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The Radia)onDominated Era Ay 127 April 9, 2013 1

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Page 1: The$Radiaon,Dominated$Era - Caltech Astronomygeorge/ay127/Hirata_Lec3_RadEra.pdf · =1.95(1+z)$K.$ • They’re$s)ll$here$today:$~300/cm3. 11 ... raMo# More#4He# New massless# parMcle#

The  Radia)on-­‐Dominated  Era  

Ay  127  April  9,  2013  

1  

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Outline  

1.  Radia)on-­‐Dominated  Plasmas,  Expansion  of  the  Universe  

2.  Neutrino  Decoupling  3.  Synthesis  of  the  Light  Elements  

4.  Observa)ons  of  D,  He,  Li  

2  

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Radia)on-­‐Dominated  Plasmas  

•  Consider  blackbody  spectrum:  

g  =  number  of  polariza)ons  (2  for  photons)  −  =  bosons;  +  =  fermions  

•  Energy  density  

g*  =  g  (bosons)  or  ⅞  g  (fermions)  

Iν =ghν 3

c 21

ehν / kT ±1

u =4πc

Iν dν =π 2

303c 3g*(kT)

40

3  

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Thermodynamic  proper)es  

•  Effec)ve  ma[er  density:  

•  Pressure:  

•  Entropy  density:  

p = 13 u =

π 2

903c 3g*(kT)

4

ρ =uc 2

=π 2

303c 5g*(kT)

4

s =duT0

u∫ =

2π 2

453c 3g*k

4T 3

4  

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Expansion  of  Universe  

•  Friedmann  equa)on  rela)ng  H  to  T:  

•  Solu)on:  H  ~  T2  ~  a-­‐2    a  ~  t1/2    H=1/(2t).  

•  More  convenient  form:  

H 2 =83πGρ =

4π 2G453c 5

g*(kT)4

t =3 53 / 2c 5 / 2

4πG1/ 2g*1/ 2(kT)2

t =1g*

1.56 MeVkT

⎝ ⎜

⎠ ⎟

2

sec5  

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What  is  g*?  

•  Consider  the  Universe  at  t~1  second.  •  Photons  only:  g*=2.  •  Also  neutrinos:  3  flavors,  ×2  for  an)neutrinos:  ⅞  ×  3  ×  2  =  21/4.  

•  At  3kT≥mec2,  e+e−  are  “massless.”    2  spins  each:  ⅞  ×  2  ×  2  =  7/2.  

•  At  MeV  temperatures,  g*  =  43/4.  6  

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Evolu)on  (slightly  idealized)  

7  

g*  

kT  10  MeV  100  MeV  1  GeV  10  GeV  100  GeV  

t  

γ,  ν,  e+e−  

10¾  10  

100  

+μ,  π  17¼  

−π+udsg  61¾  

+c,  τ  75¾  

+b  86¼  

+WZHt  106¾  

 ???  +  MSSM  228¾    

quark-­‐gluon  plasma          hadrons          

1  ms  1  μs  1  ns  

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Neutrino  Decoupling  

•  Neutrinos  have  weak  interac)ons  with  e+e−:  

•  Typical  E  ~  3kT  so  can  find  the  number  of  neutrino  interac)ons  in  the  life)me  of  the  Universe:  

•  At  kT~1.6  MeV,  universe  transi)ons  from  being  neutrino-­‐opaque  to  transparent.  

8  

ne+e- ~ 5 ×1031(kT)MeV3 cm−3

σweak ~ 10−44 EMeV2 cm2

nσct ~ 0.1(kT)MeV5

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Epoch  of  e+e−  Annihila)on  

•  At  kT<mec2  almost  all  the  electrons  and  positrons  annihilate.    (~1ppb  more  e−  than  e+.    These  few  e−  survive.)  

•  Energy  of  annihila)on  heats  the  photons  but  not  the  neutrinos,  so  Tγ>Tν.  

•  Can  do  computa)on  assuming  annihila)on  is  adiaba)c  (conserves  entropy  of  e+e−γ).  

