISK CHARACTERIZATION

Risk characterization represents the integration of the hazard identification, hazard characterization, and exposure assessment determinations to obtain a risk estimate; providing a qualitative or quantitative estimate of the likelihood and severity of the adverse effects which could occur in a given population, including a description of the uncertainties associated with these estimates. These estimates can be assessed by comparison with independent epidemiological data that relate hazards to disease prevalence.

Risk characterization brings together all of the qualitative or quantitative information of the previous steps to provide a soundly based estimate of risk for a given population. Risk characterization depends on available data and expert

judgements. The weight of evidence integrating quantitative and qualitative data may permit only a qualitative estimate of risk.

The degree of confidence in the final estimation of risk will depend on the variability, uncertainty, and assumptions identified in all previous steps. Differentiation of uncertainty and variability is important in subsequent selections of risk management options. Uncertainty is associated with the data themselves, and with the choice of model. Data uncertainties include those that might arise in the evaluation and extrapolation of information obtained from epidemiological, microbiological, and laboratory animal studies. Uncertainties arise whenever attempts are made to use data concerning the occurrence of certain phenomena obtained under one set of conditions to make estimations or predictions about phenomena likely to occur under other sets of conditions for which data are not available. Biological variation includes the differences in virulence that exist in microbiological populations and variability in susceptibility within the human population and particular subpopulations.

It is important to demonstrate the influence of the estimates and assumptions used in risk assessment; for quantitative risk assessment this can be done using sensitivity and uncertainty analyses.

G. DOCUMENTATION

The risk assessment should be fully and systematically documented and communicated to the risk manager. Understanding any limitations that influenced a risk assessment is essential for transparency of the process that is important in decision making. For example, expert judgments should be identified and their rationale explained. To ensure a transparent risk assessment a formal record, including a summary, should be prepared and made available to interested independent parties so that other risk assessors can repeat and critique the work. The formal record and summary should indicate any constraints, uncertainties, and assumptions and their impact on the risk assessment.

H. REASSESSMENT

Surveillance programs can provide an ongoing opportunity to reassess the public health risks associated with pathogens in foods as new relevant information and data become available. Microbiological risk assessors may have the opportunity to compare the predicted risk estimate from microbiological risk assessment models with reported human illness data for the purpose of gauging the reliability of the predicted estimate. This comparison emphasizes the iterative nature of modeling. When new data become available, a microbiological risk assessment may need to be revisited.

FOOD SAFETY

Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent food borne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering industry to market practices, food safety considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating to food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, as well as policies on biotechnology and food and guidelines for the management of governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for foods. In considering market to consumer practices, the usual thought is that food ought to be safe in the market and the concern is safe delivery and preparation of the food for the consumer.

Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. In developed countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries the main issue is simply the availability of adequate safe water, which is usually a critical item. In theory, food poisoning is 100% preventable. The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO are:

Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests.

Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.

Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens.

Store food at the proper temperature. Use safe water and cooked materials.

ISO 22000 - FOOD SAFETY MANAGEMENT

The ISO 22000 family of International Standards addresses food safety management. The consequences of unsafe food can be serious and ISO’s food safety management standards help organizations identify and control food safety hazards. As many of today's food products repeatedly cross national boundaries, International Standards are needed to ensure the safety of the global food supply chain.

The ISO 22000 family contains a number of standards each focusing on different aspects of food safety management.

ISO 22000:2005 contains the overall guidelines for food safety management.

ISO 22000:2005 specifies requirements for a food safety management system where an organization in the food chain needs to demonstrate its ability to control food safety hazards in order to ensure that food is safe at the time of human consumption.

It is applicable to all organizations, regardless of size, which are involved in any aspect of the food chain and want to implement systems that consistently provide safe products. The means of meeting any requirements of ISO 22000:2005 can be accomplished through the use of internal and/or external resources.

ISO 22000:2005 specifies requirements to enable an organization

Plan, implement, operate, maintain and update a food safety management system aimed at providing products that, according to their intended use, are safe for the consumer,

Demonstrate compliance with applicable statutory and regulatory food safety requirements,

Evaluate and assess customer requirements and demonstrate conformity with those mutually agreed customer requirements that relate to food safety, in order to enhance customer satisfaction,

Effectively communicate food safety issues to their suppliers, customers and relevant interested parties in the food chain,

Ensure that the organization conforms to its stated food safety policy, Demonstrate such conformity to relevant interested parties, and Seek certification or registration of its food safety management system by

an external organization, or make a self-assessment or self-declaration of conformity to ISO 22000:2005.

ISO 22000:2005

ISO 22000 is the International Food Safety Management Standard.

It combines and supplements the core elements of ISO 9001 and HACCP to provide an effective framework for the development, implementation and continual improvement of a Food Safety Management System (FSMS).

ISO 22000 aligns with other management systems, such as ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, to enable effective systems integration.

Benefits of certification to ISO 22000

Customer satisfaction - through delivery of products that consistently meet customer requirements including quality, safety and legality.

Reduced operating costs - through continual improvement of processes and resulting operational efficiencies.

Operational efficiencies - by integrating pre-requisite programs (PRP’s & OPRP’s), HACCP with the Plan-Do-Check-Act philosophies of ISO 9001 to increase the effectiveness of the Food Safety Management System.

Improved stakeholder relationships - including staff, customers and suppliers.

