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Human Development Theory

Ahdi Riyono, S.S., M.Hum



Development: Changes occurring throughout

the lif espan that ar e orderly and adaptive

Can be physical, cognitive, or social in natur e

An important aspect of development is maturation, the genetically programmed

aspects of development.

What Is Development?

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Educational Psychology: Developing

Learners, sixth edition

Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

All rights reserved.



Basic Principles of Human

Development Development proceeds in a somewhat

order ly and pr edictable pattern.

Developmental milestones Diff er ent childr en develop at diff er ent rates.

Development occur s via both spurts andplateaus.

Development is continually aff ected by bothnatur e and nurtur e.

Temperaments and sensitive periods

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Role of the Brain in Cognitive Development

Learning involves changes in neurons and synapses. Developmental changes in the brain enable

incr easingly complex and efficient thought.

The brain r emains adaptable throughout lif e.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing






Piaget¶s Theory of Cognitive

Development

Piaget was a Swiss psychologist with abackground in biology.

He noticed age-r elated similarities in how childr en attempted to solve certain tasks.

He saw that within specific age ranges ther e

wer e specific types of deficits and specifictypes of str engths in problem-solving skills.







Basic Assumptions of Piaget¶s

Theory Childr en ar e active and motivated learner s.

Childr en construct knowledge from their

experiences.

Childr en learn through assimilation andaccommodation.

Interaction with one¶s physical and social

environments is essential for cognitive

development. The process of equilibration promotes progr ession

toward incr easingly complex thought.

Cognitive development is stage-like in natur e.







Assimilation and

Accommodation

Assimilation entails dealing with a new object or event in a way that is consistent with a curr ently

existing scheme.

Accommodation occur s when new informationdoesn¶t fit into existing schemes; the schemes

must be adjusted or accommodated.







Equilibration

Equilibration is the movement from

equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to

equilibrium, a process that promotes

development of mor e complex thought andunder standing.

Students move back and forth between a state

of balance and imbalance.

It is the desir e for balance that forces students

to construct new schemes or accommodate

existing schemes.







Piaget¶s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget proposed that

childr en move throughfour stages.

Periods of time ar e consistent in age anddevelopmentalsequence.

Age ranges ar e averages.

Some childr en ar e intransition from one stage to the next.







Characterized by infants using senses and

motor skills to explor e wor ld

Begins with r ef lexes and ends with a complex combination of sensory and motor skill

combinations

Major cognitive developmental milestones

include object permanence and an

under standing of cause-eff ect r elationships

Symbolic thought, the ability to r epr esent and

think about external objects and events,

emerges toward the end of second year.

Sensorimotor Stage

(B

irth ± 2 Years)







Characterized by the rapid development of language which allows for mor e social interaction

Limitations of pr eoperational thought include: Egocentrism: Inability to view situations from

another ¶s per spective

Lack of conser vation: Inability to r ealize that if nothing is added or taken away, the amount stays the same r egardless of alterations in shape or

appearance Transductive r easoning (lack of logic): Inf er ence

of a cause-eff ect r elationship simply because twoevents occur close together in time and space

Preoperational Stage

(2 Years ± 6 or 7 Years)







Childr en begin to think mor e logically anddemonstrate deductive r easoning.

Conser vation of liquid is evident by 7; conser vation of substance is evident by 8; conser vation of ar ea is master ed by 9 or 10.

Childr en ar e able to learn classification, seriation,and ar e able to r ever se operations which allows

for the teaching of mathematics. However, childr en cannot apply newfound logic to

non-concr ete items (abstract concepts).

Concrete Operations

(6 or 7 Years ± 11 or 12 Years)







Formal Operations

(11 or 12 andB

eyond)

Childr en ar e now able to r eason logicallyabout abstract and hypothetical ideas.

Can formulate and test multiple hypothesis Limitations include excessive idealism.

May r ef lect formal operational egocentrism,the inability to separate one¶s own logical

abstractions from the per spectives of other s and from practical considerations







Current Perspectives

on Piaget¶s Theory S equence of the stages is supported, but the ages

coinciding with each stage is debated.

Piaget may have under estimated young childr en¶s cognitive capabilities, but over estimated those of adolescents.

Piaget may have over emphasized the importance of interaction with the physical environment.

Social interaction may be mor e inf luential thanr ealized.







Applying Piaget¶s Theory

Provide hands-on experience with physical objects,particular ly at the elementary level

When students show signs of egocentric thought,

expr ess confusion or explain that other s thinkdiff er ently

Ask students to explain their r easoning and challenge illogical explanations

Be sur e that students have adequate knowledge and

skills befor e moving on to mor e complex topics andactivities

Relate abstract and hypothetical ideas to concr ete objects and/or obser vable events







Vygotsky¶s Theory

of C

ognitive Development Vygotsky¶s ideas ar e evident in our curr ent

views of child development, learning, and

instructional practice.

