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1THEORIES ON HUMAN NEEDSKazi Shaibal SiddiquiDeputy Director

January 16, 20122What is Need?Abraham Maslow defined need as a physiological or psychological deficiency that a person feels the compulsion to satisfy.

All people have needs that they want satisfied. Some are primary needs, such as those for food, sleep, and waterneeds that deal with the physical aspects of behavior and are considered unlearned. These needs are biological in nature and relatively stable.

Secondary needs, on the other hand, are psychological, which means that they are learned primarily through experience. Secondary needs consist of internal states, such as the desire for power, achievement, and love.

Motivation & Needs are very closely related. The basic needs model, referred to as content theory of motivation, highlights the specific factors that motivate an individual. In management circles, probably the most popular explanations of motivation are based on the needs of the individual.What is Motivation?Many people incorrectly view motivation as a personal traitthat is, some people have it, and others don't.

The term motivation refers to a psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction.Simply put, a highly motivated person works hard at a job; an unmotivated person does not.

By appealing to this process, managers attempt to get individuals to pursue organizational objectives willingly and persistently.

Motivation theories are generalizations about the why and how of purposeful behavior.34Theories on Human NeedsSeveral theorists, have provided theories to help explain needs as a source of motivation. The following are some of the prominent theories on human needs:

Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Frederick Herzbergs Two-factor Theory

Clayton Alderfers Acquired Needs Theory, and

David McClellands ERG Theory

Maslow, in 1943, formed a theory based on his definition of need that proposes that humans are motivated by multiple needs and that these needs exist in a hierarchical order.

Maslow's theory is based on the following two principles:

Deficit principle: A satisfied need no longer motivates behavior because people act to satisfy deprived needs.

Progression principle: The five needs he identified exist in a hierarchy, which means that a need at any level only comes into play after a lower-level need has been satisfied. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory5Hierarchy of Needs Theory (contd.)There is a hierarchy of five needs-PhysiologicalSafetySocialesteem, and self-actualizationAs each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.66Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (Contd.)Lower-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.Higher-Order NeedsNeeds that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.Self-actualizationEsteemSocialSafetyPhysiological77Assumptions of Maslows Hierarchy

Movement up the PyramidIndividuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied. Maslow Application:A homeless person will not be motivated tomeditate!

Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order889Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (contd.)PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDSAt the bottom of the hierarchy are needs based on physical drives, including the need for food, water, sleep, and sex. As Maslow observed, It is quite true that man lives by bread alonewhen there is no bread.

SAFETY NEEDSAfter our basic physiological needs have been relatively well satisfied, we next become concerned about our safety from the elements, enemies, and other threats. Unemployment assistance is a safety net for those between jobs.

SOCIAL NEEDSA physiologically satisfied and secure person focuses next on satisfying needs for love and affection. This category is a powerful motivator of human behavior. People typically strive hard to achieve a sense of belonging with others. As with the first two levels of needs, relative satisfaction of love needs paves the way for the emergence of needs at the next higher level.10Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (contd.)ESTEEM NEEDSPeople who perceive themselves as worthwhile are said to possess high self-esteem. Self-respect is the key to esteem needs. Much of our self-respect, and therefore our esteem, comes from being accepted and respected by others. It is important for those who are expected to help achieve organizational objectives to have their esteem needs relatively well fulfilled. But esteem needs cannot emerge if lower-level needs go unattended.

SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDSAt the very top of Maslows hierarchy is the open-ended category self-actualization needs. It is open-ended because, as Maslow pointed out, it reflects the need to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. One may satisfy this need by striving to become a better homemaker, plumber, rock singer, or manager.It has been pointed out that a truly self-actualized individual is more of an exception than the rule in the organizational context.11Maslows Hierarchy of Needs-Implications for Managers(contd.)A fulfilled need does not motivate an individual.