Legal compliance - by understanding how statutory and regulatory requirements impact the organization and its customers and testing compliance through internal audits and management reviews.

Improved risk management - through greater consistency and traceability of product.

Proven business credentials - through independent verification against recognized standards.

Ability to win more business - particularly where procurement specifications require certification as a condition to supply.

Who should use ISO 22000?

ISO 22000 can be used by any organization directly or indirectly involved in the food chain including:

Farms, fisheries and dairies. Processors of meats fish and feed. Manufacturers of bread and cereals, beverages, canned and frozen food. Food service providers such as restaurants, fast food chains, hospitals

and hotels and mobile caterers. Supporting services including food storage and distribution and suppliers

of food processing equipment, additives, raw materials, cleaning and sanitizing products, and packaging.

In summary, part or all of the ISO 22000 requirements will apply to any products that contact the food industry or the food chain.

BISCUITS

A cup of sugar, two of flour, a stick of butter, a couple of eggs, a dash of salt, a teaspoon of baking soda, a little vanilla....Ingredients to make cookies sound simple enough. But are they?

Once upon a time, sugar was simply sugar, flour was simply flour, and butter was only butter. Eggs are still eggs, but almost everything else has changed -ingredients have gotten better.

We now have a choice of sugars, flours and shortenings. Ingredients are now specialized to suit our baking needs. Granulated sugar, comes in regular grind, fine grind and extra fine grind. We can get all-purpose flour, cake flour, bread flour and several specialized types of flour. Instead of butter we may choose a flavored margarine with no cholesterol or an excellent all-purpose shortening.

Your chance for successful baking has never been better. Your opportunity to create a personal baking masterpiece is almost assured.

A mix package of biscuit dough, whether in a bag, box, or frozen in a tube is a mixture of ingredients. Granted, these mixes are great time savers, but they still demand careful preparation in order to be special.

BAKING POWDER:

Baking Powder and Baking Soda will lose its kick with age. Seal it tightly after use to keep out moisture and odors.

BAKING SODA:

Baking soda causes cookies to spread when baked. Baking powder causes cookies to rise and be crunchy.

SUGAR:

Cookies are best when a fine-grind granulated sugar is used. Coarse sugar causes cookies to spread excessively and crumble. Powdered sugar causes cookies to be tight-grained and dry.

FLOUR:

All-purpose and pastry flour is fine for most cookies. A mixture of one third cake flour to two thirds all-purpose flour is better. Use straight cake flour in your sugar cookies.

SHORTENING:

All-purpose shortening or hydrogenated shortening will make almost any cookie. A mixture of three-fourths all-purpose flour and one-fourth real butter better tastes. The butter should be cool, but not hard, when blending with the shortening.

EGGS:

Eggs should always be fresh. The egg's size is very important. When the recipe doesn't say - use large eggs. Frozen eggs come in 4 packages; whole eggs, egg whites, 2 yolks to 1 white; and sugar yolks. If you use frozen eggs the kind that comes 2 yolks to 1 white is best. Whole eggs are second best.

SALT:

Use very little salt and add at the end of mixing, before flour is completely mixed in. Salt causes flour to toughen and can make your cookies tough.

COLORING:

Never use excessive food coloring. Some food coloring has a taste and may give your cookies an off flavor.

WATER:

Use very cold water in making cookies (unless the recipe reads differently). Cold water will help keep the mix from separating. Cold fruit juice is a great substitute for water if you like the fruit flavor.

BROWN SUGAR:

Brown sugar frequently gets dry and lumpy. Lumpy brown sugar can be brought back to life by adding a little cold water and either sifted or placed in a blender.

FRUIT:

Dried fruit (such as raisins) should be soaked in a bowl of hot water for about 10 minutes. This will plump them a little, but will not make them too tender.

NUTS:

Nut-meats should always be sampled before using. The oil they contain goes rancid rather quickly and can ruin the taste of your cookies. Nut-meats freeze well and should be stored in the freezer, not in the refrigerator. Nut-meats absorb odors.

COCONUT:

Freshen up coconut by adding a little hot water and tumbling until the water is absorbed.

CHOCOLATE:

If you've stored chocolate morsels in the refrigerator and they are covered with a white haze, don't worry, that's normal. However, chocolate will absorb odors and should always be sealed tightly and stored at a cool temperature. Also, chocolate will haze over when allowed to heat over 100 degrees while melting.

Melt chocolate in your microwave when possible. If you must melt it on the stove, use very low heat. Put the chocolate in a bowl, then place the bowl in a pan containing water. You must avoid getting water in your melting chocolate. Water will cause chocolate to lump. When the melted chocolate is very thick, add a small amount of vegetable oil or cocoa butter to thin it down. Never add water to thin melted chocolate.

COCOA:

If you like your chocolate cookies more flavorful, add a little more cocoa to the mix. Cocoa will dry the batter out, so you must add a little more shortening or an extra egg yolk. Make a thick paste out of Cocoa and vegetable oil for use in cookie mixes and icing toppings.

SPICE:

Use fresh spices in cookies. Spice loses flavor with age and can sometimes taste like something else altogether. Remember, a little spice goes a long way.

VANILLA EXTRACT:

Use plenty of Vanilla extract. Extracts are alcohol based and much of the flavor may bake out in the oven.

ALMOND EXTRACT:

Use Almond extract along with Vanilla extract to make cherry cookies taste like cherries.