His theory is sometimes r ef err ed to as the

sociocultural perspective because of its

emphasis on the impact of society andcultur e on cognitive development.







Vygotsky¶s Basic Assumptions

Through both informal conver sations andformal schooling, adults convey to childr enways in which their cultur e interpr ets and

r esponds to the wor ld. Thought and language become incr easingly

interdependent in the fir st f ew year s of lif e.

Complex mental processes begin as social activities and then progr ess to internalized

processes. Cognitive tools







Vygotsky¶s Basic Assumptions

Childr en can perform mor e challenging tasks when assisted.

Actual developmental level vs. level of potential development

Challenging tasks promote maximumcognitive growth. Zone of proximal development

Play allows childr en to str etch themselves cognitively.







The Zone of Proximal

Development

The range of tasks that a child can perform

with the help and guidance of other s but

cannot yet perform independently

Students working on challenging tasks in

collaboration with a mor e competent partner







Current Perspectives on

Vygotsky¶s Theory

Educator s embrace Vygotsky¶s ideas on the

role of cultur e in cognitive development.

Research supports Vygotsky¶s belief s aboutthe importance of language in cognitive

development.

Vygotsky¶s theory introduces the well-

supported concepts of mediated learning ,scaffolding , and cognitive tools.







Applying Vygotsky¶s Theory

Encourage students to talk themselves throughdifficult tasks

Provide cognitive tools that students can use to make difficult tasks easier

Pr esent some tasks that students can performsuccessfully only with assistance

Provide sufficient scaffolding to enable students toattempt to perform challenging tasks

Have students work in small groups on complex tasks Provide opportunities to engage in adult-like activities

Give young childr en time to practice adult roles andbehavior s through play







Linguistic Development

Humans ar e born with a pr edisposition tolearn language

Developmental pattern of language

development Most fir st words occur around the 1st birthday.

Sentences ar e usually evident by age 2 andbecome mor e complex during the pr eschool

year s. By age 5 or 6 most childr en¶s language skills

ar e almost completely adult-like

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Development of Vocabulary

Childr en learn semantics, the meanings of words and

word combinations, through dir ect vocabulary

instruction at school and by inf erring meaning fromthe contexts in which they hear the words.

Common error s include undergeneralization and

overgeneralization.

Teacher s can promote semantic development by

having students define new vocabulary in their own

words.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Development of Syntax

Syntax is the set of rules that one uses to put

words together into sentences (often

unconsciously).

Syntax becomes mor e complex during the

later elementary year s.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Development of Listening

Comprehension

During later elementary school, childr en learn

that good listening r equir es under standing.

Listening compr ehension is inf luenced by

context.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Development of Oral

C

ommunication Skills Pragmatics is knowledge about cultur e-specific social conventions guiding verbal interactions.

Both corr ect pronunciation and pragmatics ar e necessary oral communication skills.

Pragmatics may not be master ed until highschool or beyond.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod



Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458




Development of

Metalinguistic Awareness Metalinguistic awar eness is the extent towhich one can think about the natur e of language.

It involves under standing the literal andnonliteral meanings of words.

It emerges slowly over time.

High school work enhances metalinguisticawar eness via the study of literatur e andsecond languages.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Learning a Second Language

Ear ly exposur e to a second language may

be important for mastering pronunciation

and complex grammatical constructions.

Bilingualism is corr elated with incr eased

cognitive abilities.

It r esults in superior problem-solving skills,

cr eativity, and cognitive f lexibility.

Metalinguistic awar eness may happen at

an ear lier age, and, ther efor e, bilingual

students¶ syntax may be superior as well.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Bilingual Education vs. Immersion

Bilingual education

Students ar e instructed in academic subjects in their native language while simultaneouslybeing taught to speak and write in the second

language. Immer sion

Students hear and speak the secondlanguage almost exclusively in the classroom.

Which one is ³better?´

Ther e is no clear and easy answer.

Some students benefit from bilingual education, while other s from immer sion. It may have to do with the available opportunities

tospeak th

e se

condlanguag

e.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Considering Diversity in Cognitive

andL

inguistic Development

The rate of cognitive and linguistic development canvary from child to child.

Cognitive development may diff er somewhatdepending on the cultur e.

Students will vary in the size of their vocabulary andknowledge of complex syntactical structur es.

Some students will be advanced cognitively while other s will not yet have acquir ed the skills commonto their age group.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod







Addressing the Unique Needs of

EnglishL

anguageL

earners

Bilingual education programs ar e mor e

eff ective than immer sion programs.

Transition to instruction only in English should

be gradual.

Adequate mastery of English can take five to

seven year s.





The Big Picture

Childr en tend to think in qualitatively diff er ent

ways at diff er ent ages.

Childr en actively construct their knowledge. Development builds upon prior acquisitions.

Challenging situations and tasks promote

development.

Social interaction is critical for development.

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod





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