Therapeutic utilization of secretory products of some.Indian medicinal plants - a review

Mradu Gupra", Tuhin Kant Biswas2, Shyamali Saha' & Pratip Kumar Debnath '

IDepartment of Dravyaguna Vijnana, 2Department of Sharir Kriya,3Department of Kayachikitsa, JB Roy State Ayurvedic College & Hospital,

170-172, Raja Dinendra Street, Kolkaia 700004, West BengalEmail: mradu_gupta@hotmaiLcom

Received 29 June 2005; revised 5 September 2005

Indian Systems of Medicine use around eight thousand medicinal plants in preventive, promotive and curativeapplications. Although the bark and roots are the most common plant parts used, depending on the potency other plant partssuch as leaves, flowers, stem, secretory products, etc. are also used as medicine. Secretory products include secretionsobtained either naturally or by making incisions in the plant. External secretory structures include trichornes, glands,nectaries, hydathodes and osmophores while the internal secretory structures located below the epidermis layer consist ofthc glands and ducts, which secrete oils, gums and resins, and laticifers, which secrete latex. Detailed study of a fewcommonly found secreting Indian medicinal plants exhibits pharrnacochemical properties and therapeutic actions.

Keywords: Ayurveda, Clinical activity. Medicinal plants. Pharmacological activities. Review. Secretory products

IPC Int. CI.H:A61 K36/00, A61 P1I04, A61 P 1106, A61 PIIIO, A61 P11I2, A61 P1I14, A61P5/00, A61 P5/50. A61 PI 1100, A61PllI10,A61 P 15/00, A61 P 17/00, A61 P 17/02. A61 P 19/00. A61 P 19/02, A61 P21100. A61 P39/02

Indian Journal of Traditional KnowledgeVol 5(4), October 2006, pp 569-575

India is endowed with herbal wealth of about 5000plant species of known medicinal and aromaticproperties. It has a variety of agroclimatic conditions,which increases its biodiversity and gives rise tomany ethnic groups of users. In terms of both thevolume and the value of medicinal plants exported,India ranks second in the world'. Millions of ruralhouseholds used medicinal plants in a self-help mode.Major sources of medicinal plants are obtained fromfolkloric information (51.48%) followed byAyurvedic information (19.49%). The practitioners ofthe Indian Systems of Medicine used medicinal plantsin preventive, promotive and curative applications.Analysis of information on medicinal plants indicatesthat around 8000 plant species are used by differentsystems of medicine in India. Whole plant, bark androots are used in majority of such plants, whilesecretory products, seeds and stem are used in somecases.

Different plant parts such as leaves, roots, secretoryproducts, bark, etc. are used as medicine. Secretoryproducts are secretions obtained either naturally or bymaking incisions on the plant. These secretions can beobtained from any of the plant parts. According to

* Corresponding author

Charaka Samhita, milky secretory plant products canbe put to medicinal uses". It has been mentioned thatlatex obtained from Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia) actsas a strong purgative, Akra (Calotropis procera) latexacts as an emetic and laxative, while the secretionfrom Ashmantak (Ficus rumphiii acts as emetic".Secretory cells may occur in any plant part and aremainly of two types, excretory cells, and secretingcells3. .

External secretory structures are found on the plantsurface, either in the epidermis layer or as derivativesof the epidermis and of deeper lying cells(emergences). These include trichomes, glands,nectaries, hydathodes and osmophores among others:'.

The trichomes may be biseriate or capitate hairs.The glands serve the purpose of water storage,reception and transmission of stimuli, secretion ofmucilage, enzymes and water, and the absorption ofthe products of digestion, e.g. pitcher plant, sundewplant, etc. Many trichomes and glands secreteterpenes in various combinations. Nectaries secrete asugary fluid called nectar. Some of the commonlyused nectar-producing Indian medicinal plants areNeem (Azardichta indica) and Kamala (Nelumbonucifera). The fragrance of flowers is usually

derivatives 12. Its pharmacological acuvities includeantiinflammatory, anti ulcerogenic, anaesthetic,hepatoprotective, antibacterial, antispasmodic andh . 1314 Al ... h 4' fypotensive '. oe vera JUIce In t e rorm 0

ointment has been found to hasten healing of wounds,thermal burns and radiation injury.