ORANGE EXTRACT:

A little Orange extract added to a chocolate cookie gives it a special flavor. Don't be afraid to experiment with flavors. Always use a little and build the flavor up.

FLOUR

Flour that is used in baking comes mainly from wheat, although it can be milled from corn, rice, nuts, legumes, and some fruits and vegetables. The type of flour of flour used is vital at getting the product right. Different types of flour are suited to different items and all flours are different you cannot switch from one type to another without consequences that could ruin the recipe. To achieve success in baking, it is important to know what the right flour is for the job!

All-Purpose Flour is a blend of hard and soft wheat; it may be bleached or unbleached. It is usually translated as "plain flour." All-Purpose Flour has 8% to 11% protein (gluten). All-purpose flour is one of the most commonly used and readily accessible flour in the United States.

Flour that is bleached naturally as it ages is labeled "unbleached," while chemically treated flour is labeled "bleached." Bleached flour has less protein than unbleached. Bleached is best for pie crusts, cookies, quick breads, pancakes and waffles. Use unbleached flour for yeast breads, Danish pastry, puff pastry, strudel, Yorkshire pudding, éclairs, cream puffs and popovers.

INGREDIENTS, EQUIPMENTS AND RECIPES

Gluten-Free Chocolate Chip biscuit - These biscuit use sweet rice flour, also known as glutinous rice flour. Don't be fooled by the name; there's no gluten in glutinous rice flour (or any rice flour, for that matter). This flour, like most gluten-free flours, is easy to find if an Asian grocery can be located. It can also be found in many boutique grocery stores, such as Trader Joe's or Whole Foods. Other gluten-free flours may be substituted, but be prepared to adjust the amount of flour needed to compensate for variations in starchiness.

It should go without saying, for any household coping with celiac disease that it is imperative to make sure all your ingredients, work surfaces, and utensils are free of gluten contamination. Special care should be taken with compound ingredients such as baking powder; make sure its ingredients list does not include gluten-containing items such as modified food starch.

The cookies are pictured to the right with various additions to the dough. Experimenting is encouraged, but please be careful choosing additions. Some of the cookies pictured have oats added, which introduce trace amounts of gluten and are not safe for celiac.

BISCUIT PRODUCTION FLOWCHART:

Equipment

I. Large mixing bowlII. Stand mixer and bowl (or a hand-held mixer and a medium mixing bowl)III. Wooden spoonIV. Cookie sheetV. Non-stick silicone baking sheet liner (Silpat, etc.)

BISCUITS

SERVINGS: 12 PEOPLE

Ingredients

½ cup (1 stick) (120ml) butter

½ cup (120ml) sugar

½ cup (120ml) brown sugar

2 eggs

½ tsp vanilla extract

1¼ cup (300ml) (1 cup + 2 tablespoons) sweet rice flour

1 tsp xanthenes gum

¾ tsp baking powder

½ tsp baking soda

Chocolate chips (as many as you like)

Procedure

Preheat oven to 350°F (180°C).

Mix the sweet rice flour, xanthenes gum, baking powder and baking soda in a large mixing bowl.

In a smaller mixing bowl or stand mixer, cream the butter, sugar, and brown sugar. Add the eggs and vanilla and continue mixing.

Add the wet ingredients to the dry ingredients and mix thoroughly with a wooden spoon. Don't worry about over-mixing; since there is no gluten in the flour, there is no danger of overworking it.

Fold in the chocolate chips.

Line cookie sheet with silicone mat and spoon on balls of dough, about 1½" (4cm) in diameter.

Put cookie dough in the fridge for 30-40 minutes or into the freezer for 10-20 minutes.

Using a tablespoon, spoon dough out and form little balls. Set them on the baking sheet a couple inches apart.

Bake until golden brown. Makes approximately 30 cookies.

Notes

This will likely take longer to bake than a gluten-containing cookie recipe—perhaps about 25 minutes. Baking time will depend on the flour you use, since the protein content of the flour will determine the rate of browning from the Mallard reaction.

The silicone baking sheet liner is important, as these cookies tend to stick to the pan more than most. If you don't have one, parchment paper might also work.

BISCUIT FORMULATION AND PREPARATION

Cookies were prepared according to the formula from Mitsubishi-Kagaku Foods Corporation, Japan (2001) with slight modification. The formula used is shown in Table 1. The dry ingredients were weighed using an analytical balance and thoroughly mixed in Kitchen Aid Mixer (Model K5SS, USA). Shortening was added and rubbed in until uniform. The egg was added and the dough thoroughly kneaded for four minutes. The dough was then rolled and cut with a round cutter with a diameter of 32 mm and thickness of 5 mm and baked on greased pan for 5 minutes at 180 ºC in a Turbofan Oven (Bakbar Versatile Bench Top Model E32, Germany).The cookies were cooled on a wire racks at 27 dsa for 30 minutes before packing in an airtight plastic container prior to physical and chemical evaluation.

