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Theoretical Aspects of Quality of

Work Life

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CHAPTER III

THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

3.1. Introduction

This chapter details the origin and development of the concept of quality of work

life, various theories, models and frameworks published by various authors, and its

relevance to the current study. Also this chapter explains the various studies carried out in

the Indian context with different populations including academic sector.

This chapter tries to establish a fact that Quality of Work Life gained an

importance in the current context of organizations due to the changes in economic

scenario around the world. The globalization of economies has made the world shrunk.

This leads to competition among the business organizations and many organizations have

started practicing the best practices in order to exist, survive and sustain. Organizations

learned over the years particularly in the last one decade, that human resources are one of

the most important components other than technology, organizational agility, structure,

systems and processes. This learning drives the current organizations to hire, train,

motivate and retain the talents that have become the primary focus of the Human

Resources Departments. In order to make the organizations more effective, HR mangers

use QWL as one of the interventions.

QWL has evolved as an important aspect, which affects an organizational

efficiency and productivity. QWL is a multi-dimensional term which provides a good

work life balance and gives a qualitative boost to total work environment of any

organization. The Human Resources (HR) Managers constantly work on to train, engage


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and get the most from the valued employees. This leads to employee performance and

commitment but ultimately results in pressure, stress and stretched time in the office.

Historically, the HR managers were more focused on discipline and Industrial Relations

Issues. However, the changed economic scenario and war for talent among organizations

driven them to adapt to new practices of keeping the employees motivated. Retention of

such talents also became the major task for the HR managers. On the other hand, the

employees have compelling reasons to manage their work performance and also find time

for personal and family needs. These aspects are well quoted by Kotze (2005) ―employees

spend most of their time in work related activities, even plan their time, living standards and

social interaction around the demands of their work. Indeed, to a large extent, people define

themselves and others in terms of their work, making Quality of Work Life (QWL) in

organizations a major component of quality of life in general and Rathi, (2010) confirms the

same through her study. Therefore, the QWL has emerged as one of the most important

aspects of job that ensures long term association of employees with the organization.

It is essential for the organization to develop quality relation between its

employees and working environment because now-a- days, demanding of job creates

imbalance between family and work life due to job pressure and conflicting interests.

The threat of imbalance in work and non-work life has implications not only on the

employees but also on organizations, governments and society (Grzywacz and Marks, 2000;

Swanson, Power and Simpson, 1998). Organizations have to develop and adopt QWL

programs which ensure to create excellent work condition and job for its employees. Hence,

QWL seeks to create such a work environment where the employees work co-operatively

and make positive contribution in achieving organizational objectives.


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QWL, as the word goes it is all about how the work and personal life is being

managed and meaningfully meet the needs of both work and life. It is a set of principles or

the elements that are relevant to an individual‘s well being in the organization which consists

of the task, the physical work environment, social environment within the organization,

administrative system and relationship between life on and off the job. A QWL focus area

varies from opportunities provided to the employees in the organization to participate in the

management decision making, job satisfaction, job enrichment etc... and sometimes

combination of all of the above. Thus, QWL is a comprehensive construct that includes an

individual‘s job related wellbeing and the extent to which work experiences are rewarding,

fulfilling and devoid of stress and other negative personal consequences.

The importance of QWL has been increasing because of several factors. These include,

increase in education level, job aspirations of employees, association of workers,

significance of human resource management, widespread industrial unrest, growing

knowledge about human behavior, and so on. The elements of QWL comprise of health

and wellbeing, job security, job satisfaction, competence development and the balance

between works with non work life. In this context, for improving the QWL all the

stakeholders take responsibility such as employers, workers, professional organizations,

government, and managers. Therefore, quality circles, management by objectives,

suggestion system and other forms of employees‘ participation in management help to

improve QWL in the industry circles. Techniques to improve quality of work life include

job redesign, career development, flexible work schedules, job security and the like.

If any organization properly adopts these techniques, the QWL will certainly be improved to

the desired levels (Reddy and Reddy, 2010)


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3.2. The Origin of Quality of Work Life

The legislation was enacted in the early 20th century to protect the employees from

job injury and to eliminate hazardous working conditions. The unionization movements

established in 1930 and 1940s emphasis on job security. During 1950 and 1960s different

theories had been developed by psychologists proposing a positive relationship between

morale and productivity. Later attempts have been made to introduce, equal employment

opportunities and job enrichment. Finally, in 1970s the ideal of QWL was introduced by

Walton in broader sense than these earlier developments which explains ‗the values that were

at the heart of these earlier reform movements‘ and ‗human needs and aspirations‘. QWL

activity gained importance between 1969 and 1974, when a broad group of researchers,

scholars, union leaders and government personnel development shaped interest to know how

to improve the quality of an individual through her /his job experience. The United States

department of health, education and welfare sponsored a study on this issue, which led to the

publication of work in America. Simultaneously, the pressure of inflation promoted the

US Government to address some of these issues. Accordingly, a Federal Productivity

Commission was established. This commission sponsored several labor management QWL

experiments which were jointly conducted by the University of Michigan quality of work

programme and the newly evolved National Quality of Work Centre.