570 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL. 5, NO.4 OCTOBER

produced by essential oils distributed throughout theepidermis of perianth parts but in some plants, thefragrance is produced in special glands termedosmophores. Commonly, osmophores are found inOrchidaceae family. Hydathodes occur on leaves andare also called water stomata or water pores. Eachhydathode may have one or more pores.Morphologically hydathodes are considered to beenlarged stomata that serve for water exudation by aprocess known as guttation. Internal secretorystructures are located below the epidermis layer.These consist of glands and ducts, which secrete oils,gums and resins, and laticifers, which secrete latex:'.

EnumerationMedicinal plants having different types of secretory

products like latex, gum, resin & other exudations(Tables 1-3) have been enumerated':".

Acacia catechu Willd. (Leguminasae)Commonly known as Khadir, Khair, cutch tree or

catechu tree, its flowers are pale yellow in cylindricalspikes while its pods are glabrous. Its bark, heartwoodand catechu (Katha) are used". Gum catechu is agummy exudation prepared from the wood by boilingin water and inspissating the decoction. Catechu isbitter, acrid, thermogenic, digestive, appetizer,aphrodisiac, hepato-protective, haemostatic,vulnerary, anthelmintic, depurative and tonic8. Asmall piece of catechu with nutmeg is held intoothache, loss of voice, sore throat and bleeding,ulcerations and soreness of gums. The wood containsepicatechin, catechin, catechutannic acid, tetramer,dicatechin, gallocatechin, kaempferol, taxifolin,isorhamnetin and afzelechinn". It exhibits antiviral,spasmolytic, antifungal and hypoglycaemic activities.

Aloe vera Linn. (Liliaceae)Commonly known as Ghrit Kumari or Indian aloe,

is a succulent herb with rosette, sessile fleshy greenleaves with horny prickles on margins. Its flowers areorange or yellow in colour. The plant is bitter,cooling, anthelmentic, carminative, appetizer,laxative, diuretic, emmenagogue, ophthalmic andanti-leprotic". Its juice is used in dyspepsia,amenorrhoea, burns, colic, hepatoprotective, skindisease, constipation abdominal tumour, dropsy,flatulence, painful inflammation and chronic ulcer'!'.Its chief chemical constituents arehydroxyanthroquinone - barbaloin, y - hydroxyaloinisomers, aloe emodin, chrysophanol and chromone

Argemone mexicana Linn. (Papaveraceae)Commonly known as Swam Kshiri or Mexican

poppy, whole plant contains large amounts of yellowcoloured milky juice. Its leaves are long, thorny,denticulate and flowers are bright yellow. Its roots,seeds and latex are used as medicine. The latex isused as diuretic, hypnotic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antileprotic'. Seeds and roots act aslaxative, emetic, expectorant and demulcentl5. Itsmain chemical compounds are berberine andprotopine alkaloids, mexicanol, mexicanic acid andallocryptopi ne5

.

Boswellia serrata Roxb. (Burseraceae)

Commonly known as Shallaki, Salai, Kunduru orIndian Olibanum tree, it is a deciduous tree growingup to 18 m in height. Its bark and gum resins are usedin medicine. The gum oleoresin is secreted in theschizogenous ducts in the bark, which are scatteredjust below the bast fibres 16. The gum oleoresin exudesas colourless semi-liquid fluid, which graduallybecomes golden yellow and solidifies intoreddishbrown small, ovoid fragrant tears calledKunduru. The gum resin is sweet, bitter, astringent,antipyretic, antidysenteric, diuretic, emmenagogue,antiinflammatory, antispasmodic, antilipidemic andantiarthritic 17. The resin contains ~- boswellic acidand serratol". The gum contains galactose, arabinose,fructose, rhamanose, triterpenoids and glucoronic.'d19 20 Th . 1'1 . haCI . . e essentia 01 s contam camp ene,

myrcene and a-terpene. It is anti-inflammatory,antiarthritic, analgesic, antibacterial, hypoglycaemicand anticancer".