Table 1

Ingredients Control (%) Mung bean Biscuits (%)

Chickpea Biscuits (%)

Wheat flour 42.5 21.2 21.2Corn flour 0.0 6.5 6.5Mung bean flour 0.0 14.8 0.0Chickpea flour 0.0 0.0 14.8Sugar 20.5 20.5 20.5Shortening 20.5 20.5 20.5Egg 15.0 15.0 15.0Baking powder 1.0 1.0 1.0Salt 0.4 0.4 0.4Flavor 0.1 0.1 0.1

Formulation of Biscuits

Resistant starch (RS):

Result indicated that mung bean flour was significantly higher in resistant starch (9.95%) as compared to chickpea flour (5.47%) However the RS content showed no significant different between the mung bean(1.84%) and the chickpea (2.09%) cookies. However both legume based cookies differ significantly with the control cookies (1.03%). Tanha and Zami (1997) stated that heat treatment (roasting) caused the decreased of IDF (insoluble dietary fiber) in cereals and legumes. RS is one of the IDF components.

Marlett and Longacre (1996) also reported that legumes contain high RS beside raw food and chilled-cook food. RS was produced from retrogradation of amylase in legumes. Mung bean and chickpea contain high percentage of amylase i.e 28.8% and 31.8% (Salunkhe and Khadam, 1989).

Physical analyses:

The physical characteristics of the three types of Biscuits are shown in Table 2. Results of these studies indicated that there is significant difference (p<0.05) between each samples in terms of weight, diameter, height and spread ratio. Lowest weight was indicated in chickpea cookies at 7.36%. This result suggested that the chickpea cookies have high water holding capacity (WHC) as compared to mung bean and control cookies due to the high protein content. In non-wheat protein water holding capacity was higher than in wheat flour (Hoojjat and Zabik, 1984).

Table 2

Types of Biscuits Weight Diameter Height Spread Ratio

Control (%) 10.11 13.13 74.06 4.16

Mung bean (%) 8.68 11.25 75.41 4.06

Chickpea (%) 7.36 23.13 56.11 5.05

Physical Characteristics of Three Types Biscuits

Mung bean Biscuits resulted from dough that goes through the apparent glass transition at a lower temperature as reported by Does her et al. (1987) and Miller et al. (1996). They suggested that cookie set time is determined by an apparent glass transition of the gluten protein in the flour.

Protein content influences the viscosity of dough cookies. This is because the expansion of protein gluten is not resumed in the making of cookies. Inverse

correlation was obtained between diameter and protein content (Leon, 1996). Protein gluten in flour will form a web in cookie dough when heated. During baking, the gluten goes through an apparent glass transition, thereby, gaining mobility that allows it to interact and form a web.

The formation of continuous gluten web increases the viscosity and stops the flow of cookie dough (Miller and Honeney, 1997). But, chickpea cookies have the highest diameter even though the protein content is high. Barron and Esponiza (1993) reported that addition of 15% chickpea flour or more in the corn flour mixture will decrease it viscosity. This may because the viscosity of chickpea dough reduce and increase the spread rate. Dough with lower viscosity causes cookies to spread at faster rate (Hoseney and Roger, 1994; Hoseney et al., 1988). In this formulation, 35% chickpea flour was added and allows it to reduce the viscosity of cookie dough furthermore increase the spread rate even though the protein content is high.

Significant difference occurs in the spread potential at difference soft flour varieties (Mehri, 2009). Cookie spread rate appears to be controlled by dough viscosity (Yamazaki, 1959, Hoseney et al., 1988, Hoseney and Rodger, 1994; Miller, 1997). When more water is present in the dough, more sugar is dissolved during mixing.

This lowers the initial dough viscosity and the cookie is able to spread at a faster rate during heating. The flour components that absorb large quantities of water reduce the amount of water that is available to dissolve the sugar in the formula. Thus, initial viscosity is higher and the cookies spread less during baking (Hoseney and Rodger, 1994). The spread in mung bean cookies was the cookies. The chickpea cookies had the highest spread ratio because the flour has low hydration properties. Similar report was also report by Yamazaki (1962) and Rababah et al. (2006).

Texture:

Texture result of the three types of cookies was shown in Table 3. Hardness differs significantly (p<0.05) among samples. The highest value in hardness was found in chickpea cookies at 61.87 N. This might have resulted from incorporation of protein rich flour which need more water to obtain good cookie dough, and the cookies prepared from high-absorption dough tend to be extremely hard (Hoojjat and Zabik, 1984). Similar finding by Lee and Beuchat (1991) reported that more strength was needed to break cookies incorporated with legumes flour.

Table 3

Factors Control Mung Bean ChickpeaHardness 41.50 53.00 61.87Crispiness 9.38 4.47 27.48Elasticity, mm 0.87 0.81 1.17

Gumminess 0.55 0.25 1.27Cohesiveness 0.01 0.01 0.02Chewiness, Nmm 0.48 0.19 1.50

Results of Texture of Tree Types Biscuits

Crispiness was observed to be the highest value in chickpea Biscuits with a value of 27.48 N. Del Rosario and Flores (1981) indicate that it might have resulted from the water binding effort in mung bean flour which increased with heating denaturation of protein content. Chickpea cookies had significantly highest (p<0.05) value in terms of elasticity, chewiness and gumminess.

Various type of Biscuits:

Name Image Place Description

Aachener Printen

The city of Aachenin G

ermany

Aachener Printen are a type of Lebkuchen. The term is a protected designation of origin and so all manufacturers can be found in or near Aachen. Printen are made from a variety of ingredients including cinnamon, aniseed, clove,cardamom, coriander, allspice and also ginger.