The term quality of work life was introduced by Louis Davis in the conference

held in Toronto in 1975 on QWL. The International Council for Quality of Work Life

was established in 1972. From 1980 onwards QWL was increasingly placed on employee

centered productivity programs. From 1990s till today as corporate faced with many

challenges of corporate restructuring and economize, there are rising concerns for QWL,

career and personal life planning, QWL offers a value frame and the social technology of


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organizational change leading to task effectiveness of micro entities through utilization

and unfolding of human potential. Some evidence of the rising tide interest in the quality

of work life issue is the fact that the second International Conference on quality of work

life held in Toronto in 1981 attracted 1,500 participations. The 200 unionist and

750 management people combined outnumbered academicians, consultants and government

officials in attendance. Quality is no more a specialized word but has become a necessary

and a must work for the best endurance. In this era, Quality of human inputs is the

greatest asset to any organization. Rise in the quality of work life would help employees‘

well being thereby the well being of the whole organization. This is an attempt to

capitalize the human assets of the organization.

Quality of work life has its roots in the theories of Maslow, Herzberg and

McGregor. The needs for fulfillment as that of Abraham Maslow‘s motivational theory of

needs hierarchy are comparable with those of the factors of QWL. Basic needs like monetary

benefits come first, following with good working conditions. Later it came- career planning,

growth and development of human capabilities to satisfy. Maslow‘s esteem needs are

comparable with opportunity to use and develop human capabilities. Lastly challenging

work is advocated by Walton to satisfy self actualization need in need hierarchy. QWL

concerns itself with satisfying both hygiene factors and motivators as identified by

Herzberg to improve the work life of employees. The assumptions of McGregor can be

divided into two sets i.e., those under, ‗Theory X‘ and those under ‗Theory Y‘ gave

realization of changing attitudes values and work culture of employees. QWL assumes

that all employees basically belong to ‗Theory Y‘. Thus, it is evident that the QWL has

had its origin in these theories of motivation.


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Several authors define QWL differently. According to Keith (1989), quality of

work life refers to the favorableness and unfavourableness of job environment for

people., whereas Trehan Ruchi (2008) defines QWL means the sum total of values, both

material and nonmaterial, attained by a worker throughout his career life. QWL includes

aspects of work-related life such as wages and hours, work environment, benefits and

services, career prospects and human relations, which is possibly relevant to worker

satisfaction and motivation. Cascio (2005), defines QWL as a set of objective organizational

conditions and practices (e.g., promotion from within policies democratic supervision,

employee involvement, safe working conditions) on one way. The other way QWL is defined

as employees‘ perceptions that they are safe and relatively well satisfied, they have

reasonable work-life balance, and they are able to grow and develop as human beings.

3.3. Dimensions of Quality of Work Life

Several studies have brought out the dimensions of QWL (Rethinam, 2008,

Nanjundeswaraswamy and Swamy, 2013). However European Foundation for the

Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (2002) have published several reports

since 2002 and the reviews state that there are six elements which have direct relationship

with QWL: Health and Wellbeing, Job Security, Job Satisfaction, Competence Development

and the Balance between Works with Non-Work Life. Each of these dimensions of QWL

from the perspectives of employees is briefly discussed below:

3.3.1. Health and Wellbeing

Health and wellbeing of QWL refer to physical and psychological aspects of an

individual in any working environment. Asakura and Fujigaki (1993) examined the direct

and indirect effect of computerization on workers health and wellbeing. Their results


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were similar to the study of Iacovides, Fountoulakis and Kaprins (2003) that higher job

demand leads to higher strain work environment, thus it affects their health and well

being. An unstrained work environment ensures good health and psychological

conditions which enable the employees to perform job and non-work related functions

without inhibitions. Thus, it leads to a non stressful work environment providing

comfortable work life. There are many definitions of stress as it is deemed as a subjective

phenomenon of QWL. Chan et al. (2000) defines stress as a response to the perceived

relationship between the demands on individuals and the ability to adjust to their work

environment. Carayon, Smith and Haims (2001) revealed that stress arises in the process of

interaction between a person and the work environment that threatens the individual‘s

physical, psychological and physiological homeostasis. Physical illness and psychological

disorders increase when pressure at work increases. Stress causes problems to the

muscular system and circulation thus, increasing the risk of myocardial infarction which

is well documented in psychosomatic studies. Therefore it is important to note that health

and well being considered as an important dimension of QWL.

3.3.2. Job Security

Job security, the central aspect of QWL represents strength of the organizations to

provide permanent and stable employment regardless of the changes in work environment.

Watson et al (2003) states that a dramatic change of workforce in contemporary work

environment has revealed a significant amount of organization change. Organization change

such as downsizing, rightsizing and outsourcing have adversely affected employees‘ loyalty,

morale, motivation and perceived threat to job security. Organization of Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) (1996) highlighted that job security is the most


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controversial issue in contemporary work environment. Hence, providing a sense of security

is important especially in the work environment where many facets of jobs can be

outsourced. Later, cognitive and behavioral components were added to this definition.

The cognitive aspect represents an employee‘s belief about his job or job situation.