9  

e+ + e− →≥ 2γ ~ 100%ν e + ν e (almost) neglgible⎧ ⎨ ⎩

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Annihila)on  Part  2  

•  Entropy  before  annihila)on:  

•  Entropy  ayer  annihila)on:  

•  Equa)ng  gives:  

(Remains  true  since  both  temperatures  scale  as  1/a.)  10  

s(e±γ) =2π 2

453c 3g*(e

±γ)k 4Tν3 =

11π 2

453c 3k 4Tν

3

s(γ) =2π 2

453c 3g*(γ)k

4Tγ3 =

4π 2

453c 3k 4Tγ

3

Tγ = 114

3 Tν

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Post-­‐annihila)on  

•  Can  combine  neutrino  and  photon  energy  densi)es  to  get  radia)on  energy  density:  

•  Factor  of  1.68  from  neutrinos.    Affects  BBN,  CMB,  etc.  

•  Equivalent  to  “effec)ve”  g*=3.36.  •  From  temperature  ra)o,  Tν=1.95(1+z)  K.  

•  They’re  s)ll  here  today:  ~  300/cm3.   11  

u =π 2

303c 32(kTγ )

4 + 214 (kTν )

4[ ] =1.68π 2(kTγ )

4

153c 3

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Nucleosynthesis  

•  Universe  has  net  baryon  number:  

•  We  don’t  know  why.  •  At  high  temperature  the  thermodynamically  favored  state  of  baryons  is  p  +  n.  

•  At  low  temperature  the  favored  state  is  56Fe.  •  Nucleosynthesis  is  process  of  forming  the  heavier  nuclei  from  p+n.    Started  in  Big  Bang,  con)nues  today  in  stars.  

12  

η =baryons− antibaryons

photons~ 6 ×10−10

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Primordial  nucleosynthesis  

•  The  process:  1.  n/p  ra)o  determined  at  neutrino  decoupling  2.  Universe  expands/cools,  some  neutrons  decay  3.  Assembly  of  D,  3He,  4He,  7Li  

•  Nuclear  processing  is  not  finished  ayer  BBN,  e.g.  heavy  elements  are  produced  in  stars.    This  more  recent  processing  must  be  corrected/avoided  to  infer  primordial  abundances.  

13  

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The  ini)al  n/p  ra)o  

•  Before  neutrino  decoupling,  neutrons  are  kept  in  equilibrium:  

•  Equilibrium  ra)o  

where  Q  =  (mn-­‐mp)c2  =  1.293  MeV.  •  n:p=1:1  at  high  T,  then  starts  decreasing.  

14  

n + e+ ↔ p+ + ν en + ν e ↔ p+ + e−

n : p = e−Q / kT

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The  ini)al  n/p  ra)o  (Part  II)  

•  Neutrino  decoupling  at  kT  ~  1.6  MeV  would  imply  n:p=0.4.  

•  More  detailed  calcula)on  gives  n:p≈0.15.  

•  Neutron  has  a  half-­‐life  of  ~11  minutes.  

•  Therefore  the  neutron  abundance  declines:  

15  

n : (n + p) ≈ 0.152t /11min€

n→ p+ + e− + ν e

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Deuterium  (Part  I)  

•  Deuterium  is  the  simplest  nucleus.    Binding  energy  is  B  =  2.22  MeV.  

•  Saha-­‐like  equa)on  for  its  abundance:  

•  Compare  with  total  baryon  abundance:  

16  

n + p+ ↔D+ + γ

n(D+)npnn

=34

2π2

mredkT⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎠ ⎟

3 / 2

eB / kT

nb = 5.6 ×1020Ωbh2T9

3 cm−3

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Deuterium  (Part  II)  

•  Using  nota)on  Xi=ni/nb,  and  assuming  the  universe  is  mostly  p  (85%)  and  n  (15%)  we  get  

•  Deuterium  abundance  grows  exponen)ally.    Would  become  of  order  unity  at  T9~0.7  (t  ~  3  min)  except  that  deuterium  can  burn  to  heavier  nuclei.    

17  

X(D+) ≈ 5 ×10−14Ωbh2T9

3 / 2e25.8 /T9

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Helium  

•  Deuterium  consump)on:  

•  When  deuterium  reaches  ~1%,  these  reac)ons  package  most  of  the  available  neutrons  into  the  very  )ghtly  bound  4He.  