Afghan biscuits

New Zealand, Australia

It is a traditional New Zealand biscuit and is made from cocoa powder, butter, flour and cornflakes. It is then topped with chocolate icing and half a walnut. The origin of both the recipe and name are unknown, but the recipe has appeared in many editions of cookbooks sold in New Zealand.

Name Image Place Description

Alfajor

some regions of Spain and

countries of Latin America

Its basic form consists of two round sweet biscuits joined together with dulce de leche or jam and covered with powdered. In most alfajores there are two layers of cake, and a filling in between.

WHEAT QUALITY

Flour Analysis:

The production of uniform bakery products requires control over the raw materials used in their formation. Flour is a biological material and when obtained from different sources can vary considerably in its protein quality, protein quantity, ash, moisture, enzymatic activity, color, and physical properties. It is essential for the baker to be aware of any variations in these characteristics from one flour shipment to the next. The purpose of flour testing is to measure specific properties or characteristics of flour.

Ideally the results of these tests can be related to the flour’s performance in the bakery.

The American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) publishes approved methods for determining various properties of flour and bakery products.

Moisture:

The simple air-oven method is sufficiently accurate for the routine analysis of flour moisture at the flour mill or bakery. The procedure involves heating a small sample of flour (~2g) for 1 hr at 266˚F (130˚C + 1˚C) and taking the loss in weight as the moisture content.

The moisture content of the flour is important for two reasons. First, the higher the moisture content, the lower the amount of dry solids in the flour. Flour specifications usually limit the flour moisture to 14% or less. It is in the miller’s interest to hold the moisture as close to 14% as possible. Secondly, flour with greater than 14% moisture is not stable at room temperature. Organisms naturally present in the flour will start to grow at high moistures, producing off odors and flavors.

Ash:

Ash is the mineral material in flour. The ash content of any given flour is affected primarily by the ash content of the wheat from which it was milled and it’s milling extraction. The test for determining the ash content involves incinerating a known weight of flour under controlled conditions, weighing the residue, and calculating the percentage of ash based upon the original sample weight.

The ash content of wheat varies from about 1.50 to about 2.00%. The pure endosperm contains about 0.35% ash. Considering that the wheat kernel contains about 80% endosperm, it becomes clear that the non-endosperm parts of the kernel (pericarp, aleurone, and germ) are very high in ash when compared to the endosperm. Thus, the ash content is a sensitive measure of the amount of non-endosperm material that is in the flour.

The goal of milling is to separate the endosperm from the non-endosperm parts of the wheat kernel. This separating is difficult and never clean. Thus, there is always contamination of endosperm with non-endosperm and vice versa. As flour yield is increased, the amount of contamination with non-endosperm increases and the ash content increases. Thus, the ash content is a good and sensitive measure of the contamination of the endosperm.

Millers will often comment that the ash does not affect the baking performance of flour. This is probably true. However, the non-endosperm parts of the wheat kernel are known to decrease baking quality and as the ash content increases so does the level of non-endosperm material.

The ash content of white pan bread flour has increased over the years from 0.45% in the 1950s to the current level of 0.50-0.55%. This has undoubtedly resulted from negotiations where the miller has agreed to the flour buyer’s price but only if he can raise the ash content of the flour a couple of points (0.02%).

Protein:

The amount of protein in a food material is usually determined by measuring the nitrogen content of the material and multiplying that value by a factor. The nitrogen content of a given protein varies depending on its source. For milk products a factor of 6.38 is used, for most cereal grains the factor is 6.25, and in wheat products the factor is 5.70. These factors depend on the percentage of nitrogen in the respective proteins.

The flour protein content is an important parameter for bread flour. Flours containing higher protein contents are more expensive than flours of lower

protein content. Likewise, flours with very low proteins for cakes are also more expensive. There is usually, but not always, a good correlation between protein content and bakery performance of a flour.

The classic procedure to determine the nitrogen was the Kjeldahl procedure. This involved digesting the sample in concentrated sulfuric acid, then neutralizing the acid with concentrated sodium hydroxide, followed by distillation of the ammonia (derived from the nitrogen in the protein) into a standard acid. The procedure worked well, however it was an environmental nightmare. In addition to the strong acid and base, the catalysts used to speed the digestion included such materials as mercury and selenium. It should surprise no one that the procedure is seldom used today.

The Kjeldahl procedure has been replaced by the Dumas combustion procedure. In the original Dumas procedure the sample is mixed with cupric oxide and heated in a stream of carbon dioxide in a combustion tube packed with cupric oxide and copper metal. The organic material is converted to carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen. The gas stream is led into 50% potassium hydroxide. This absorbs the carbon dioxide and any oxides of sulfur, leaving only nitrogen as a gas. The volume of nitrogen is then determined. Various machines have been developed to carry out the analysis automatically. The percent nitrogen is then converted to protein using the appropriate factor. Both the Dumas combustion and the Kjeldahl procedures estimate the quantity (total amount) of protein and not the protein quality. As discussed elsewhere, the quantity of protein is extremely important in the baking performance of a flour.

Free Fatty Acids:

The level of free fatty acids in flour milled from sound wheat is very low. However, if either the wheat or the flour is subjected to poor storage conditions (high moisture and/or high temperature), enzymes will degrade the native grain lipids and produce free fatty acids. Thus, the level of free fatty acids is a good measure of the storage conditions of either the grain or the flour. Flours with high levels of free fatty acids will be more subjected to rancidity than will sound flours. This is of little importance in bread but quite important in dry products (cookies, crackers, croutons, pretzels, etc.).