This means an employee may believe that his or her job is interesting, stimulating, or

otherwise. The behavioral component represents an employee‘s behavioral tendencies

toward his or her job which is all about the attending work regularly, working hard and

intending to stay in the organization for long period of time and shows the positive

behavior which indicates job satisfaction. In contrast, negative behavioral outcomes

reveal dissatisfaction in job. Job satisfaction of an employee differs in meaning and

importance in relations to the facets of work. Some may feel pay and fringe benefits that

meet his expectations to be extremely important; Another, it may be essential to have a

job that provides an opportunity for challenging assignment. The results of previous

studies indicate that many different aspects of the job, such as pay, promotions,

supervision, fringe benefits, one‘s coworkers support, and excessive working hours are

associated with levels of satisfaction (Watson et al,. 2003).

3.3.3. Competency Development

Growth in skills and knowledge is an important aspect of competency

development that enhances QWL. Therefore competency development is equipped as the

nature of the job that provides opportunities and stimulates growth in skills and

knowledge either for career or Organizational development. Career development

opportunity will provide essential training that will help the individual employees to

equip with the new skills to spearhead in their career. Most Contemporary organizations


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do not limit themselves to just training an employee for a job, but they go beyond to

furnish them with a support system that encourages workplace learning. Learning

opportunities and skill discretion have also proven to have a positive effect on job

satisfaction and reduced job stress that will lead to better QWL. The opportunity to

develop and the use of skills are associated with learning mechanisms. This applies

especially when the job requires employees to deploy cognitive skills. With respect to

learning, greater autonomy on job enhances the acquisition and utilization of knowledge

whilst greater participation is held to promote cognitive growth via increased knowledge

transfer among employees (Scully, Kirkpatrick and Locke 1995). Such a job environment

expands knowledge base, leads to a better understanding of how the job is related to other

organizational practices and a greater ability to solve problems. In such a situation,

employees gain the cognitive and behavioral repertoire to predict, control or cope with

uncertain demands thus reducing the likelihood of poor QWL. In contrast, high job demands

with inadequate control reduce the ability and opportunities to develop new skills and

knowledge and thus enforce negative attitudes and anxiety which deteriorate QWL.

3.3.4. Work and Non-Work Life Balance

A major component of QWL, which is important for both the employees and the

employers, is the relationship between work and home life. In an increasing competitive

environment, it is difficult to separate home and work life. Employees today are more likely

to express a strong desire to have a harmonious balance among career, family life and leisure

activities. This has been suggested at the international level the need for national policies in

many countries. An ILO convention that was adopted in 1981, states that it is necessary for

organizations to help employees to balance their work and non-work demands (Lewis, 1997).


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Reducing the level of spillover may help reduce the perceived stress and psychological

stress and assist to maintain some amount of balance between the two environments

(Aminah, 2002). The existing low level of organizational support with increase in work

life conflict provides the risk of lower QWL. Organizations need to provide alternative

means of employment practices to eliminate the pressure of spillover without influencing

the career progression. The balance is important particularly among the employees in

order to nurture and develop the sustainable human resource practices in the work

environment. Therefore, balance between work and non work life is suggested as one of

the measures of QWL.

3.4. Walton Model of Quality of Work Life

The other approach to QWL is provided by Walton (1973). Walton proposes an

ideal quality of work life programme which will include practices in eight major areas as

discussed below:

Adequate and fair

compensation

Safe and healthy

working conditions

Immediate opportunity of

use and develop

human capacities

Future opportunity

for continued

growth and security

Quality of

Work Life

Social integration

in the work

organization

Constitutionalism in

the work

organization

Work and the total life

space

The social relevance

of work life

Figure 2: Walton Model of Quality of Work Life


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3.4.1. Adequate and Fair Compensation

This is fundamental to QWL. Human beings work for livelihood. Therefore

success of rest of the initiatives depends on fulfillment of this. However, important here

is that compensation offered must be adequate implying it must be proportionate to

labour, and there should be internal consistency among salaries of employees.

3.4.2. Safe and Healthy Working Conditions

Unsafe and hazardous working conditions cause problems to both employers and

employees. There may be little advantage to the employer in short term but in medium

and long terms, it adversely affects the productivity. Therefore, adequate investment must

be made to ensure safe and healthy working conditions.

3.4.3. Immediate Opportunity of Use and Develop Human Capacities

The works have become routine, meaningless and too specialized, depriving the

employees of fulfillment satisfaction. Therefore, efforts should be made to increase the

autonomy, perspective and exposure to multiple skills.

3.4.4. Future Opportunity for Continued Growth and Security

This is related to career aspects of employees. Meaningful career paths must be

laid down and career mapping of employees is to be followed. The provisions of

advancement opportunities play a central role in QWL.

3.4.5. Social Integration in the Work Organization

Relationships between and among the employees facilitates a healthy work

organization. Therefore, opportunities must be provided for formal and informal

interactions. All kinds of classes‘ religions, races, crafts, and designations must be treated

equally on a social platform. In other words, it creates egalitarian environment.


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3.4.6. Constitutionalism in the Work Organization

This is related to organizational norms that affect the freedom of an individual

employee. Efforts must be made to see right norms are formed in the organization.