18  

D + p↔ 3He + γ

D + D↔ 3H + pD + D↔ 3He + n

A=23  

3He + p↔ 3H + n3H + D↔ 4He + n3He + D↔ 4He + p

A=34  

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What  happens  next  

•  At  t  ~  3  minutes,  13%  of  baryons  are  neutrons.    Packaged  into  4He,  we  get  Y~0.26  (4He  frac)on  by  mass).    Most  of  the  rest  is  1H.  

•  No  new  D  is  produced  once  free  neutrons  are  gone.    Deuterium  is  burned  via  D+D  and  D+p.    A  small  amount,  XD~2×10−5,  survives.  

•  Some  3H  and  3He  are  ley  over  (total  X3~10−5).  19  

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End  Game  

•  Some  A=7  nuclei  (X7~4×10−10)  are  produced  by  3He+4He  and  3H+4He.  

•  6Li  produced  in  much  smaller  amounts  since  it  is  fragile  (X6  ~  10−14).  

•  Heavy  element  produc)on  e.g.  3α12C  negligible  at  BBN  densi)es  (10−5  g/cm3).    

•  Radioac)ve  nuclei  (n,  3H,  7Be)  decay.  

20  

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21  

1H  

n  

2H   3H  

3He   4He  

7Be  

7Li  6Li  

(n,γ)  

(p,γ)  

(D,p)  

(p,γ)  (D,n)   (n,p)  

(D,p)  

(D,n)  

(3H,γ)  

(3He,γ)   (n,p)  

Stable  isotope  

Radioac)ve  isotope  

Reac)on  

Radioac)ve  decay  

(3H,n)  (3He,p)  (D,  γ)  

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22  

BBN  Yield  Predic)ons  

Cyburt,  Fields  &  Olive  2003  Phys  Le>  B  567,227  

4He  frac)on  by  mass  

Abundance  rela)ve  to  H  by  number  

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Dependence  on  Cosmology  

•  4He:  Determined  by  n:p  ra)o,  so  very  sensi)ve  to  physics  at  neutrino  decoupling,  e.g.  new  massless  par)cles.    Slightly  sensi)ve  to  Ωbh2.  

23  

u(T)  increased  

H(T)  increased  

Reduced  nσct  

ν  decoupling  at  higher  T  

Larger  n:p  raMo  

More  4He  

New  massless  parMcle  

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Dependence  on  Cosmology  

•  2H  and  3He:  Leyovers  of  incomplete  H  burning.    Decrease  for  larger  baryon  density  Ωbh2.  

•  7Li:  Non-­‐monotonic  behavior  in  Ωbh2:  – Low  Ωbh2:  direct  produc)on  of  7Li,  destroyed  by  

7Li+p  at  high  densi)es.  – High  Ωbh2:  7Be  can  be  produced,  decays  to  7Li.  

•  6Li:  Primordial  contribu)on  should  be  undetectable.  

24  

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4He  

•  Predic)on:  Y  =  0.2482±0.0003±0.0006  •  Usually  es)mate  He  abundance  from  H  II  region  spectra  (H  I  and  He  I  recombina)on  lines).  –  Determine  temperature  (self-­‐consistent  or  using  [O  III]).  – Model  collisional  excita)on,  fluorescence.  –  Op)cal  depth  effects.  He  I  23S1  is  metastable.  – Model  reddening.  – Model  stellar  He  I  absorp)on.  –  Ioniza)on  correc)on  factors  (H  II  and  He  I  can  coexist).  –  Extrapolate  to  zero  metallicity  to  get  primordial  value.  

25  

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Helium  

•  Predic)on:  Y  =  0.2482±0.0003±0.0006  •  Usually  es)mate  He  abundance  from  H  II  region  spectra  (He  I  recombina)on  lines).    Extrapolate  to  zero  metallicity  to  get  primordial  value.  