The procedure for determining free fatty acids is quite simple. The lipids are extracted with a suitable solvent such as petroleum ether. The petroleum ether is then evaporated off and the lipid is dispersed in a toluene-alcohol mixture and titrated with standard potassium hydroxide.

Flour Color:

Flour color is important because it affects the crumb color of the finished product. The color of the flour used for variety breads, that have a dark color because of non-wheat components in the formula, is not important. Unbleached flours have a creamy color because of the presence of carotenoid pigments in the endosperm. The level of these pigments and therefore the color of the flour will vary from one flour to another. The level of pigments is under genetic control. The pigments can be readily bleached with benzyl peroxide (mixed with the dry flour at the mill) or by enzyme active soy flour in the bread formula.

Flour color can be judged by visual comparison with a standard patent flour. In the Pekar (slick test), the sample flour is slicked alongside the standard sample and their colors compared visually. This procedure is also useful to determine if the sample is contaminated with bran.

In the procedure, 10-15 grams of the flour to be tested is placed on a glass, plastic, or metal plate. The surface of the flour is smoothed with a clean flour slick to a wedge approximately one-fourth inch thick at the top end of the flour sample down to a thin film at the bottom edge of the plate. The sides of the flour sample are trimmed so they form a straight edge. Next, similarly slick a second flour besides the first making certain that the two flours join and a straight edge forms between the two samples. If addition flours are to be compared, they can be placed on the plate next to the other flours and “slicked” so that there is one continuous wedge of all the flours, with a distinct line of demarcation between them. Any color differences between the samples can then be readily evaluated.

Color difference attributable to bran can be further accentuated by submerging the same samples at an angle into fresh clean water until air bubbles cease to rise (1-2 minutes). The plate is then carefully removed and placed in a warm place for the surface to dry. The relative intensity of the sample colors can then be noted after the surface has dried. The above experiment can also be carried out by dripping the glass plate containing freshly prepared flour wedges into a solution containing pyrocatechin. The bran contains the enzyme polyphenol oxidize that will convert the pyrocatechin into brown pigments. After the surface has dried, the samples are inspected for the presence of bran specks.

A number of instruments have been developed to measure the color of solids and foods. Although they may be useful with flour and baked products, they have not been readily accepted by the milling or baking industries.

Enzyme Activity:

Although flour contains a large number of enzymes, only a few are measured and/or controlled. Clearly, the most important enzymes in bread flour are the amylases. Beta amylase is found in sufficient quantities in all flours. It has no

action on native starch granules but does attack gelatinized and damaged starch. It acts from the non-reducing end of the gelatinized starch chain to produce maltose. It cannot go past a branch point so its action is stopped with a large part of the molecule still intact. This is called the beta limit dextrin. It will convert about 30% of the amylase and 45% of the amylopectin to maltose.

The other amylase of importance in wheat flour is α-amylase. Flour milled from sound wheat contains little or no α-amylase. Bread produced from flours with low levels of α-amylase will be low in volume and have a rough textured crumb. Thus, it is common to add malted barley or malted wheat flour to increase the α-amylase activity. Some millers will add fungal amylase preparations to increase the α-amylase activity. This requires a modified method of analysis.

Although sound grain contains low levels of α-amylase, the level of activity increases rapidly if the grain is sprouted. After the grain is mature, raising the moisture content (i.e. rain) may cause the grain to lose its dormancy and it may start to sprout while still in the field before harvest. This greatly increases the level of α-amylase and other enzymes.

α -Amylase Activity:

α-Amylase breaks the α-1 – 4 bonds in starch in a more or less random attack. It is not truly random as it does not break those bonds near an α-1 – 6 branch point. Because of its attack pattern, each break dramatically reduces the size of the resulting dextrin. As a result the viscosity of the starch-water paste decreases rapidly. This is why α-amylase is sometimes referred to as the liquefying enzyme. Because of the rapid decrease in viscosity with each bond broken, measurement of viscosity is a sensitive measure of enzyme activity. The following three methods to measure α-amylase activity are all viscosity measuring procedures.

Falling Number:

 The falling number apparatus consists of a boiling water bath, matched test tubes (to conduct heat at the same rate), a stirrer, a stirring apparatus, and a timing mechanism. Flour plus a known amount of excess water is placed in a test tube and shaken to disperse the flour. The tube is placed in the apparatus that stirs the sample as if it is heated. At the end of stirring, the stirrer is dropped from the top position. The number of seconds required for the stirrer to fall through the flour-water paste is the falling number.

Sound flour will have a falling number of 400 seconds or greater. Increased enzyme activity will decrease the falling number. Flour milled from badly

sprouted wheat may have falling numbers of 50 to 100 sec. Bakery flours are generally adjusted to 250-300 seconds. The procedure is rapid and reasonably reproducible. It can be used for either whole-wheat meal or flour.

Amylograph:

 In this procedure, flour and a buffer solution are stirred in a rotating bowl that is heated by an air bath. The sample is heated from room temperature to 95˚C (203˚F) at a rate of 1.5˚C/minute. If one is only interested in the α-amylase activity, the test can be ended when the slurry reaches 95˚C (203˚F). If the flour contains no α-amylase activity the viscosity (consistency) of the sample will continue to increase as the temperature rises to 95˚C. Optimally treated bread flours are in the range of 400-600 BU. If there is increased enzyme activity, the curve will peak at a lower viscosity (consistency) and at a lower temperature. The peak height is taken as the measure of enzyme activity. The amyl graph procedure is relatively slow and requires a relatively are sample. The procedure is reproducible and still widely used to control the level of malt addition.