It means norms that accommodate the privacy of an individual employee, freedom of

speech, equity and freedom to dissent on some aspects.

3.4.7. Work and the Total Life Space

Employees should not be allowed to continuously exert themselves. The continuous

hard work causes psychological and physical strains. Therefore, there has to be a balance

between personal and professional life. Organizations must create proper work offs to

enrich the life of employees.

3.4.8. Social Relevance of work life

The social relevance of work life includes, array of action such as behaving

ethically, support non-profit organization, treating employees fairly. Organizations must

pay proper attentions for the above aspects.

Quality of Work Life is important since there is evidence demonstrating the

nature of work environment which is related to satisfaction of employees and

work-related behaviors (Greenhaus, Bedian and Mossholder, 1987). Quality of Work Life

is also found to affect employee‘s work responses in terms of organizational

identification, job satisfaction, job involvement, job effort, job performance, intention to

quit, organizational turnover and personal alienation (Efraty and Sirgy, 1990).

Quality of Work Life is a multidimensional construct, which includes: job

security, better reward system, and higher pay, opportunity for growth, participative


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groups and increased organizational productivity. Quality of Work Life refers to

employee satisfaction with a variety of needs through resources, activities and outcomes

stemming from participation in the workplace. It has generally been agreed however that

Quality of Working Life is conceptually similar to well-being of employees but differs

from job satisfaction which solely represents the workplace domain (Lawler, 1982).

The purpose of Quality of Work Life management is to create an atmosphere of freedom,

participation and autonomy in which the worker is a partner in sharing a common

objective and other subjective indicators.

Quality of Work Life is an outgrowth of the human relations movement. Its goal is to

increase productivity, while at the same time improves employee‘s satisfaction by addressing

the emotional needs of workers. The purpose of Quality of Work Life management is to

create an atmosphere of freedom, participation and autonomy in which the worker is a

partner in sharing a common objective and subjective indicators (Susan and Jayan, 2013).

The objective (14 indicators) and subjective (16indicators) aspects are explained below.

3.5. Objective Indicators of Quality of Work Life

3.5.1. Safe and Healthy Working Conditions

It is widely accepted that Employees should not be exposed to working

conditions that can adversely affect their physical and mental health (Orpen, 1981). Safe

and healthy work conditions means using proper work procedures, use of protective

clothes and devices, safe handling practices, first aid and avoid using hazardous

materials. Assurance of safety and health to workers is by setting and enforcing

standards; providing training and education, establishing partnership and encouraging

continual improvement in workplace safety and health. Protection from ill-health and


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injury at work and outside of work are enhancement of good health and work

environment. Based on this, studies have been reported by Harrison (2000), Wyatt and

Wah (2001), Sirgy, Efraty and Lee (2001), Niosh (2010), Newell (2002), Edvardsson and

Gustavsson, (2003), Van Praag, Frijters, and Ferrer-i-Carbonell (2003), Kotzé, (2004),

Martel and Dupuis, (2006), Mirsepasi, (2006), Bohlander and Snell (2007), Rethinam and

Ismail, (2008), Vinopal (2009), Adhikari and Gautam (2010), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013).

3.5.2. Future Opportunity for Job Security

Job security deals with the steadiness of employment, with the feeling that one

has reasonable chance of working under conditions of organization stability. It represents

strength of the organization is to provide permanent and stable employment regardless

changes in work environment. Job security includes opportunities of continuous growth

and individuals with security feeling will feel valued, self-adequate and will have

opportunity to learn trade or job. This has been contributed in the studies of Sirgy, Efraty

and Lee (2001), Niosh (2010), Saklani (2004), Furnhan (2005), Martel and Dupuis

(2006), Beham, Drobnic and Verwiebe (2006), Green (2006), Rethinam and Ismail

(2008), Vinopal (2009), Dahl, Nesheim and Olsen (2009), Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan,

Zolfa and Asl, (2012), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013), Rose, Beh, Uli and Idris (2006).

3.5.3. Adequate and Fair Compensation

Reward system includes pay, income, wages, earning, salary, finance and

remuneration and interchanging used. Reward system deals with financial incentives

(short term vs. long term, base vs. incentive pay, and pay for performance vs. pay for

seniority). The extent to which reward systems are linked to strategic plans encourages

employees to work towards accomplishing business needs and meeting customer


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requirements. Studies have been emphasized by Walton (2005), Furnham (2005), Maurin and

Postal-Vinay (2005), Green (2006), Mirsepasi, (2006), Huang, Lawler, and Lee (2007),

Tang (2007), Dahl, Nesheim and Olsen (2009), Adhikari and Gautam (2010), Sinha (2012);

Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan, Zolfa and Asl, (2012), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013).

3.5.4. Constitutionalism in the Work Organization

Industrial psychologists are concerned not so much with how people behave but

rather with what rights they should enjoy, whether they exercise them or not and only if

the work organization ensures that the following so-called rights of individuals are

officially respected, or their quality of life is high. The following are some of the

workers‘ rights that should be noted in the work place, that is, privacy, free speech and

the right of individuals not to be penalized as of their membership of any particular group

or class. It implies that all individuals are entitled to expect to be treated in the same way

as others, irrespective of the sex, race, religion or social class.