Effective managers anticipate each employees personal need profile and provide opportunities to fulfill emerging needs.Frederick Herzberg, in his two-factor theory, identifies two sets of factors that impact motivation in the workplace: Hygiene factors include salary, job security, working conditions, organizational policies, and technical quality of supervision, etc.Although these factors do not motivate employees, they can cause dissatisfaction if they are missing. Something as simple as adding music to the office place or implementing a no-smoking policy can make people less dissatisfied with these aspects of their work. However, these improvements in hygiene factors do not necessarily increase satisfaction. Satisfiers or motivators include such things as responsibility, achievement, growth opportunities, and feelings of recognition, etc., and are the key to job satisfaction and motivation. For example, managers can find out what people really do in their jobs and make improvements, thus increasing job satisfaction and performance. Following Herzberg's two-factor theory, managers need to ensure that hygiene factors are adequate and then build satisfiers into jobs.Herzberg's two-factor theory12Herzbergs Two-Factor TheorySeparate constructsHygiene Factors--- Extrinsic & Related to Dissatisfaction

Motivation Factors---Intrinsic and Related to SatisfactionBottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are not Opposite Ends of the Same Thing! Hygiene Factors:SalaryWork ConditionsCompany PoliciesMotivators: AchievementResponsibilityGrowth1313

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfactionSource: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, SeptemberOctober 1987. Copyright 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.14Comparison of Satisfiers and DissatisfiersFactors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction14Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

151516Implications of Herzbergs Theory According to Herzberg, the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, but rather no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction.

Rather, the dissatisfaction-satisfaction continuum contains a zero midpoint at which both dissatisfaction and satisfaction are absent. An employee stuck on this midpoint, although not dissatisfied with pay and working conditions, is not particularly motivated to work hard because the job itself lacks challenge.

The elimination of dissatisfaction is not the same as truly motivating an employee. To satisfy and motivate employees, an additional element is required: meaningful, interesting, and challenging work.

Herzberg believed that money is a weak motivational tool because, at best, it can only eliminate dissatisfaction.Clayton Alderfer's ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) theory is built upon Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, collapsing Maslow's five levels of needs into three categories: Existence needs are desires for physiological and material well-being. (In terms of Maslow's model, existence needs include physiological and safety needs) Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.(In terms of Maslow's model, relatedness correspondence to social needs) Growth needs are desires for continued psychological growth and development.(In terms of Maslow's model, growth needs include esteem and self-realization needs) Alderfer's ERG theory17Relationship between Alderfers ERG & Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization EsteemSocialSafetyPhysiological18GrowthExistenceRelatednessAlderfers ERG ModelMaslows Hierarchy of Needs Model1819Alderfer's ERG theory (Contd.)This approach proposes that unsatisfied needs motivate behavior, and that as lower level needs are satisfied, they become less important.

Higher level needs, though, become more important as they are satisfied, and if these needs are not met, a person may move down the hierarchy, which Alderfer calls the frustration-regression principle.

Explanation: An already satisfied lower level need can become reactivated and influence behavior when a higher level need cannot be satisfied. McClelland's Acquired Needs TheoryDavid McClelland's acquired needs theory recognizes that everyone prioritizes needs differently.

He also believes that individuals are not born with these needs, but that they are actually learned through life experiences.

McClelland identifies three specific needs:Need for achievementNeed for powerNeed for affiliation20David McClellands Theory of NeedsNeed for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.Need for AffiliationThe desire for friendly and close personal relationships & conflict avoidance.Need for PowerThe need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.Bottom Line: Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas, and those levels will drive their behavior 2121McClelland's acquired needs theory (Contd.)McClelland associates each need with a distinct set of work preferences, and managers can help tailor the environment to meet these needs.High achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desires to do things better. These individuals are strongly motivated by job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk. In addition, high achievers often exhibit the following behaviors:Seek personal responsibility for finding solutions to problemsWant rapid feedback on their performances so that they can tell easily whether they are improving or notSet moderately challenging goals and perform best when they perceive their probability of success as 50-5022An individual with a high need of power is likely to follow a path of continued promotion over time.

Individuals with a high need of power often demonstrate the following behaviors:

Enjoy being in charge

Want to influence others

Prefer to be placed into competitive and status-oriented situations

Tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective performance

23McClelland's acquired needs theory (Contd.)24People with the need for affiliation seek companionship, social approval, and satisfying interpersonal relationships.

People needing affiliation display the following behaviors:

Take a special interest in work that provides companionship and social approval

Strive for friendship

Prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones

Desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding

May not make the best managers because their desire for social approval and friendship may complicate managerial decision making.McClelland's acquired needs theory (Contd.)Interestingly enough, a high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially in large organizations.

People with high achievement needs are usually interested in how well they do personally and not in influencing others to do well.

On the other hand, the best managers are high in their needs for power and low in their needs for affiliation.25McClelland's acquired needs theory (Contd.)