Rapid ViscoAnalyzer (RVA):

The RVA was developed as a faster and more rugged version of the amyl graph. Stimulating the amyl graph, the temperature control can be programmed to heat at various rates. This viscosity is determined by the load on the stirring motor. As is the case with the amyl graph, the height of the viscosity vs. temperature curve is related to the α-amylase activity of the sample. Because of the flexibility in controlling heating/cooling profile, the RVA has found many uses in cereal laboratories in addition to determining α-amylase activity. The RVA can also stimulate the falling number method when samples are heated at 95˚C (203˚F) for three minutes. Stirring number is reported as the viscosity at the test’s end.

Proteolytic Activity:

Proteolytic enzymes hydrolyze proteins. Proteolytic activity can be divided into two basic types. Some enzymes hydrolyze an amino acid from the end of a protein molecule while other proteolytic enzymes attack the protein chain internally. The attack is not random but instead occurs between specific amino acids. The two types of enzyme are classified as exo- (which releases amino acids from the exterior) and endo- (which breaks the protein chain internally).

Wet gluten:

Wet gluten provides a quantitative measure of the gluten forming proteins in flour that are primarily responsible for its dough mixing and baking properties.

SHELF LIFE OF BISCUITS

How long do Biscuit last? Most cookies are made of sugar, butter, flour and an unlimited number of other ingredients. The shelf life of Biscuits depends on a variety of factors, such as the sell by date, the preparation method and how the cookies were stored. Because of their relatively low cost and high calorie density, cookies are a popular and very portable dessert.

Table(i):

{Unopened} Pantry Freezer

Past Printed Date  Past Printed Date

Bakery Biscuit last for 2-3 Days 4-5 Months

Packaged Biscuit (Soft) last for 1-2 Months 4-5 Months

Packaged Biscuit(Hard) last for 1-2 Months 4-5 Months

(Opened) Pantry Freezer

Shelf Life of Biscuits

How long do biscuits last?

When properly stored, the shelf life of most cookies past their best by date is approximately of course, all foods last for a shorter period of time if they are not stored properly. But remember, cookies, like a lot of other baked, usually have

a sell by date or a best before date and not a use by date. Because of this distinction, you may safely use them to satisfy your sweet tooth even after the best before date has lapsed.

How to store biscuits to extend their shelf life?

Proper food storage is the key to extending the expiration date of food. You can help keep biscuit dough fresh by storing it in an air-tight container in the fridge. Once prepared, cookies should be stored in a tightly closed container or wrapped with plastic wrap to keep out air and other contaminants. For a long-term option, you can freeze your cookies while preserving their taste if you use an air-tight freezer safe container. Some benefits of proper food storage include eating healthier, cutting food costs and helping the environment by avoiding waste.

Preservation of Biscuits

Keeping biscuits fresh is a trick that many bakers or cookie-lovers would like to learn. To preserve the freshness of cookies, you'll have to store them appropriately, with the type of cookies that they are in mind. Read the following tips to learn how to extend cookies' shelf life and keep them edible.

1. Store soft biscuits in containers with very tight lids.

Tight lids keep moisture out of the container and can keep cookies from becoming too soggy to eat.

2. Place hard biscuits in containers that have easily removable lids.

The traditional cookie jar is a good example of this type of container. The little ventilation that cookie jars allow can keep the cookies hard and crisp.

3. Separate your biscuits with wax paper if you need to layer them in a container.

Keeping wax paper in between cookies prevents cookies from sticking together and crumbling when you try to remove them.

4. Put different types of biscuits in different containers.

Avoid the temptation to store cookies of all types in 1 container. Doing so increases the likelihood that scents and flavors will transfer.

5. Freeze your biscuits if you want them to stay fresh for as long as half a year.

Before freezing cookies, be sure to wrap them in freezer-safe plastic and place the cookies in an airtight container. This procedure protects against freezer burn, preserves flavors, and guards against the unwanted absorption of scents of other foods in your freezer.

Important TIPS:

If you've baked your own cookies, be sure to allow them to cool completely before storing them. This helps keep cookies fresh because extra heat in a small, confined space speeds up the process of spoilage. Generally, once cookies have reached room temperature, they are safe to store.

If you're planning on shipping freshly baked cookies, pack them with a piece of bread and send them the same day that they are baked. This can preserve their

freshness until they reach their destination. You can also use wax paper to help keep cookies separated from each other and apart from the piece of bread.

Cookies can stay fresh for about 7 days if you store them properly and at room temperature.

To keep home-baked cookies soft naturally, try adding pieces of dried fruit to their recipes.

If you find that your cookies are too dry, place a piece of apple in the container in which they are stored. The apple's components can help restore cookies' softness. Similarly, if you’re hard cookies become too soft, place a piece of bread into their container. The bread will naturally soak up the unwanted moisture that is making them unnecessarily soft. Replace the piece of bread with a fresh slice when it becomes stale.

Containers made out of tin or durable food-grade plastic are best to store cookies.