3.5.5. Work and Total Life Space

Work and total life space refers to the extent to which there is a balanced role of

work in the employee‘s other life spheres. This concept of a balanced role encompasses

work, schedules, career demands, and travel requirements that do not continually take up

leisure and family time and advancement and promotion that do not require repeated

geographical moves (Walton, 1973).The importance of this point for the concept of

quality of life is that work organizations, by virtue of this kind of ‗spill over effect‘,

influence an individual‘s life of the job (Orpen, 1981).


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3.5.6. The Social Relevance of Work Life

Socially responsible behaviour includes a broad array of actions such as behaving

ethically, supporting the work of non-profit organizations, treating Employees fairly, and

minimizing damage to the environment (Mc Williams and Siegel, 2001; McWilliams

and Siegel, 2001; Porter and Kramer, 2002; Saiia, 2002; Margolis and Walsh, 2003;

Boutin- Dufresne and Savaria, 2004).

3.5.7. Work Load or Pressures at Work

Van Eerd (2002), mentioned that having high levels of time pressure can endanger the

loss of enthusiasm and an ability to act. High levels of time pressure produces stress, which in-

turn lead to passivity and avoidance may occur. At the individual level, time pressure leads to

(1) faster performance rates, (2) lower performance quality and (3) more heuristic information

processing, meaning, people stop considering multiple alternatives, engage in shallow rather

than thorough and systematic processing of information and refrain from critical probing of a

given seemingly adequate solution or judgment (De Dreu, 2003; Durham, Locke, Poon and

McLoed, 2000; Kelly and Loving, 2004). Under high time pressure workers see task

completion as their main objective and complete the task as quickly as possible, but at the

sacrifice of quality (Van der Kleij, Lijkwn, Rasker and De Dreu, 2008).

3.5.8. Work and Life Balance

Work and life balance deals with encouragement, and improvement in workers

retention and turnover, reduces recruitment and training costs, reduces all forms of

absenteeism, provides positive publicity for organizations, improves motivation and

loyalty and thence productivity and increases customers satisfaction. Work life balance is

all about flexible working, greater virtual communication, workload, work time, high


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commitment and cognitive demands. This has been emphasised by Furnham (2005),

Rethinam and Ismail (2008), Connell and Hannif (2009), Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan,

Zolfa and Asl, (2012), Gayathiri and Lalitha (2013).

3.5.9. Role Ambiguity

Role ambiguity refers to not knowing what one‘s tasks are and also not knowing

what is expected from oneself (Van Der Doef and Maes, 1999; Kleynhans, Markham,

Meyer and Van Aswegen (2006). According to Diedieff and Rubin (2007), roles in

organizations are generally defined as the patterns of behaviours that are perceived by

organizational members to be expected or required. The clarity with which individuals

perceive their work roles has been linked to several important organizational outcomes,

including job performance, organizational commitment and Job Satisfaction (Tubre and

Collins, 2000). Work role ambiguity may result from unclear articulations of expected

role activities, performance contingencies and work methods.

3.5.10. Job Insecurity

Job insecurity refers to uncertainty about one‘s job (Van Der Doef and Maes, 1999).

According to Sverke, Hellgren and Naswall (2006) many organizations have strived for

functional and numerical flexibility which resulted in demands for new types of skills as

well as changes in employment contracts. Job insecurity has emerged as one of the most

important issues in contemporary work life (Sverke, Hellgren and Naswall, 2006).

3.5.11. Social Support Supervisor

Hawkins and Shohet (2004), also stated that a good supervisor can also help one

to use one‘s resources better, manage one‘s workload and challenge inappropriate


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patterned ways of coping. Spencer, Wilson, Kavanagh, Strong and Worrel (2001),

maintain that the personal support aspect of supervision aims to optimize motivation,

morale, commitment, and to minimize work-related stress, burnout and mental health

problems of the employee. Supervision includes monitoring, implementing changes and

maintaining the co-operative culture. Supervisory behaviour is to co-operate with others

in the team, persist in overcoming obstacles to complete a task, define the supervisor‘s

decisions and voluntarily do more than the job -requires to help others or contributing to

unit effectiveness. Supervision has been mentioned in studies by Winter, Taylor, and

Sarros (2000), Mosharraf (2000), Borman, Ilgen and Klimoski (2003), Niosh (2010),

Furnhan (2005), Huang, Lawler, and Lee (2007), Connell and Hannif (2009).

3.5.12. Social Support Colleagues

Social support colleagues refer to instrumental and emotional support provided by

colleagues (Van Der Doef and Maes, 1999). According to Jenkins and Elliot (2004)

support can be emotional, such as the action of caring or listening sympathetically, or

instrumental, involving tangible assistance such as help with a work task. Social support

is a straightforward resource in that it is functional in achieving work goals (Bakker,

Demerouti and Euwema, 2005).

3.5.13. Physical Conditions

The perceived ability of an individual to perform accustomed functions and

activities of daily living as part of the expectation of an organisation largely depends on

their physical conditions. A healthy work environment provides the basis for the person

to enjoy working. Physical conditions include satisfaction with physical health. These are


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also emphasised by Haworth and Hart (2007), Niosh (2010), Saha (2006), Reithinam and

Ismail (2008), Rutten, Meij, and Mathus-Vliegen (2009).