Calotropis procera R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae)

Commonly known as Ark or Madar, it is a hardybranched, large sized perennial, profusely milkyshrub. Roots, leaves, flowers and latex are used inAyurvedic medicine. The drug is hot, bitter, pungent,and laxative and is beneficial in skin disease, wound,ulcer, enlargement of spleen and liver, digestive,anthelmintic, expectorant and anticolic". The milkyexudate (latex) is obtained from all parts of the plantand contains watersoluble matter (86%-95%). The

GUPTA et al.: THERAPEUTIC UTILIZATION OF SECRETORY PRODUCTS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS 571

latex contains calactin, calotropagenin, hexose,syriogenin, proceroside, calatropin, calactinic acid,uscharin, u-amyrin, ~-amyrin, ~-sitosterol andcalotoxin'". It has been reported to be useful asanticancer, antimicrobial, anthelmentic, stimulant,spasmogenic, diuretic, anticoagulant andhighfibrinonyltic. Calatropin showed digitalis likeaction on heart, but its action was not cumulative andless harmful. Latex is highly toxic to rabbits, dogs anddonkeys when administered in large dose.

Cannabis sativa Linn. (cannabinaceae)Commonly known as Bhang, Indian hemp is an

annual herb and its flowers are small, greenishyellow, unisexual, while the fruits are flat, ovate andseeds are flat and black in colour. Leaves, flowers,fruits and soft branches in their dried form are calledBhang. Ganja is the dried flowering or fruiting top ofthe female plant from which no resin has beenextracted. Charas flowering top is the resinousexudate from the flowering tips of the female plant,which has a powerful odour and is greenishbrown incolour". It is narcotic, analgesic, hypnotic,anticonvalescent, antidiarrhoeal, aphrodisiac andastringent. Intake of overdosage may lead to toxicity.Its chemical compounds include cannabion,tetrahydrocannabiodiol, eugenol, hydrocarbons,amino acids and flavonoids.

Cinnamomum camphora Nees (Lauraceae)Commonly known as Karpur or Camphor tree, it is

a large evergreen, profusely branched tree, bark beingaromatic and yellowish-brown colour, flowers aresmall, yellowish-white in colour, while the fruits areovoid and dark green in colour. All parts of the plantcontain volatile oil from which camphor (inamorphous powder form) is obtained. Camphor isused as aromatic, cardiac stimulant, analgesic,expectorant, antiseptic, antipyretic, anti leprotic andfor eye troubles 7

. Its main chemical compounds arecampherol, cineol, pinene, camphene, limonene andterpeneol".

Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) EngJ. (Burseraceae)The exudate is commonly known as Guggul,

Gumguggul or Indian Bedellium. It is a small treewith trifoliate leaves and brownishred flowers. Thegum oleoresin is a slightly yellowish milky juice,which turns into yellow brown vermicular pieces aftersolidification. Gum is bitter, astringent, thermogenic,anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, analgesic, diuretic,

antiatherosclerotic, antispasmodic, nervine tonic,antiarthritic, hypocholesterolemic and hypolipidimic25 26 Th . . . I '1 I'. e gum resm contams essentia OJ s, z-guggu u-sterone, guggulusterone, quercetin, ~-sitosterone andguggulsterols". Use of Guggul as medicine isrecommended only after purification with Triphaladecoction, Dasharnula decoction or milk.

Euphorbia neriipholia Linn. (Euphorbiaceae)Locally known as Snuhi, common milk hedge or

Sehund is used as a hedge plant throughout India.Flowers are greenishyellow in colour, fruits are tri-capsular containing many small greenishbrown seeds.All plant parts are used as medicine. Milky juice(latex) is obtained by incision from all parts of theplant. The latex is pungent in taste and used aspurgative, expectorant, antiulcer and antileprotic". InAyurveda, it is also used for the preparation ofKsharsutra (alkaline thread), used externally for thetreatment of hemorrhoids and fistula-in-ane. Itcontains diterpine nerifolene, euphorbon and malateof calcium",

Ferulafoetida Linn. (Umbelliferae)Commonly known as Hing (Asafoetida), is a 2-3 m

high shrub with circular mass of foliage and shoots upa stem, peculiarly massive and pillar-like. There arenumerous large, schizogenous ducts in the cortex ofthe stem and root that are filled with a whitish gum-resinous emulsion. When the stem is cut, theexudation flows from the cut surface and solidifiesinto small granules. The normal time of collection isJune. This plant is mostly found in Afghanistan,Turkey and Persia. It is extensively used in India formany centuries as a flavouring agent, in condiments,in spice mixture and also as a medicine. It is used ascarminative, appetizer, digestive, anti-spasmodic,expectorant and anthelmintic28

. Asafoetida containsresins, gums and volatile oils. The resin portioncontains mostly asaresinotannol, free or combinedwith ferullic acid. The volatile oils includebutylpropenyl disulphide, trisulphide, comphene,

. d 5pinene an terpene.