Warnings:

Moist cookies, or cookies that require moisture to remain fresh, often present mold faster than crisp cookies

Results and Discussion

Flour composition:

Proximate composition data of mung bean and chickpea flours was shown in Table 4. Mung bean flour was found to have high moisture, ash, carbohydrate and crude fiber content as compared to chickpea flour. Protein content was higher in the chickpea flour.

Table 4

Mung bean flour (%) Chickpea flour (%)Moisture 11.50±0.30 9.53±0.20Ash 3.70±0.01 2.53±0.03Fat 0.80±0.01 1.25±0.10Protein 16.10±0.10 19.90±0.10

Crude fiber 3.70±0.04 2.85±0.02Carbohydrate 67.90±0.11 66.80±0.10

Proximate Composition of Mung Bean and Chickpea Flour

Biscuit composition:

Table 5 showed that there is significant difference (p<0.05) between the cookies samples in terms of protein, ash, crude fiber, carbohydrate and calorie content. Protein content was shown to be significantly highest (P<0.05) in chickpea cookies at 7.04%. Ash content was significantly highest (P<0.05) in mung bean cookies and this is related to the high mineral content. Mung bean cookies was significantly lower (P<0.05) in calorie content as compared to other samples.

Table 5

Control (%) Mung bean Biscuit (%)

Chickpea biscuit(%)

Moisture 2.44 2.75 2.92

Ash 0.82 1.28 1.12

Fat 24.43 23.92 24.36

Protein 5.65 6.55 7.04

Crude fiber 1.95 1.69 1.56

Carbohydrate 66.66 65.50 64.56

Calorie(kcal/100g) 509.11 503.4 505.64

Proximate Composition of Three Types of Biscuit

SENSORY EVALUATION

The sensory scores of the cookies were presented in Table 6. Cookies prepared from legumes were rated high in flavor, crispiness, aftertaste, color and overall acceptability with significant difference (p<0.05) as compared to control. Although after taste was found to be pronounced in the mung bean and chickpea cookies but these cookies are significantly acceptable than the control. McWatters (1978) suggested that the bean flavour in legumes flour could be reduced by exposing the material to moist heat. The aftertaste could have resulted from the bean flavour from the legumes. In spite of 35% legumes flour substitution, the cookies were scored high by the panelists. This was

contradicting with the result reported by Hoojjat and Zabik (1984), whereby the cookies were scored low with more than 10% sesame seed.

Table 6

Control Mung bean Chickpea

Color 6.46 7.09 6.64

Aroma 7.09 6.27 6.64

Flavor 6.00 6.91 7.45

Crispiness 7.09 7.00 7.45

Aftertaste 5.09 6.45 6.91

Acceptability(overall) 6.64 7.00 7.36

Results of Sensory Evaluation of Three Type’s Biscuits

PANEL TEST

A twelve member panel (4 males, 8 females) comprising of students from the Food Technology Department evaluated the samples using the 9 points hedonic scale method: 9 (excellent) to 1 (very poor). Evaluation of the cookies was conducted 24 hours after baking. Sensory testing was done on all 6 types of cookies. Each panelist was presented with 6 coded randomized samples. Each sample was coded with three random digit numbers and the positions of the samples were randomized. Panelists were seated in individual sensory booths. Each sample was replicated twice. The score were analyzed by the panel members.

CONCLUSION

Quality in the food manufacturing industry can be defined in different ways. One definition of quality is meeting or exceeding customer expectations and requirements. This aspect of quality certainly applies to the food industry as customers expect nutrition, good taste and pleasing appearance in the products they purchase. Another definition of quality that is applicable to the food industry is the assurance that the product is safe to eat and that the food is sanitary and has a maintained integrity that is without physical or chemical contamination. Many consumers expect pleasing appearance and taste, and that the food is safe to eat.

There are two parameters that can be used to address quality within the food industry. The first is Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), which is widely used within multiple industries to improve and manage overall quality. The second is more commonly used for the food safety aspects of quality, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which identifies potential safety risks in food products and proactively seeks to reduce or eliminate them. When integrated, these powerful tools can improve both quality performance and conformance within the food industry.

HACCP originated with the Pillsbury Company when they were asked to supply food for the space Program in 1959. They developed a non-testing approach to food safety to ensure the safety of foods that the astronauts would take with them on spaceflights. It was introduced to the U.S. food industry in 1971 at the National Conference on Food Protection.

Since then, the HACCP program has grown to be a staple food protection program in the United States and internationally. It is a mandatory program for all U.S. meat, egg and fruit juice producers. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) also encourage it for other food producers in the U.S.

Incorporation of chickpea flour and mung bean flour into wheat flour did not change the functional properties but increases the protein, RS content and acceptability of cookies.

REFERENCES

HACCP (www.fao.org),FAO corporate document repository produced by agriculture & consumer protection.

Food Safety ISO 22000 and Food Safety Management. ISO 22000(ISO management system, www.iso.org/ims) ISO 22000 (www.iso.org) ISO 22000(www.nqa.com) lynnescountrykitchen.net/cookies/ingredients.html Katy linsao, Victoria sauder, Chris and others.

Cies food safety conference Barcelona, February 2009 www.ifsqn.com Physicochemical and organoleptic properties of cookies incorporated with

legume flour, food technology division, school of industrial technology, university sains Malaysia, 11800 penang, Malaysia.

Food Processing & Preservation, publication_2008(by_B.Sivasankar)