3.5.14. Working Conditions

Working conditions centers on the physical space that the employee is working in

or a space that will be of use in the future. It also includes features like temperature, loud

noise, crowding, poor lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, humidity and adequate tools.

An ideal work condition should be mentally stimulating. Many studies have been

reported by Niosh (2010), Vinopal (2009), Pandala and Suryanarayana (2010), Gayathiri

and Lalitha (2013).

3.6. Subjective Indicators of Quality of Work Life

3.6.1. Opportunities to use and develop Human Capacities

Walton (1973) asserts that experiencing a high QWL is dependent on the extent to

which jobs allow the employee to use and develop his/her skills and competencies. Jobs

should contain a number of features that would allow Employees the opportunity to use

and develop their human capacities and eventually experience QWL.

3.6.2. Social Interaction in the Work Organization

According to Walton (1973) and Orpen (1981), the importance of social

interaction is another determinant of QWL. Five factors, namely supportiveness, tolerance,

equality, mobility and identification are considered essential for these interactions to have

beneficial outcomes for individuals.


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3.6.3. Acknowledgment for Achievement

Recognition for achievement is defined by Kotze (2008), as the recognition for

achievements by management, colleagues, subordinates and clients. Closely related to task

significance is feedback. Feedback refers to the necessity of organizations to speedily provide

Employees with information and accurate knowledge regarding their performance and its

wider organizational impact (Orpen, 1981; Walton, 1973). Hackman and Oldham (1976),

suggested that feedback is a critical factor in reducing absenteeism, and employee turnover.

Further, feedback is effective in delivering the personal and behavioral outcome variables.

3.6.4. Meaningfulness and Significance of Work

According to Chalofsky (2003), meaningfulness and significance work may present

an even greater challenge to define and purports that meaning at work implies that there is a

relationship between the individual and the organization in terms of commitment, loyalty and

dedication. Chalofsky (2003) identifies three themes which determine meaningful work,

namely, a sense of self, the work itself, and the sense of balance which overlaps and

intertwines and is reflected in the term integrated to wholeness or meaningful work.

3.6.5. Autonomy and Control

The feature of autonomy suggests that a job should be designed in such a manner

that it affords the employee a degree of independence and discretion in terms of how the

job is carried out (Orpen, 1981). Stein (1983) too emphasizes the importance of

autonomy or control and defines it as the ability to influence one‘s working environment.

Similarly, Newell (2002), suggests that QWL involves roviding Employees with greater

responsibility and autonomy. In addition, Kerce and Booth-Kewley (1993), reflect upon the


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work of Herman and Hulin (1972), and Loscocco (1990), who point towards various

situations and or structural factors, entitled the structural approach, within a job that affect

QWL. A job that lacks autonomy will result in low QWL. Several studies with the Demand

Control Model (DCM) have indeed confirmed that autonomy may act as a buffer against the

influence of job demands (work overload, time pressure; Van der Doef and Maes, 1999).

3.6.6. Identification with and Enjoyment of Work

Experienced meaningfulness of work is enhanced primarily by skill variety, task

identity and task significance. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes is linked to

the presence of autonomy in a job. Knowledge of results is increased when a job elicits a

high level of feedback (Hackman and Oldham, 1980). An individual who has a strong

desire for accomplishment and growth should respond positively, but an incumbent who

has a low need for accomplishment or growth may feel intimidated and consequently

may not respond favorably (Lee-Ross, 2002).

3.6.7. Creativity and Innovation

Researchers defined creativity as the generation of new and useful products,

practices, services etc. Creativity is the prerequisite for an organization‘s innovation,

effectiveness and long-term survival and an organization‘s adjustment to shifting

environmental conditions and to take advantage of emerging opportunities (Oldham, 2002;

Shalley, Zhou and Oldham, 2004).

3.6.8. Skill Discretion

The feature of skill variety allows Employees the opportunity to use and develop

their human capacities through exercise of their competencies, skills and abilities rather


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than the reception of limited, narrow skills (Orpen, 1981; Walton, 1973). Ramlall (2004)

pointed out that the inclusion of task variety as an element of job design is consistent with

the concept of growth need satisfaction, as well as with more psychological approaches

taken by activation theory. It is not consistent, however, with Herzberg‘s approach, which

refers to the simple addition of tasks as horizontal job loading or as job enlargement.

3.6.9. Task Control

According to Moen, Kelly and Huang (2008) occupational health literature have

recognized the importance of employees‘ degree of control over how they do their jobs

and how they manage their multiple responsibilities. In the classic job strain model, job

control describes latitude or autonomy regarding how work is done using different skills

and knowledge. It does not attend to control over when and where work is done. While

job control is especially important for workers facing high job demands (Karasek and

Theorell, 1990), work time control may matter to workers with high family or job

demands, enabling Employees to alter their work schedules in response to exigencies at

home or at work.