26  

0.232  <  Yp  <  0.258  Olive  &  Skillman  2004  ApJ  617,29  

✔  

predicted  

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Examples  of  Deuterium  Measurements  

LocaMon   D/H  (ppm)  Method  Earth   150  

Venus   16000±2000   Mass  spec.  Donahue  et  al  1982  

Mars   900±400   IR  lines  (HDO/H2O)  Owen  et  al  1988  

Jupiter   22—50  50±20  

IR  lines  (CH3D/CH4)  Kunde  et  al  1982  Mass  spec.  Niemann  et  al  1996  

Saturn   4—29   IR  lines  (CH3D/CH4)  Cour)n  et  al  1984  

Local  ISM   ~  7  –  20   Absorp)on  lines  in  stellar  spectra.    Depends  on  line  of  sight;  see  tabula)on  by  Linsky  et  al  2006  

Lyman-­‐α  absorbers  (IGM)  

28±4   H  vs  D  Lyman  absorp)on  lines  in  QSO  spectra  Kirkman  et  al  2003  

27  

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Warnings  on  D/H  

•  Not  all  D/H  is  the  primordial  value,  or  even  that  at  the  forma)on  of  the  solar  system.  

•  Problems:  – Astra)on:  burning  of  D  to  3He  etc.  in  stars.  – Chemical  frac)ona)on:  At  low  temperatures  D  binds  more  )ghtly  to  molecules  than  H  due  to  vibra)onal  zero  point  energy.  

– Frac)ona)on  due  to  depth  of  planetary  gravity  well.    (This  is  why  Jupiter  was  once  used  for  BBN  D/H.)  

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XH+  +  D    XD+  +  H  

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Intergalac)c  D/H  

•  Probably  most  reliable  method  is  low-­‐metallicity  quasar  absorp)on  line  systems.  –  Li[le  processing  by  stars  –  Less  opportunity  to  hide  deuterium  in  molecules  or  dust  grains  

•  Reduced  mass  of  e−D+  is  greater  than  e−p+  by  1  part  in  3600,  rescaling  all  hydrogenic  energy  levels.    Equivalent  to  velocity  shiy  of  c/3600  =  80  km/s.  

•  IGM  value  28±4  ppm  agrees  with  predicted  25.7(+1.7)(−1.3)  ppm.  

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✔  

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30  

Kirkman  et  al  2003  ApJS  149,  1  Q1243+3047  zabs  =  2.53  

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3He  •  Difficul)es:  

–  Can  be  both  produced  and  destroyed  in  stars.  –  No  IGM  measurement.  

•  Most(?)  accepted  measurement  is  3He+  hyperfine  line  (λ=3.46cm)  low-­‐metallicity  H  II  regions.    Bania  et  al  (2002)  find  3He/H  <  15  ppm.  –  Directly  observed  11±2  ppm,  argue  that  stars  would  lead  to  net  increase  in  3He.  

•  Predicted  from  WMAP  baryon  abundance:  3He/H  =  10.5±0.3±0.3  ppm.  –  Aside:  Jupiter  atmosphere  ra)o  3He:4He  =  (1.1±0.2)×10−4  [Niemann  et  al  1996].   31  

✔?

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Lithium  

•  Can  be  measured  in  low-­‐metallicity  stars.  – Two  mul)plets  available  for  Li  I:  6708Å  (2s—2p)  and  6104Å  (2p—3d).  

–  7Li  destroyed  at  high  T,  7Li  +  p    24He.    Avoid  low-­‐mass  stars  due  to  deep  convec)ve  zone.  

– Slight  isotope  shiy  of  6Li  vs.  7Li.  •  Li  can  also  be  produced  via  cosmic  rays:  – Spalla)on  of  CNO  elements  (also  gives  Be,  B)  –  4He  +  4He  collisions  at  low  energies.  

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Li  abundance  evolu)on  

33  Asplund  et  al  (2006)  ApJ  644,  229  

12  +  log10  XLi  

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The  Lithium  Problem(s)  

•  7Li:  Predicted  (5.2±0.7)×10−10.  – See  update  from  Cyburt,  Fields,  Olive  2008.  

•  Observa)ons  give  lower  values  – e.g.  (1.1—1.5)  ×10−10  from  Asplund  et  al.  2006.  – Other  determina)ons  are  typically  ~(1—2)×10−10.  

•  6Li:  there  have  been  reports  of  a  plateau  at  ~6×10−12,  although  the  accuracy  of  6Li/7Li  extracted  from  line  profiles  has  been  debated.  

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✗?

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Solu)ons  

•  The  7Li  problem:  – Errors  in  nuclear  reac)on  rates?  – Deple)on  in  convec)on  zone?  – Stellar  atmosphere  modeling?  – Destroyed  in  early  genera)on  of  stars?  – New  physics?  

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