Garcinia morella Gaertn. (Guttiferae)The exudates of a medium sized evergreen tree

Tarnal, are commonly known as Kankustha. Its leavesare thick and ovate, flowers are unisexual, fruitsresembling a berry have four dark brown seeds.Gambose is obtained by making a spiral incision onthe bark of the tree during the rainy season; exudates

572 INDrAN J TRADrTIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL. 5, NO.4 OCTOBER

obtained harden into yellowish orange cake or lumps.It shows antiseptic, anthelmentic, purgative,antiinflammatory and hypotensive activities. Itschemical compounds include garcinolic acid andmorellin29,3o.

Papaver somniferum Linn. (Papaveraceae)Exudates are commonly known as opium and

Afeem or Ahiphen. It is an annual branched herb withmany lobed leaves, while flowers, globose, stalked

capsules containing a large number of black or whitesmall seeds. The inspissated milky juice obtainedfrom incision of the immature capsule called opium,is used narcotic, analgesic, anticonvulsant,antidiarrhoea and antipyretic". Its seeds are sweet,tonic and aphrodisiac in nature. Its constituentsinclude morphine, narcotine, codeine, papaverine,thebaine, apo-morphine, lactic acid and meconicacid".

Table I --Secretory product (latex) of some Indian medicinal plants

Plants name with Common name Secretory product Chemical Ayurvedic indicationfamily compounds

Argemone mexicana Swarn-kshiri Yellow latex from Berberine, Wound healing, laxative, antipyretic,Linn. (Papaveraceae) (Mexican Poppy) shrub protopine antiinflammatory, anti leprotic, causes

epidemic dropsyCaotropis procera R. Arka (Madar) Latex from stem & Calotropin, Wound healing, appetizer, purgative,Br. (Asci epi adaceae) branches uscharin, calotoxin, ophthalmic

calotropeolsCarica papaya Linn. Erandkarkati White milky latex Papain, papayotin, Digestive, diuretic, anti-inflammatory,(Cari caceae) (Papaya) from the incision of chymopapin anthelmintic

unripe fruitsEuphorbia neriifolia Snuhi (Common Latex from Diterpene, Antiinflammatory, surgeryLinn. (Euphorbiaceae) milk hedge) branches after nerifolene, resin, (Kshar sutra), purgative, wound

incision euphorbone healing, analgesicFicus bengalensis Vata (Banyan tree) Milky exudation Tannin, caoutchauc Wound healing, antiinflammatory,(Moraceae) from leaves & skin diseases, toothache

branchesFicus glomerata Udumbar Milky substance Tannin, caoutchac Wound healing, analgesic,(Moraceae) (Cluster Fig) from branches aphrodisiacFicus rumphii Blume. Ashmantak Milky substance Tannin, caoutchac Emetic, anticough, antidiuretic(Moraceae) from branchesPapaver somniferum Ahiphen Exudation of unripe Morphine, Narcotic, analgesic, anticonvulsant,Linn. (Papaveraceae) (Opium) fruits by incision of narcotine, codein, antidiarrhoeal

capsule lactic acid, resi ns,thebaine, volatileoils

Table 2 - Secretory product (gum resin) of some Indian medicinal plants

Plants name with family Common name Secretory product Chemical compounds Ayurvedic indication