3.6.10. Stress and its impact on QWL

Several theoretical concepts of stressful work have been developed (Antoniou and

Cooper, 2005)…and two models have received special attention recently: the demand-control

model (Karasek and Theorell, 1990) and the effort–reward imbalance model (Siegrist,

Starke and Chandola, 2004). The former model identifies stressful work by job task

profiles that are characterized by high demand in combination with low control (low decision

latitude), whereas the latter model claims that an imbalance between high efforts spent and

low rewards received in turn (money, esteem, career prospects, and job security) adversely


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affect health. This is mainly due to the fact that a basic principle of social exchange,

reciprocity, is violated under such conditions

3.6.11. Resiliency

Resilience is a multi-dimensional construct and the efforts to be resilient, such as

adaptive strategies to manage demands, should be considered separately to resilient

outcomes, such as better mental health or better relationships (Kumpfer, 1999).

By managing the ups and downs in life, resilient individuals can be more effective in

managing the changing nature of the current workplace and finding a balance between work

and personal lives (Luthans, 2002). In this way, the efforts to be resilient can be targeted

and normative adaptive processes can be enhanced through promoting competence in the

appropriate contexts (Yates and Masten, 2004).

3.6.12. Positive Attitudes

Employees who enjoy their work and feel happy make a very positive judgment

about their Quality of Work Life. This enjoyment or happiness is the outcome of

cognitive and affective evaluations of the flow experience (Diener, 2000). When Employees

are intrinsically motivated, they will continuously be interested in the work they are

involved in, therefore being fascinated by the tasks they perform.

3.6.13. Self-efficacy

There is considerable evidence regarding the positive effects of self-efficacy on work

performance and well-being in different domains such as the workplace, school, and sports

(Bandura, 2001). Research in the domain of work shows that high level of efficacy beliefs to

have a positive impact on employee well-being (Grau, Salanova and Peiro, 2001) and work


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engagement (Salanova, Llorens, Cifre, Martinez and Schaufeli, 2003), and can buffer the

negative impact of job demands on burnout. Efficacy beliefs influence the challenges

people pursue, the effort they expend and their perseverance in the face of obstacles.

3.6.14. Self and Self Development

Self development occurs when one is recognized and appreciated of one‘s work

within the organization (i.e.) recognition and reward for doing a good job at work and

also outside the organization. It is also the degree of experienced meaning and purpose in

life which will naturally increase one‘s own self-respect, esteem and actualization. Similar

variables have been mentioned in studies by Greenberg and Baron (2003), Walton (2005),

Muchinsky (2006), Martel and Dupuis (2006), Rutten, Meij, and Mathus-Vliegen (2009),

Pandala and Suryanarayana (2010), Zare, Hamid, Haghgooyan, Zolfa and Asl, (2012).

3.6.15. Well-Being

It is the psychological and physical aspects of an individual in work environment. It is

achieved by the simultaneous and balanced satisfaction of personal, interpersonal and collective

needs and by a therapeutic relationship with natural, built and social environment. This has

been contributed in the studies by Sirgy, Efraty, and Siegal (2001), Diener, Oishi and Lucas

(2003), Veenhoven (2006), Tennath, Hiller, Fiahwick, Platt, and Joseph (2007), Huang, Lawler

and Lie (2007), Rethinam and Ismail (2008), Rutten, Meij and Mathus-Vliegen (2009).

3.6.16. Self-actualization

Self-actualization, according to Maslow (1954), is the desire to become more and

more from what one is to anything that one is capable of becoming. Promotion and

career progress are important in that regard. Promotion from within programs serves to

enhance the value of the work role identity and promotes multiple work role identities


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(e.g., specialist, team player, and supervisor/manager). Meeting the needs of more role

identities and highly valued role increase the likelihood of experiencing positive

self-evaluations at work, which in turn contribute significantly to subjective well-being.

3.7. Quality of work life as HR strategy

In the modern scenario QWL as a strategy of Human Resource Management is

being recognized as the ultimate key for development among all the work system. This is

an integral part to any organization towards its whole growth. Since industrial revolution,

much experimentation has gone into exploiting the potential of human capital in work

areas either explicitly or implicitly. The need for new perspective of QWL was needed

because of the revolution in advanced technology. Major companies are tirelessly

implementing this paradigm in Human Resources Development.

The role of human resource department in QWL efforts varies widely. In some

organizations, top management appoints an executive to ensure that QWL and

productivity efforts occur throughout the organization. In most cases, these executives

have a small staff and must rely on the human resource department for help with

employee training, communications, attitude survey feedback, and similar assistance.

In other organizations, the department is responsible for initiating and directing the firm‘s

QWL and productivity efforts. Perhaps the most crucial role of the department is winning

the support of key managers. Management support, particularly top management support

appears to be an almost universal prerequisite for successful QWL programs.

By substantiating employee satisfaction and bottom-line benefits, which range from

lower absenteeism and turnover to higher productivity and fewer accidents, the

department can help convince doubting managers. The policies and practices of the


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department also influence motivation and satisfaction indirectly. Rigorous enforced

safety and health programs, for example, can give employees and supervisors a greater

sense of safety from accidents and industrial health hazards. The motivation and

satisfaction of employees act as feedback on the organization‘s QWL and on the

department‘s day-to-day activities.

3.8. Quality of Work Life in India

Education empowers human beings by developing their skills, abilities, rationale that

provides competitive edge to them. It gives strength to the person. They get knowledge

through education, evaluate the phenomenon and generate as well as share the ideas in the

society. Teacher‘s role is pivotal in providing education, creating knowledge, facilitate

technological advancement and enriching the national culture. In order to attain these goals

the teacher should not only be committed and devoted but also competent and creative and

for that matter they should be provided with a better quality of wok life. Teachers are the

pillars of an institution, various functions of an institute planned, executed and controlled by

human resource. It is essential for the institution to do proper management of human resource

in order to achieve its objectives efficiently and effectively. The management of human

resource plays a key role in opening up new opportunities for promoting the growth of both

individual and institutions. Through ‗Quality of work life‘ the institute works in the same

direction. It is essential for the institution to develop quality relation between its employees

and working environment because now-a- days, demanding of job creates imbalance between

family and work life due to job pressure and conflicting interests. The threat of imbalance in

work and non-work life has implications not only on the employees but also on

organizations, governments and society (Grzywacz and Marks, 2000; Swanson, Power and


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Simpson, 1998). Organizations have to develop and adopt QWL programmes which ensures

to create excellent work condition and job for its employees Hence, QWL seeks to create

such a work environment where the employees work co-operatively and make positive

contribution in achieving organizational objectives. According to Alireza and Amirian (2012)

QWL has direct bearing with productivity, as improved QWL will ultimately lead to higher

productivity and job satisfaction.

The quality of work Life (QWL), Apart from ensuring fair pay, the fair treatment

of employees and safe working conditions, many companies respond to specific

employee needs. In India, some of the companies that emphasize the quality of work life

are Hewlett-Packard, Smith Kline Beecham, American Express, Colgate Palmolive,

Gillette, Dr.Reddy‘s Laboratories, Reliance and Maruti Udyog Limited. HP allows

flexible working arrangements for its employees and follows certain innovative practices

such as allowing employees to avail leave for special occasions (marriage, exam

preparation, adoption of a child, bereavement in the family, and paternity). QWL in India

has emerged as a movement.

3.9. Quality of Work Life and Academic Sector in India

UGC is a statutory body of Indian government which serves as a link between

union, state and the institution of higher learning. It takes actions for promotion and

co-ordination of university education and for the maintenance of standards in teaching,

examination and research. Indian higher education statistics, as provided by UGC, shows

that there are 44 central universities, 306 state universities, 129 deemed universities,

154 private universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act,

and 67 Institutes of National Importance. Apart from this we have nearly 35,539


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affiliated colleges as government degree and private degree colleges functioning under

these universities and institutions.

According to Bharathi et al., (2011) the QWL of teachers is below average then its

resultant impact will be on teaching and research work and these are the basis for the progress

of any society. QWL and Quality of life has a significant association in teaching environment.

Research carried out in academic sector shows that QWL of college teachers is in low level

According to Vishwakarma et al., QWL of academicians, particularly in the Private

Technical Institute, is not in a better condition. Factors such as salary and wages, badly

affected relationship between academicians and administrators due to salary, bias between

same qualified employees, and low advancement opportunity for growth, dissatisfaction

regarding leave flexibility etc. are responsible for low QWL of respondents.

According to Ganguly (2010) a study on the university employees revealed that

there is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and QWL dimensions. QWL

significantly contributes towards increasing the job satisfaction or dissatisfaction

depending upon the employee‘s negative or positive perception of QWL dimensions.

According to Alireza and Mozhgan (2012) Faculty members indicated positive

job satisfaction and would continue to stay in the same job only if they have opportunity

for growth and development along with organizational prestige, financial factors. In this

direction the major cause of disgruntlement was found to be advancement opportunity,

organizational prestige and financial factors. So the college administration must give due

wait age to these factors respondents have held these factors responsible for retaining

them in their present jobs.


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As result of the study conducted by (Chander 1993) The four major determinants

of QWL, i.e. decision-making authority, growth and development, recognition and

appreciation, and promotional avenues were missing and the teachers would like an

environment that included these determinants.

QWL programmes provide opportunity for growth and development by facilitating

training to the employees which consequently increases job satisfaction. QWL is

concerned with creating work environment which is conducive and congenial. There is a

significant relation between job satisfaction, personal growth, and team effectiveness

even in the academic sector. A high QWL is required for the growth of both the

employees and the institutions.

According to Saklani (2004), an attempt to empirically evaluate the importance of

various QWL factors pertaining to employees and to measure the status of their existence

in work organization was made in Indian context. Rejecting the commonly held stereotype,

evidence has been found to suggest that apart from monetary considerations, employees in

India accord a high value to the factors that satisfy self-esteem and self- actualization. Also,

study finds that the existing status of QWL in Indian organization is not poor.

The above chapter details the various studies carried out by researchers in

different countries and populations. The chapter also captures the theoretical aspects,

dimensions and models in QWL as well as tracing the origin and history of QWL. It has

been found and understood from this chapter that QWL has found its importance

conceptually and empirically and has also progressed over last five decades. Today it

stands out as an important variable and as a HR intervention among the researchers and

working managers.


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