Acacia arabica Wi lid. Babul (Indian Yellowish-brown Arabic acid, catechin, Diuretic, blood purifier,(Leguminosae) gum Arabic tree) exudation as dark tannin, epicatechin, wound healing, haemostatic,

granules obtained from epigallocatechin, gallic aphrodisiacstem acid

Acacia catechu Wi lid. Khadir Gummy extract prepared Catechin, epicatechin, Antileprotic, pittasamak,(Leguminosae) (Catechu tree) from the wood by catechu tannic acid, antipruritic, haemostatic

boiling in water taxifolin, gallocatechinBoswellia serrata Roxb. Shallaki (Indian Exudation as oleo-gum Serratol, boswellic acid, Analgesic, deodorant,(B urseraceae) olibanum tree) resin obtained from bark galactose, arabinose, appetizer, digestive,

essential oils carminativeButea monosperma Palash (Flame of Exudation obtained from Kinotannic acid, gallic Antidiarrhoeal, haemostatic,(Leguminosae) the forest) bark acid aphrodisiac, tonic, healing,

general weaknessCommiphora myrrha Bol (Myrrh tree) Exudation obtained from Volatile Oil, myyrrhol, Expectorant, .Nees. (Burseraceae) the stem after incision resin myrrh, myrrhic anti inflammatory,

acid, eugenol, cumic aphrodisiac, diuretic,aldehyde diaphoretic

GUPTA et al.: THERAPEUTIC UTILIZATION OF SECRETORY PRODUCTS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS 573

Table 2 - Secretory product (gum resin) of some Indian medicinal plants

Plants name with family Common name Secretory product Chemical compounds Ayurvedic indication

Comniphora- mukul Guggul Yellow-brown exudation Guggulusterol, Z- Analgesic, fat reducing,(Hook. ex stocks.) Engl. (Indian of the plant by incision guggulusterone, appetizer, anti arthritis(B urseraceae) bedellium) of trunk & branches myrecene, sitosterol, antiinflammatory

stearic acid, linoleic

Ferula narthex Hingu Oleo resins from the Organic sulphur Appetizer, anthelmintic,(Umbelliferae) (Assa foetida) incision of upper parts of compounds, volatile oil, anticolic, antidyspneic,

roots allyl persulphide, anthelminticassafoetidin, ferocolicin,asaresinotannol

Garcinia morella Desr. Kankushth Reddish-yellow Morellin, stearic acid, Purgative, anthelmintic(Guttiferae) (Gambose tree) odourless exudation garcenolic, myristic acid,

from all parts oleic acidPistachia lentiscus Linn. Rumi mastagi Thick exudation Tannin, kenones, Anticough,diuretic,(Anacardiaceae) (Mastiche tree) obtained from the mastichonic acid, antiinflammatory, appetizer,

incision of stem & volatile oil, triterpenoids, aphrodisiacbranches

Shorea robusta Gaertn. Shal (Sal tree) Exudation obtained from B- sitosterol, Wound healing and purifier,(Dipterocarpeae) incision of bark dipterocarpol, anti-cough, diuretic

shoreaphenol,dammarenolic acid,Tannin

Vateria indica linn. Sarja (Indian Exudation obtained from Essential oils, oleo resins, Wound healing and purifier,(Dipterocareae) copal tree) incision of stem pinene, imonene, anticough, diuretic

camphor, terpineol,thymol

Table 3-- Secretory product (exudations) of some Indian medicinal plants

Plant name with family Common name Secretory product Chemical compounds Ayurvedic indication

Alhagi camelorum Yavas Reddish white exudation Sugar Antidyspepic, anticough,Fisch. (Leguminosae) (Persian manna) obtained from the whole plant diuretic, carminative, tonic,

aphrodisiacAloe vera Linn. Ghrit Kumari Yellow juice obtained from Aloein, isobarbolin, Antiinflammatory,(Liliaceae) (Indian aloe) incision of leaves emodin, volatile oils & analgesic, wound healing,

resin appetizer, ophthalmic use,gynecological disease,laxative

Anogeissus latigolia Dhav Exudation from plant Antidote for scorpion &Wall. (Combretaceae) snake poisoningBambusa arundinaceae Vansh Exudation collected from the Silica, silisic acid, Anticough, diuretic,Willd. (Graminae) (Thorny bamboo) inner part of stem of female allantoin, betain, urease, antipyretic, cordial

plant peroxides of iron, potash,lime, choline, nuclease

Cannabis sativa Linn. Bhang Resins (Charas) accumulated Cannabinol, cannabinin, Narcotic, analgesic,(Cannabinaceae) (Indian hemp) on the flowering tops terpenes, tetra- anticonvulsant,

hydrocannabinol antidiarrhoealCinnamomum camphora Karpur (Camphor) Exudation obtained by Cymene, cymol, volatile Analgesic, for eye troubles,Nees (Lauraceae) distillation of stem and other oil anticough, antidiarrhoeal,

parts refrigerant,astringentDaemenorops draco Rakta Niryas Red exudation obtained from Resins, pigment reagent Haemostatic,Blume. (Palmae) (Dragons' blood) fruit antidiarrhoeal, wound

healingEucalyptus globulus Tailparna Blue co loured exudation from Volatile oil, kenotannic Expectorant, anthelmintic,Labill. (Myrtaceae) (Blue gum eucalyptus) the bark of stem after incision acid, catechin, cineole, anti-diarrhoel, astringent,

eucalyptol cordial, diureticFicus hispida Linn. Kakoudumber Latex (kshir) from tree and Antiinflammatory,(Moraceae) bark anti leprotic, wound healing,

anti-vitilago

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Chemical compounds

INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL. 5, No.4 OCTOBER

Secretory product

Table 3-- Secretory product (exudations) of some Indian medicinal plants

Ayurvedic indicationPlant name with family Common name

Ficus religiosa(Moraceae)

Gardenia gummiferaLinn. (Rubiaceae)

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.(Palmae)Pinus roxburghii Sargent(Pinaceae)

Pterocarpus marsupiumRoxb. (Leguminosae)

Salix caprea Linn.(Salicaceae)Salmalia malabaricaSchott. (Bombacaceae)

Styrax benzoin Dryand(S tyraceae)

Taraxacum officinaleWeber (Compositae)

Ashwatath (Sacred fig) Milky substance from branches Tannin, caoutchac

Nadi - hingu(Cambi resin)

Semen-promoting,astringent, wound healing,diuretic

Gardenin, volatile oils, Carminative, appetizer,resin digestive, anthelmintic,

antipyreticCarbohydrates, proteins, Tonic, aphrodisiac, diuretic,fats, calcium and minerals cooling, laxativeTerpentine oil, pinene, Appetizer,anticough,oleoresin, carene, anthelmintic, anti-vitiligolongifoleneTannic acid, kino tannicacid, gallic acid,pterostilbene, marsupsin

Yellowish-white exudationfrom branches

Khajur(Date palm)Saral (Chir pine)

Juice from incision of top ofthe stemOily exudation obtained fromthe stem after incision

Beejak(Malabar kino tree)

Red exudation from old trees Anti-toothache, astringent,antidiarrhoeal,antihoemorrhagic,antidiabetic (wood)

Tannic acid, salicin Aphrodisiac, appetizer,glucoside diuretic, antidyspneicTannic acid, lysine, gallic Healing, refrigerant,acid,glutamic acid, antidiarrhoeal,arabinose, galactose, antihaemorridal,lactose antiinflammatory

Gum - like exudation obtained Resins, benzoic acid, Expectorantfrom the bark after incision cinnamic acid, vanillin,

volatile oilMilky juice exudation obtained Taraxacine, teraxacerin, Wound healing, liverfrom all plant parts resins, volatile oils, stimulant,

potassium & calcium salts purgative,antipoison,anthelmintic, anti£Yretic

Vetas Sweet exudation from leaves(Sallow or willow bark) called vetasharkaraShalamali (Silk cotton Exudation from incision oftree) bark

Loban(Benzoi n tree)

Dugadh-pheni(common dandelion)

ConclusionThere are several Indian medicinal plants, with

various types of secretory products exhibitingmultiple therapeutic uses. It is hoped that the reviewwill open the avenue for the bio-medical scientists forclinical studies in future.

AcknowledgementAuthors are thankful to Professor Arup Mukherjee,

Department of Chemical Technology, UniversityCollege of Science and Technology, University ofCalcutta and Dr Prabhat Kumar Mukherjee, Directorof Ayurveda, Government of West Bengal for theirco-operation. Authors are also grateful to Dr SwapanSarkar, Principal-Superintendent and Dr K S Tomar,J B Roy State Ayurvedic College & Hospital for theirkind support in this research effort.

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31 Chopra R, Chopra I & Handa K, Chopra's Indigenous Drugsof India, 2nd Reprint, (Academic Publishers, Calcutta), 1994.